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Vocal Behaviour of White-Cheeked Crested Gibbons (Nomascus Leucogenys): Vocal Production, Usage and Response

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Vocal Behaviour of White-Cheeked Crested Gibbons (Nomascus Leucogenys): Vocal Production, Usage and Response Vocal Behaviour of White-Cheeked Crested Gibbons (Nomascus leucogenys): Vocal Production, Usage and Response. Hou-Chun Chen, BSc. A thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the University of New England July, 2011 1 CERTIFICATION I certify that the substance of this thesis has not already been submitted for any degree and is not currently being submitted for any other degree or qualification. I certify that any help received in preparing this thesis and all sources used has been acknowledged in this thesis. Signature 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to express my appreciation to my supervisors, Drs. Jim McFarlane and Stuart Cairns for helping and supervising me to complete this thesis. I also wish to thank Dr. Boyd Wright for spending many hours of proof-reading work. Lots of appreciations expressed to staff in Head office of Zoological Park Organization of Thailand, Dusit Zoo, Khao Kheow Open Zoo, Nakhornratchasima Zoo, Chiang Mai Zoo, Chiang Mai Night Safari and Endanger Primate Rescue Center of Vietnam, your help and assistance do support many ways of my overseas research field work. Special thanks to Sumate Kamolnorranath, Wanchai Tunwattanai, Wanlaya Tipkantha and Tilo Nadler for their valuable assistance in all kinds of aspect for making my overseas research work possible. This thesis could not have been completed without support from Zoological Park Organization, Thailand and Endanger Primate Rescue Center, Vietnam. I also want to thank the Directors of Dusit Zoo, Khao Kheow Open Zoo, Nakhornratchasima Zoo, Chiang Mai Zoo, Chiang Mai Night Safari and Melbourne Zoo for granting me permission to collect data. Thanks for the Conservation International Primate Action fund, University of New England, and Zoological Park Organization for funding my research. Finally, I would like to give my very special thanks to my grandfathers (Chin-lin, Chen and De-Lu Weng), my parents (We-shin Chen and Li-fang Weng) and other family members as I have been away from them for all these years. Their support is the key for me to complete this thesis. 3 PAPERS PUBLISHED DURING CANDIDATURE Refereed papers Chen, H.-C.; Kaplan, G. & Rogers L-J.2009, Contact calls of common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus): Influence of age of caller on antiphonal calling and other vocal responses. America Journal of Primatology 71 165-170 Chen, H.-C., Kamolnorranath, S & Kaplan, G., 2008. Female crested gibbons (genus Nomascus) sing male song. Vietnamese Journal of Primatology 2 47-53 Published Abstracts Chen, H.-C. & Kaplan, G. 2008. Vocal individuality in white-cheeked crested gibbons (Nomascus leucogenys): Acoustic features and song organization. XXIInd congress of the International Primatological Society, 4th-9th August, 2008, Edinburgh, United Kindom, P 4 Kamolnorranath, S.; Chen, H-C. & Dumnui, S. 2007: Population assessment of crested gibbons (Nomascus spp.) in Zoological Park Organization of Thailand by using vocal identification – A non-invasive method. 16th Conference of South East Asian Zoos Association (SEAZA) 2nd – 4th September Zoo Negara, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Chen, H-C; Kaplan, G. & Rogers, L. J. (2006): Contact behaviour in the isolated marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) and its natal group. Abstract of 2006 Australian Society for the Study of Animal Behaviour (ASSB) Annual Conference, 20th-23rd April. 2006 pp. 29 Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia. Chen, H-C; Kaplan, G. & Rogers, L. J. (2006): Vocal behaviour in isolated marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) on presentation of stimuli. Abstract of 2006 Australian Society for the Study of Animal Behaviour (ASSB) Annual Conference, 20th-23rd April. 2006 pp. 29 Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS CERTIFICATION ...................................................................................................................... 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .......................................................................................................... 3 PAPERS PUBLISHED DURING CANDIDATURE ................................................................ 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................ 5 TABLE OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ 9 LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................... 11 ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. 13 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 17 1.1 Vocal communication in primates .......................................................................... 17 1.1.1 Limitation on gibbon research ....................................................................... 19 1.2 Vocal behaviour in gibbons .................................................................................... 21 1.2.1 Song structure and organization..................................................................... 24 1.3 Vocal individuality.................................................................................................. 27 1.3.1 Individual differences in gibbon song ............................................................ 28 1.4 Vocal development in juveniles and sub-adults ...................................................... 30 1.4.1 Song development of juvenile gibbons .......................................................... 31 1.5 Vocal plasticity in adults ......................................................................................... 32 1.5.1 Sex-specificity in gibbon song ....................................................................... 33 1.5.2 Gibbon social structure and its relation to vocal plasticity ............................ 35 1.6 Functions of gibbon song ........................................................................................ 36 1.6.1 Territorial defence .......................................................................................... 37 1.6.2. Pair bonding .................................................................................................. 39 1.7 Research aims and original contribution of this thesis ........................................... 41 CHAPTER 2 GENERAL METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................ 46 2.1 Study sites ............................................................................................................... 46 2.2 Subjects ................................................................................................................... 48 2.2.1 Sample size and species ................................................................................. 48 2.2.2 Identification of sex and age .......................................................................... 49 2.3 Housing ................................................................................................................... 52 2.4 Husbandry ............................................................................................................... 53 2.5 Data collection ........................................................................................................ 54 2.5.1 Vocalisation recording ................................................................................... 54 2.5.2 Vocalisation analysis ..................................................................................... 55 2.5.2.1 Analysis of vocalisations made by males .......................................... 57 5 2.5.2.2 Analysis of vocalisations made by females ....................................... 60 2.6 Statistics .................................................................................................................. 61 CHAPTER 3 VOCAL INDIVIDUALITY IN WHITE-CHEEKED CRESTED GIBBONS (NOMASCUS LEUCOGENYS) ........................................................................................................................ 63 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 63 3.2 Method .................................................................................................................... 65 3.2.1 Subjects .......................................................................................................... 65 3.2.2 Procedures ...................................................................................................... 66 3.2.3 Sound analysis ............................................................................................... 66 3.2.4 Statistical analysis .......................................................................................... 70 3.3 Results ..................................................................................................................... 71 3.3.1 General description of song phrases .............................................................. 71 3.3.1.1 Duration of duet song in pairs ............................................................ 72 3.3.1.2 Total of call phrases of duet song in pairs ......................................... 72 3.3.1.3 Calling rate of the duet song .............................................................. 73 3.3.1.4 Male song phrases .............................................................................
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