Appendix: Participating States of the Montreux Document1

There are currently 54 states that support the Montreux Document. Seventeen states jointly finalized the document on the occasion of a con- cluding meeting in Montreux, Switzerland, on September 17, 2008:

1. Afghanistan 2. Angola 3. Australia 4. Austria 5. Canada 6. China 7. France 8. Germany 9. Iraq 10. Poland 11. Sierra Leone 12. South Africa 13. Sweden 14. Switzerland 15. United Kingdom 16. Ukraine 17. United States of America

The following additional states have joined the Montreux Document since its release, with date of communication of support:

© The Author(s) 2018 187 M. Boggero, The Governance of Private Security, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69593-8 188 APPENDIX: PARTICIPATING STATES OF THE MONTREUX DOCUMENT

18. Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (February 3, 2009) 19. Ecuador (February 12, 2009) 20. Albania (February 17, 2009) 21. Netherlands (February 20, 2009) 22. Bosnia and Herzegovina (March 9, 2009) 23. Greece (March 13, 2009) 24. Portugal (March 27, 2009) 25. Chile (April 6, 2009) 26. Uruguay (April 22, 2009) 27. Liechtenstein (April 27, 2009) 28. Qatar (April 30, 2009) 29. Jordan (May 18, 2009) 30. Spain (May 20, 2009) 31. Italy (June 15, 2009) 32. Uganda (July 23, 2009) 33. Cyprus (September 29, 2009) 34. Georgia (October 22, 2009) 35. Denmark (August 9, 2010) 36. Hungary (February 1, 2011) 37. Costa Rica (October 25, 2011) 38. Finland (November 25, 2011) 39. Belgium (February 28, 2012) 40. Norway (June 8, 2012) 41. Lithuania (June 13, 2012) 42. Slovenia (July 24, 2012) 43. Iceland (October 22, 2012) 44. Bulgaria (January 8, 2013) 45. Kuwait (May 2, 2013) 46. Croatia (May 22, 2013) 47. New Zealand (October 14, 2013) 48. Czech Republic (November 14, 2013) 49. Luxembourg (November 27, 2013) 50. Japan (February 6, 2014) 51. Ireland (November 13, 2014) 52. Monaco (April 1, 2015) 53. Madagascar (November 5, 2015) 54. Estonia (July 6, 2016) APPENDIX: PARTICIPATING STATES OF THE MONTREUX DOCUMENT 189

Fig. A.1 Participating States of the Montreux Document

Notes 1. The map and the list are both available at: https://www.eda.admin.ch/eda/ en/home/foreign-policy/international-law/international-humanitarian- law/private-military-security-companies/montreux-document.html, courtesy of the Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs (FDFA), Accessed 31 August 2017. Index1

A Arms control, 33 Abductions, see Boko Haram; Piracy Arms to Africa Affair, see Sierra Leone Abrahamsen, R., 2, 4, 5, 102, 133, Arms Trade Treaty, see Arms Control 150–152, 155, 156, 165, 169, Army of Liberia, see Liberia 182 AU, see African Union Abu Ghraib, 43 Austria, 182 Africa, 2, 7–9, 14, 17–19, 47n18, 60, Avant, Deborah, 1, 5, 15, 18, 39, 41, 62, 77, 80, 85, 95–103, 105n5, 43, 45, 49n33, 49n34, 65, 78, 107–113, 115n13, 119, 120, 143, 166, 181, 182 125, 126, 132, 137, 138, 143, 144n4, 151, 152, 156, 157n4, 161–174, 179–183 B African National Congress (ANC), see Barlow, Eben, 119–121, 126n1, South Africa 126n2, 127n7 African Union (AU), 16, 22n25, 36, Bayart, Jean-Francois, 9, 20n10, 96, 47n12, 64, 100, 125, 139, 103n1, 115n14 145n11, 172 Beijing consensus, 167 AFRICOM, 4 Benhabib, Sheila, 14, 21n19 Anti-mercenary norm, see Social norms Best Management Practices (BMP), see Apartheid, see South Africa Voluntary Regulations Armed conflict, 32, 35, 42–44, 46n1, Blackwater, 5 46n11, 67, 68, 78, 86, 100, 111, Boko Haram, 8, 100, 119, 122, 123, 115n11 126, 127n2, 127n7, 127n10 Armed guards, see Private Military and Branović, Zeliko, 19, 119, 183 Security Companies (PMSCs) Brautigam, Deborah, 167, 169

1 Note: Page numbers followed by ‘n’ refer to notes. © The Author(s) 2018 191 M. Boggero, The Governance of Private Security, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69593-8 192 INDEX

Bryden, Alan, 56, 135, 144n5 D Buhari, Muahammadu, see Nigeria DCAF, see Democratic Control of Bureau of Maritime Affairs, see Liberia Armed Forces Bures, Oldrich, 6 Defensive measures, see Piracy Burundi, 109 Definition of mercenaries,see Bush administration, see US Mercenaries Government Democracy, 18, 95, 133, 162, 164–166, 168 Democratic Control of Armed Forces C (DCAF), 17, 33, 39, 80n2, 85, Cameroon, 70n17, 124 86, 135, 157n4 Canada, 150 Democratization, 121, 163–166 Carmola, Kateri, 2, 4, 5, 14, 57, 58, De Nevers, Renée, 4, 6, 90n2 67, 88, 141, 166 Denmark, 182 Chabal, Patrick, 9, 16, 96, 97, Diamonds, 113, 132, 149, 150 115n14, 167 Diamonds, see Natural Resources Chartered Companies, 38 Diamond Works, 150 Chibok schoolgirls kidnappings, Dickinson, Laura, 7, 8, 85, 90n4 127n7 Disappearance of norms, see Social China Norms Huawei, 101 Disarmament, see Arms Control Montreux negotiations, 14, 91n9, Disarmament, demobilization and 95, 166, 170 reintegration (DDR), see Liberia natural resources, 167 Draft Convention, see Convention on origins of Chinese private security, Private Military and Security 102 Companies Taiping Civil War, 171 Drezner, Daniel, 87 Chinese PMSCs, 8, 45, 97, 99, Dunigan, Molly, 5, 7, 40, 41, 170 101–103, 167 See also Contracting state, military Civil society, 61, 83, 85, 90n4, 135, effectiveness 144n5 DynCorp, 97, 103n3, 135, 136 Civil war, see Liberia Coastal States, 133 Cold War, 39, 42, 48n27, 65, 182 E Contracting states, 31, 40, 66, 68, 77, Ebola Virus Disease (EVD), see Sierra 114, 114n4, 125, 151, 156, 180 Leone military effectiveness, 40, 41 Economic Community of West African Convention on Private Military and States Monitoring Group Security Companies, 10 (ECOMOG), 149, 150 CPA Order #17, see Iraq Economic activity, 154 INDEX 193

Economic cooperation, see Economic G activity Gammeltoft-Hansen, Thomas, 182, ECOWAS, 125, 172, 174n12 183 Elections, 110, 121, 123, 133, 150, Gberie, Lansana, 132 164–166 General Assembly (GA), see United Electoral violence, 166 Nations Ellis, Stephen, 132, 134 Geneva Conventions, 11, 34, 38, 43, Emergency regulation, see Natural 44, 49n30, 59, 64, 69n8, Disasters; State of Emergency 115n11, 121, 136 (SoE) Germany, 63, 89, 142, 183 Epidemic, see Ebola Virus Disease Gilder, Barry, 165 Equatorial Guinea, 16, 36, 37, 99, Goodluck, Ebele Azikiwe Jonathan, 109, 110, 120, 121, 161, 172 123 Ericson, R. V., 14 Gourevitch, Peter, 10 European Union (EU), 39, 139, 183 Government of Sierra Leone, see Sierra EVD, see Ebola Virus Disease Leone Executive Outcome (EO), 110, 113, G4S, 4, 100, 101, 155, 162, 171, 182 119, 120, 131, 132, 149–151, Guantanamo, 42 183 Gulf of Guinea, see Piracy Extremism in the Sahel, 122–124 Gumedze, Sabelo, 7, 16, 47n12, 77, See also Terrorism 81n6, 111, 115n9, 135, 172 Gurkha Security Guards, 149

F Finnemore, M., 10, 11, 80, 81n15, H 180 Haas, Ernst, 17, 78 Fisheries (protection of), see Maritime Haufler, Virginia, 14 Security Herbst, Jeffrey, 155 Flag(s) of convenience, 104n6, Hijacking, see Piracy 138–140 Hirschman, Albert, 179 Flag States, 138, 140–143, 145n18 Home states, 18, 31, 125 Floating armories, see Maritime Hong Kong, see China Security Huawei Security, see Chinese PMSCs Forced labor, see Human Rights abuses Human rights, 11, 19, 35, 38, 48n23, Foreign enlistment, 18, 33, 107–114, 49n39, 55, 61, 64, 69n12, 126, 179 70n18, 81n13, 84, 85, 88, 90n2, Forsythe, David, 39, 42, 43, 48n23, 90n4, 95, 99, 126, 137, 142, 48n24, 48n25, 48n27, 49n32, 154, 162–166, 168–170 49n37, 49n39, 167 Human Rights abuses, 43, 47n14 Forum shopping, 83, 87, 88, 90, 183 Human Rights Law, 44, 46n1 Frontier Services Group, see Prince, Human trafficking,see Human Rights Erik abuses 194 INDEX

Huntington, Samuel, 164 International Humanitarian Law Hydén, Goran, 16 (IHL), 32, 35, 36, 42–44, 46n1, 46n11, 66, 70n18, 84–86, 99, 126, 153, 162 I International law, 8, 35, 58, 86, ICoC, see International Code of 115n11, 125, 136 Conduct International Maritime Organization ICoCA, see International Code of (IMO), 15, 45, 137–139, Conduct Association 141–143, 145n18, 145n19 ICRC, see International Committee of International Organization for the Red Cross Standardization (ISO), 69n6, 88, ICS, see International Chamber of 91n11, 91n15, 145n18, 165 Shipping Iraq IFC Performance Standard, 4, 164 CPA Order #17, 39, 48n22 IGAD, see Intergovernmental Nisoor Square, 43 Authority on Development South Africans in Iraq, 110 IHL, see International Humanitarian Third Country Nationals in Iraq, Law 109 IMO, see International Maritime torture and human rights violations Organization (in Iraq), 43 Information asymmetry, 163, 173n5 Islamic State, 6 Insurance, 14, 15, 22n22, 131, See also Terrorism 137–143, 144n9 ISO, see International Organization for Intergovernmental Authority on Standardization Development (IGAD), 172 Italy, 183, 184n6 Internally displaced person, 153 Ivory Coast, 110, 114n5, 120, International Chamber of Shipping 121 (ICS), 141, 145n15 International Code of Conduct (ICoC), 3, 10, 37, 38, 44, 47n16, K 47n17, 69n6, 69n11, 83–85, 88, Kamajors, 150 90n1, 101, 126, 141, 142, 164, Katanga, see Mercenaries 165, 174n12 Katzenstein, Peter, 10, 13, 14, 42, International Code of Conduct 49n35, 99, 163 Association (ICoCA), 69n6, 84, Kenya, 100, 108 86, 87, 90n5, 90n6, 91n9, 142 Keohane, Robert, 10, 20n6, 42, 45, International Committee of the Red 49n35, 99, 163 Cross (ICRC), 11, 15, 32–36, Khartoum attack, see Sudan 38–41, 45, 47n11, 48n24, 48n27, Kinsey, Christopher, 4, 6, 7, 149, 49n31, 49n36, 50n43, 50n44, 157n3, 165 50n45, 57, 69n8, 90n3, 115n11, Krahmann, Elke, 5, 7, 15, 22n23, 58, 115n12, 141, 157n4, 162 61, 63, 64, 69n6, 69n10, 89 INDEX 195

L Mattli, W., 8, 10, 20n9, 103n4, Landmines, 11 127n6, 138, 140 Lawfare, 42 McCallum, Jamie, 85 Legro, Jeff, 9, 12 McFate, Sean, 7, 19n5, 68n1, 103n3, Liberia 136 Army of Liberia, 8, 134–136 Mearsheimer, John, 10 Civil war (Liberian), 132, 134 Menkhaus, Kenneth, 138 Disarmament, demobilization and Mercenaries, 3, 35, 55, 99, 108, 120, reintegration, 134 132, 161, 179 Liberian International Ship & Middle East, 85, 182 Corporate Registry, 139, 141 Migration, 182, 183 Maritime Security, 131, 140, 163 Monopoly on violence, see Norms Taylor, Charles, 132, 144n2 Montreux Document\Montreux, 3, 5, Liberian International Ship & 6, 8, 10, 11, 14, 17, 19, 22n28, Corporate Registry (LISCR), 31, 32, 35, 37–39, 43, 46n1, 138–141 46n3, 47n17, 50n42, 52n45, 66, Liberian maritime administration, see 67, 71n20, 75–80, 81n15, 83, Liberia 86–88, 90n1, 90n3, 91n9, 96, Libya, 120, 121, 183 97, 99, 103, 107, 111–113, LISCR, see Liberian International Ship 114n1, 114n4, 115n9, 122, & Corporate Registry 124–126, 137, 141, 142, 151, Lloyds’ list, 142 162, 164, 169, 170, 174n12 Montreux + 5, 16, 76, 77, 80, 81n10, 111 M negotiation, 75 Madagascar, 19, 99, 162 Neutrality, 45 Maersk Alabama, 140 Origins of Swiss Initiative, 31, 141, Mandel, Robert, 166 170 Mano River, 132, 133, 151 participants, 14 Maritime security voluntary regulations, 15, 79 Best Management Practices (BMP), Montreux + 5, see Montreux 140 Document Fisheries (protection of), 152 Moravcsik, Andrew, 9, 10, 143, 180 Flag States, 143 Morgenthau, Hans, 14 Floating armories, 100 Mozambique, 109 New York Declaration, 140 Museveni, Yoweri, 112 Open registries or flag(s) of convenience, open registry, 143 N Market failures, 15, 163, 173n5 Namibia, 108, 109, 112 Market for Force, 15, 109 Nation states, 5 Marshall Island, see Open Registry NATO, see North Atlantic Treaty Mask of Anarchy, see Liberia Organization 196 INDEX

Natural disasters, 152 Organization for Security and Natural resources, 167 Co-operation in Europe, 39 NCACC, see South Africa Neutral, see Neutrality Neutrality P ICRC, 34, 38–40, 42, 48n27 Pacific Architects and Engineers, 135 Neutrality Act of 1794, 38 PANAFSTRAG, see Nigeria neutrality laws, 46n6, 108, 113, 179 Panama, see Open Registry Switzerland, 38, 40, 45 Percy, Sarah, 12, 13, 21n13, 21n14, New York declaration, see Maritime 46n6, 56, 57, 60, 61, 63, 69n3, Security 101, 108, 120, 121, 171, 179 Niger delta, 102 Petersohn, Ulrich, 5, 12, 21n17, 60, Nigeria 170 Abductions, 123 Petroleum, see Natural Resources Boko Haram, 8, 100, 123 Petroleum Act, see Sudan Buhari, 123 Pham, Peter, 103, 123, 138 Contracting state, 125 Piracy ECOMOG, 149 Hijackings, 140 ECOWAS, 125 IMO anti-piracy regulations, Goodluck Jonathan, 123 141–143 Montreux Document, 8, 125 Kidnappings (see Chibok schoolgirls NCDSC, 124 kidnappings) Nigeria as Territorial state, 31, Liberian International Ship & 114n1, 181 Corporate Registry and response PANAFSTRAG and Montreux, 124 to piracy, 139, 141 Nigeria Civil Defence and Security New York declaration, 140 Corps (NCDSC), see Nigeria Piracy as armed conflict, 152 Nisoor Square, 43 Somalia (Piracy in), 137, 140 Non-governmental organization Pirates, see Piracy (NGO), see Civil society PMC, see Private Military and Security Non-state actors, 2, 22n21, 33, 90, 164 Companies (PMSCs) Norm construction, see Social norms Populism, 181, 182 Norms, 1, 2, 10–13, 16, 19, 32–35, Post-conflict, 56, 65, 97, 131–134, 39, 44, 45, 58, 60, 84, 86, 149, 169, 180 95–99, 101, 108, 111, 113, 153, Post-disaster, 149, 152, 153, 156 161–172, 179, 180 Preference formation, 32, 126, 163, North Atlantic Treaty Organization 181 (NATO), 15, 22n23, 42, 145n11 Prince, Erik, 101, 183, 184n6 See also Blackwater; Frontier Services Group O Private Military and Security Oil, see Natural Resources Companies (PMSCs), 2, 31, 55, Open registry, see Maritime Security 75, 107, 120, 131, 149, 161, 180 INDEX 197

Privateering, 3, 46n6, 108, 141 Security Council (SC), see United Privately Contracted Armed Security Nations Personnel, see PMSCs Security risk, see Risk Private Security Service, see PMSCs Security Sector Reform (SSR), 34, Prohibition of Mercenary Activities 172 and Regulation of Certain Self-defense, 15, 84 Activities in Country of Armed Self-determination, 61, 168 Conflict Act of 2006,see South Self-regulation, see Voluntary Africa Regulation Proliferation of standards, problem of, Shadow Report, 17, 76, 77, 79, 165 81n12, 108 PSC, see PMSCs Sierra Leone PSC1 Management System for Quality Ebola Virus Disease, 149, 152, 153 of Private Security Operations, 88 Montreux Document, 19, 97 Public-private assemblages, 154–156 Natural Disasters, 152 Pye, Lucian, 150, 157n2 Pandemics (in Sierra Leone), 149, 156 PMSCs during State of Emergency, R 155 Radicalization, 2, 183 Sandline, 149–151 See also Terrorism Sierra Leone as Territorial state, Ralby, Ian, 75, 150, 151 149, 152 Raustiala, Kal, 9, 10 Southern Cross Security, 152 Refugees, 60, 153, 182 Territorial state (Sierra Leone as), Regimes, 3, 6–9, 16, 17, 19–20n6, 149, 152 22n25, 38, 68, 70n15, 75–77, Sikkink, K., 10, 80, 81n15, 180 80, 80–81n4, 83, 87, 88, 96, Social norms 101, 102, 121, 131, 161, 168, anti-mercenary norm, 1, 2, 11–13, 179–181 19, 55, 59–64, 98–99, Regional Economic Communities, 101–103, 107–111, 113, 126, 125, 172 133, 151, 156, 161, 162, Reno, William, 113, 132, 149, 150, 171–172, 179, 181 184n1 enforcement of norms, 78–79 Risk, 5, 15, 43, 44, 46n4, 50n45, 140, humanitarian-neutral norms and 141, 152–154, 164, 173n5 Montreux (see Montreux Document\Montreux) norms construction, 78–79 S norm degeneration, 12, 60 Saleh, Salim, see Uganda United Nations and the decline of the Sanctions, see United Nations anti-mercenary norm, 60–63, Sandline, 149–151 65–68 SCS, see Southern Cross Security SoE, see State of Emergency Sea platform, see Maritime Security Somali piracy, see Piracy 198 INDEX

South Africa Territorial states, 11, 31, 68, 109, 111, African National Congress (ANC), 114n1, 149, 152, 153, 181 110, 114n6 Terrorism Apartheid, 110 counter-terrorism, 42, 122, 123 Home state, 125 Extremism in the Sahel, 122–124 Montreux Document, 14, 19, 97, Islamic State, 182 111 radicalization, 2, 183 NCACC, 111 (see also Arms violent extremism, 65, 182, 183 (see Control) also Extremism in the Sahel; STTEP, 100, 119, 120, 125, 126 Islamic State; Radicalization) Territorial state, 111 Third Country Nationals (TCN), 18, Third Country Nationals (TCN), 33, 77, 81n7, 107–109, 111, 18, 77, 111, 115n13, 179 114, 114n1, 114n3, 151, 156, South Sudan, 102, 169 170, 174n9, 179, 181 Southern Cross Security (SCS), see Thirty Years War, see Mercenaries Sierra Leone Thucydides, 14 Sovereignty, 7, 14, 33, 37, 38, 96, Timber, see Natural resources 167, 168 Titanic, 143 Spain, 4, 70n17 Tonkin, Hannah, 7, 10, 125, 126 Spearin, Christopher, 6, 56, 86 Trade, see Economic activity Special Rapporteur, see United Nations Twin Towers attack, 39, 40, 42, 182 Special Rapporteur on the Use of Two-level games, 180 Mercenaries, see United Nations State of Emergency (SoE), 154–156 State weakness, 134 U STTEP, 99, 100, 119–126, 127n7 Uganda Sudan, 8, 14, 70n17, 102, 103, Museveni, 112 104n5, 167, 168 Saleh, Salim, 112, 113 Swiss Initiative, see Montreux Strategy of Extraversion, 99, 112, Document 113, 163 Switzerland, 14, 17, 31, 33, 34, Third country nationals, 109, 179 37–40, 45, 48n21, 49n29, United Nations 50n45, 70n17, 76, 84, 87, 142, Draft Convention, 3, 18, 55–57, 180 63, 64, 67, 68, 76, 97, 169, 172 Iraq, 65 and norms (see Social norms) T Sanctions, 150 Taiping Civil War, see China Special Rapporteur on the Use of Taulbee, James Larry, 12 Mercenaries, 36 Taylor, Charles, 132, 144n2, 167, 168 UNMIL, 134 TCN, see Third Country Nationals United States (US), 7, 14, 18, 21n15, Technology, 2, 4, 19n4, 68, 122, 123, 21n19, 31–33, 35, 38–45, 47n18, 170, 180, 184n4 48n20, 49n34, 49n35, 50n42, INDEX 199

50n47, 56, 60, 64, 68, 70n17, IFIs (and Voluntary Regulation), 78, 81n7, 84, 87, 88, 91n8, 83–91, 163–166 (see also IFC 91n9, 95, 97, 108, 109, 113, Performance Standard 4) 114n1, 114n3, 114n5, 115n17, Voluntary Principles, 164 123, 131, 134–136, 139, 141, 143, 144n5, 153, 157n4, 165, 167, 173n4, 181–183 W UNMIL, see United Nations Weber, Max, 86, 95, 154 Williams, M. C., 2, 4, 102, 133, 150–152, 155, 156, 165, 169, V 182 Van de Walle, Nicolas, 15, 21n20, 98 Wonga coup, see Equatorial Guinea Violent extremism, see Terrorism Woods, N., 8, 10, 20n9, 103n4, Voluntary Principles of Security and 127n6, 138, 140 Human Rights, see Voluntary World Bank, 42, 113, 152, 164 Regulations Voluntary Regulations Best Management Practices Z (development of), 139–141 Zambia, 70n17, 108, 112 New York Declaration, 139–141 Zartman, William, 9, 75, 80, 144n3