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Poetic (Re)Negotiations of Home in New Zealand Women's Poetry

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Poetic (Re)Negotiations of Home in New Zealand Women's Poetry POETIC (RE)NEGOTIATIONS OF HOME IN NEW ZEALAND WOMEN'S POETRY OF THE 20TH CENTURY Inauguraldissertation zur Erlangung des Grades eines Doktors der Philosophie im Fachbereich II Sprach- und Literaturwissenschaften der Universität Trier vorgelegt von Claudia Roswitha Duppé Freiburg im Juli 2004 In liebevoller Erinnerung an meinen Großvater Edmund Trier Acknowledgment I am very grateful to have had such a generous and competent supervisor as Prof. Dr. Norbert Platz. I thank Cusanuswerk for the financial support without which this thesis would not have been possible. The time of my thesis has written and intensified a friendship for which I am grateful. Thank you Sissy for our fruitful exchange of academic interest, for countless discussions and proofreads. Michelle, my best friend and proofreader, who supported me throughout the entire process. Thanks a million for your patience and support. Warm thanks to Ken Arvidson in New Zealand for his advice and for helping me out more than once with sending poetry and secondary sources from the other end of the world. I hope you like my analysis. Thanks to other wonderful human beings: Chris Clay and Michelle Baker, who were sympathetic readers of my work; Alex Christ, who took on the unpleasant task of proofreading formalities, and Pete Marsden for the mutual exchange of books and thoughts. Thanks to the editing team of The New Zealand Listener for faxing articles from their archive and thanks to Kate Button at Te Papa Tongarewa who provided me with pictures. Thanks to all the people who supported me. To my family, in particular to my dear brother who always told me that I could make it. And Thomas! Where would I be without you? TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION 3 1.1 Body of Selected Texts 5 1.2 Structural Outline 9 1.3 Major Objectives 10 2 HOME AT THE INTERSECTION OF GENDER AND CULTURE 11 2.1 Conceptualising Home 11 2.1.1 … as a cultural space 12 2.1.2 … as a gendered space 14 2.2 The Domestic Home Environment 16 2.2.1 The European Cult of Domesticity 16 2.2.2 CULTivating New Zealand 22 2.3 The National Home Ideal/ Ideology 29 2.3.1 The Mother Nation 30 2.3.2 Establishing a New Zealand Nation 33 2.4 Home in a Globalising World 38 3 CONTEXTUALISING POETIC CONCEPTS OF HOME 42 3.1 Mind the Gap 42 3.2 Spaces of Overlap 47 3.3 Spaces of Mediation 52 3.4 Re-constituting New Zealand Home Concepts 55 4 MARY URSULA BETHELL: A WOMAN "EARNESTLY DIGGING" 59 4.1 New Zealand's Poetic Transition 60 4.2 Ursula Bethell: Life and Writing 64 4.3 At Home in an Antipodean Garden 67 4.4 Half the World from Home? 79 4.4.1 Lifting the Eyes: "Levavi Oculos" 85 4.4.2 Anchoring in New Zealand: "The Long Harbour" 89 4.5 Bethell: Visionary Poet Beyond her Time 93 5 "I AM NOT MORE THAN MAN NOR LESS" MARY STANLEY'S STARVELING YEAR 95 5.1 Poetry Politics after World War II 96 5.2 Mary Stanley: Life and Writing 101 5.3 The Wife Speaks 104 5.4 A Home Behind the Barricading Sea? 109 5.5 The New Philosopher 118 5.6 A Home in Literature 121 5.7 Mary Stanley's Starveling Year Consolation in Poetry 125 6 LAURIS EDMOND'S HOME JOURNEY 127 6.1 Women's Exodus from Domestic Confinements and New Zealand's New Stand in the 1960s and 70s 127 6.2 Lauris Edmond: Life and Writing 136 6.3 Seeking Home 141 6.3.1 … in the house 141 6.3.2 … in Poetry 148 6.4 Women-House-Home 152 6.4.1 Ancient Humilities 152 6.4.2 Prefiguring a Larger Pride 159 6.4.3 "Little Wellington, Edmond's London" 164 6.5 Lauris Edmond: Leading Light of New Zealand Women's Poetry 166 7 J.C. STURM CARVING HOME 169 7.1 Maori Literary Renaissance 170 7.2 J.C. Sturm: Life and Writing 175 7.3 Tracing the Way Back to a Personal Home 176 7.4 Poetry as Marae 185 7.5 Splitting the Stone 192 7.6 J.C. Sturm Envisioning Home beyond Cultural Borders 195 8 CONCLUSION 197 9 BIBLIOGRAPHY 201 9.1 Primary Sources 201 9.2 Secondary Sources 202 9.3 Internet Sources 219 9.4 Audio Sources 223 10 APPENDIX 224 I. Lauris Edmond: Poetry Publications 224 II. New Zealand Ethnic Groups 1996 225 III. Enumerated population at five-yearly censuses 225 3 1 INTRODUCTION Poetry is the oldest genre in New Zealand literature written in English and has thus always played a significant role in the country's literary debate. It is not only perceived as a reference point for New Zealand's literary advancement, but is also considered to be an indicator of the country's general cultural sensibility. This is particularly evident towards the end of the 19th century when the poetry written in English reveals a pervasive unease about feeling at home in Aotearoa New Zealand1, a feeling that is coupled with a strong nostalgia for Britain as the actual Home country. In the poetic imagination the home had manifested itself for most of the time in metaphors of space, such as the garden or the house. In the early stages of New Zealand poetry, frequent references to the familiar plants from England that stand in contrast to the fauna and flora of New Zealand expressed a continual sense of exile amongst the European settlers. However, in the course of the 20th century, the question of where to locate the home is generally perceived as having undergone a decisive shift. Home became a crucial issue in the process of consciously establishing a distinct sense of identity in New Zealand, in particular after the umbilical cord to Britain was cut after World War II. On its way to becoming a nation, New Zealand started to perceive itself as a bicultural society, in which the major ethnic groups were Maori, the indigenous people, and the Pakeha, people of mostly white European descent.2 This involved not only a change in New Zealand's relationship to Britain, but initiated a re-consideration of New Zealand's internal affairs. The issues that surfaced strongly in the public debate after World War II had originated in the 1930s. It is in the poetry of that time that we can detect a decisive shift away from Britain as the sole cultural reference point toward a coming to terms with establishing home in New Zealand in an emotional and cultural sense. The poetry written during these formative years 1 In recent references to New Zealand, the country is always referred to as Aotearoa New Zealand in its correct formulation as a bi-lingual country. When I am not explicitly referring to New Zealand as a political unit, I employ the simplified English term 'New Zealand' to make the argument more reader-friendly. 2 The articles by various authors in David Novitz and Bill Willmott's publication Culture and Identity in New Zealand (1989) all evolve around the debate of New Zealand as a bicultural nation. 4 reveals a more complex negotiation of the concept of home and belonging. The question of where to locate home that is debated therein no longer plays upon the simplistic dichotomy between Britain as the cultural centre and New Zealand as the colonial outpost, but becomes part of New Zealand's cultural emancipation. The establishment of a distinct New Zealand cultural identity and with this a representative body of literature was subject of intensive public debate after World War II, a debate that considered women and Maori only on the margin. This can be most clearly seen in the scholarly exchange amongst New Zealand's bourgeois European male critics who sought poems one would "recognise New Zealand by"3. The assessment of the poetic imagination went hand in hand with the assessment of New Zealand's identity as a nation but this intertwining of politics and culture is not representative of New Zealand's cultural fabric since it illuminates only a very limited segment of it. The streamlined debate that was lead amongst academics was so focused on the national agenda that it failed to pay attention to the intricate correlation between individual people's lives and the social situation, an important indicator of the country's cultural sensibility. It is in particular in women's poetry that this relationship is elaborated time and again. However, for much of the 20th century, criticism argued that women's poetry is domestic and emotional and therefore allegedly ill-suited for contributing to the nation's sense of home. Such a critical angle quickly loses ground, since it is especially women who reflect on home most frequently in their work. It is, however, not the home-sweet-home women's poetry propagates. Rather, women position home at the crossroads between the public and the private realm, explore the correlation between personal and national concerns and assess daily life against the backdrop of New Zealand's social development. Home is thus not only a national concern; it is a very complex socio-cultural construct, which has not been paid sufficient attention to in poetry, largely because a suitable approach to capturing the complexity of such interconnectedness was lacking. This study will investigate women's poetic concepts of home from a socio-cultural angle. The goal is to complement – rather than contrast – the 3 Peter Simpson, Look Back Harder: Critical Writings 1935-1984 Allen Curnow (1987): 49.
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