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Introduction: enquiries into the history of geology

WOLF MAYER ANU Emeritus Faculty, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia [email protected]

Gold Open Access: This article is published under the terms of the CC-BY 3.0 license.

The International Commission on the History of of those who carried out such work, form part of Geological Sciences was founded in 1967 at a meet- these sections. Further articles discuss the educa- ing in Yerevan, Armenia. After an initial attempt to tional benefits of teaching the history of the geosci- form an association of historians of geology at the ences and the contribution of women to this field International Geological Congress (IGC) in Copen- of study. hagen in 1960, a fresh proposal was approved at the following IGC in New Delhi, in 1964. Steps were then taken that led to the formal establishment of Fifty years of INHIGEO INHIGEO at Yerevan three years later. The realization of this project owed much to the Drawing on documents held in Russian archives, foresight and determination of the eminent Russian Malakhova (2017) outlines the sequence of events historian of geology, V.V. Tikhomirov (1915–94). that led to the founding of INHIGEO and discusses He was a passionate promoter of the study of the his- the conduct of the Commission’s affairs during the tory of the geological sciences and was tireless in his early years following its establishment. Her paper efforts to establish an organization that would facil- emphasizes the major part played by V.V. Tikho- itate and encourage scholarship in this field. Follow- mirov in realizing the formation of this scholarly ing its foundation, Tikhomirov became INHIGEO’s association. This remarkable man adopted and first president and served it for many years. built on the earlier views of his countryman V. V. The formation of the Commission led to closer Vernadsky (Malakhova 2017) when he stated that links and better cooperation among the worldwide the study of the history of geology could not be suc- community of scholars with an interest in the his- cessfully accomplished in isolation, within any one tory of the geological sciences. Regular meetings country, but relied on contributions from scholars (now on an annual basis) with accompanying excur- across the world, and that the founding of an inter- sions to locations of geological and cultural interest national organization of historians, with an interest greatly facilitated the sharing of research results and in this field of study, would be the best way to fur- the interchange of ideas among members. During ther this cause. the Commission’s early years these symposia also Grigelis & Czarniecki (2016) add personal rec- contributed to a relaxation in the, at times, uneasy ollections of their involvement and of their respec- relationship between scientists from the East and tive roles in the lead-up to the foundation of West. INHIGEO and trace its progress during the early INHIGEO’s declared aim to promote studies on years. This article includes photographs as well as the history of geology have born rich fruit, not least caricatures of some of the first office-bearers, the in the form of a large number of publications that latter attesting to the fact that such meetings can have provided greater recognition among research- also have a humorous side. The accompanying ers of the value and relevance of historical studies excursions to sites of geological and cultural interest to present day research in geology. in the neighbourhood of Yerevan set the tone for In the first section of this book contributors field trips conducted as part of future INHIGEO examine the path that led to the establishment of gatherings (see also Johnston & Taylor 2016). INHIGEO and its subsequent history. The succeed- Bork & Cooper (2016) (INHIGEO Secretary- ing parts of the book present essays on a range of Generals from 2004 to 2008 and 2008 to 2016, themes relating to the history of geology, which pro- respectively) cover the history of the Commission’s vide insights into early views on the processes oper- affairs in more recent times. During the 26-year ating within the Earth and on its surface. The history interval between the INHIGEO meeting held in of ideas on geological phenomena, studies of the Freiberg in 1970 (Grigelis 2017; Malakhova exploration and assessment of resources in diverse 2017) and 1996, when Bork & Cooper (2016) com- countries, together with bibliographical sketches mence their substantive account, the fledgling

From:Mayer, W., Clary, R. M., Azuela, L. F., Mota,T.S.&Wołkowicz, S. (eds) History of Geoscience: Celebrating 50 Years of INHIGEO. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 442, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP442.41 # 2017 The Author(s). Published by The Geological Society of London. Publishing disclaimer: www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 29, 2021

W. MAYER organization had proved itself to be a stable, well- at the time the work was performed. In doing so, managed and highly regarded entity that served its he notes his early uneasiness about the direction members well. INHIGEO’s name was modified, and activities of INHIGEO and advocates a path substituting ‘Commission’ for the original ‘Com- leading to a balance between the scientific and his- mittee’. Following the first three INHIGEO meet- torical approaches to the study of the history ings, held in countries of the Eastern Block, of geology. subsequent symposia were organized in Western Europe, North and South America and Asia. These meetings and their associated field trips, initially Writing about the history of the geological scheduled on a biennial basis, became annual gath- sciences erings from 1989. The authors briefly comment on the stewardship Historians of geoscience direct their research to of their predecessors as Secretary-General, Ursula past achievements in their field of study and seek Marvin (1988–96) and David Oldroyd (1996– to trace and evaluate the efforts of earlier thinkers 2004). It was during Marvin’s time in this role that and investigators of the nature of the Earth – the barrier of the Berlin Wall was removed and whether they were lay or learned people. The find- the Soviet Union broke up, which facilitated travel ings from past enquiries, which extend back over and ease of communication between scholars from millennia to the ancient world, have benefited the the East and West. It was also during this period following generations of scholars in their attempts that INHIGEO changed its rules on governance to record, interpret and understand the history of and membership of the organization, creating a our planet. more open and democratic association. From as early as the beginning of the nineteenth As fieldwork constitutes a vital part of geologi- century, scholars have written historical accounts cal investigations, it is not surprising that the foun- of knowledge acquired by the examination and ders of INHIGEO decreed that excursions to sites interpretation of geological phenomena, and of the of geological and cultural interest should form an investigators who engaged in such work (see, for essential part of its meetings. All INHIGEO sympo- example, Cuvier 1825). A number of these studies sia (with the exception of the abandoned Prague encompass the entire field of geology, whereas meeting) featured field trips, many with a duration others deal mainly with the history of one of its of several days. Johnston & Taylor (2016),inan subdisciplines. appendix to their paper, provide a comprehensive Works with a broad coverage of the history of record of excursions associated with INHIGEO geology include those of Adams (1954), Ellenberger symposia, including their respective themes and (1988, 1994) and Rudwick (2005, 2014). These pub- the localities visited. The authors comment on nota- lications provide readers with insights into the ble excursions and highlight those where the theme thinking and views of investigators into the nature of the conference was conveniently matched and of the physical Earth and on their interpretation of illustrated by nearby geological features in the former life forms preserved in rocks, from ancient field. In light of the fact that historians, albeit in Greek and Roman times to more recent years. The small numbers, take part in geological excursions information supplied by the authors allows the alongside geoscientists, the authors’ discussion of reader to reach an understanding of the advances the different mind sets that the former tend to made in geological knowledge over the centuries bring to an investigation of geological phenomena and familiarizes them with the main actors involved in the field will be of interest to all historians in these scholarly endeavours. of geoscience. Geological Societies, which were founded from These differences in approach to the study of the the start of the nineteenth century, have been of con- history of geoscience, with reference to the work and siderable importance in facilitating debate on geo- aims of INHIGEO and its members, are discussed logical topics and disseminating the results of by Rudwick (2016). Interwoven with an absorbing freshly acquired knowledge on the subject. The old- account of his own career path from scientist to his- est of these, the Geological Society of London, was torian of science, the author examines the methods formed in 1807. Gordon Herries Davies (2007) that are commonly followed by the majority of geol- chronicled its history over a period of 100 years, a ogists studying the history of this scientific disci- time during which its publications included many pline – and finds them wanting. He deplores the reports on new research findings that had a major practice that evaluates the work of earlier scholars impact on our understanding of the Earth (see also on the basis of present day scientific knowledge articles on this subject in this book). and instead favours an approach to historical studies Views on the formation and age of the Earth, that judges an investigator’s achievements in the based respectively on scientific evidence and context of the understanding of the natural world religious beliefs, have at times been hotly debated, Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 29, 2021

INTRODUCTION particularly during parts of the eighteenth and nine- mainly attributed to Hutton (1795) and Lyell teenth centuries. A succession of writers has, in (1830–33), whose work influenced the thinking of more recent times, traced and debated matters relat- generations of geologists. Racki (2016) informs us ing to this topic; see, for example, Gillespie (1959) that a Polish scholar, Hugo Kollataj, independently and Ko¨lbl-Ebert (2009). arrived at similar conclusions about the unchanging Chroniclers of geology have also given their nature of geological processes, past and present, attention to researching the history of some of its more than 20 years before Lyell published his applied branches, such as engineering geology work in 1830–33. (Kiersch 1991), and to sciences or activities in There is little doubt that controversy enlivens which its knowledge plays a useful, but more debate. This applies equally to ideas and concepts peripheral, part. The latter include the diverse in science as to other fields of human endeavour. links between geology and medicine (Duffin et al. Among the more contested and much debated 2013) and the application of geological knowledge rival geological theories of the twentieth century to warfare (Rose & Nathanail 2000). are those of Earth expansion v. plate tectonics. The comparatively low priority that has, at times, Cwojdzinski (2016) provides a detailed discussion been accorded to historical studies by members of of the history of this debate on global tectonics. the geological community has prompted the ques- The author’s own views on this subject may well tion: Why do we study the history of geology? In provoke further discussion. response, Cooper (2016) approaches the subject Another clash of views, albeit on a geographi- from an Australian perspective and lists exam- cally more restricted level, was concerned with the ples that demonstrate the value of earlier scholar- structure of the orogens in the Swiss Alps during ship to present day research. Other articles in this part of the nineteenth century (Letsch 2016). The book provide further evidence in support of his author provides an account of the views and ideas conclusions. of the Swiss geologists who attempted to explain the tectonic development of the Alps prior to the acceptance of nappe tectonics. On theories, ideas and concepts in geology Given the spectacular nature of volcanic activ- ity, which has been observed in many parts of the The Earth, its origin, its constitution and the forces world throughout human history, it will be sur- that have shaped it, together with the fossilized prising to readers of this book to learn that, as organic remains enclosed in its rocks, have been Taylor (2016) points out, neither the ancients the subject of enquiry since ancient times. The phi- nor later populations before the start of the early losophers of antiquity contemplated the natural modern age had a word for volcano in their lan- world and its changing phenomena and attempted guages. In his essay, the author provides an over- to understand and explain these in the context of view of the changing perceptions and the interest the knowledge of their time. During part of the Mid- of both scholars and the general public in volca- dle Ages and extending into the early nineteenth noes and their place in nature. Alvarado & Pat- century, such studies were often profoundly influ- ino (2016) stress the impact of volcanic activity enced by religious beliefs. A rapidly increasing and the resulting landforms and products on the knowledge of the rock formations of the Earth and local population in the Latin American country their composition, based largely on the interpreta- of Costa Rica. They trace the history of observa- tion of evidence observed and collected in the tion and the study of volcanic phenomena from field, led to the adoption of the term ‘geology’ in their mention in legends of pre-Columbian times the early nineteenth century and to its recognition to their scientific examination in more recent as a separate scientific discipline. years. In her essay, Ko¨lbl-Ebert (2016) stresses the Although geomorphology is generally consid- importance of taking into account the history of the- ered a relative newcomer as a discipline concerned ology and philosophy in assessing progress in the with the study of the natural world, some of its advancement of geological knowledge. In this con- essential elements, including changing landforms, text, the author discusses the views of the natural were already a subject of interest in ancient times. world, ranging from those of the early Greek philos- Orme (2016) discusses the historical background ophers to Islamic scholars in the Middle Ages, and that contributed to the rise of modern geomorphol- the influence of their thinking on European scholar- ogy as a dynamic discipline. ship in the following centuries. She also refers to A model attempting to explain the diffusion of the legacy of their ideas on later perceptions of Western science into non-European nations is the Earth. examined by Lucas & Alvarado (2016) in the con- The formulation of the geological principle text of studies of vertebrate palaeontology in Central that later became known as uniformitarianism is America. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 29, 2021

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From the eighteens century, the study of Earth Eminent geologists, their life and work materials and properties in the field was increasingly supplemented by their detailed analysis in the labo- Studies of the life and careers of geologists can re- ratory. Newcomb (2016) provides an historical ward historians with valuable insights into the moti- overview of the development of instruments and vations, the thinking and approaches to the work of the evolving technology that led to a better under- they accomplished in earlier times. It also allows standing of the natural world. the researcher to pay tribute to the achievements and contributions made by earlier investigators towards advances in our understanding of the Earth. Teaching the history of geoscience The individuals who are the subject of these bio- graphical studies have all made major contributions Is there a role for the history and philosophy of the to geological knowledge in their respective coun- geological sciences in education? Using examples tries. Two among them, Shchurovsky in Russia, from her wide teaching experience and drawing himself a noted historian of geology, in the mid- on field examples and pertinent learned arguments nineteenth century (Bessudnova 2016) and Dutton in the literature, the answer of Figueiroˆa (2016) to in the USA, some 50 years later (Aalto 2016), are this question is decidedly in the affirmative. In her also remembered as early popularizers of science. conclusions, she points out that the inclusion of Frenguelli, a medical practitioner from Italy, whose well-chosen historical case studies in teaching pro- interests turned to geology in Argentina, carried out grammes can encourage experimentation and the pioneering work on stratigraphy and palaeontology comprehension of complex situations and help to in his adopted country during the first half of the better prepare students to deal with global chal- twentiethcentury(Riccardi2016a).Kobayashi,who lenges of the Earth. was a founding member of INHIGEO, is chiefly In her contribution to this discussion, Clary remembered for his innovative ideas on the origin (2016) provides practical examples for use in the of the Japanese islands (Sato et al. 2016). teaching of the history of geology. Based on the assumption that controversies in the history of geol- ogy are likely to arose the interest of students and facilitate their understanding of the nature of scien- Government agencies, institutions and tific endeavours, the author details four case studies societies that introduce new ideas on the interpretation of geological and palaeontological features, the nature Many governments in the nineteenth century recog- of which led to much debate and, at times, disagree- nized the need to acquire a greater knowledge of ment among geologists. their country’s natural resources and of their distri- Zhou (2016) discusses the history of higher geo- bution and usefulness to the nation. This led to the logical education in China, which commenced in establishment, among other agencies, of geological 1909 with the establishment of the county’s first uni- surveying organizations, which were given the task versity in Beijing. The history of its expansion, pro- of mapping their country’s geology and of identify- gress and the direction of such studies over the last ing and assessing its mineral resources. In Austria 100 years have been extensively documented in (Klemun 2016), Spain (Ra´bano 2016) and Portugal the country’s literature. (Mota & Carneiro 2016) such surveys resulted, in time, in the production of geological maps of these countries. The authors relate the sometimes troubled On the contribution of women to the history of these agencies, all founded in the mid- geosciences eighteenth century, which led to the establishment of modern day geological surveys in their respective In studies of the history of geology from ancient countries. to comparatively recent times, the attention of histo- Government-initiated geological surveys com- rians tended to be almost exclusively focused on the menced some decades later in Mexico. Both Azuela contributions of male scholars. The work of women (2016) and Morelos-Rodrı´guez (2016), in their in this field, either in a supporting role or as original respective articles, discuss early geological investi- observers and chroniclers of geological phenomena, gations, carried out mainly by visiting scientists, has rarely been given prominence. Ko¨lbl-Ebert & naturalists and mineral surveyors, before the estab- Turner (2016) demonstrate that the involvement lishment of a national agency staffed by Mexican of women in significant geological activities can geologists. be traced back to the early Middle Age. They dis- Taquet (2016) reviews the works of scholars on cuss the difficulties encountered by women in carry- the history of geology in France, starting with the ing out geological work and in gaining recognition momentous contributions by Georges Cuvier in for their contributions. the nineteenth century. Such studies have gained Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 29, 2021

INTRODUCTION fresh impetus over the last 40 years following the The proliferation of exploratory expeditions to foundation of the French Committee for the History Antarctica, largely at the beginning of the twentieth of Geology. century, forms the subject of an article by Clary & The nineteenth century also saw the establish- Sharpe (2016). The authors highlight the geological ment of museums of science (and of universities) work carried on these journeys and the contributions in many parts of the world. The La Plata Museum such discoveries made to a better understanding of in Argentina organized its own geological expedi- the continent’s geology. tions in the late nineteenth century, not solely to enrich its collections, but also to map parts of the country’s geology (Riccardi 2016b). Reviews on the history of petroleum Substantive geological activities in China, by Chinese scholars, did not commence until the early exploration and production twentieth century, when the first universities and the Although the occurrence of petroleum seeping Chinese Geological Society were founded. Zhang from the ground has been known since ancient (2016) traces the history of geological developments times, commercial quantities from wells were not in China from the establishment of its first institu- obtained until the middle of the nineteenth century. tions and agencies, through a period when geological Wołkowicz et al. (2016) record the history of petro- thinking and activities were subject to ideological leum exploration and production in Poland, where influences, but leading to a flourishing of scientific oil production preceded the drilling of the first work in a more liberal environment in recent times. well in Pennsylvania. The noteworthy rise of the Mexican oil industry in the early 1900s and the con- tributions to this development by the American Regional geological studies geologist E.L. DeGoyler, is recorded and analysed by Gerali & Riguzzi (2016). The results of geological explorations within coun- The need to discover and to procure petroleum tries or regions – be their purpose the mapping products became a major priority for the economy and ordering of rock formations, the search for min- of many countries, including Australia, in the nine- eral deposits, the collection and identification of fos- teenth century. Gerali & Gregory (2016) review sils or the study of natural phenomena – provided the country-wide search for oil, with a particular the basic building blocks that allowed future schol- emphasis on Western Australia. They comment on ars to construct a more comprehensive overview the importance of oil discoveries as a necessary of the distribution of rock formations on a global resource in the establishment of the country as an scale, to assist them in forming views on the nature independent economic entity. of the Earth’s dynamic processes and to propose theories about its origin. Sundquist (2016) reviews geology-related stud- Concluding remarks ies in Sweden from as early as the fifteenth to the mid-nineteenth centuries. He records the contri- The number and quality of the contributions pre- butions by scholars, many of whom, including the pared for this book testify to the increasing interest celebrated Linnaeus, engaged in a wide range of in, and to the wide-ranging scholarship on, the his- scientific studies. The eminent British geologist, tory of the geosciences. The increase in the member- Roderick Murchison, was able to draw on such ear- ship of INHIGEO over recent years, in a larger lier work during his visit to Sweden (Diemer number of countries (Bork & Cooper 2016), pro- 2016) and was the first to recognize Silurian rocks vides further evidence of a growing regard for his- in that country. torical studies of the geological sciences among Grigelis (2017) provides an account of investi- members of the geological community and histori- gations leading to the identification of the mineral ans of science. Planned meetings, up to 2021, and resources and the production of geological maps the declared agenda of the Commission to foster of Lithuania. Contributions were made by members research and communication among its members, of the general public and religious orders, by univer- provide ample opportunities for the continuation sity staff and survey organizations. of scholarly activities on the history of geology. An exceptionally large number of Polish nation- als conducted surveys, including those of a geolog- I thank the authors of these articles for their valued and welcome contributions. I also acknowledge the generous ical nature, in Siberia in the late nineteenth and the help received from the many reviewers whose constructive early twentieth century (Graniczny et al. 2017). comments have helped to improve the content and the pre- The authors record the contribution that each of sentation of the essays that make up this book. My special these individuals made to the geological knowledge thanks go to members of the editorial team for their much of this isolated region. valued help in producing this book. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 29, 2021

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INTRODUCTION

W., Clary, R.M., Azuela, L.F., Mota, T.S. & Society, London, Special Publications, 442. First pub- Wołkowicz, S. (eds) History of Geoscience: cele- lished online May 26, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1144/ brating 50 Years of INHIGEO. Geological Society, SP442.1 London, Special Publications, 442. First published Lucas, S.G. & Alvarado, G.E. 2016. Vertebrate palaeon- online February 28, 2017, https://doi.org/10.1144/ tology in Central America: a narrative and analytical SP442.40 history. In: Mayer, W., Clary, R.M., Azuela, L.F., Grigelis,A.&Czarniecki, S. 2016. International Mota, T.S. & Wołkowicz, S. (eds) History of Geosci- Commission on History of Geological Sciences: the ence: Celebrating 50 Years of INHIGEO. Geological earliest events. In: Mayer, W., Clary, R.M., Azuela, Society, London, Special Publications, 442. First pub- L.F., Mota, T.S. & Wołkowicz, S. (eds) History of lished online May 23, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1144/ Geoscience: Celebrating 50 Years of INHIGEO. Geo- SP442.9 logical Society, London, Special Publications, 442. Lyell, C. 1830–33. Principles of Geology. 3 vols. John First published online November 9, 2016, https://doi. Murray, London. org/10.1144/SP442.30 Malakhova, I. 2017. The founding of INHIGEO: docu- Herries Davies, G.L. 2007. Whatever is under the ments and letters, with comments. In: Mayer, W., Earth: the Geological Society of London 1807 to Clary, R.M., Azuela, L.F., Mota, T.S. & Wołko- 2007. Geological Society, London. wicz, S. (eds) History of Geoscience: Celebrating 50 Hutton, J. 1795. Theory of the Earth, with Proofs and Years of INHIGEO. Geological Society, London, Spe- Illustrations. Cadell, Junior and Davies, London/ cial Publications, 442. First published online February Creech, Edinburgh. 16, 2017, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP442.38 Johnston, M.R. & Taylor, K.L. 2016. Historians of geol- Morelos-Rodrı´guez, L. 2016. Brief history of geological ogy in the field: a half-century of INHIGEO excur- and mining exploration in nineteenth century Mexico. sions. In: Mayer, W., Clary, R.M., Azuela, L.F., In: Mayer, W., Clary, R.M., Azuela, L.F., Mota, Mota, T.S. & Wołkowicz, S. (eds) History of Geosci- T.S. & Wołkowicz, S. (eds) History of Geoscience: ence: Celebrating 50 Years of INHIGEO. Geological Celebrating 50 Years of INHIGEO. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 442. First pub- Society, London, Special Publications, 442. First pub- lished online July 22, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1144/ lished online May 25, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1144/ SP442.17 SP442.8 Kiersch, G.A. (ed.) 1991. The Heritage of Engineering Mota, T.S. & Carneiro, A. 2016. The ups and downs Geology: the First Hundred Years. Geological Society of geology in Portugal: the Geological Survey, a his- of America, Centennial Special Volume, 3. torical perspective. In: Mayer, W., Clary, R.M., Klemun, M. 2016. Spaces and places: an historical over- Azuela, L.F., Mota, T.S. & Wołkowicz, S. (eds) view of the development of geology in Austria (Habs- History of Geoscience: Celebrating 50 Years of INHI- burg Monarchy) in the eighteenth and nineteenth GEO. Geological Society, London, Special Publica- centuries. In: Mayer, W., Clary, R.M., Azuela, tions, 442. First published online May 25, 2016, L.F., Mota, T.S. & Wołkowicz, S. (eds) History of https://doi.org/10.1144/SP442.x2 Geoscience: Celebrating 50 Years of INHIGEO. Geo- Newcomb, S. 2016. Progression of instrument use and logical Society, London, Special Publications, 442. practice in mineralogy and petrology, 1750–1950. First published online November 11, 2016, https:// In: Mayer, W., Clary, R.M., Azuela, L.F., Mota, doi.org/10.1144/SP442.20 T.S. & Wołkowicz, S. (eds) History of Geoscience: Ko¨lbl-Ebert, M. (ed.) 2009. Geology and Religion: a Celebrating 50 Years of INHIGEO. Geological Soci- History of Harmony and Hostility. Geological Society, ety, London, Special Publications, 442. First published London, Special Publications, 310. online November 11, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1144/ Ko¨lbl-Ebert, M. 2016. Thinking about the geosciences SP442.22 in their religious/philosophical context. In: Mayer, Orme, A.R. 2016. Dynamic geomorphology: historical W., Clary, R.M., Azuela, L.F., Mota, T.S. & convergence towards modern practice. In: Mayer, Wołkowicz, S. (eds) History of Geoscience: Cele- W., Clary, R.M., Azuela, L.F., Mota, T.S. & brating 50 Years of INHIGEO. Geological Society, Wołkowicz, S. (eds) History of Geoscience: Cele- London, Special Publications, 442. First published brating 50 Years of INHIGEO. Geological Society, online May 26, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1144/ London, Special Publications, 442. First published SP442.5 online December 23, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1144/ Ko¨lbl-Ebert,M.&Turner, S. 2016. Towards a history SP442.34 of women in the geosciences. In: Mayer, W., Clary, Ra´bano, I. 2016. Early history of the Spanish Geological R.M., Azuela, L.F., Mota, T.S. & Wołkowicz,S. Survey: the Commission for the Geological Map of (eds) History of Geoscience: celebrating 50 Years of Spain (1849–1910). In: Mayer, W., Clary, R.M., INHIGEO. Geological Society, London, Special Publi- Azuela, L.F., Mota, T.S. & Wołkowicz, S. (eds) cations, 442. First published online August 15, 2016, History of Geoscience: Celebrating 50 Years of INHI- https://doi.org/10.1144/SP442.16 GEO. Geological Society, London, Special Publi- Letsch, D. 2016. Swiss contributions to mid-nineteenth cations, 442. First published online May 25, 2016, century tectonic research: a step backwards or the https://doi.org/10.1144/SP442.3 prologue to the nappe tectonics revolution? In: Racki, G. 2016. Methodological uniformitarianism of Mayer, W., Clary, R.M., Azuela, L.F., Mota, Hugo Kołła˛taj: an unknown Polish precursor of the T.S. & Wołkowicz, S. (eds) History of Geoscience: Lyellian geological paradigm. 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W. MAYER

(eds) History of Geoscience: Celebrating 50 Years of Sundquist, B. 2016. Early geological studies and map- INHIGEO. Geological Society, London, Special Publi- ping in Sweden. In: Mayer, W., Clary, R.M., cations, 442. First published online December 2, 2016, Azuela, L.F., Mota, T.S. & Wołkowicz, S. (eds) https://doi.org/10.1144/SP442.29 History of Geoscience: Celebrating 50 Years of INHI- Riccardi, A.C. 2016a. Life and geological studies of Joa- GEO. Geological Society, London, Special Publica- quı´n Frenguelli. In: Mayer, W., Clary, R.M., tions, 442. First published online June 29, 2016, Azuela, L.F., Mota, T.S. & Wołkowicz, S. (eds) https://doi.org/10.1144/SP442.10 History of Geoscience: Celebrating 50 Years of INHI- Taquet, P. 2016. A look into the history of geology in GEO. Geological Society, London, Special Publica- France. In: Mayer, W., Clary, R.M., Azuela, L.F., tions, 442. First published online June 29, 2016, Mota, T.S. & Wołkowicz, S. (eds) History of Geo- https://doi.org/10.1144/SP442.6 science: Celebrating 50 Years of INHIGEO. Geologi- Riccardi, A.C. 2016b. Geographical and geological cal Society, London, Special Publications, 442 . First explorations of the La Plata Museum 1884–1905. In: published online November 11, 2016, https://doi. Mayer, W., Clary, R.M., Azuela, L.F., Mota, org/10.1144/SP442.21 T.S. & Wołkowicz, S. (eds) History of Geoscience: Taylor, K.L. 2016. Before Volcanoes Became Ordinary. Celebrating 50 Years of INHIGEO. Geological In: Mayer, W., Clary, R.M., Azuela, L.F., Mota, Society, London, Special Publications, 442. First pub- T.S. & Wołkowicz, S. (eds) History of Geoscience: lished online July 15, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1144/ Celebrating 50 Years of INHIGEO. Geological Soci- SP442.13 ety, London, Special Publications, 442. First published Rose, E.P.F. & Nathanail, C.P. (eds) 2000. Geology and online December 2, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1144/ Warfare: Examples of the Influence of Terrain and SP442.27 Geologists on Military Operations. Geological Soci- Wołkowicz, S., Graniczny, M., Wołkowicz,K.& ety, London. Urban, H. 2016. History of the oil industry in Poland Rudwick, M. 2016. Insiders and outsiders: INHIGEO seen until 1939. In: Mayer, W., Clary, R.M., Azuela, from the sidelines. In: Mayer, W., Clary, R.M., L.F., Mota, T.S. & Wołkowicz, S. (eds) History of Azuela, L.F., Mota, T.S. & Wołkowicz, S. (eds) Geoscience: Celebrating 50 Years of INHIGEO. Geo- History of Geoscience: Celebrating 50 Years of INHI- logical Society, London, Special Publications, 442. GEO. Geological Society, London, Special Publica- First published online December 2, 2016, https://doi. tions, 442. First published online November 9, 2016, org/10.1144/SP442.32 https://doi.org/10.1144/SP442.25 Zhang, J. 2016. Social functions of historical studies of Rudwick, M.J.S. 2005. Bursting the Limits of Time. Chinese geology. In: Mayer, W., Clary, R.M., University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Azuela, L.F., Mota, T.S. & Wołkowicz, S. (eds) Rudwick, M.J.S. 2014. Earth’s Deep History: How it was History of Geoscience: Celebrating 50 Years of INHI- Discovered and Why it Matters. University of Chicago GEO. Geological Society, London, Special Publica- Press, Chicago. tions, 442. First published online June 29, 2016, Sato,T.,Yamada,T.&Yajima, M. 2016. Teiichi Kobaya- https://doi.org/10.1144/SP442.4 shi: his life and works, with an emphasis on his contribu- Zhou , Y. 2016. Review of the history of higher education tion to the history of the geosciences in Japan. In: in geology during the past 100 years in China. In: Mayer,W.,Clary, R.M., Azuela,L.F.,Mota,T.S. Mayer, W., Clary, R.M., Azuela, L.F., Mota, & Wołkowicz,S.(eds)History of Geoscience: Cele- T.S. & Wołkowicz, S. (eds) History of Geoscience: brating 50 Years of INHIGEO. Geological Society, Lon- Celebrating 50 Years of INHIGEO. Geological Soci- don, Special Publications, 442. First published online ety, London, Special Publications, 442. First published November 11, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP442.19 onlineJuly15, 2016,https://doi.org/10.1144/SP442.14