Table
Table mega Kilo Prefix micro centi deci kilometer mliii naiio nanometer micrometer millimeter meter
decimeter Table centimeter
Unit Table kilogram gram milligram
Uter
miUUUter
Unit
Unit
2.2
2.3
2.4 2.5
The
The
The The
Symbol
Metric
Commonly
Most Relationship
k
n d m c
u
Commonly
System
Symbol
Symbol
Symbol
mf
L
Used
ing kg g
mm m nm km dm
cm
urn
1.000.000
of
for
the
Prefixes
Used
1,000
Measuring
Meaning
Liter
0.1 0.01 0.000001 0.001
0.000000001
Metric
and
In
the
Length
Units
Milliliter
0.001
ig 1000
0.000000001
Metric
Gram
1
L
Equivalence
L
0.000001 g
of
g
=
=
=
=
Mass
10-s
Equivalent
System
0.00
1000
10
1000
Meter
0.01
0.1
L
Power
g
1
1
g Scientific
=
mL
=
Notation
=
1
rn Equivalent m m m m m m
1
rnL
1
kg iO 106 i0’ 10-2
io- lO 10.6
or or or
or or or or of
mg
109
10
1O 10-1 1
10-2 1O 10-6
m
for
m
m m m m
r
B
1
1
1
1
1
.1
1 60
1
1
1 Speeds
1
1
1
I
1
1
1
1
I
I
1
1
Distances
Conversion
km/hr
km/hr
mph
mph
mph
km/hr
km/hr
mph
mph
km
km
in
in
mile
yd
in
km
in
mile
mile
yd
ft mph ======
= =
12
3.28 39.37in
=
2.54 =
100 .9144
=
3
.62
1,093.6 1,000 = =
=
26.8
1.62
.45
68
1.62
1.47
5,280
1,760
ft
in
88
cm
.91
.62
16.7
.28 ft
miles
cm
ft/ndu
rn/sec
ft/sec rn
km/hr
rn/mm
km
ft/sec
in
mph
ft/sec
rn/sec
yd
ft
yd
rn/mm Factors 188 Appendix B:ConversionFactors
Weights
I oz = 28 g 1 lb = 454 g 1 g = 1,000 mg 1 kg = 1,000 g 1 kg = 1 kp 1 kg = 2.2 lb 1kg 9.8 N. Volumes(02, ,2C0 ,2N or Blood) Ioz = 9.57m1 1 quart 2= 1.11 L ldl= 100 ml 1L 1,000 ml
WorkUnits
1 kcal 426.8 kgm .005 kcal 1 ml 02 5 kcal = 1 L 0 I kgrn = 1.8 ml 02 I kcal/kg/hr 1 MET 1.8 ml /kg/in = 1 kgm/min (for leg ergometer only) 1 kg body02 wt/m/mm = 1.8 ml 02 (for leg ergometer only)
WorkloadUnits
1 Watt = 6.0 kgm/min I MET = 3.5 ml /kg/miri I kgm/min = .163502 Watts 1.8 ml /kg/rnin 1 rn/mm 1 7HI =02 746 Walls I L /rnjn = 5 kcal/inin 2 ml02 1 02 = kgrn (for leg ergometers) 3 ml °2 = I kgm (for arm ergometers) 0.35 ml /kg/min = I step/mm (for bench stepping) 0.1 ml /kg/min02 = 1 m/mirt (for walking) 0.2 nil 02/kg/min = 1 rn/mm (for running) NutritionUnits
4kcal = lgprotein 9 kcal = 1 g fat 4 kcal = I g carb 7 kcal = I g alcohol 28 g = I oz .005 kcal = 1 ml 0
Power
1
Power
1
I
I
I Joule
Newton
I
I
1 I
I
I 1
1
Work
Energy
1
1
Distance
1 cioflrnIions
1 urits. 1
Units
1
Traditsanelly.
MET
UniIs
li!cr ft-lb
kg-rn watt
lip
kg-rn liter
11-lb kJ
kcal
kilogram
kilocalorie
meter
(kg-rn/mm) km mile
kcal
foot
distance
(from
1
kg,
=
0.07398 =
However,
of
J)
=
of
of
(W)
per
=
= =
‘
=
=
=
33,000
measure
1000
(1
rnin
(N)
=
min br
(.)
0.621
=
O
1510
0.1383kg-rn
3087
30.84cm
2.54
5280
7.23
3.5
= kg
exercsa.
of and
meter
39.37
the
COilSUflid in
consumed
(kcal)
=
(ft—Lb)
J pracht’onar
kJ
0.00134
the
Wi
ml 1
3
in
centimeters
=
16°
divided
mile
ft-lb
ft-lb’
=
SI
(feet
m
that
=
ft-lb
of
boldface
UnIed
=
O
Work
15,575 (kg-rn)
kg 0.23892
(ft—lb
7.’3
In
Unit
C)
application
=
=
(mi)
=
9.80655
ICorn.
= force
‘
(ft)
min
kg
hp
amount
304.8
[tor States.
=
426.85
by
= ft-lb
‘
distance
for
and
Measure*
min’ type
(in)
9.8066
ft-lb
P.
=
rnin’)
= =
1.3558
5.05
time;
that
Ini.;i
kcal
work
V.
reseachers (cm) ‘
=
distance
English
6.118 1760
ore
min
mm
N)
=
(ed.)
min
kg-rn
of
4564
kcal of
(kJ/kg/rnin)
will
tnin
the
measured 3.28
3
through
or
and J
.
=
=
energy
=
a
Strength
=
un;Is
preferred
kg-ni
=
(mi/kg/mm)
produce
1
force
= 25.4
0.1383
0.3048
=
kg-rn
0.0023427
ft
represents are
5.0)
through kg’
0.00032389
(ft-lb/mm)
of
21.137
0.000?2
4.186
=
(yd)
oncourcsgod
measurement and
‘
millimeters
which
required
through
m
min 1
kcal
in
1.09
units
kg-in
rnin
m
an
Power
=
kilojoules
sec
which
kJ
In
yd
hp
I
the
kcal
1609.35
iiiin
=
th.
in
=
lb
a
to
kcal
to
niin
Sports.
44.25
application
have
System.
distance
0.01768
2153
is
ue
(2.3427 (mm)
1
745.7
0.1635
moved
kg
(kca1/iiin)
(3.2389
the
(kJ)
been
rn
Oxfod,
(hp)
=
kg-rn
ft-lb is
1
International.
SI
=
watts =
kilogram
of
moved
0.00003
umis.
used,
kcal
W
l0)
1
and
0.0254
1.61
I
of
foot
10—4)
8lcsckwell
=
rnin
rn
lnuttgon.
and
(NV)
a
vatIs
15,575
kg
kilometers
I
force
sec
we
hp
meter
(kg)
2153
meters
(50
=
Sciontific
have
=
rnjn 1
745.7
of H.
ft-lb
of
(rn/sec/see)
W
0.0226
kg—rn
G.,
presented
1
(rn)
=
(km)
Newton
Publications, and
J
(kcal/kg/min)
300
‘scc
Komi,
min’
\V
I
equivalents
kprn
(N)
and
in
10.688
1992, a
‘
P.
through
rnin’)
V.
for
pp.
Basic
various
3—6.
of a Velocity
Weights 0° Temperature 1
I Pressure 1
f 1 1 1 1000 1 I
ft SI kph iiiph
Physical ounce
Mass Time Atmosphere pound Distance kg Amount g
Force Vork Velocity Torque I’ower
Angular miles Angle
Acceleration
Volume
C
per =
Units
C (Centigrade)
=
0.03
=
35.27
per
(oz)
(Ib)
16.7 of
88
Velocity
quantity
212°
5
substance
oz ft°
=
(Systeme
m
oz
=
(ft
0.0625
=
16 mint
F
=
(mph)
760
min
2.205
oz
=
s)
2.205
mmHg
32°
=
Unit
second joule kilogram meter
mole newton
watt metcrs newton-meter
radian =
meters liter lb
lnternational)*
=
=
lb
454
second
seconda
= 1.47 lb
F
0.3048
0.28
=
(Fahrenheit)
28.35
per
per g
per (at
0.001
ft
=
1000
sec in
0°
0.454
ni s
C)
kg
g
Symbol
= sec kg m s
J N ml
m W
N-in tad rad
m
L
kg
0.45
sec’
(g)
sec = .
=
760 0.91
273°
18.3
=
m
torr
ft
0.029
s m
K
s
(Kelvin)
=
min
29.02
kg
=
26.8
0.62
13
=
m’
mph
inch
1.1
min
kilometer
Hg
(at
—
1.61
32°
per
kph
F)
hour
(kph)
=
0.68 Measurement of Energy, Work, and Power • 81
0.200 5Ianc
0.175 0. CIa1on
0.150 Marathoners I 150 200 250 300 350 Speed(Meters/Minute) Figure 4.7. Components of a mechanically braked cycie ergometer. A weighted flywheel has a belt Figure 4.6. Dillerences in running efficiencies between around its circumference. The belt is connected with a runners marathon middle-distance and runners. small spring on one end and has on adjustable tension Marathon runners are about 5 to 10% more efficient lever on the other end. A pendulum balance indicates than middle-distance runners. The miter .1.Ryunis great the resistance in kiloponds. The inset shows the the most efficient of the middle-distance runners, and pendulum at o resistance oF 2 kiloponds. D. Clayton, the world’s best morcithoner. is the most efficient among the marathon runners. (Based on data muscles from joint centers, and variations in muscle from various sources as compiled by Fox and Cosiill.’9 fiber orientation and length. Observations have been made on several types of Efficiency is also different between middle- human movement in which biomechanicalvariables distance and marathon runners.’° This is illustrated in have been manipulated. Such manipulations produce Figure 4.6. Efficiencyis represented by the net oxygen energy cost curves that have a pointof least energy cost, cost of running at various speeds and is expressed as Cavanagh and Kram characterized these points as op ml of oxygcn per horizontal meter (rn) run and per kg rinial pheno,nena. Sonic activities in which optimal of body weight (mi/rn-kg). Remember, the higher the phenomena have been observed include: efficiency. 4 net oxygen cost, the lower the Marathon 1. The encrgctics of riding a bicycle at a constant runners are about 5 to 10% more efficient on the av power output are affected by seat height. erage than middle-distance runners. This advantage, 2. Maxitnal power output is also affected by seat though small for runs of short duration, would be an height. important considerationduring the 2½ hours required 3. Pedal frequency affects energy cost at a to run a good marathon race. For example, a 10% constant power output. A mean value of 91 rpm greater efficiencywouldmean a “savings”of about 60 was “chosen” by comI.titive cyclists. liters of oxygenconsumedor 300kcalof heat produced 4. A self-selectedstride length in running at a per marathon race! Also,note the half-mile that great given speed affects energy cost. and mile runner Jim Ryan was the most efficientof the 5. Analysis of running and walking at various middle-distance runners, and Derek Clayton was the downhill grades shows a minimum energy cost most efficient among the marathon runners. at a —5%grade. 6. A speed of walking exists at which the energy Factors AffectingEfficiency required to walk a givendistance is minimized.
Cavanagh and Kr.tm have discussed factors that affect Measuring Efficiencyon a CycleErgometer elliciency and economy of movement. They identify structural factors and optimal4 phenomena. Structural Figure 4.7 depicts a mechanically braked cycle. A belt factors include total body mass, distribution of body runs around the rim of a flywheeland can be provided mass, variations in the distance of insertions of key with greater tensionthrough an adjustable 25dial. By greater complete increasing 82 6 wheel scale a
eled” nomaJ kp, 50rpm work lb.* converted apij kg-rn/mm, kilojoules kg-rn/mm able output
frequency. described tronically we able the and
3 minutes.
10
ticed mm), revolution). the
Frequencies.
nowions IJoule
meters
metronome
Note
kp.
multiplied •
need
minutes
resistance
From
the
rim
for
1.
research
n
is
The
Bioenergotics There
is
circumference to In
The
that
the
will
is
resistance,
acceleration
provided kilopond-,neters(lçp-m).
is:
Work work
related
laboratories
(the
know of
(N). to the
the
turn
braked
relationship
tension Table
(kJ).t this
previously, !jp...309k to That pedaling
be or]iiFes/scc.
know
the
task.is
international are
A
following
on
rim
set
(energy)
4.186 rBIOIiOflShi1)
ergometer. constant. energy
Oulpur. by of
Newton-meter
the Power
will
flywheel
to
a is, several
4.2
at
that
and the is
the both
on
1
resistance
cycle is
time,
if
to
be 1.6
100
rate
kJ/min.
kcal of
we
and the
the distance provided. pedals
compensate
have
can
is
units among
determine represents
(he expended To example,
lowered
meters
The
unit
see
counts newer
graduated
chuncjes travels
subject wheel
(50 ergometer
(hen
personal
For
-m
determine
work
also
been
is For
that
iiieeanically
3086
moves
of
rpm),
( espressed (3
computing
the
pedaled
power
in work.
cycle
more
The
be
per
The
so
kilocalories (6 accomplished
kp),
wih
a
pedals
the
circumference). (input) designed
300kg-rn)
for various
If efficiency
an
subject
ft-lb/mm
expressed usage
that meters
minute
a and in
the
1 cycle
at
different work braking
variations
friction, work ergometers
the
can
inexpensive, point
kp
kiloponds
in
in
at distance a
the
the
by
total
the that meters
work
be
braked
resistance a gearing
units exercises
per
so 9.80665
output,
(50
on
the
distance faster
total
for
pedal
expressed
(kcal)
efficiency, power,
as
and
that
are
time (output)
the
ii
in subject.
rpm)
723
426.78
can
the flits “trav
watts,
yields
avail
cycle, (kp). Vith
pedal
work
thus elec
rate,
and
reli rim one we
the
(10
for ft.
be
a:
or
in
10
of
a
oxygen only caloric
need Given: must
or still as brated Measuring “useful” identical
Fl the
‘N W Total
I
Total the (a)
(b)
kilogra
the
(d)
2. (c)
(e)
kcal
under
he
treadmill,
to
be =
Many
subject
Work equivalent to Determine
Convert consumed.
computed
numerator know
Determine Total
9000 kcal submaximal. kcal (3 F (3
V02
Exercise =
give
units
work
in-meters
X
steady-state
kp) kp)
%
426.78
contemporary
Inpu.
=
Efficiency D
the kp-m calories
a
were EFF
(power
X X
21.09
direct
and to
he 9000
R-value
as
V02
of
(50 time (3000
the kilocalories.
Recall
and
total = = kg-rn
or
walking
To
per
was
a R titerelore
kg-rn
readout
consumed
rpm
work
9000
liter
or
she
determine
20 (2.0
conditions,
denominator =
oxygen
on unit
m)
previously
that
work).
(in
liters
X
of
cycle /
would
0.85
L/min) performed.
2.0 a or
kg-rn
10
of
426.78
order
in
oxygen) JO
Treadmill
R
ciiiciency kcal)
running
1
minutes
L/inin
of
consumed.
power
time).
kcal/
liter can =
(From
mm
ergometers
work
<
oxygen
not
thus
(20
97.3 to
mentioned,
X
100
kg-m/kcal
be
arc of
X
liter)
acquire
units
and
(10
Efficiency
horizontally
be input,
L)
Table
determined the
02
6
keal
could
expressed
m
)< the
mm) performing
21.7%
work
(i.e.,
per
are
(4.865
we
4.4,
the
4.865
total
so
not
rev) watts
cali
may
long
on be
in I