Interwar Period, of the Prospectsresolution Decreased

CEU eTD Collection

D ISCOURSES ON THE ISCOURSESON T HE R In partialIn fulfilment ofrequirements the I EPUBLIC THAT NTERWAR Supervisor Nationalism Studies Program Central European University Professor Alexei Miller Budapest, Hungary Christina Rosivack s Master Artsof P : : Professor Submitted to C ERIOD HECHEN 2013 C By

RIED

Maria Kovacs (1996

W Q

fo OLF r the degree of UESTION INTHE

- 1999)

R USSIAN

CEU eTD Collection Ifriendshipyou wouldnotexist, a thesis this beerall owe ofNationalismAnd tothebrave’13 warriors Studies youA special thank who toPatrick Kinville, career. To my family,gratitude allloveand my for methroughoutacademic supporting entire my provokingcritique ofthiswork. Thanks to

Professors Kovacsandfor Maria Miller guidance Alexei theirthought and

patiently readtoomany far oftext. drafts this i

and ‘14, without whose input andand input ‘14,whose without

(and somuch(and more) . ;)

CEU eTD Collection even tothe end interwar period, of the prospectsresolution decreased. opinions for on theChechenremained Still, question varied spheres. failed policies and theNorth Asthese conditions in Caucasushowever, worsened, Chechnya’s formal political statusviasmaller policy initi wereavailable. optedfor Russia approach, aad Nonetheless, more hoctoresolve aiming interwar ofpotential thequestion resolutions ato period, variety relationship between and Grozny. Moscow system structurallyRussia’s federalism,asymmetric complex alsobytheunique but of would betheRussianFederation.Thispicture reintegrated was by notonly into complicated thequestion to solution (1996 - 1999). During this time, time, 1999). During this This thesis will explore will This thesis theperiod andSecondFirst between ChechenWars the

of whethergain ifnot,howit would and independence, Chechnya

Chechnya wereat searching and astandstill, Russia despite g despite Abstract This analysisshowthatat will the ou ii

rowing thematter. on pessimism

atives in the social andatives economic in thesocial of Chechnya’s federal tset ofthe

for afor status CEU eTD Collection REFERENCES APPENDIX CONCLUSION RUSSIAN DISCOURSES O CHECHNYA: AN INTRODU INTRODUCTION Contentsof Table N T T T P R A HE ENDING TO HE OST USSO EWFOUND W IDE S I - MMEDIATE PIRAL S - OVIET C S HECHEN PECTRUM OF

...... D P K C ESSIMISM OWNWARDS HASAVYURT

...... HECHNYA P E OSTWAR

...... NCOUNTERS D

......

ISILLUSIONMENT : :

T D

M J HE OINT ISCOURSE OVING N THE INTERWAR PERIO E : CTION

...... MERGENCE OF A E

B CONOMIC AND T ...... RIEF OWARDS

...... iii ......

......

O ...... VERVIEW ...... W N AR ATIONALISM S

...... ECURITY

...... I ...... NITIATIVES ...... D ......

......

61 60 57 53 46 40 35 27 26 16

6 4 1

CEU eTD Collection http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12657/. 1 evidenced invasionofChe by the covertly undermine precarious hisauthorityinthe region. This failed, balancingact as tolerated toruleChechnya interference Dudayev’s Russian and attempt attempted without to coexistence and between Grozny, Moscow dur yearsNational CongressThe a (OkChN). declaration threefollowing this saw tense sovereignty began independe taking stridestowards independenceto 1994 from 1991 Chechen War understood taking without account into the events inquestion ofRussia Chechnya’swith thepost relationship separatistinterwar movementand had period onRusso Chechen questionasand amilitary obscures onebroa focusingexclusively Chechen bloodyevents onthe narrowly ofthetwo wars definesthe project counter standas astark at attempt conflictsthis a movement andthe thatresulted armed from wasof the USSR widelyregarded process, as apeaceful, diplomatic Chechnya’s secession begin deep scrutiny without be the to understood Chechen Although of thebreakup question. Introduction border. Here is Russia. Here is Chechnya. A cow stands there.Here stands here, Herborder. Hereher Acow head isChechnya. udders, is isRussia.

“EkhoInterv’yu Moskvy /Tsagolov,” /Kim December 9, 1998, - I was talking with Dz with I wastalking

Kim Tsagolov, Deputy Minister ofNationalities Deputyof Tsagolov, Kim Minister theRussianFederation, 1993 there. She The Federation rebuilding ofthecollapse afterthe Russian of the Union Soviet

in Octoberunderof theDzhokhar DudayevtheChechen 1991 leadership and —

that is, therepublic’sthat is, calls secession initial for and its eats grass here, butgiveseats here, milkthere? grass

hokhar Dudayev. I said to him, “This is how you how wanthokhar is Dudayev. “This I saidtohim, it

- example tothe reigning narrative ofnegotiateddivorce. Still,

chnya by Russian troops in autumn of 1994. Still, the chnya troops inautumnof1994.Still, by Russian and 1996to1999 nce as early asnce as declaring 1990,ultimately its 1 ing which theYeltsin simultaneously regime ing

that preceded . Chechnya’s movement radical nationalist

der implications that the pre der implications that the It simply won’t work, Dzhokhar.It simplywon’twork, - Chechen Rather, the relations. - Soviet federationSoviet cannot be

and followedand national periods of periods

- the First separatist ? There’s a de facto - war - ” 1998 cannot

CEU eTD Collection those inpower about the anxious potentialfor one youngsystematized, state. to findan appropriate place for non this reintegrating theunion.Rather,faced into c it lawmakers more the the Chechen ofallowing more situation thanato secede question republic simple the or picture ofcenter the asymmetry inthe interactions com and Moscow. between This therepublics legislation. Becauseagreements these were and region laws meas legalas ade federaloftheextracted forrepublics 1990s,other facto framework much state federation holding varying Chechnya sovereignty. While degreesthe outside of operated federalist natur in presidency ofrebuilding settothe Federation. task Russian the Thisprocess,nominally wereIt unviable entities. by definition grave this thattheYeltsin with was concern inmind peaceful ofthe brokering, demise USS the mentioned above, ofthe most nationalist politics agitation thetime ofthearound thatemergedcollapse Although, of the as Union. Soviet course, vacuum, rather place inapolitical but c take whichWar, lasted theearly into 2000s. providing raised inthe Caucasus. fears war of The inDagestanultimately destabilization escalated, theinvasion Dagestanin 1999,with of facto for independence armistice signed inthe Dagestani villag military First ofthe operations Chechenwhich lasteduntil1996,ended War, withan ures of autonomy from the federal government theuresautonomy federalfrom of by bilateral means of and treaties local The rise of theChechen separatist movement

the impetus for athe impetusfor renewed invasionofChechnya, Second off setting Chechen the - periphery inthe fledglingrelations dealing Federationmade Russian with e, incorporatedasymmetricalapproach, anwith different regions the of

the Chechen of Themajor disruption the this state. next status quocame

Similarly, of the “domino effect”large, thequestion loomed with

by Chechen generalby Chechen Basayev Shamil e ofKhasavy - ethnically R raised broad raised states R multinational fears that large, 2

of period this - successful secession to prompt othersuccessful toprompt secession Russian republicRussian a within poorly oincided with the wave ofnationalistoincided withthe wave urt, resulting in yeturt, resulting in period another of de and its accompanyingand its wars - specific, they in turnreinforced theyspecific, in was withthrough dealt omplex taskomplex ofattempting , which again plicated did not, of did not, CEU eTD Collection Itperiod. that theRussianpolicy demonstrate towards will Chechnyaper inthis the Chechen discourse inRussian throughout questionexisted the interwar of the entirety changingof circumstances Russo late Iam of discourse especiallyinthethis potentialfor over evolution the interested course the of nationalities structure of about came theofrepublics demands because varying non with were independenceas evolve theconflict evolved? itself suggestionamongst receive these voices proposed by va tothe Chechenthe question of solution an institutional were crisis. suggestions What Chechen relations. Chechen questionthrou offered a (following opportunity second that study, setof Russia renewed invasionofChechen territoryfollowinga seriesapartment of throughout bombings was signed, ceasingfighting theformal ChechenFirst ofthe War Chechen Wars forpotential solutions Chechnya Chechen question.Using from theof union asa the federation steptowards dissolution entirely. separatist fatalist ofobservers most saw movements. The departure Chechnya’s potential 1990s

eliminated overcourse the oftime? ignored in favor of the ignored of infavor Ina My focusissues asthey thesiswill onthese develope — nswering these questions, this thesis will show will thesis this thatafornswering variety questions, solving these ofoptions — i.e., whether thediscussionof theChecheni.e., whether changedas aresult question ofthe f

the Second Chechenthe Second . Mype to what extent wasfactorengaged theconversation this within on rious prominent voicesrious prominent inRussia

M yanalysis ofthistimefram riod of focus begin will gh several diplomatic means,diplomatic making it more gutmore

developed developed media sources media - Chechen relations.

War - wrenching yearswrenchingwar of . ? Didthese? plansforor granting reintegration of This period marks anThis period often overlooked Much of theasymmetry federalist ofthe Russian in the period between andin theFirst Second ranging 3 in 1996, the yearin 1996,the Khasavyurt the Agreement , I analyzewill , discourse howtheon Russian

, and what degree of support did each, and did what support degree of e will focuswill on Which optionsWhich lastedand which, ifany,

from 1991to1994)resolvefrom the

crucial of thedevelopment Russo in d inthediscourse Russian onthe . several

Nonetheless, Nonetheless, , and end in1999, , and

major themes

- Russian titular titular Russian these yearsthese iod was subject Chechnya? Chechnya? when a — first,

- CEU eTD Collection Rule 2 mysticism andmany local traditions, arewidely ofwhichpagan inorigin andnot practiced subdiv the Sunja river. and forms fertile themost la Caucasusthe smaller T range,butalso be divided into mountain range Chechen separates ofGeorgia. fromcan territory Chechnya’stopography that mountain rangethe physical provides bounda bounded rivers by Sunja and TerekThe and north, inthewest ‘Andi respectively. the with the Georgian republic formFederation, part ofthe situating Russian Dagestan,Ingushetia, by tothe west by and tothe north ofthese StavropolEach Krai. regions C simply therepublic gainRussia. letting from independence the question, ranging from the Secondpublic Chechen War, that despite increase this in negative onRusso opinions Caucasus,greater thelateryears. in pessimism led to part ofI these Nonetheless, argue will Chechnya’s marked thattheultimate failureofand by Moscow’s ad p hocery

M. Gamme hechnya: An Introduction

the so

(C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2006), 2. (C. Hurst & Publishers, Co. isions) ofisions) Naqshbandiyaand Qad Most Most Chechnya region ofthe isamountainous northeastCaucasus, east bordered tothe by - called “black mountains” and called “black

position inthe federation,with changingposition combinedcircumstances intheNorth r, Chechens practice Sufi Islam,ChechensSufi practice more the specifically (smaller under tarikats The Lone Wolf CenturiesChechenThe of Lone Three andtheBear: Defiance ofRussian

2 highlandand lowlandareas, only theformerbeing the definedby not

nd area thend standing territory, of — hardlinethe republic integration of through armedaggression to to the south

discourse entertained still erek and Sunja mountainchains. lowlandregionerek andThe Sunja iriya. Chechen Islam significantlyiriya. incorporates Chechen

intersected bya flowing varietytributaries from of (see Appendix for(see map) Appendix

ry line withDagestan,while thery Caucasus line Chechnya’s only internationalborder 4

- Chechen even relations, a

between the Sunja mountain rangebetween theSunja

an arrayan of iecemeal approachiecemeal to . Geographically, is it possible possible solutions to to solutions pproaching — that

CEU eTD Collection Press 6 5 Nationalities Papers 4 Press 3 taipa singular identity national Somewhat theSoviet ironically,period, until as population’s continued adherence these asa traditions stood symbol pride, ofnational ratherthan oftherepresentation as a r become a in characteristically largely ceremonial, modern way; tosay, for that is a matter Chechens urban lowlandand in rolerule religion] Chechnya this Soviet [of had during ceremoni However,Lieven Anatoldisagrees assessment thatthepractice Gammer’s with ofthese Chechens thevacuum tofill opportunities left by theabsence particular branc married andthe buried citing from statistics Soviet 1970,whichreport greaterof that Chechens 90percent than thatintimates Chechens preserve policies ofIslam impacted theSoviet period of practice Moshe Gammer theregion. in what ‘Chechen,’ is out, points Radnitz “ tandem clan with structures asa by out Muslims ites of passage, for circumcisions, marriages,ites ofpassage,circumcisions, Lieven for retention burials…” suggests the of

Anatol Lieven,Anatol Gammer, “Look Radnitz, Scott Islamic Talking! Discourse Who’s Lieven,Anatol vainakh, , served as political theprimary , ,

1998), 360. 1998), 363. Another str es meant the continuation of devoutes the continuation practice, meant instead suggesting,“…for many The Lone Wolf andtheBearThe Lone the clan system is amulti is system the clan side theSufiorder hes of Qaddiriyya Islamic ofQaddiriyyahes tradition, knownas Sufi Chechnya Chechnya

iking feature offeatureclan Checheniking society isits intertwined asintertwined thetwoare

it is it difﬁcult toseparate 34, no.2(2006): 244

dead inlin

in Chechnya : Tombstone of Russian Power : Tombstone ofRussian Power : Tombstone ofRussian

means of ordering Chechen ofordering socialmeans life. d their religious practicesd their period, religiousSoviet throughout the

. to doctrines of theto doctrinesfaith of 3 e with Muslim traditions e withMuslim

Similarly, “brotherhood”works the Sufihierarchy in - - national organization of Chechens,national their organization resistance and level, territorial . Well into . Well , 192 – 245.

– what aboutChechenwhat is‘Islamic’ culture .” vainakh 195. 5 4

Scholars disagree towhich ontheextent

the nine

, actually formation precluded the of

socio t . eenth ofitslevels one century, 6 in the Chechen Wars,” in the Chechen

. He special also makes noteof - (New University Haven: Yale (New University Haven: Yale political kinship network.political kinship - of religious formal life based socialbased hierarchy. ta’ifas

In way,as Scott this , which offered .

5 and Known

, the

a CEU eTD Collection Century21st Univers (Philadelphia: 7 command ofmapped forces Russian formally intheCaucasus outastrategy and the annex to came century, AlekseiGeneral intheearly when nineteenth Islamicwar, rooted belief. in Cau against presence Russia’s inthe region.from a withinthe Gaining ofpeoples variety support throughout thea empire, southward, part tension between Chechnya.Between push and and toRussia’s Russia 1791,inresponse 1785 whose reception hostile by peoples Caucasusthe various firstof of moment the the marked taking in1762,the power to take control the reign ofthe CaucasusCatherine were theGreat. putaside until Upon of Crimean Khanate,erectedforttheregion andRussia in efforts first Persia. its 1559,but in theterritoryto move into inthe face possible of incursionRussian the into Caucasus between long twopopulations, outbreak these predatesFirst the ofthein1994. War Chechen Russo period.Soviet 1990s suggests formconsciousness by ofunifiedtheend thatsome national existed of the and persists overarchi efforts Empire theRussian viathis were against conducted

James Hughes,James casus, included, Chechens Mansur characterizedmovement his asa inter - The altercation next betweenmilitary Russian the and residents forces Caucasus of The history Russo of — Chechen Encounters: A Brief Overview national newspaper ng “Chechen” position current president Kadyrov Ramzan identified Chechen bystill is

of the broader strategyof Catherine theGreat the implement direct to rule Chechnya: From Nationalism toJihad From Nationalism Chechnya:

Chechen empress sent a new garrison ofaempressgarrison missionaries new totheCaucasus, sent s byhis -

Chechen andspecifically relations, more the

. 7

Nonetheless, identityclan theimportance although of imam known as Sheikh Mansur ledimam knownas a resistance movement ity Press, ofPennsylvania 2007),3. taipa began as an of exercise the asbegan

affiliati 6

encroachment by Ottoman Empire, the the on — the nationalist movementof theearly , National andEthnic the Conflict in

authority, than from rather an

Petrovich Yermolov took Petrovich Yermolov tsarist empire,

gazawat

historyof clashes many domestic

which sought , or holy

CEU eTD Collection AdvanceWorldRussian the Muslim Towards 11 10 Advance Towards 9 U.K. 8 shaped theentire territorial merged in1934toform together the Chechen Federative (RSFSR). Republic Socialist RepublicsSocialist 1924, however, wasSoviet republic intoseveral the eliminated and divided Autonomous Islamic basedto aconstitution on and customar shari’a local law Nationalities, assured begranted would a ofinternal level high includingtheright autonomy, Union as Mountain theSoviet Republic, which Josephthen People’s for Stalin, Commissar conductedformal a alliance in1918. such major as powers Germany,Austria North enjoyed CaucasianFederation independencefrom gaining Russia, recognitionfrom the North Caucasus,as theChechnya territorynowknown1918 From included. by themountaineers present place 1864.The 1817to whichterritory War, duringlasted theCaucasian from thatmakes up gazawat famousthe most resistance century,Imamagain leadernineteenth of led the a Shamil, Gamzat Sheikh Mansur spranginthe Caucasus Two up region. Interritory.

Abdurakhman andBroxup, Marie Avtorkhanov B. Dunlop, John

Abdurakhman andBroxup, Marie Avtorkhanov Ibid ; New ; York:U Cambridge ,154. - The theBolshevik cameWith Revolution a moment of brief - day Chechnya was annexedof inthewas middle day theconflict t Chechnya 1859,despite in

Bek, led the populations inseveralBek, thepopulations semi led movement against encroaching Theseof resistance twoperiods troops. Russian took

Soviet nationalitiesSoviet policies response to this new tothis response policy,resistance tothe movements one similar ledby

Russia Russia ChechnyaConfronts the Muslim World the Muslim

(ASSRs) to prevent

structure of the USSR, impactingstructure USSR, ethnic R ofthe thelivesof both , which were to be subsumed within theRussian, which within were tobesubsumed Soviet

such absorption oftheirsuch territoryabsorption theempire. into niversity Press 9

(New York: St. Martin’sSt. Press(New York:

In the 1921,therepublic was assumed into

11 - that influencedChechen this Hungary, andthe state Turkey, Hungary, withwhom

Later,and ne Chechnya

- (New York: Martin’s Press St. (New 7 : Roots of a Separatist Conflict aSeparatist : Rootsof Ingush ASSR. Ingush ASSR.

, -

successful raids on Russian forces. Russian on successfulLater, raids 1998), 12,15,24,29. The North Caucasus Barrier Caucasus The North The North Caucasus Caucasus The North local imams,

formal y as known law, ighboring Ingushetia ighboring were ,

Kazi Mullah andKazi Mullah - 1992), 152. Ingush ASSR

self Barrier - rule for muchoffor rule ,

1992), 156. : the Russian : the

(Cambridge, 8

to 1921,a

Soviet Soviet adat

he attempts

in fact . 10 ussians

CEU eTD Collection 14 Press Nation 13 the Soviet Union,1923 12 ethnoterritorialof theSoviet Unionservedas structurea“masking tothe Marxist ideology” policy they barelyfocusing existed,” onthenation which “set tosystematically out non and its build strengthen work,the Soviet Unio Martin argues that preservation a system andeffects its Martin indicate a inadifferent trend show direction, be consistentother with enacted repressive under measures Ronald Stalin, Suny and Terry the Republic, AutonomousSoviet furtherRepublics into Socialist subdivided Several SSRs, including ofthe Soviet notablyFederative larger theRussian most Socialist republics (Soviet Socia broken hierarchy autonomies, down intoalayered withthefifteen ofterritorial union throughout(although was evolution ofthe the lifespan state),USSR to Soviet subject the to membersgroup ofthe titular land along lines ofnationality,giving(usually) the control ofthese ethnically MoreRussia. specifically,policy theSoviet nationalities of territorySoviet the most left feature ofthe long Empire, Russian rule, predatingSoviet the structuressetuptodivide and members of non

Terry andRonald GrigorDean) Martin (Terry Suny, Ibid, 19. Terry Dean) (Terry Martin, Chechen ,

. 2001), 6. - 14 Although War Cold making theAge in andStalin ofLenin

Such an approach

- Ingush was one. ASSR nd transformation, both nation both nd transformation,

- Russian nationalities.Russian Although characteristic multinationalitya was

have - list Republics, SSRs) comprising Republics,SSRs) list autonomy. thehighest level of 1939

- revealed“paradigm a shift” to“…a by claims thatthenationalism extension underlying the era scholarship suggested that this policy this era suggested scholarship that was simply thought to

determinant footprintonthe nati (Ithaca: CornellUniversity Press

The Affirmative Action Empire . Accordingpolicy,. tothe initiallyin1918 formalized 12

n was theworld’s firstaction “affirmative empire,” - producing capacityproducing of - making and nation

(Oxford 8

ing that renewed efforts to examine the ing toexamine efforts thatrenewed ; New Oxford University ; York: A State of korenizatsiia - : Nations and Nationalism in Nationalism and : Nations Russian nations,Russian even where onalities inpost question ,

2001 dialectical narrative dialectical of - destroying. Nations Soviet nationalitiesSoviet ) , 31

- organized Soviet : Empire and

32 (ASSRs) ” .

13 - defined regions defined regions

Inown his , ofwhich - Soviet Soviet the - CEU eTD Collection 1994): 47,doi:10.2307/657812. Eurasia:InstitutionalistSoviet Account,” An 18 17 Soviet Union 16 the Soviet Union,1923 15 certainly could be not determinedby similarly placeInwa residence. of this wasstate jurisdiction “nations”. applied political based Rather, butnationality onterritory, republi adds Unionwas that, although nominally theSoviet ethnoterritorial organized inan manner, continue toshape and inthe incipientsuccessor states.” structure thenational question nationhood… theme thepost into national groupingsand reinforcement identity.this ofBrubaker national extends Rogers postulates thatthe structure ofthe society. differences thateach Regardlessinthese ofthe approaches,what notable is is larger, future construct aset ofnon broader Soviet state which non assimilation”, endwhat “double product insteadHirsch terms was predicted and wouldultimately nationalization thatmodernization giveto socialism),the way identity. state could modernize nationa political programthis tobring about “state was conscious society Leninist ofan class ofeliminating aim nationalinternationalized, inpursuit loyalties

RogersBrubaker, and“Nationhood Question Unio the National inthe Soviet Francine Hirsch, TerryDean (Terry Ibid., 14 can boundaries did notandcould perfectlycan not with those coincide ascribed boundariesdid tosub 16

- Although historical attemptfell with theMarxist timeline this inline (which – Russians wereRussians incorporated bothnationalcategories simultaneously into and 15.

- (Ithaca, Cornell University N.Y.: Press not only play seeking projectofintegratingseeking categories theSoviet stateand national into

. 15 - Empire ofNations Empire .

Soviet period,Soviet “[i] arguing that 17 Francine view, Hirsch this arguing of tempers intention rather thatthe ) Martin, ) Martin, -

Russian nationalRussian groups, but In way, this approach Soviet notexclusively tonationhooddid the - 1939 ed a major role a state,but inthe majordisintegrationed of theSoviet

(Ithaca: CornellUniversity Press l groups byofthepolitico means consolidation oftheir

The Affirmative Action Empire

Soviet Union proved instrumental inthe Unionproved crystallizationofSoviet : Ethnographic Knowledge & : Ethnographic Knowledge the theMakingof Theory and Society 9 -

sponsored evolutionism”, by evolutionism”, sponsored Soviet which the nstitutional instead inconjunction withits didso ,

2005), 9. : Nations and Nationalism in Nationalism and : Nations ized definitionsized of ,

2001), 4

23, no. 1 (February23, no.1 1,

a process dialectic by – 5.

y, thealready n and Post - - n 18 ational

the the He - - CEU eTD Collection (Harvard University 2001),94. Press, 20 19 Ingushfamilies,door moving ordered start ofthe and the operation, troopsimmediately beganroundingup Chechen and wereclearing outofth dubbed “ Lavrentiyin 1944. head Beria, at began operation, the ofthetime, NKVD planning this the Chechen period inthis was people the majoritywhom were Chechen. of II War World deemed “counter such actions as a1925goalof military campaignwhosewas Chechens todisarm bands IngushChechenshad These previouslymanifest included. been and suspicionsthrough made culmination ofthecenter growingtowards the suspicions of severa experiencegroupduring Thisdeportation ofthis theSovietcan period. be as viewed a identifications. Chechens a self towards national nationalitiesSoviet policies and therealitiesand ofdeportations return with theparallel time, Prior tothis forces ofindividual clanand identification consciousness broad identity ethnic amongstNorth thevarious groups oftheCaucasus, theChechens. including territorial ones as well. fluidity along duringcollapseand, state, boundaries, on Soviet both ethnicof the the lines, of picturecomplex ofmultinationality inthe post

Norman M.Naimark, Ibid, 55. other Caucasian peoplesany superseded of mountain identity. Chechen sense national The massdeportationChechensa offocal 1944forms in thecollective in point The nationalities polici Chechevitsa

, it hadit

- revolutionary”. record Similarly, NKVD

eliminated ”, or “Lentil”,”,1943, as or inJanuarythelastof of theWehrmacht troops

e NorthFebruarye Caucasus. 23 On 19

Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Fires ofHatred: Ethnic Cleansing -

to es

963 gangs in the North17,563 members,963 gangs Caucasus, inthe totaling - - door announcing their mandatorydoor The departure. announcing entire of the Soviet period understandingeschewed previouslyof infavor 20

without doubt the deportationentire of doubt the population without

Nonetheless, the largest directedtowards campaign 10 - Soviet spaceSoviet complicated by further was the

spurred the rd s indicate that,

and 24 Twentienth solidification th l of its peripheryl ofits settlers,

ofyear, thesame Beria ultimately pushed - as ofthe startas of century Europe

of national of national other

CEU eTD Collection 25 24 23 22 21 programs oftheSoviet state,which the policies enacted by hand withthe semi as toMoscow’s anunwelcome counterpart authority. autonomy and deep “unquestionably theside ofa Moscow”. thornin consolidation ofChechnya consolidation ofthe Chechen had been i suggestsalternative consistent with an thestrengthening motivation, R ofthe large IngushChechens and of the RedArmyGermans. by the side of occupiers,behind thefascist joining the lines theranksofdiversionaries and spies left I accused Chechens and the included, butar IngushChechens were and nottheother onlygroups deportedperiod; during this peoples collaborated soldiers du with Nazi wereand for Kazakhstan Kirghizia to resettlement. sent populations,

Naimark, Martin, Ibid., 95. Ibid., 94. Ibid., 93 - scale collaboration by Nazi soldiers. collaborationpopulationswith scale these Moscow thedeportation explained questionhaving thepopulations in as aresponse to n progress from the earlyn progress from as 1930s,which, The Affirmative Action Empire –

96. Fires ofHatred totaling 496,460people,

e not limited toCrimeane Tatars notlimited -

successful resistance theIngushsuccessful many Chechento and of populations of familial ties a ties familial yetthe German nothingfor suggests 1942, invasionin any examined the Soviet center. - ngush of being “…ngush of Ingushetia,Naimarkcharacterizes theCheche , 95. -

Ingush ASSR in1934.IngushASSR

nd clan leadership, thoughnd clan leadership, not ” ringcourseof thewar.(It the worththat is noting 22 made it especially it torecruitmade difficult me

Although evidenceAlthough suggests some support barring , 409. Chechnya

11 only traitors tothehomeland,traitors changing tothe over

and Kalmyks).justification and The official

a few in Hecultural cites theirstrong and - Ingushetiaresisted many modernization 24

Terry notes Martin These regionalThese structures went handin

D 21 espite successful nominal this

dividuals whomanaged toescape

trait 23

Norman NaimarkNorman s

exclusive toChechnya,exclusive , included ns and Ingush and asns mbers ofthe ussian core that amongst

the religious , CEU eTD Collection 30 29 the USSR 28 27 26 worth thefirst not noting in was thatthis includingfromOssetians, the Dagestani neighboringprimarily regions, Ingushetia in inorder industrialization the region. topromote Ingush Moscow inexile, pushed lived o unifying ofrepatriation. example, forces, theprocess theChechen for including, While one based to work towards pr duringWar First Chechen the Lievennationhood. Anatol isoneclaiming such adherent, conducted oninterviews based deportation wasformativ a people the rest or throughout more) ofKazakhs southeastern oftenrepresentative oblastsofKazakhstan, forming colonies five thousand (of members o specialKazakhstan this and Still, Kirghizia. settlements, removed the from population,althoughalso amongst lived some of theresidents “spetzrezhim” (specialthese many regime).As of such, epidemic. Theweregiven deportees the years, thefirstwithin three manyCentral Asia to onthejourney deathsAlthough died individuals indicate vary, thenumbers records that of NKVD 100,000 Moscowthe region had controlling nationalitiestitular

Gammer, Gammer, Lieven, Ibid.

Life proved inexile trying

(Central 190. University Press, 2004), European Chechn on disparate clan loyaltieson disparateclan f these populations The Lone Wolf andtheBearThe Lone Wolf andtheBearThe Lone an, Against Their Will: in Migrations Their GeographyAgainst and TheHistory ofForced ya

eservation of their traditions,thusreinforcingeservation a unifiedidentity ratherthan to work , 1998, 321. , 1998,

e experience,contributing Chechen tothe consolidation of forGrozny theoilindustry in

that this collectivethat this tragedy for provided Chechens the impetus 27

Chechens settled most oftenChechens most inKirghizia several and settled

for theIngush deportedChechenandfor populatio . 26 . 29

Nonetheless, it is important to reflect to isimportant it Nonetheless, onother ther citizens ofthe citizens unionto ther status of“spetsposelentsy” , 180 , 176. - migration ofnon

status onthe movements meant limits of – 12

181. tan

. 28

Some authorsSome argue life in that individuals , again reinforcing, again thetrouble - Chechens to the region. In theregion.Chechens to the 30

New settlers largely came ,

from and a starvation typhus

(special settlers) a within (special were placed in settle inChechnya ,

and Russians. Russians. and ns special special . - s and s It is CEU eTD Collection 35 34 33 32 31 border. T conjunction the with barriersand theChechen were toresettlement lifted, Ingushallow 17,000Chechen year, and families tobeBy repatriated. theend all of this legal Ingush,right camereturn the but on of denounced and removedrestrictive specialexiled Chechens thedeportations status of and illegallyyear.North returning Caucasus tothe this 1956secret in Khrushchev’s speech death thebeginning 1953brought it in with repatr ofthe IngushChechen necessarily nationswithout and eliminatingtheir peoples.” describes “ thesituation, replaced ethnicname,stripped itofits butalso regimea had renamed the tha proportion with was lower, even Chechen places, werein most losses 40%of residents; population by replaced new in population losses residents include more predominantly settled regions by Russians. 1926, increasingwhenChechen thebordersof in 1934the the region. tsarist period, R

Dunlop, Dunlop, Ibid., 98Ibid., Naimark, t had existed prior t hadexisted an, -

any signifiers Chechen markersofRussian the language with wo traditionally Cossack raions, whichhadwo traditionally andShelkovskii, Naurskii been part and the Ingush ASSR, nowknownIngush ASSR, – Russia ConfrontsRussia Chechnya ConfrontsRussia Chechnya This population madeThis population uponly of 2.9% Against Their WillAgainst 99. F ires ofHatredires

ussians migratedas part toChechnya o initial effortsinitial atresettleme the ASSR

reestablishment of the republic came an adjustment of its northern ofreestablishment came its therepublic an adjustmentof . 32

Inordertraces torid settlers, theof region Stalin’s previous ofits Stalin andBeria’sgoalStalin utonomous republicutonomous “Groznenskaya oblast’

, 98., had

, 159.

incurred. estimates Average only

as “Groznenskayathis oblast’”, 1945, by May 10,200 new households taking 28,375 theplace10,200 new ofthe decreased its autonomous status. Thedecreased autonomousstatus. regime also its ly in 1957, when consented theSoviet government in1957,to ly , 1998,73. , 1998,34,37 nt 13 during thedeportation —

as bestwe tell can the Chechen - – Ingush was reestablished. ASSR 38. f

iation process, with a few settlers iation process,with the building up of theoilindustrythe building upof 31

Still Ingush ASSR wereIngushexpandedASSR to for deported areasfor that deported suggest , the Autonomous Oblastas of Autonomous — presence ofthese failed to recoupfailed the ” , which notonly, which . was to destroywas the 33

As Naimark aptly 34

the former

Still, Still, Stalin’s 35

In of i n CEU eTD Collection University CaliforniaPress of 38 37 36 deportationthe ChechenHe and of writes, return population. 1980s employed onlyfewworkers, staffed a hundred 50,000 two largest companies petrochemical of theregion, Grozneft which and Orgsynthez, sectors. lasted divide Numbersthatthis suggest “indigenous” generally professions those often, inthe agricultural consisted of and criminal infrastructure sector.areas Whereas urban (mostly and positions industrial inthe s betweengroups continued,“curious national as these a did inthe industrial ethnic divide” Theseheadwh clashescametoa inAugust of1958, returning settlerswhohad and tothe territory come the those deportatio during thetime of IngushChechens theurban in the andCaucasus North inclashes centers resulted between of areas toin strategic settlements thehighlandsanas in effort topopu well as in preventingproduction “rebellious” inthe hopes of theperceived from mountaineers regaining allowedprevious to return homes; totheir the Caucasus balancefurth Stavropol K

Valeriĭ Aleksandrovich Gammer, Ibid., 186 . 38 Did it constructDid it anew of bitter form identityexperience or the around ofdeportation, Chechens…Thethe exact is impact ofthe identity? question deportation onChechen eventreinforcement forofa the Cheche living“Theis within memory which deportation, many for was defining a Chechens, HughesJames associated well summarizes theopen the questions withboth Despiteconstraints theabsence theprocess onresettlement, oflegalreturning to of

crease thel . rai, were tothe added Chechen The Lone Wolf andtheBearThe Lone

er in faver in , was fraught withhardships. fraught was

and vital services) wereand by largely vital services)region, occupied the in Russians or of Russian speakersor of abor forceabor and spur

Tishkov, ,

2004), 41. Chechnya , 187.

on the First, many resettled Chechens and IngushFirst, many Chechens resettled and not were the Soviet centerareasresettled them in of - Ingush ASSR, thus tipping thus Ingush ASSR, thedemographic . 36 14 : Life in a War ina : Life

n identity for both Russians and bothRussians for n identity

well beyond the of theperiod repatriation; region’s production oil

en riots broke out in Grozny.en riotsbroke outin

Chechen and IngushChechen and

- torn Society late Grozny’s industrial ectors of engineering,ectors oil, . 37

The resettlement of

as ofthe late (Berkeley: Hostilities Hostilities n. CEU eTD Collection 41 40 Pennsylvania Press 39 Chechnya Inguswhich the reality This Russians. becameof a part thecause of massdemonstration in1973,during Ingush rolesremained didoccupy ingovernment, positions ASSR inthe hands key of the r within positions state following seems have to Chechens official thedeportation regardedthenumbersin of 308,985. grew whilet by 20%,734,501, tototal ( from Centralout Asia and Russian even tothesimultaneous pr more marked,thanks madeindividuals about uponly the shiftwasBy 30%of theterritory’s 1989, population. large industry ofthe tothe oil expansion Soviet part byset of at time, this 1979,this ( decrease oftheregion. population in Russians inthe proportional in1959,Slavs Whereas notable most inthewayshows little nationalist discord inChechnya of Sov during thelate Hughes’ oflate description obratnichestvo mostlyup approximately made Russians) thepopulati half of

James Hughes,James Ibid. Ibid.

One between ofcontention important point Soviet theChechen populationandthe 1980s…Chechen was alate nationalism developer.” violence orresistance. during Gorbachev’s Even the return deportees…seems of resulted have theChechen acts to innosignificant of Rather a‘propensity’was thanexhibit theimpact ofidentitymanifested? forviolence, reconstructdid it identity a traditional around the 41 -

Ingushetia, theChechenagitated while for representation population more

features thisperiod include demographic shifts,more of specifically thedrastic ) h population of the ASSR pushed for ofthe ASSR of inclusion thePrigorodnyih population in raion . 40 Chechnya

, More ten this specifically, within

2007), epublic.

- 10 : from Nationalism to : fromNationalism Jihad blooming reflected nationalism is record,which inthehistorical

Althoughof membersthetitular nationalities ofthe Chechen

- 11.

- migration from themigration region,as “return” referred from to he ethnic population decreased Slav 11.8% tonumber 15

ocessesremigrationChechen of by families - year population theChechen period,

liberalization of themid idea Howresistance ofa toRussia?

(Philadelphia: University of 39

on of Chechnya, in likely due

iet p - eriod. The

in - CEU eTD Collection Federal Studies 45 44 43 42 writes, “ Hughes asapplied question characterizes it this particularly case tothe when Soviet he unsustainable Federation Russian and thatthe wa Yugoslavia, and that theSoviet Unionitself, multinational by federations were definition particularly given widespread difficult fea RepublicaSocialist into new state entity,Federation. theRussian seemed Thistask the gargantuan ofreforming theregion task formerlykno perspective center of Federation, nowaFroma sovereignstatethe ratherbedrocklargerunion. of thanthe Post scale culture the city ofGudermes aspromotion Chechen in1988, well of as apush language for and environmentally duringprompt nationalist mobilization theSoviet period. Rather, with coincided it Chechen Grozny 1989,whenGudermes.Until DokuZavgayev and ethnic no assumed thepost, ofthe citypositions committees party of67% cities, including ofall bothmajor cities, continued to government posts

James Hughes,James intheFederation,” Russian Potential “Managing Secession Hughes, Lieven, Lieven, , -

Soviet Chechnya: The nationally

The collapse Unionmarked Soviet inthe ofshapingpoint the a Russian crucial ofthe in the public sphere The survival of Russia asRussia afederalThe of survival themore given stateseemsall unusual that it

had served as first se ashad first served Chechnya Chechnya Chechnya

hold

- - 11, no.3(2001): 36,do oriented secessionist movement. oriented driven protests, including one against thebuilding includingdrivenagainst protests, ofa one biochemical plant

. the majority the in positions ofkey republic, secretary first including 42

, 1998, 56. , 1998, 56. , 1998, Nonetheless, researchNonetheless, data1985 from on - , 2007, 13. , 2007, periphery organization, theregimeperiphery

. 44

Only ofa later movementsfull didthese growtothepoint cretaryASSR ofthe

Emergence of Nationalism i:10.1080/714004707. r, in light ofther, inlight cases Czechoslovakia, of 16

s doomedtosimilarcollapse s

. 43

Nonetheless, agitationdidnot this under President Boris Yeltsinfaced Presidentunder wn as the Russian Soviet Federative Soviet Russian wn as the -

1986 shows that Russians 1986 showsthatRussians

Regional &Regional . 45

James James - in

CEU eTD Collection Security 48 154. Stephen White, 47 46 Union collapsed and power Yeltsinin late 1991 took the over Federation,he Russian and his thus encouraged each to“ republic legislationBythis as contrast,Yeltsinsaw state anopportunity and Soviet toundermine the markedattempt by an inthe face opinion Gorbachev public tosalvage reforms. ofunpopular GorbachevMikhail Boris o Law and the Yeltsin.ThepassageApril 1990 of declarations were spurred it on by exacerbated thepolitical only maneuvering ofboth system The decentralizing ofterritorial administration. effects thesovereignty and ofthelaw sovereign status, rejecting previously afforded thesubordination hierarchical Sovie by the autonomous republics Federative theSoviet Russian within Republicasserted Socialist their the unionas awhole in direct republics, subordinationtounion than rather offering sovereignty them derivedfrom aUSSR,” conceptual from the previous republics shift hierarchy,which placed autonomous lawright). this d specifically, More (inpracticerightguaranteed by Constitution allegedly onlya 76of Article theSoviet paper regime.articulated Thislaw further oftherepublics Uniontosecede, the Soviet a right of Lawcomplicated by Seces even1990 further theApril on a populationof142millionfrom citizens 18 different in To putit themanagement terms, o generalweakening and stateeconomictransition dysfunction during ofthe political and huge ethnicity territorialized administrative size, districts, together incomplex with the manyexhibits characteristics ofthe tothe collaps that contributed

CameronFederation”, “Reforming Ross, the in Hughes, Gail W. Lapidus, W. Gail

The Federation transition UniontoRussian from ethnoterritorialSoviet was

23, no. 123, (July no. 1,1998): 12, doi:10.1162/isec.2 Chechnya Developments Politics Russian in 7 “ . Contested Sovereignty: The TragedyChechnya, of

, 2007, 36. , 2007, The legislationreleasedThe aduring “parade sovereignties”, the of which

take all the eclared autonomous republicseclared tobe autonomous “subjectsofthe 2 nationalities, feat nosmall

17 f this multicultural statemeant multicultural accommodatingf this sovereignty

Henry E.Hale,Richard Sakwa, and

(Durham:University Duke Press sion 3.1.5. youcan swallow”. passed under theGorbachevpassed under

e of the Soviet Union: its Union:its e ofthe Soviet . 47 ”

International International n Secession 48

As the Soviet ,

2010), . ” 46 t

CEU eTD Collection Universit Studies, Intergovernmental Relations,and Queen’s University ofPolicy(Kingston,Ont ) School 51 50 49 oftheasintegrated RSFSR republics the Federation. intheRussian ASSRs former (It shoul republics. inclinationmanifested1992Federal This itself inthe formally Treaty,which towa position Secession. sought BecauseRussia’s Yeltsin the supportof Law ofdeviation power from 1990 theto devolution periphery enacted by theApril on first ofthese stages te is terms, identifying designregime. ofinstitutional Yeltsin threestages implemented by the The in order t in asystemyet“asymmetric federalism”, of designation but this again, requires clarification federal BroadlyYeltsin’s structure project speaking,refederalization period. inthis resulted beclarifrom must 1999,butit 1991to constituent units shared andregional institutions common rule self through unitary two(orgov more) are systems,there levelsof of political thesingle which,by organization…in contrast ofauthority central in to source federalized state Russian Iwill reverse“parade theeffects ofthe resulting ofsovereignties”, inthe asymmetrically Yeltsin government engagedwith the restructuringattempted ofthe to state, Russian it the question of reconstructing theunio advisors initiallyfocused onimplementing an aggressive toa shift marketeconomy, leaving

Ronald LampmanRonald Queen’sInstitute(Kingston,Ont ) University of Watts, Hughes, Lapidus,“Contes James HughesJames the progression describesproject ofrefederalization this temporal in L.Ronald federations defines Watts as “descriptive terms toparticular applying forms Comparing FederalComparing Systems o accountspecificsthe for case. Russian the of y by McGill Chechnya rds the federala amongst highallowed structure ofautonomy for level these . ” 51 ted Sovereignty,” 11.

This definition canThis definition theRussianFederationasexisted be it applied to , 2007, 40. , 2007, -

Queen’s 2008),6 University Press, rmed by asymmetricrmed and “ethnified federalism” Hughes marks little

describe shortly.

(Published for the School of Policy Studies, Queen’s the School ofPolicy for (Published Studies, n momentari fied to account forfied thespecificitiesof toaccount thecountry’s

18 50

ly onthebackburner ernment combining thus of elements

– - 7. rule for the governmentsforrule the ofthe ethnic republics,

. 49

Later, when the

his initial his initial d CEU eTD Collection 1995 53 52 takeLapidus place onDecemberwrites12, 1993.AsGail matter, onthis andnew determined parliamentary and thatboth elections a constitutionalreferendum would parliament. temporally attempt toconsolidate power hisstandoffand withYeltsin’s inMoscowend goods seen was by protestas to what favoritism Yeltsin. bilateral ofwith other treatiesregions, consumer export stopping agricultural and and the counterparts. went Some asfaras revenues withholding from tax negotiating the center, Russian government. phase”described“honeymoon consensus The of had above as disintegrated, a larger program determine theseparation to of powers within thefederal Russian and parliament.question of theRussian During refederalizationst the time, this lasted from March1992toOctoberanddefined was between 1993by thestandoff Yeltsin autonomypresident, little with tospeak finance controland over landnaturalresources,significant and autonomy inmatters ordinarilyreserved central for governments, including autonomousdistricts. regionsThetwenty“ethnic” and republics retained many powers federation: “ethnic” titular republics, Russian largely thestate,players established onhowthree of toinstitutionalize te tiers part ofconsensus the“honeymoonpower what calls Hughes amongst period” political be notedthat Chechnya

Gail Warshofsky Lapidus,Gail Warshofsky Hughes, ), 96. . longer of itslaws and engage inanendless tolerate violations process ofbilateral the political no thecenter crisisimplied, inMoscow hadwould he resolved, been Ineffect, Yeltsin was throwi The by second elaborated federalism. stage thatof period is symmetric This Hughes - 52 dominated began regions th todemandlevelautonomyas thesame of

Regions,by contrast, were subsumed directly the of under central power the Chechnya What followedWhat was , 2007, 41. , 2007,

- Ingushetiaand Tatarstan agreement.) refused this tosign The treaty, The NewRussia: Troubled Transformation

the October Crisis, duringYeltsin parliament dissolved the October which Crisis, nggauntletNow downthe that political therepublics. to of.

- populated regions, and smaller “ethnic”populatedand regions,

the ability to draft constitutions, the abilitytodraft constitutions, 53

This agitation coincided rritories within the within rritories

(Westview Press,

of budgets and eir “ethnic” ood as part of CEU eTD Collection 7 Politics Russian 57 56 55 54 ratification of the1993C the local in constitutions oftheprovisions treaty the and Federation effect, Treaty, indicatingwasin thatit still contradictory despite themutually document. assertion betemperedofthe of must triumph circumstances the text from discernible not by reclaiming offederal powers, ofmany inthecontext such presidential a integration, C federalismRussian under Yeltsin. notes thatal Ross andGordonRoss Hahn engage heavily period, withthis as viewing it characteristic of asymmetricwhich federalism”, followe shifted towards the center. autonomous republics were sum federalto equalize thestatusof all any references subjects, of to“sovereign” status centerremained the despite difference this thedefiningfeatures in o which were ethnically definedand were 57of determinedby which territory. Nonetheless, It declaredFederation” tobemade subjects, federation (Article 5).of equal upof32 this 89 symmetric withallrepublics fashion, and considered“equal regions su Because of t thisshift, onstitution was largelyonstitution viewed as

CameronFederation”, “Reforming Ross, the in Hughes, Ibid., 44. Ibid., 100. Hughes labels inthe thefinaldevelopmentofRussia’s “partial refederalization stage earnings, revenue, and tax property. subsidies negotiations thee each with of

Chechnya

irst, Ross notes thatthe 1993C irst, Ross , 156.

overarching theme of the 1993 C the theme1993 overarching of , 2007, 42 , 2007,

he 1993C he

period of between theFederation Treaty theenactment an onstitution. Many assertedonstitution. that the constitutions republics such 55

– new constitution marilyof power indicatinghad dropped, thatthebalance 43. onstitution declaredonstitution ina be thatRussia federalized

a political victoryafor political Yeltsin ighty d theratification of the1993C - nine subjects of thefederation subjectsexport over nine onsti 20 f these regions, symmetry in relations regions,f these tothe symmetry in .

57 tution references made explicit tothe1992 Hale, Sakwa, and Sakwa,Hale, White,

Similarly, had passed republics several though thepassage1993 ofthe 54 onstitution. Inonstitution. keeping attempt withthis

as sign it onstitution. bjects oftheRussian bjects aled hissuccessfulaled Developments in 56 d the

Cameron decisive CEU eTD Collection 60 Press Stephen White, 59 58 ratification,continue regions symmetricalthe federal structure s of measuresas such these agreements were broughton thelevel aboutexclusively ofelites, incorporating no regions agreements conducted thefederal of similar with thatmost notesalso state.Hahn “associated” and withRussia direc Februarythe republic’sstatus. Tatarstan 1994declaring itselfas sovereign affirmed merely especially stance thecenter, negotiationswith strong regional inits concluding a in treaty conducted and between regional Moscow governmen the constitutional law declaringregions treaties equality andthe amongst individual compre separatismresponse andlargely a toimmediate politica approachrefederalization “ad andan part hoc”, effort toofcontain to communalism federalism”. terms of thefederal throughagreements, bilateral a structure pract between clausegave This regimewhich themselves. toalter theYeltsin a by the mechanism grantedArticle 78 thefederalandpowers regional center the totransfer powers ability procedures powerregulating for weakened clauses contained its it onsymmetricalnoenumeration federalism. First, of legal constitutio “retained” their astaking and sovereignty precedenceover themselves declared any federal

Gordo Ibid., 154. Ibid., 157. ,

2005), 148. hensive, futurehensive, Hahn also themeasures engagesregions withthe with taken by individual tamper to contractGordonexplores this Hahn morecalling deeply, federalism Yeltsin’s n Hahn, “ReformingFederation”,n Hahn, the in n. Inn. 58

addition, the text ofthe 1993C addition, the text Developments Politics Russian in 6

referenda to measure how much popular tomeasurereferenda much support they had. how

- seeking policy seeking d to pass local legislation that stood inconflict thatstood d topasslocal legislation withits

- sharing betweenand federalsharing regional governments. tly a of tly subject ystem.following Even the1993C . 59

He thediscrepancies highlights between theletter of 21 onstitution itself that contained provisions

Zvi Y.Gitelman,Richard Sakwa, and international law. Following law.international 45other suit, , 6thed.(Durham, Duke University NC: ts. For example,Tatarstan tookan l circumstances than a rather ice Ross terms “contractice Ross onstitution’s onstitution’s 60

Second, CEU eTD Collection 65 Security 64 U.K. 63 62 61 widelya farce,notonly as viewed voting fraught with irregularities butalsomarked by the October 27 the approaching 6 November Ingushetia. Parliament replaced Supreme Council,settogovern was by a until Provisional resignationZa of Doku ofParliament of Septemberthedissolution 1991.Thisaction in prompted Parliament andthe auspicesDudayev, Soviet ofDzhokharformer general whostormed the Chechen of carryingcontractual relations witheach“unions ofthese outofstates”. Ingush fromand though tobeseparate theRSFSR, boththe USSR capable ASSR nonetheless identity). nodtowardsdiscreterepublic national an serious Chechen (the institutionalized first yearNovember same ofthe All outside thenegotiations.LawInresponse 1990 thenewly totheApril onSecession, formed a standingarm regions powersincluding grabcenter, fromcases to insome theability extensive the tobui other legal the r adopted acts at ofviolation thecon and chartersconstitutions ofRussia’s 89regions republics and had pronounced been tobein Hahn“Asprovisions. out, ofpower of points assumption Putin’s in2000,62of the

Dunlop, Lapidus, Gail W. Sover “Contested B. Dunlop, John Ibid., 155. Ibid. - National Cheche Congress of Moving forward, the C ; New ; York:University Press Cambridge

Meanwhile, offederalization largely unraveled, Chechnya as process remained this

23, no. 1 (July 1, 1998): 12,doi:10.2307/2539261. 23, no.1(July 1, 63

Russia ConfrontsRussia Chechnya th

Ina more

ofyear, thesame theelection with Dudayev was emergingvictorious.Although yengage and policy inforeign Russia Russia ChechnyaConfronts stitution, ofthousands togetherregional of with some laws 6,000 and tens

explicitly political move, thecongress alsodeclaredChechen the vgayev, first party secretary partyofin Chechnya theCommunist hechen national movement gained national largely momentum movementhechen theunder declared thesovereigntydeclared ofthe over Chechen people the Chechen th

parliamentary elections. egional and level.” subregional n People eignty: Tragedy ofChechnya,” The , 1998,105.

took the exampleofthe Baltic andtook the states . 22 62 : Roots of a Separatist Conflict aSeparatist : Rootsof

1998), 91.

A presidentialtook place vote on

These laws for allowed 64 International International

(Cambridge, - Ingush in - - ld CEU eTD Collection Rule Russian 69 in the Former Soviet Union 68 67 66 region.combined These withDudayev’s measures, inability infrastructure todevelop within Moscowtime, imposed a trade tothe blockade onChechnyaand central cut subsidies off republic, butsimultaneously didli duringas thecenter, expected, didnotrecognize which thedeclared ofthis secession Chechnya’s nominalindependencefrom theRussian Federation inafrozen resulted situation, Boris Dudayev, enga YeltsinandDzhokhar the first conflict brief sovereignty. phase ofarmed over Chechen pressureexerted by M which unclear). residents ofChechnya remains infactparticipated noted, however, marred that considerableirregularities voting and process, this thatdata on referendum with 97.4% time, of atthis independence and the in Freedommain squareGrozny, supportofdeclared thetheir Square, ofnewly in quicklyChechen pushed by back na Chechnyainvasion into In forces. byface whichwasSoviet ofthistroop movement, the intothe ChechenRule grab, a Yeltsin Boris issued presidential genuinely Dudayev at time. this support nonetheless thatanywhere suggests 70percentChechnya between voters 60and in did of absence participationbyIngush of either orRussian

M. Gammer, DanielTerry Kempton R. and D.Clark, Ibid., 117. Ibid., 114. During the next three years,During three next Moscowand the and perhaps Grozny, specifically more Inresponse of power and toboth thesovereignty Chechendeclaration Dudayev’s

(London: & Co. Hurst The Lone WolfThe Lone andtheBear

ikhail Gorbachev, Yeltsin hisemergency rescinded ending declaration, recently - Ingush Republic”.a Thismeasurefor small allowed

(Gree

elected Dudayev regime. nwood Publishing Group, 2002),nwood Publishing 118. Group, ttle toreabsorb ttle union. At this territory the fullyinto , tional guard units, amassunits, guard assembled ofChechencitizens tional

2006), 204.

participants infavorparticipants of independence. (It be should

66 decree entitled “On the Introduction “On the ofEmergencydecree entitled

Unity Or Separation: CenterUnity Or

ged a game mouse. of in and political cat : Three CenturiesChechenDefiance of of 23

- speaking populations, polling d speaking populations, 67

Chechens ina alsovoted 69

Largelybecause of -

Periphery Relations - scalearmed ata CEU eTD Collection 73 Factor Post in 72 71 70 personal Dudayev, animosity deterioration actual towards of theChechen ora situation, from taking place toreincorporat personal i Lieven interviews notesseveral personal inability ofChechnya’sto come the toapeaceful twosides status. of resolution Anatol which he respondedcourt. andby dissolving supporters his the Constitutional supportedCourt claim, ruling this Dudayev’sauthoritywas that to invalid, andcalled even accession topowerIn Dudayev’s illegal. 1993,Chechnya’s May continued simmering.Itsadherentsa referendum independence demanded onChechnya’s failure,coup Marchits against Dudayevtheanti on 1,1992,and despite came abou Dudayevfollowing quickly waned theindependence declaration,a strong andopposition forexplanation the responseChechen Russian ad hoc tothe separatist movement.They write, TreninDmitri and paymentsChechnya residents to of and san economic lifted its Groznycut, were asthecentersend notcompletely upto1992pension continued the republic, cri

Dmi Lieven, Ibid., 95. Lieven, tri V.Trenin V.Malashenko, andAlesksei Personal conflicts bet InternalChechen plagued prewar period turmoil well. inthis politics Supportfor as addressed. that wouldpass assoon believed thatChechen separatism wasinfantile period disease’ ‘an the transition of come thatclaims sensesofindependence tohis and realize They simplyfuture. had no amazed by actio the A protracted onanyone’s politicians were warwasgenerally mind.Moscow not nsults exchanged hadnsults between thetwoleaders aagreement hand an inpreventing Chechnya Chechnya t to challenge the president’s authority. president’sleaders challengeOpposition t to their the attempted first

- Soviet Russia ppled t 72 Aleksei Malashenko’s characterization ofperiod Malashenko’sAleksei this provides some

, 1998, 67 , 1998, 69, 74. , 1998,

he Chechenhe economy ns of the rebelsDudayevns offinally that wouldsimply andhoped

ween Yeltsin andDudayevareween oftenas citedcontributing tothe (Carnegie 2010),19. Endowment,

– as thegeneric thecountry’sas federalwere of system problems 68. ethe union Chechnya into

which corroborate this hypothesis, suggestingcorroboratewhich hypothesis, that this . 70 24

Nonetheless, ties between Moscow and betweenNonetheless, ties Moscow

Russia’s Restless Frontier: The ChechnyaRussia’s . 73

Still, Still, ctions in Decemberctions 1993 in of

whether because of - Dudayev movement

. 71

CEU eTD Collection 77 76 75 2012), 166. 74 fleetingthis a General inOctoberwhen roadside moment Russian ended bombinjured 1995, the Budyonnovsk prompted massacre a ofpeacetalksand series a even temporary ceasefire, 124casualtiesnot without and a major psychol had left a for Canada for ViktorMinister Chernomyrdin pub began hospita anBuddyonovsk, attack corrallingapproximately onthetownof 1,460hostages the into eventgroup 127 ofthewar,whena Chechen f of militaryrather May aconflict. thanthose traditional of thehighlandsinto FollowingChechnya’s ofGrozny,metropo thesiege spreadlowland thewar to other including this military ultimatelycapital 19 by tookthe city January some adjustments and thearrival ofreinforcements Eve in1994, t war campaign thestorming effort.first warwas major ofthe The ofGro i bolstered fighters Chechen opposition inanatt beginning withsmall co ntervention began troopsbegan Russian inNovember, when costly what tobea wouldprove

Robert Seely, Ibid., 275 Ibid., 267. Ibid., 249 of Yeltsinmbination launched these reasons, particul l located inthetown.42 The later part of the First ChechenTheFirst later of wascharacterized part War by the guerrilla many

ar – –

277. 250. he attack initial operation, it resulted it operation, inthe razing Groznycivilianand casualties, of significant among the Russian populations makingo populations Russian among the upa large proportion The Russian

. 76

- scale scale

G7 conference armed as operations early as September - Chechen 1800 Conflict

of which

victims were onthefirstvictims Prime daySoon, alone. killed failed,to poorplanning side.Russian due onthe . The crisis. Theconcluded negotiations, after abut of day lic negotiations withBasayev,lic negotiations as 25 empt to oust Dudayev oust to empt ogical blow totheRussianside blow ogical

his “small,victorious war”in 1994,

ighters led by General Shamil Basayev by Generalighters led led Shamil in the beginning of1995 - 2000: ADeadlyEmbrace th . despite themilitaryStill, success of 1995

saw perhaps the most tragic most perhaps the saw ,

when Russian forcesRussian when . 74

Direct military zny onNewzny Year’s President , the Russian , theRussian - . style tactics style 77

f the city (Routledge,

Although

lise Yeltsin . s and After 75 ,

CEU eTD Collection http://www.afisha.ru/article/mediahistory/. 79 78 ofRussianof mediaEllen Mickiewicz an the stationin writes outlets, analysis “ alternative, non radi for be aexpressed onthe range page. ofopinionsto responses reflect still editorial they choices the publication, ofthe create nonetheless space onaopinions “Questionwhich invite of theWeek”, servesa com as newspaperstyle written inthewestern canon. ofthe journalistic publishing cooperative published bygeneral the discourseboth public thatof leadership. Russian and Isource these two material, believe limitations Vlast’ viatwomajoropinion sources DiscoursesRussian on the Interwar Period resumption of thestatusquoof Chechen facto statehood. de populations alike, drainedtheRussianmilitaryresources, of and ul This agreement negotiations inthe signingresulted ultimately theAugus Khasavyurt Accord on of Anatoliy

“ Ibid., 280. Istoriya Media Russkikh o stati published published by thenewspaper In theyears into todelve order afterthe just Fir

Romanov on givecredence source. toselection ofnews this of

access prominent question

- pelling source because drew to a close a conflict that had demoralized Chechen and Russian closedemoralizedRussian athathad toa Chechenand drew conflict government operated radio station in the Soviet period, inthe Soviet government founded operatedradio in1990. station . 78 ing Russian printmediaRussian ing archives

Fighting when rou againa 1996, new into resumed Fak - financia t , representedfirst post the : 1989 :

— the radio program the radioprogram l newspaper

in politics that particularin politics certainly week. Although these Kommersant sources — s , in addition tonews, inaddition analysis, it

public figures their andalike readers toexpress 2011,” ac

provide a provide strong basistoexamine from which 26 Kommersant . Although constraints bothtime . and

cessed May 23,2013,

Ekho Moskvy Similar featuresSimilar the of

Vlast’ Vlast’ prevented further from examining me - Soviet independent,Soviet national st ChechenI War, examine will .

is thepoliticallyweekly oriented Ekho Moskvy This newspaper, producedThis newspaper,

and the weeklyand the magazine Itsmagazine weekly timately resulted inthe timately

of fers nd of peacend of

beganfirst as the Ekho Moskvy

such features as …its …its t 31,1996.

Russian the

by a by public Vlast’

CEU eTD Collection 82 81 Press, 2008),29. 80 commentators alike. it, within Khasavyurt A sector, towardsredeveloping and work economy. Chechnya’s effortscrime promote combat securityand to inChechnya, thefinancial in relations build 2 Federation Republic…shall been have andDecember theChechen reached prior to31 stipulated that resolving associatedwiththe statusofChechnya. questions document the quality champions and its ofthisagreement, opponentsupon alike sought build to to mo The Immediate Postwar Discourse questions presented publications. inthese commentary and extracting by editorials aspossible muchas capture thepublic my analysis ofrather than infavor official discourses sources,I readilymost commentary focused have on figures, coming from political skewing working Chechenquestion. onthe broadcasts withhigh interviews organizes debates toallgives parts time andof thepolitical spectrum.” stubbornly has principled refusedgive Venediktov] director[Aleksei intocensorship to and 001.”

Gammer, Ellen Mickiewicz, Ibid. ve forward fromKhasavyurt A the 81

The period initial followingFirst was Chechen the desire by marked Moscow’s War

Italso provided brought andvariety among forth a ofstrong bothpoliticians opinions, , which largely stood a as The Lone Wolf andtheBearThe Lone ccord itself a treaty ofmutualrelations “regulating thebasis between theRussian

discourse as muchassources have these discourse permitted,

Television, Power, andthePublic inRussia Television,

, long before the for thecreationfor of a jo

- profile figures,profile whom had many of Still, recognizingStill, of the limitations

ceasefire, towards tobegin makingtangible steps ccord. Although writers and Althoughccord. writers of , 222.

implementation of any of these measures ofany ofthese implementation contained 27

int Russo int

broader public opinion. Ibroader public opinion. to hoped have - Chechen begin to commission More specifically,More Khasavyurt

from survey and material open 82

he fir (Cambridge University direct involvement direct involvement both using these only two 80 st reactions to the to st reactions ficials disagreed on

Ekho Moskvy offering the

also CEU eTD Collection 85 http://kommersant.ru/doc/13017. 84 1996, http://kommersant.ru/doc/12878. 83 groupsquabble amongst asmall of politicians, immediate political crossfire “insufficient as legal thedrivingneedresolution.force status” a behind for speedy allowed for inthe Khasavyurt A resolveas the questionof Chechnya’s status Baturin a called conference press day, lawmakers onthis during pushed whichto for he October, SecretaryYuri Council the Defense Baturinjoined clamor Khasavyurt. against butratherRussia, ofthe inviolation stood thatit Constitutional claimingCourt, notthat the Khassavyurtcreated unfavorable Accord for terms deputies the Ministry within Internal theRussian a Affairs broughtto formal of forth request masking concessions humiliating, made irreversible tothe separatists.” O Duma,betrayed claiming, TheKhasavyurt“Lebed isfiction, Russia’s interests. Accord October 2,1996 longstandingYeltsin’s cadre opponentof Aleksan memberand of personal Leading amongInternal thesewasof Minister opponents Affairs documentthat this was illegal theChechen andserved to as capitulation separatist movement. immediately tookaimat Chechnya president] penned agreement this work of First Chechenan War

“Syuzhet /Khronika //Byl, Nedeli Uchastvoval,” October 15, Sostoyal, 1996, LebedyuNatalia Nedeli Gevorkyan, // Mira “Syuzhet KhoroshoSeptember vNebe,”3, Ibid.

For peace some, theKhasavyurt aagreement political victory marked for ending the head of the Russian Security ofthehead Russian Council , ifnotpeace, the M askhadov suddenly open in became toagreement,which possible made and , Kulikov d opening space for further negotiations.ford opening further spacecommentator One spoke ofthe

as “aas act brilliant becausewhich of ofdiplomacy, the

attacked SecretaryLebed Security oftheState front Council in n at least alasting truce.”

, agreement after twomonths signed, as was early as it suggest unleashed by the signing ofKhasavyurtunleashed by thesigning

ccord.Baturin focusing stressed point, this onKhasavyurt’s

soon as despite possible, thefive 28 General Aleksand

foreshadowed further onthe foreshadowed divisiveness

Russian Constitution. 83

However,a political numberfigures of r Lebed, negotiatedr who and ,

Anatoliy Kulikov, Anatoliy , although, a only short 84

On the 5 n thesame day, [Chechen d r Ler - year timeline bed. th

O 85 n

The ing ing

CEU eTD Collection Bez Vragov http://kommersant.ru/doc/13055. Vnich’yu,” Voyna 29, October // 1996, 87 86 Lebedimmediately signing “Everyoneaccord a followingofthe the reads, knowsthat has Lebed’sin about the future skepticism abilities, remained. Aleader in getsupporters tostarta as the idea will war,well.” we then conversation about political settlement ofthefuture. haveWe sense does already make thatit not tohave established this man inMoscow Lebed’s inOctober resignation thedepartureLebed, 1996,“With of Chech Maskhadov. ofminister The Maskhado prime the Chechencorroborated side haveis said to tothe failure contributed ofRusso andenmity 1994,during which Boris interpersonal betweenand Dzhokhar Dudayev Yeltsin (This heavypersonal influence of interact who believedofhisnegot theproduct President whohad AslanMaskhadov, thepast, in rejected negotiations becomehis abilit controversial laudedfor a figure, by some particular ofindividual figures the resolutionprocess. importance inthis Lebed General had resolving theRussianFederation. within Chechnya’s status highlighted These in questions questioned howthe agreement peace intoamore wouldtranslate long Lebed’sGeneral ofthe negotiation Khasavyurt settlement and hadbeen successful productive prac question of Chechnya’s status Chechen throughout theremaining interwar questioncontinued period, relevant asthe Chechen The questionatfederal debate ofRussian the level politics.

Artur Matanov, /Chechnya GrogoriyBrynza, “Syuzhet and AndreiGrishkovets, Nedeli Lieven, ticalities ofimplementing Those whowere ofKhasavyurt notskeptical itself expressed concern th over Chechnya

w ith whom it was whomit toproperlyith possible and a honestlynegotiate peaceful , 1998, 67 , 1998,

solutions from of aposition solutions

– lingered the peace plan. Even the peace Even plan. the importance of the personalthe importance ofthe betweenLebed relationship and 68.

i ations proved sorely theations for side. proved Russian unfavorable

unresolved throughout these years. throughoutunresolved these ions hearkened between tothe back period 1991 29 v’s coalition governmentv’s stated

- Chechen negotiations individuals whowereindividuals force 87 y Chechen with tonegotiate

E . However . ven amongstconfident those on how toresolve theon how - Vlast’ term s term but ) , if Kulikov andh , if . 86

convinced that

nya theonly lost disdained by those Statements from

olution forolution written

upon hearing of

is CEU eTD Collection 89 Mirnovo Plana 88 onhow bestpublic work opinion to towards a results survey, ofthis by conducted thePubli question, showingperspectives some thegovernment thoseapparatus. within beyond The the influence regionalleadership of inresolving remained theme throughout a thecontrary prominent interwar period, articulatedgoal, tothis than by inMoscow.” politicians the Chechen localwhichisknownbetter its context, in by problem Chec preventsnowballing from a the conflict into Caucasus priorities also relevant neighboring Caucasus. inthe for territories North The North useful Caucasus, only plansthatwouldcase, not be anddevising inthe Chechen but Chechnya’s ec primary whateverform might it take. question, theytosee theconcrete struggled still m “teams”. observersremained aboutthe skeptical even upon quietly downand inChechnya.” sit work military and civilian whohave officials topeacefully removedfrom hastily been Moscow and asking.ItLebedappearscreated as madeof‘Chechen thir hasa though team’, up peace of plan. What kind plan,he plan, implement this hasn’twill said. noone Who is

“ Ibid. Andrei

Survey data from late 1996 provides some insight into public opinion ontheSurvey public opinion providesinto someinsight late from 1996 Chechen data Amongst not engaging those incritic

focus of thefocus immediate postwar of period

Although many believed manyAlthough inthe political processa theChechen means assolve to in moving forward, according to the establishment Grishkovets, Grishkovets, onomic situation, preventingonomic situation, areasconflict of spillover other inthe theto ,” 3,1996, http://kommersant.ru/doc/12888. September

“Syuzhet Chechenskie Peregovo // Nedeli

formal provisions to beginformal to provisions talks on 89

Although theconflict contextualizing regional its in setting potential 88 Vlast’

The toneof questioning passagesuggests that this al discourse on theKhasavyurtal on discourse A c Opinion Foundation,c reveal Opinion a in quite split 30 re was solution ofChechnya’s which as of status, solution

the questionultimatelythe limited. proved , wereone “…onhand, the to , twofold: effectiveness thesestructures state of and easures that would lead to this resolution, easures this lead to thatwould

on a few themes - wide other, issue, and toresolve onthe ry: Voennye Taynyry: Voennye

the Chechen the Chechen federal center’s fir federal —

in particular, resolvingin particular, hnya’s neighbors ccord, the ccord, question, teen st

CEU eTD Collection http://kommersant.ru/doc/13081. 90 LawConstitutional In status, those involved remained optimistic. early pa 1997,Russia despite thecenter’scomprehensive Chechnya’s inability a plan concerning toformulate tohavethe situation the outset. a For varietyviable optionsat of formal status other thanthemselves. from Moscow, as seemed politicians toentertain unwilling orchestrated options by any party of the diverse. remained thatpopular onthenotion time Chechen opinions atthis extremely question other Yet15% options. “difficult another considered thequestion to Chechnyagoverned be administration appointed byan by respondedwith and Moscow”, 2% andthe border”, more control strictly 9%that“until the situation preferred normalizes, republics ofthe federation”, 18% therepublic to“grant wanted economic special “the question of Chechnya’s statusberesolved intheof same should otheras way that people surfaced.respondentsreferendum preferred 33%“to a of whatever hold andimplement the a Particularlyofstatus beresolved?” question, wideanswers range regarding thefinal yoyou waver in important your “Insurvey put forth respondents thefollowingwhich to ismore opinion, questions: instead tofocus onsmaller th

e of time thesurvey, remained Azer Mursaliev, “SyuzhetNedeliFront /Mirniy Chechen population in this matter differedChechen inthis f population

of Chechnya even choose, ofseparation tothe point believed from Russia”, 23% that This variance in public opinion on the explicit questionThis variance ontheexplicit of resolving opinion inpublic Chechnya’s 90

— Theof defer willingness a populationto Russian sizeableportion of the to ensuring Did inChechnyaensuring ofRussia? peace theterritorial or integrity was ur answer to the previous question? How thequestion should ofanswer tothe Chechnya’s previousur question? reflected in the optimism reflected inthe optimism

“On the procedure“On changing the constitutional andlegal for the statusofa

questions of economic development investment. The questions ofeconomic andforeign

largely untouched b largely untouched coming political leaders,who considered from 31

rom themajority coming lines ofofficial // Krovnaya November 12,1996, // Neft’,” ygovernment officials

much of the interwar period,much of the ssed Federalssed

answer”, bolstering the who preferred

privileges the will will the

CEU eTD Collection http://kommersant.ru/doc/1 93 Goschinovnikam ZalozhenyByudzhete,” 11,1997,http://kommersant.ru/doc/13376. v March 92 Posledniy On Mir, Trudniy http://kommersa Samiy,” February 4,1997, 91 and Ivan came Russia how todoso. into talk ofRybkin, and alike ministers Chechnya sawan open, as resolvab differedpoliticians those articulated by thepublic. from This period revealed becauseyears 2001Khasavyurtresolution deadline forremained the i several about only not the because nodstowardsefforts of fromalso suchcoming theKremlin,but These for a ofoptimism expressions formalofthe Chechen likely resolution question came enthusiasm for willingness Moscow’s compromise to months. six within predicting wouldhave Russia peripheral its that regions, underChechnya control included, year, being deadline solved byintheKhasavyurt the2001 outlined Accord. thehopemeasuresresolve with question inthis thatsuch Chechnya’s status, wouldresult state.Russian Observers of a saw initiation stepasp this animportant law wouldgive Chechnya Party federalwhich subject”, of Minister through Justice

“Druzhba Narodov/TRUBA Chechenskiy // RAZDORA 9,1997,Tupik,” September Rogozhnikov,Mikhail “Syuzhet Nedeli /Kak slozhi Vladislav Dorofeev/ChechenskoeAzer Mursaliev, and Budushcheye “Ambitsii // Aleksandr Lebed’sAleksandr successoras the head Russi of

FirstFinance Deputy of Minister Valentin KovaleValentin Accompanying approach optimistic sideofreintegrating this tothe political Chechnya made concessions an agreementChechen thesovereignty torecognize each Republic, Russia ofthe time election ofpeace a theChechen president, signing treaty of o continued Whether was propensity it the tocompromise. thewithdrawal oftroops, The postwarof experienceRusso 92

A Septembercoupling with optimism, this it 1997 articlecorroborated a range potentiala solutions of

v invited theChechen negotiations.v invited side suggested to Kovalev that , guided by considerations of several 3761.

options through whichoptions tomaintain autonomy the within

Aleksei expres Kudrin - Chechen demonstrated cooperation Moscow’s 32

, thoughoffered inmany cases, by those

and member Commu Russian of the member of the Agrarian Partymember of theAgrarian ofRussia

in the postwar months. Itin the postwar months. wrote, an Securitythe body Council, which tsya Vzyatki Kudrin: Aleksei // le question at time. this political oreconomicpolitical feasibility.

Nonetheless, both ordinaryNonetheless, citizens both sed similarlyhigh hopes, rocess toformally 91 nt.ru/doc/13263.

r the of development InMarch of n thedistance.

that

nist nist 93

this this

CEU eTD Collection 96 Trudniy Samiy.” 95 http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12433/. 94 which had successfullyintegrated the when cameindicated question.Shakhrai it that totheChechen the also Tatarstan model, thefederal waswithin Court He in system. suggested “virgin thattheConstitutional territory” uncertainty viewing onChechnya, (as it many have scholars andCourt P theRussian independenceand movement officials were the aware similarly exceptionalism oftheChe of existed solutions diplomatic as potentialfor options resolution. observers Chechen didnotview the question the same thing.” Federa “It togetrid ofthesusp difficult is government Federation.” Allconstitution? these features ofthe most areregions present in the of Rus Is asking, having fact, it “In what independence? ownparliament, is flag, one’s or president, loose feder Chechnya’s for calls independence were notnecessarily particularly irreconcilable, given the noted that insistence Russia’s subject ofthe Federation” Russian thatChechnya is“a and year this elaborated potential on the Chechnya ontheterritoryof but tobe“independent, Russia”. greatesthad inChechnya, for the in1997that the potentialexisted involvement suggested

Dorofeev and Mursaliev, “Ambitsii /Chechenskoe “Ambitsii Dorofeev and Budushcheye Mursaliev, Posledniy // On Mir, “EkhoInterv’yu Moskvy /Gu /Arkadiy Ibid. tion withthe broadestChechnya’andtion powers’ ‘independent

Nonetheless, despite acknowledging the range of possibilities forNonetheless, Chechnya’spossibilities range despite acknowledging status, the of al inplace structure at the 95 could

In way this 96

This acknowledgement theidea officials thatfrom reinforces thestart, and be accommodatedIt forbe thefederal Chechnya within system. even

artyUnityand Accord, of , the article, suggested the

war icion that these two concepts,icion thatthese

for this type of solution to be agreeable to both sides. It tobeagreeable solution sides. for toboth type this of

time. It time. questioned that resulted from resulted it that restive republic ofTatarstanrestive Russian republic the into kasyan,” Octoberkasyan,” 13,1997, as unanswerable. rangea Rather, wide of 33

that manythat practical ofthe for desires self

Sergeispoke one, with Shakhrai, for

what actually independence means, . Member of theConsti

post facto) as a facto) truepost as aberration 94 chen case, chengiven its

One February articlefrom of ‘ a subject ofa theRussian subject , imply, if not in factif notin are, , imply, sian tutional tutional 1991 wrote - , CEU eTD Collection Vnich’y 99 Frontu,” http://kommersant.ru/doc/13218. 24, December 1996, 98 Polgodahttp://kommersant.ru/doc/13186. Voyna,” Nachalas’ 17, December 1996, 97 nonetheless strong maintained a demanding position Chechen independence. They reinforced and their Movladi above Udugov, despite oursovereignty.”signedlimit by methatZemlikhan Yandarbiyev, would Basayev, Shamil with Aslan Maskhadov proclaiming theresingle“not inlate 1996that a document wouldbe notsubject debatethat is to and does need discussed not tobe claimingChechnya, withregardsto “…the integrity stability, ofRussia elsewhere. Viktor forth Prime Minister ChernomyrdinsuchainOctober put position 1996, continued throughout entirety the despite interwar period, c of changing clouded byhard stubborn insistenceaisle. ofrhetorical These onbothsides the articulatedaccommodationpositions by commentators ofabove these the mentioned was irreconcilability Moscow of and ofthe Grozny. The positions potentialfor resolve Chechnya’s federal status,aparallelconversation tookplace, reinforcing the compromise wit and Basayev, rabidduring Russia’stheneed most opponents somerecognize thewar, of to Independpart of of theCommonwealth neighborlyrelations”, Basayev’s such Russia, as entertain with to one willingness of“good certain agreements poet andformer acting ofthe president republic onindependence,positions saw room Chechnya, buthadnot. Federation by offeringexpanded it republican worked could powers, inprinciple have in

Matanov, Brynza, and “Syuzhet Grishkovets, /Chechnya Nedeli Voyna Vragov// Bez Vladislav Navstrechu Dorofeev, “Terrorizm/ Chechnya: Vyboram // Vladislav, “Syuzhe Nonetheless,prominence for onpotentialoptions despitehowto the ofdiscourses u.” October 29, 1996, http://kommersant.ru/doc/13055. October 29,1996, h Russia.” t Nedeli /Samomnenie//Sergeit Nedeli Cherez Shakhrai: i Menya Snyali;

o 97 ne madene

Even side, regardless those hardline ontheChechen oftheir 98

through a contract, or contract, through a for political compromise.for One report ent Asthereport States. states - mentioned mentioned 34 Zemlikhan Yandarbiyev Zemlikhan and

willingness to compromise with Russia, willingness withRussia, compromise to

one Chechnya thatwouldregard .”

Grozny inkind, responded , “Even Yandarbiyev , Mir PoVsemuMir — this is aquestion is this

mutual wrote ircumstances General

lines

Chechen Shamil Shamil

as - CEU eTD Collection Voennye Plana ,” http://kommersant.ru/doc/12888. September Tayny 3,1996, Mirnovo 102 Trudniy Samiy.” 101 100 as time well,At this theMinistry ofFinance thetask to ofinc set economyfirst as priority, aexperiences account neighbors. takingrepublic’s into the ofthe th discourses questi onthe Chechen prominent associated withthe issues interwarconsistently period, remaining at the Tending to Khasavyurt: Joint Economic Security and In status more difficult, than rather its improving onset ofultimately conflict Dagestan, prospec made in the the failureadeven economic hoc and combined plansfor social ofthese withthe cooperation, them answers looming tothelarger politicalNonetheless,clear questions. asbecomes later, economic and spheres, inthehopesefforts security eventually thatthese would meantin politics astandstill ad hoc political negotiationChechnya, processand betweencontributed which tothe Russia inturn It that these likely contributedtothelack is positions irreconcilable ofconsistency inthe asyear onepositions, article February noted, from ofthis alternative existed. toindependence Chechnyathat nocompelling could and befound toRussia back thatno reasons topush is question tothe fore,is question urging tothe taskof toattend policymakers rebuilding theChechen

Andrei Nedeli “Syuzhet // Grishkovets, Nedeli “Syuzhet Chechenskie // /Chechenskoe “Ambitsii Dorofeev and Budushcheye Mursaliev, Posledniy // On Mir, Dorofeev,

approach taken by theleaderscountries. theseapproach by Where taken of two positions irreconcilable The questionof Chechnya’s economic became ofthe development one most ground as just firmly: ‘only independence’. Federation’Russian going‘it isn’t andanywhere’. The Chechen lea havepoliticians continue argued and toargue‘Chechnya the that of isasubject yearHalf a passedthe thesigning has since Khasavyurt of agreement. Russian andmutuallycome cons toa and justifiable conclusion The claims thatall fromtheparties fivemonths thepast will soberlythe consider pros “Terrorizm/ Navstrechu“Terrorizm/ Chechnya.”Vyboram //

in this arena

on for these years.on for these General Aleks 100

The , space opened for potential solutions in the in , space forsolutions opened potential situation in1997revealedsituation persistence the ofthese 35 chances

101

t for resolving Chechnya’st forfederal

, it seems,, it are notjustified. orporating Chechnya into andr Lebed firstandr brought i tiatives

ders stand their stand ders Peregovory:

bring with front

of 102

CEU eTD Collection 105 Vnich’yu.” 104 103 suggested thedevelopmentwithout ofawithRussia.” relationship under and ofpossible understand not noillusions ouroilindustry thatthedevelopment is Heimportance Chechnya’s saidpublicl oil complex. in ofRussia’s involvement independence, spoke Zemlikhan Yandarbiev the fact and ofRussia economies Chechnyaare that the inextricablytied to canacceptablearrangement findan all.” for brea “ that Chechnya’s oilcomplex particular the a note interconnectedness of theRussian economi however, approach involvementaRussian inthe more took instrumentalist Chechen to than the potentialfor auxiliary accompany to politicalOthers, benefits a project. such reflected the nec insistence ontherebuildingeconomy, of oftheLebed’surgency Chechenhowever, sense dominatedeconomic theon Chechnya Regarding discourse matters, period. his inthis which neighbors action in Chechnya’seconomic sphere me reasons doingamongst even for sovaried thepoliticia heavilyeconomicagreements than rather on politi the 1996and 1997federalbudgets.

asures General tobe taken. Aleks Mursaliev, /Mirniy “SyuzhetNedeli Front K // Matanov, Brynza, and “Syuzhet Grishkovets, /Chechnya Nedeli Bez ibid. kdown of these connections would be equally disastrous forconnections wouldbeequally these I bothsides. kdown of am certain we

c sphere. One economist, an expert from the Moscow Technological Institute, anexpertfromceconomist, theMoscow sphere. One Technological took , stood , stood

that this statement reinforced this that

essity of repairingessityof tothe thedamageeconomy done rather ofthisrepublic, in line with in line

directly of this phenomenon, also commenting ofthisphenomenon,directly specifically onthe

, a Chechen, a politicalobstinately figure of infavor Chechen the trend of regionalinboth contextualization political and

… is so integratedis so the Russia into 103 andr Lebedandr

In measures line withthese ,

taking into accountexperiencesof therepublic’staking into the the Chechen regime’sthe Chechen des 104 36

The ChechenThea belief side similar expressed in ,

one ofthetotake Russia for one firstagitate to cal or legalistic resolutions. Still, calStill, t orlegalistic resolutions. rovnaya Neft’.” ns and publiccalling figures such for 105 nd Checheneconomies. He stated

Although aAlthough n

economy thatthe , policymakers focused , policymakers ire to prove its controlire its toprove

Vlast’ Vragov // VoynaVragov // one another.

correspondent y, “We are he of its its CEU eTD Collection Vnich’yu.” 108 Tayny Plana Mirnovo 107 Vnich’yu.” 106 potential postwar economic relations between gold.”weapons with but tactics ofAlexanderGreat the those whopreferred ofhisfather Philip, tofight for with not path Perhap ofpartnership and Russia. ofwith restoration relations contrast thepolicy sphere, to embarked inthea economicsphere Chechen leaders have on existed from economicnoting inparticular partnerships, the potentialfor how cooperat unofficial question.” to dep theRussianFederation?’within That’s theofficial question.‘How methodsbe canused these relations as “ follows: expressed in this political leverage inregional and inChechnya. Minister Nuraly economics expert Rezvanov early ofperiod, the interwar part Forfew a calculating more on voices we problems, figureeconomic the political oneswillbecome simpler.” outthe that much political resolution. The Moscow economist mentioned above and willingnessthe optimism entertain to present cooperation early inthe interwarperiod relationship theeconomic sphere, in more specifica reveal industries,

Matanov, Brynza, and “Syuzhet Grishkovets, /Chechnya Nedeli Voyna Vragov// Bez Grishkovets, “Syuzhet // Chechenskie // Nedeli Nedeli Peregovo Matanov, Brynza, and “Syuzhet Grishkovets, /Chechnya Nedeli Voyna Vragov // Bez

rive fighters of the support of theregion?’rive thepeacefulThat’s in fighters the population ofthe the regime’sacknowledgementthe and thatRussia Chechnya some have sortof must

This relationship in the economic sphere a means self its ofreinforcing

tention asaspoke twofold HeofRusso question. 107 ‘ .”

How can be usedHow tointerest economicmethods Chechnya inremaining

A commentator from

108 in the realm of the economy

Finally, regarding expressedextreme position politician an one

was were

absent in the political. Heabsent inthe political. the Russian side,economicthe Russian particularly relations, inthe

also seen as a potentialavenuealso as for seen regainingsome - sufficiency, Vlast’ 37 Russia andRussia Chechnya,claiming thatChechnya

lly industry. inthe oil

reinforced

was viewedwas an by many inroad as to Yandarbiyev’s words wrote

alluded to this, articulating,“ alluded to this, the potential gains be to madethe potential - Checheneconomic s we should changes we should outthe , “It is clearthat, is , “It in Thus, theyreflect

nonetheless ry: Voennye ion

which 106 .

If CEU eTD Collection http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12409/. 110 109 paths, others canguardgun. with shouldbegiven sothat a stand we an Allpeople occupation the presidentlet’sgive can wor atthetime:somethingtodo,some people when he answered proponent aid t ofsending economic who havethem.” relinquish weapons will haveother will options…We topay sothat Chechnyacan economy, its develop sothat those e one vocal of supporter working hostage toendthese Yeltsin’s inner circle Shp as well as insurgents region. Even problemsChechnya, ofviolence notably, intheprevalence most hostage of rel Chechnya’s thefederation, status trying within ratherthan economic an todetermine those incontrol ofthe sought situation economic issues tackleasa to first stepinresolving from politici both on Chechnya, onthe role opinions of economicconnectionsbetweenand Chechnya Russia either the spheres economicorpolitical toleave Russia.” “Chechnya opinion: this isn’t going State Duma and then was infact weak economicallyfacto too toachieveseparationfrom de Russia. conomy.

ationship basedationship established onanfederal position. “EkhoInterv’yu MoskvyBorisMay / Berezovskiy,” / 9,1997, Ibid. igun, whowas at inMarch1999.Wealthy kidnapped anairport oligarch Economic policy to was as viewed similarly ameans

such prominent figuressuch prominent GeneralGennady andenvoy asRussian toChechnya He“ stated inMay 1997, continued kidnapping and includingRussia hostages, abroad, from journalists both

during theinterwar period, ans and observers

a question about the howtosolve a hostage question problem, saying, suggested “I to -

and and member of the Russian Communist Party ofthemember Communist Russian Gennady Seleznyo

Deputy Chechnya, Secretaryincharge of

We have to pay for stability haveWe therefor inthe region; topay are no formed a wide spectrumformedwide a anywhere. Itanywhere. oropportunitydoesn’t have in thestrength o Chechnya, echoed when formal military formal when actionceased, had 110

Aleksandr Lebed,Aleksandr perhaps the stronge 38

- takings by

109 this sentiment this

As inotherof areas thediscourse . Nonetheless, from theoutset, . Nonetheless, from help mitigategrowing the

supporting the Chechensupporting

Boris BerezovskyBoris was a lso in mid lso in k on reconstructingk - , member of taking inthe Speaker Chechen v voiced st - 1997,

o f the CEU eTD Collection 113 http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12415/. 112 http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/be 111 in Chechnya only Concerns suchinterwar becameas as acute more these thepro period “violates the or border all borders thetime [and]…constantly ourcitizenshostage.” takes with economic offering benefits, “humanit Serviceaskedgovernment Chechnya AndreiNikolaevwhy theRussian continuedtosupport callerradio featuring toa interview ofnotion fighting through terrorism economicsupp canpeacefully.” theproblem resolve must workmust together with thelegitimatelyChechen elected for leadership tolook ofsecuringthe context theRussian Federation’sFed betweenFirst Chechen theAndrei Nikolaev, andSecond the Russian Director of Wars. securityjoint becamea and prerogative bothRussian operations Cheche of railway e document toset upaninvestigation the circumstances lookinto to commission ofthe done.Ivan thegap Thisis filledinwhen and we Rybkin Fe cooperation stating, inMay “IttheRussian 1997, twopower clearthat structures, is the operations Chechnya.Boris in one the Berezovskyinstance ofsuch described formation of up approach t Grozny a initiated xplosions.”

deration and the Chechen Republic, needed andderation towork theChechen together.was this At not the start, “EkhoInterv’yu MoskvyBoris / Berezovskiy.” / “EkhoInterv’yu 11,1997, MoskvyJune / Nikolayev,” /Andrey “EkhoInterv’yu MoskvyLebed’,” / November /Aleksandr 6,1997, In becausehostage consistently large of part and the recurring Moscow problem,

station bombing that had bombingstation taken place inthecity Russian Armavir, of 113 o regaino

Although this signedmadeAlthough inresponse agreement this event, toa was particular eral Border Service, reaffirmederal Border intensified, ratherthan abating intensified, nother small nother

ing federal controling ofChechnya:

- scale bottom policyRussia’s meant initiative contribute to to - Russian general and Russian Chechen border. HeChechen articu border. 111 seda/12445/.

Still, as with proposalsStill, regarding most Chechnya, the arianaid, sugar, blankets”evenrepublic the though 39

, this intention, placing intention, this more it specifically

ortsupported. was universallyOne not

had been the institution ofsecurity joint the institution Director of the Federal Border FederalDirector of the Movladi

expected by observers.expected by lated subject, onthis “We Udugov signed this gressed and theviolence n officials in the practice of

112 i

n a - CEU eTD Collection http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12657/. 115 114 Dagestan, plan this for becamegoal, ofwhich unification Basayev’s stated he pursuit in Formulated in Basayev’s thecreation vision, Islamic political larger united North state. of a Caucasian crossed th war inAugust of1999,when Dagestana servedlargecatalystopinion. asin public forchange this way tolast resorts and desperat theoptimismpessimism, found amongst after othersjust First thebyWar Chechen gave 1999 Although plenty ofcommentatorsthroughout interwar a the maintained steady period of level regarding had previously Chechnya than been The SpiralDownwards: Moving Towards War policy first stepinsolvingpiecean thepolitical important question. were ofthe Chechen whole.” so, therefore,Federationenforcement theresponsibilitybodies thelawof lies with as a whole ofRu violence] showstheweakness agencies oflaw enforcement inChechnya, notonly the butin deeming notsimply practice, it a useful butanecessaryRussia. He burden of native of North Ossetia legitimate. De Kim Tsagolov, security, but reinforces authorities tocooperate thedesireofRussian with opportunities tofightcriminalterritory.” elements the onthe

“EkhoInterv’yu Moskvy /Tsagolov,” /Kim December 9, 19 “Ekho Mosk The circumstances broughtgreater of1999 suspicion themandpessimism with 115 e border from Chechnya e from andeffort border Dagestani territory. of invaded was part This

For all these securit cooperation figures,workingand towards ineconomic ssia. We say, ‘Chechnyathe Federation.’Andssia. say, Russian We ifwe of isasubject say also

April of the same year sameApril ofthe at the S vyInterv’yu / Nikolayev.” /Andrey similarly ofrecognition theleadershipexpresses someChechnya of as

, pushed , 2,000 insurgents, led by alEmir 2,000 insurgents,and Khattab, led Basayev Shamil

puty Nationalities of Minister ion in thefacegrowingion in conflict of

the callcooperation for inthe security spherefurther, even econd Congress of the Peoples of Ichkeri Congress of the Peoples econd of 40

seen inrhetoric region. regardingseen this

of Federation the Russian 114

Chechnya in the arena of Chechnya inthe

98, This commentnotonly . In fighting particular, in Dagestan erupted into

stated , “[The

a and y and

CEU eTD Collection http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12882/. 117 Resistance Caucasus inthe North 116 inDagestanWar onRusso regioncorrespondent than before. A from andRussian Checheninaddition regimes, reveals Dagestanconflict prov in thatthe Federation,the Russian Chechens. not Federation,” thatthemajority emphasized fighting wereresidents andofthose inDagestan of “Everything taking thatis an placeisstrictly inDagestan official inDagestan Chechen involvement inan with interview Vachagaev, capacity inthe republic sideRussian laidblame toChechnya instigatingconflict, inan for thethose inpower official yet andRussian Chechenproviding Whereas pointofdisagreement. regimes, another the Chechen Thisconflict relations. hardenedthealready some of pos obstinate yetconflicts together,another creating tothe already complication picture ofRusso muddled o discourses surrounding tobeprofound. Chechnya proved the effects relations onRussian inthe conflict North impact ofthis andits Caucasus onthe only1999, when September until 16,theinv were The metwithstrong resistancewar from inthis thelocalpopulation. began creating “peace f the Chechen The involvement ofdrew question. Chechen fighters arena inthis the two

“EkhoInterv’yu Moskvy /Vachagaev,” August 1999, /Mairbek 11, Robert Bruce Ware, is not a territory.is not Russian Therefore, aggressions committed it against Russia territorial integrity Russia, butwe cannotIchkeria theobviousfact: of ignore One may non argue about the Everythingwould have fine,Basa been had The inDagestan War a of representative Aslan Chechen Maskhadov president

- keeping Caucasian forces”. Thesekeepingentering Caucasian forces, forces”. Dagestan, upon

and Enverand Kisriev, repudiated - Cheche stood as stood

(M.E.2009), Sharpe, 121

n relations, writing, n relations, any -

recognition sovereigntyand the ofChechnya’s a particularly important focal thedevelopment in point 117 connec

ided new grounds new for between disagreement ided the Regardless ofthevalidity it ofthisstatement, Vlast’ to makingan Caucasus theNorth Dagestan: Russian Hegemony and Islamic Russian Hegemony and Dagestan: ading militants retreatedmilitants ading from 41 tion tothe ou tion

corroborated

y ev and Khattaband notinvadedev Dagestan.

116 internal problem of theRussian problem internal tbreakMai ofwar.

– 123, 128.

the depth of the impact depth ofthe ofthe the Ekho Moskvy , expressly

territory lasted the region. Still, region.the Still, itions of the of itions

even “hotter” . He stated,. He rbek

denied anydenied

by de facto - CEU eTD Collection http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12784/. 119 Generaliteta Rossiyskim Voyskam,” http://kommersant.ru/doc/15838. August 1999, 24, 118 cause commenting to Pain, ethn was thought extension of violence thepotentialregion. spreadinoneregion throughout theDestabilization of by Chechnyaappropria thatwouldbe regionalization of theChechen previously question, aadoptarticulated asneed policies in to about theconflict regionalization of theChechenDagestan With in question. growing, the yetinside oroutside Federation, theRussian anew problem. adding this dimensionto conflictcarried Dagestan in was outbecame dependent onthe statusofChechnyaas either obstacles government.put forward theRussian itNow for Dagestan,a lackresolution this formal was oflargely problematic of becausethepragmatic with Chechnya’sfacto independence legal de thewar andstatus.Until in unresolved ofMoscow,Chechnya thumb italsohighlighted under back the the Dagestan yet This statement drawsanother brought out in complication by theconflict forth

“EkhoInterv’ Moskvy / Ivan d by the conflicts bothChechnyad by thein He and stated, Dagestan. territories are soclosely related. to dealspread Theerosion inevitable with. become further will all becausethese of Caucasus entirely,’ not only Chechnya,a but It couldhappen The W people sovereignty, territorialanother i integrity orpolitical of independence State or “the(according use ofarmed totheforce UN definition, the State against by one Safronov, “Tantsy s Volkami // Voprekis Volkami// “TantsySafronov, Zavereniam ArmyeyskovoiMilitseyskevo — ologist tothePresident, andRussian reinforced advisor message this in1999, could have meant that is, not only did it interfere didit notonly that is, withthe practicalities ofbringingrestive a

likely toprovoke ) ar altered inDagestanalso i themanner . 118 Ekho Moskvy

that the zone outside the control of thefederal outsidethecontrol of that thezone toinclude center comes

— yu Pain,” August 1999, /Emil 18, no

destabilization inaneighbor,destabilization secession initial as just Chechnya’s t realizing thet that,thewider harder ofinstability, zone the itis

on the increasing destabilization in the Northon theincreasing destabilization Caucasus as secessions nearby its coming from repu lso Dagestan te in a Northte in 119

— 42 but, asmany‘ say, Caucasian context, nowmanifested Caucasian context,

n which commentatorsn which totalk chose , however, the inwhich manner the Let’sget of out

difficulties associateddifficulties blics as well. Emil blics

the North

as a fearas a ts

CEU eTD Collection http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/14754. 121 120 political landscape inMoscow. muc of these items impactingone another federal ingeneral became politics inthepopular acute more witheach discourse at time, this in aslew of forthcoming Internal inChechnyasituation 1999. inMoscow had ina politics withthe head come to federalism. shufflingfederalregional asymmetrical powers ofYeltsin taking and place under through powergrabbingLaw followingSecession 1990 and theApril on theseemingly constant sovereignties” again takingplace inRussia, was dr fears. discoursesCaucasus on the North By hearkening tothe back stati center’s relationship area. this theparticular with utilized the Pain even language past, of Caucasus theentire wouldjeopardize region,consequences the havingdire potentially for In way, this Pain

Ibid. Andrei“Syuzhet Nedeli Bragov, /Komandy 15, ‘Vol’no!’ne1998, September bylo,” ng, h ofthe policy inChechnya, didChechnya sotoo impact to the thepotential have Today, th fact is the Ossetian areand inChechnya thesituation related, reflectedinthe isdirectly quickly Thiscannothere. beexcluded thatthese fact is spread toanother. The territories And the ‘dominoeffect’…is when thenegativeinoneareaconsequences develop that Dagestan. In

Still, theeventsStill, occurring inDage

similar fashion, an fashion,similar articlefrom late 1998 121 issues on the issues onthe legislative

- Ingush thezone ofDagestan, thearea conflict, and ofKarachay 120 highlighted

e lections a political menu. t the arc ofinstability toChechnyaand confined isnot notion ofnotion a “

the resurgence fear that of the problemsareaNorth ofone ofthe

, which caused inChechnya thesituation tobecome one just — no longer on regional ratherno longerbut on solutions, onregional —

that is, while the in political situation Moscow while that is, drove domino effect domino

The between relationship theChechen questionand stan were not the onlystan were worsening notthe impetus in the 43

suggested“parade anew that of awing between comparisons ” , Pain re veals

the new focus the new situation ofsituation the - Cherkessia. regional regional

of Russian CEU eTD Collection http://www.echo.msk.ru/progr 124 http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12741/. 123 http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/13275/. 122 year. provo isthus president The himself the presidentItisunacceptable playing. is for 3 today Onegovernment. cannot ofpolitical isstabilitykinds ingames that play the in Russia Communist Party, of1999, these w expressed fears inAugust LegislationDuma onConstitutional Committee and State of large its Ilyukhin, and character. size multinational Viktor of theState Chairman Deputy period,Soviet during Federation thesurvival of which theRussian stood survival oftheHere country.again,above, hearken asdiscourses partition themselves off thecorrupting from influence ofMoscow’s squa Icountry“No. byWhat isanormalsaying, see theregions] collapse to attempt might [by and Defense Policy, echoed these whether sentiments, responding tothe questionof the public intellectual nonetheless centrifugal forces witnesses activation ofthis as oflate.” activityfederal increasesregional have andamongstWe these inthe subjects leaders. all been center. told He in Moscow National Federation Policy inthe Russian impactits onthe peripheral regions. AbdulatipoRamzan

“EkhoInterv’yu MoskvyIlyukhin,” / /Viktor August 1999, 10, “EkhoInt Moskvy / “EkhoInterv’ Moskvy / Others, however, did Severalweakening discoursecenter tothe federal contributors point and to the of

had saw

Ekho Moskvy prompted theregionsprompted considermeans to ofsurvival lessconnected tothe

them as athe deteriorating logicalthem as consequence Sergei center. of Karaganov,

would and

Honorary Chairman of the Presidium ofthefor Council Public Honorary the Chairman of erv’yu Karaganov,”August /Sergei 1999, 18,

necessarily thefederation sostrong become as todestroy entirely, he yu May /Ramazan Abdulatipov,” 3,1999,

foresee Moscowto the in as threat theproblems apotential , “Theis

ams/beseda/12724/. sue isthat,when thefederal becomes center weak, 122 kingcollapse of the Russia.”

Although AbdulatipovAlthough , for one, suggested, for one, 44 - 4 changes happengovernment4 each of to

v - , Buildingmemberand of a the a and native Dagestani

hen he stated, “Whatneeded is hen he stated, that the fragilityregimethat ofthe did ed

back to the initial post totheback initial not suggest thatthese 124

This renewed bbles…” in question becausein question 123 Minister ofMinister

Foreign - CEU eTD Collection 126 http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12887/. 125 of actions regarding Chechen Sergei could ontheir have political the careers. Korzun question upcoming observerswere elections, of aware keenly theimpact or positions that politicians’ wasquestion at time this certainly Rath notunidirectional. elaborate withtheIwords reigning hand oftheday, stood inhand aboutwill pessimism which circumstances ofan verymake interregnumis to it political decisions.” difficult istopoint toelections. Everyonedone?’ electionselections, save will inthe says, us…but Chechen qu regardingpointed tothe upcomingelections ofthe as for cause resolution pessimism the the failures Chechnya’s theunion. into associatedwith integration generatedgreater calls for speak directly inthe place federal toits Chechnya.areas, Asinother muchoftheimpact ofthe onChechnya talk ofpolitics didnot not only with the system ofasymmetrical ge in federalism oftheoperation most 1990s. Yeltsin under for calleda for “united, indi joined withthe Unity party toform the present about the emergence electoral an Fatherland as of bloc known Kyrgyzstan noted for acenterchanges stronger and tothefederalsystem. discourse promptedmany on thepossibility ofRussia’s collapsecommentators also tocall

Ekho Moskvy “EkhoInterv’yu Moskvy Pain.” / /Emil “EkhoInterv’yu Moskvy Vlasov,” / /Valentin August 1999, 6, The between discourserelationship onthefederal This growingcommentary of thepoliticalon thedeterioration center dealt inMoscow further further estion. He stated inlateestion. He tobe 1999,“…the is stated answer tothe question,‘What

later. suggested this phenomeno this suggested

this shift in opinion inopinion shift this

visible” contrasting Russia, federal theloose, unclear in system consolidation in thecenterconsolidation in alsoto topoint pushed commentators

on thepart of many,commentingAugust in of1999

structure.

n in an interview, understood stating, that n inan “It is 45 125 - day political party, United Russia). ThisRussia). political party,bloc day United

Rather,

The

- the same political instabilitythe same political that level and theChechen politics neral, but also with thespecifics alsoofneral, but with er, with an increasing focus on Russia — All Russia (whichAll Russia later

Emil Pain,Emil for example, n ambassador to n ambassador 126

Pa in’s CEU eTD Collection o Tom,Kto Upravl 129 128 127 inboth destabilization Chechnya forand growing Dagestan served asfocal another point on Moscow’spromises tohelp unfulfilled Chechnya’sgrowing failingFinally, economy. the political decisions bein andRussian andhow Chechenthese political attitudes positions Incloud. ofperiodgeneral, this focused the disillusionment on theirreconcilability ofthe in 1999was thatsh thesensepessimism of Newfound regime and federation. their ow From clear is were theseacutely it that statements, 1999,politicians by notonly aware of writes, impact even Anpiece politicians. opinion individual March from from themagazine of1999 magazine remember that especially ended, how regime.” for the decided victorious war’a whichtookplace tolaunch ‘small, like that inChechnya. We l this have a short Dagestan haveIswill and onevents.that a possible they Chechnya lasting it can impact also

“ “Ekho Moskvy Ibid. Prem'er Generala Pokhishhenie Otstuplenie// Sygral Yasnost' vVopros Shpiguna Vneslo ine of discuss

Another related markedthe feature question prevailing of onthe discourses Chechen unlikely.generals, is theterrorists. But alsodefeated option but this course ofwar.promise hours,months Groznysix toseize intwo into whichturned Of the future,minister ofall time’ Pavel forget the‘bestdefense Grachev never will his Chechnya are a minefield The [Primakov] could Prime Minister have not

n impact for implications onChechnya, butofits theirthe future careers and ofthe Vlast’ - term impact on theelection results?” impact process and term Pessimism , if you’reyou can, if lucky, a become hero

reinforced this point, highlighting point, reinforced this to the thepotential Chechen question for

ion, when he noted / Interv’yu/ Karaganov.” /Sergei yaethttp://kommersant.ru/doc/15266. March 16, 1999, Strano,”

gInmade focused followingKhasavyurt. time this addition, critics at

wherea canonly politician a make mistake That once. in ,

”I do not want to believe to has donotwant thatsomeone ”I again rouded over the conversation like arain dark 46

128 - not liberator, who not only saved captured whosaved liberator, notonly

An authorweekly from the understood thatrelation 127

had Sergeicontinued Karaganov

resulted innoconcrete 129

s wit

CEU eTD Collection http://kommersant.ru/doc/15879. Rossiyskie"PoHakery Mnogochislennym September 7,1999, Pros'b,” 131 130 processinterests, causing theresolution Policy SpecialAccord. RepresentativeYusup Soslanbekov, ofthe for Chechen President Foreign emphasizingnotions, thatnoprogress since hadbeen made th devoid oftheposition potentialtohelpresolve conflict. the Other figures express chara present, onthe Chechenduring seeing noprogress question theinterwar per policies thateffectively wouldhave control. returnedtoRussian Rather, it writer this at lack toresolve ofconcrete Chechnya’s stepstaken either implement formal status orto continued ofspreading tothe point toDagestan.” over republicthis have Chechnya writes,entire towards “The the policy breakaway toclaims hasthat republic reduced been highlighting theineffectiveness ofRussia’s unwavering vis position An article in peaceful resolution Chechnya: in Pain effectively thedrastic illustrates change inthe general regarding mood thepote means.diplomatic Aninterview from belief

Azer Mursaliev,Lermonto “S “EkhoInterv’yu Moskvy Pain.” / /Emil cterized in the inevitability ofin the inevitabilityarmedconflict impossibility through andthe resolution of , reinforced probabilitya second of great tobe war as now. asitis electionsLabour between the partyI and theConservatives. expect didnot the haveproblem, which maysubsided, butnonethele not thought move tothe political periphery, would these as conflicts just theUlster and thewhole arcby wouldresolveI ofinstability Buteven itself 2000,or 2020. I Pain: believe the didnot North Caucasus that century, amistake? this wouldbe Was not theCaucasianas factor relevant. youInterviewer:In believed 1994, t is ‘a subject of the Russian Federation’. theRussian Theis ‘a of officials subject working charge in with of Vlast’

the entire process as one ofemptythe entire process asone rhetoric andofa theverbal reinforcement

changed like pairs of gloves, like pairschanged of and the idea that individuals on both sides own onboth worked national thatindividuals idea intheir only the

singles out theemptysingles out rhetoricof process, theinterwar negotiation

vymV Minuvshiy NeizvestnyeNapereves Ponedel'nik // Ekho Moskvy to mak

hat by the elections of2000, hat theelections by 47 e no progress. He stated, “…2.5 yearsno progress. e “…2.5 He have stated,

the sluggish onher border war has

with scholar and with scholar Emil political expert 131 conflict, theconflict, entire knotofconflicts,

This commentaryfocused 130 ss does not determine the ss doesnotdetermine e signing of the Khasavyurt e ofthe signing

- à - vis Chechnya.Itvis

the end20 of iod, now ed

on the ntial for ntial for similar similar th

CEU eTD Collection http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12875/. 133 http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/13265/. 132 agreements the Chechens with atthemostunfavorable unfavorable time withthe most Lebedwrote inApril 1999,“Then forced everything outofit He possible. signed peace resurfaced, of the withthe general disillusionment standing inline createIn athe timeframefor resolution process. generally theceasefire neutraltowards portrayingagreement, simply it mechanism as ato AleksandrLebed immediate aftermath the firstlargely conflict, ofGeneral of articulated by political opponents to resol obstinate, andpersonal often and empty political rhetoric. positions successfulthe interwardeemed butwas negotiationexisted, obscuredand inperiod nullby something like that.” happening, such that...anythese talkedgreatgroup only people of or Russia love for of cente Unfortunately,carryconstitution. principles of theRussian outthe the democratic in officials Soslanbekov’s rhetoric,claiming, “…it was to tofinda necessary resolution national policies and reli the process seen been Abdul discourses. ashas inRussian interest.” political party movement trying is or topr mitigate ofwar, the theof consequences tobring together twosides…Each positions passed and sinceKhasavyurtnosteps Groznyto Accords, the Moscow taken have but

“EkhoInterv’yu Moskvy / /Abdul “EkhoInterv’yu Moskvy March / /YusupSoslanbekov,” 9, 1999, r fell awhat misunderstanding into complete r and ofhas inadequate perception ve theChech One commentator 132

Here, sideexpressed fromrepresentative thediscontentwith theChechen a same . However, throughout oftheinterwar period, most . However, discourses e 133 n problem. Thisparticularn problem. targetwasthe presentin ofpessimism

Bot gious organ went h Soslanbekovimplied and Sultigov

so far as Khasavyurtso Accord itselfthefailure toblame the for izations for the United Russia P UnitedRussia for the izations - Hakim Sultigov,”Hakim August 1999, 23, omote its owninterestsomotegeneral, its as the national 48

1999, however,criticism ofthe1999, agreement

- Hakim Sultigov, coordinator of

that thepotential for period. A period.

arty, bolstered — Vlast’ that is, tofullythat is, were

author been been CEU eTD Collection 135 OnStal Vos'mym,” Uzhe Putin. 6, 1999,http://kommersant.ru/doc/15347. April 134 goodeconomic promises for onits aid, judgedby threateningthattheRussianstate be unravel.In scale economic and projects, security there generatelikelyconcrete to pro afteranother?” social people arenas, because continue but Chechnya, onthe todisappear territoryof one (and possible it’s aggravation crisisMoscow ofin the thesebroa twofactors onthe economic and need ofviolenceaswell thelevel region as questionin inthe raised Chechnya. from Aninterviewer yetremained another sparse,offering discouragement reason for aboutthes concretepartnerships. theof fulfillment informationthese Nonetheless, about promises Chechnya broadlyfavor political arrangements avoided in economic speaking of Chechnya.Iarticulated As previously, have thefederal center’s strategy surrounding Chechen questionwasabdication the Moscow’s promisesin ofeconomic its the driverfailure the ofthe of violence. Where some ans conditions for Moscow.”

“EkhoInterv’yu Moskvy / /YusupSoslanbekov.” “Sovyet Post Dlya wers aswers towhyhad situation the

the following question, bothreinforcing relationshipthe following question, between the Chechnya’s Even Chechnya as plantopull upby earlyas begun 1998,the purse its had strings to yearsA final two feature prior influenced theincreasingly rhetoric ofthe that negative February AslanMaskhadov 1998, began 135

it This statement

really hasreally fulfilled not) co its oronnego SekretaryaSovyeta // BezopasnostiZovut Vladimir Teper'

found 134

This comment,as those mentionedabo

der political situation. He askedder political situation. answers others inthe process,

previous gressRusso improving in Ekho Mosvky underscores

- deteriorated to whatdeteriorated seemed to Grozny relations hasGrozny relations ari

two yetwo existed

49 that even inthethat even areasconsidered thatwere most ars. , inaconversatio

mmitments in theeconomic, in mmitments financial,and

a perception thatthoseefforts hadfailed.

criticizing

- Chechen relations saw , “Do you“Do thatthecurrent agree , s en not because Moscowen has notbecause not

Moscow for failingfor Moscow tomake n withYusupSoslanbekov,

the pastagreement peace as like a ofinevitable point like ve, look in approachingin — g of theimpact ed ituation in ituation that is, small that is,

to the past for

CEU eTD Collection http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/11161/. 139 http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/bese 138 Bylo Stalinym,”Feb Sdelano 137 17, 1998,http://kommersant.ru/doc/ 136 not bepossible because the continuation of ofattacks.” hostage takings and terrorist accumulated,as became it problemwould clearcompromise that orsettle any this attempt to Chechnya, Izvestiya continued tob issue remained 1999,astargetedofviolenceforeacts ofthe atwell discussion into the illustrates the growing approach withthis hostages. dissatisfaction tothe questionofThis growingexasperation inRussia taken…Is tothe ahostage there solution problem?” and pensionsalready haveand asbefore, just are transferredbeen hostages there, still creating financialassistance inChechn jobs, Aleksei Venediktov, Ch on theprospect economic policies tohave for a significant policy. gainingwasmoney by sending toChechnya,expressingefficacy ofthis as doubts tothe 1998, toaccusationslimited ofbroken earlyfromAlso in promisesthe Chechen coming leadership. lack inthe potentialfor offaith economic inChechnyaa solution tiesabout tobring not was “experts from world” around foreconomic the fulfill its unwillingnessto promises. its

echnya deteriorating “EkhoInterv’yu MoskvyIgor’Ippolito,Luigi / Golembiov / “EkhoInterv’yu MoskvyIvan /November 13,1998, / Rybkin,” Vladislav Dorofeev, Ramazan “Kavkazskiy// Abdulatipov: My Politik Zhivem Tem, Chto Vladislav Dorofeev,Bjudzhet Polmilliarda // “Chechenskiy vPervom Chtenii,” February former Prime Minister 137 , Igor Golembiovsky ,

By telling late 1998 e the norm inChechnya.e thenorm Ekho Moskvy Ekho probed

even further.even the fewthe voiceshadbecome opinion this with holding many,

Security SecretaryIvan Council Rybkin ruary 24,1998,http://kommersant.ru/doc/14121. Viktor Chernomyrdin questionedViktor Chernomyrdin what kind

expressed similar fatigue with the continuation ofexpressed violence fatigue similar withthe continuation in

with the proffering ofmonetary aid Chechnya, butalso to , “And then, beginning, “Andexperiences in1996,negative then, 14113. At this time, the time, headAt this radio ofthe station Editor da/12369/.

ya hostage] solve[the could problem. But 50 - in

- Chief ofthe daily newspaper,

138

This question ties togetherThis question notonly impact in on the situation sky,”October 18,1999, ,

asking,

of returns Russia

“

You said that Ekho Moskvy Noviye Noviye 139 opinions opinions 136

funds Here

This ,

CEU eTD Collection 141 http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12882/. 140 force,an considered option tobea Others, lastresort. behavior sway hadtowards public opinion to desperation thepower reflectedgrowing groups ofmilitant impatiencewiththe violent actions in theregion. This of theofficial Chechen and Russian their regimestoprogressin negotiat revealsThis sentiment of1999cannot the pessimism belinked exclusively that tothe Pain told measures, alsoperceived but in theattitudes shiftsin and acti appeared outbreakneed toresolvearmed the the forco ofwarand intervention likely tocontinueregardless. themselves meeting“would have tostandon”, nothing indicating notonlythe negotiations that not evena foreseemeeting that andMaskhadov.such possible Yeltsin He between said negotiation. MairbekBy anMaskhadov,close official Vachagaev, August did toAslan 1999, past, comme fac concreteChechen progress onthe question. and a again,disillusionment tobeturning the discourse proved towards

ing, focusing on the failures of the past years.failuresIn addition criticizing focusingoftheing, to past onthepolicies ofthe “EkhoInterv’yu Moskvy Pain.” / /Emil “EkhoInterv’yu Moskvy /Vachagae /Mairbek magnitude.this I Now ruleout. it don’t Ipublic speeches, of tostartand behostilities wrote believed impossible would thatit internationalthree ago terrorism…Just months so few asthey believe this, gangs, groupswith mostly criminal see associated wasbelieved for opposition fighting national thattheChechen Today independence. a generalis] among fatiguethepopula opposed thewar.haveHis feelingsgoingchanged…[There towards recently towar Irecently whoruns mycircles, withaman in anlong intellectual spoke ago whonot The air of pe

Ekho Moskvy to be colored not only negotiationsto becoloredby thefailure not policy ofdiplomatic and were ntators focusedincreasingly for warandprospects onthepotential thepoor for

unlikely tohappen, buteven they toconvene, thedeadlock were would be ssimism surroundingssimism theissue

140

Others focus

ed 51 tion today. In today. population tion of 1994,some the part 141

their disillusionment onthelikeldisillusionment their

v,” August 1999, 11, v,” of Chechnya still , in my ownscholarlyarticlesand, in , seem exasperatedwithChechnya ons of Chechen leaders. Emil leaders. Emil ons ofChechen was backwards only not and a willingnessa use to and nflict. Thisexpectation nflict. ccusations ofa lack of i ons, but also but ons, ihood ofthe failures a - CEU eTD Collection 144 http://kommersant.ru/doc/15280. Terrorizm. Mi 143 http://kommersant.ru/doc/15267. MyVse Chto Ravno Potomu DadutBryacaem 1999, Deneg! Oruzhiem,” March 16, 142 representative, and represents thus interests). notRussian Chechen, He inMarch stated 1999, worthSoslanbekov such(itis provides reminding opinion one as thathe Maskhadov’s served leadershipRussian push towards notrepresent armed did conflict opportunity aninevitability,butratheran for already on,butcan tohold off.onlydosothrough sliced try We force.” Chechnya’son thesub He connectiontoRussia. waning said Legislation and State IlViktor own words, his only in ‘the Stepashin, level nowthat for oftol at least inChechnya, hostages 700 now which a arepolice. quarterof militaryand Why isit in necessary step,perhaps evengiven next steadily overdue,ofinstability the increasing levels reactionsconflict provokedmixed itself from observers.For was action some,a this community side expressesThis quotation attract only attention.One tobecom needs thrown away.or toignore don’tlovehim.Butknowshow Try child him, praiseto this him abroad, He stating,“Chechnyaabandoned wasand anchild. then islike pampered, spoiled, journalist commented onthe damageprob theChechen and thecomplications defacto this state

the region.expressed One report “EkhoInterv’yu MoskvyIlyukhin.” / /Viktor Nikolai Gulko,“Blits Igor Svinarenko,“Khuliganstvo Razmerah Denutsya, ...Kuda // Oni vOsoboKrupnyh , not only also issues, causing but domestic The new yukhin, .

r iSoglasie vRegioneBudutMarch Voss,” 16,1999, ly emerging belief (by emergingbelief ly some) inthe ofthe inevitability armed resurgence Deputy ChairmanDeputy CommitteeonConstitutional ofthe State Duma

to exact - Building

the gr krik Generala Stepashina // “Uveren, Generala Mykrik Chto Stepashina Obuzdat’ // Sumeyem its

, reven owing feelings that Chechnya feelingsowing that had

impending conflict markedimpendingconflict

this opinion, stating, opinion, this data, there “According are toofficial ge theFirstYusup defeat Chechen for in War. had e a bully,eeveryone notice and will right away.”

caused for Federation. One theRussian caused 52 able totarnish image its

lem had imageRussia’s caused for

rather a last resort topreserverather resort a last ject, “You see, Chechnyaject, “You see, is erance is exhausted’?” erance is

become a thorn in Russia’s thorn inRussia’s a become 144 in

the internationalthe For other s

143 still, the still,

For 142

CEU eTD Collection http://kommersant.ru/doc/15836. PolozheniyaBudet. Ne vRossii Emu,” Mnogie August 1999, 24, 146 145 InAffairs, Rushailo. Caucasus onfor Vladimir going fact,inthe a the war hasbeen l Caucasus. He position and gain aresidencepermit.” regulations.Chechens Andall the livingbe should obligedacquire inRussia alien status to headache’ violating theConstitution ofthe Federati Russian saying, has Maskhadov issued a “Aslan decree tointroduce emergency, a thus state of abandonRussia entirely. it Prominent Someof potentialsolutions. responded of Chechnya tothe difficulties by suggesting that Iton howtoresolve stronger,more the issue. forcefulbutalsoa variety produced language, and theincreasingin the beliefinevitability armed conflict of A Wide Spectrum of Disillusionment devolution asstemming theKremlin from belligerence. andits largelyfunction actions the as Chechen of ofChechen asaw the militants, side ofand parties Chechen on the pushtowards saw Russian thoseinRussia war sides.the While bewill while the hawksthe failure crave inthe Kremlin revenge 1994 for ofthe as bad aresultKremlin’s aftermath policies inthe oftheCaucasus andtheofwar,and “Ason longas we stumble

“Vam Nravitsya? Boris Polozhenie Kakoe // Zayavil, Chrezvychaynogo El'tsin Chto “EkhoInterv’yu Moskvy / /YusupSoslanbekov.” The overarching sense of disillusionment cloudingThe disillusionment overarching thediscourse of sense onChechnya in1999 confronted phenomena.” with today’s , suggesting relinquish should Russia thatcontroltheNorth ofthe entirety of , it is necessary t isnecessary , it wrote , “

‘ There won’t beThere a inChechnya’ won’t war o kickher outof strengthenand Russia, impose visa theborders,

the barriers have andabout the negativecome developmentsthat 146

Another commentator

Russian lawyer Boris quoted in1999as lawyerRussian was Kuznetsov

145 53

Here again the arerevealed clashing interests on. In get ridoftheon. to‘Chechen order

took —

this sentiment tothis a more extreme according to Minister of Internal ofMinister according to still did not lead didnot toaconsensusstill

- 1996 campaign,1996 we this this ong CEU eTD Collection Terrorizm. iSoglasie vRegione Mir Budut Voss.” 148 Vladimir Rushaylo,” Augu 147 at theperiod. start ofthereferred He interwar threatan Mironovthathad ofwar, suggestedoption been discourse thepublic even present in theChechen to solution questioninaninterview with potential policywhich toregain through inthe region. dominance simply overrelinquish Chechn control with thepessimismin line suggestion, this oftheday. unlike theabove Nonetheless, to calls resources, and food supply. Chechnya, off cutting including electricity,oil its Marchthis offered 1999report which Moscow concrete could by means “blockade” andindustries, offer itsresidentsof violence. ahigher lifefrom quality todeter Rather, them between ties potential tobuild the thesejustified plansnotonly b throughout thethosecalling interwar period, andeconomic ties between for Chechnya Russia coercion. pressurecoerciveeconomic of power the acknowle been Although had economic harsher articulated policy hadexpress purpose become with byan time, of this eco Chechnya and concrete couldtake offered Kremlin measures tothreaten Chechnya the reportsuggested adopt inMarch of1999 Russia amore that stringenteconomicpolicy in measures when ceases theNorth( Caucasus tobe Russian It’s time. talksaboutThe it. federalgovernment that noone senses just only toits will come

Gulko, “Blits “Gory nomically and regain control over the territory. Incontrolnomically andoversurrounding the regaineven territory. rhetoric way, this the OlegHumanyet Rights Mironov, Russia’s Commissioner, offeredpotential another By period, this for there contrast,in touse thepotential Russia stronger existed a to bringChechnya rather thefederation, into go. back it letting thansimply One chiy Kavkaz // ‘Voynychiy // Kavkaz sChechney - krik Generala Stepashina // “Uveren, Chto Mykrik Stepashina Chto Generala “Uveren, // Obuzdat’ Sumeyem

st 10, 1999,http://kommersant.ru/doc/15800.st 10, 148

This kind ofThis kind proposal approach, marked a hostile muchmore e cause their power of

centerand periphery, help ya,a offered non

54 to Ne Budet’; Zayavil VnutrennikhNe Ministr Del rossijskij

the chaotically federalRussian changing andgas naturalfinancial supplies,

of intimidation Ekho - military,economically ) .” 147 Moskvy

develop republic’s the

, butalsobecause their of . Despite theimpendingDespite

- oriented oriented dged CEU eTD Collection http://kommersant.ru/doc/15612. Byt'Dolzhen VynesenZakonoproekt"Vremenno Neko,” 15,1999, o June 150 http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12774/. 149 andpoliticians observersalike. Whereasa conflict return was to period.desperation common tothis above,outlined todeem suggestion this Chechnya“ of1999, afew just June mon tothe Chechenpolitical solution was a not completely question doomedprospect, even in takeas actions payingtothecenter. suchtaxes Northgiving Caucasus, regional authoriti potential pitfall ofthe was bill thepossibilitycouldit beapplied toother thatregions the in to preserveshari of system its outside certainoperation o Forexample,this inRussia. normsin Chechnya’s the federation,give within position butnonetheless the license region tooperate The wouldhave tomaintainterritorial bill Russia its allowed integrityreinforcing by governmentstatus, the federal couldChechen “resolve” lega the question,atin least would deem“temporarily Chechnyaa territory”. Chechnya uncontrolled By assigning this precedi or threat.” stay each answer must notunder toask need Andhe ornot,honestly,pressure individual. we theRussianFederatiowithin Federation.outside theRussian He“We don’t stated,knowwhether notthey live want or [to determine ofChechnya wouldlike whattheirbe, statusto within whether or the people system ofthe post

Dmitri KamysheDmitri “Ekho M ng the Second Chechen War. The parliament broughtlegislation a piece parliament of ChechenThe War. forth ng that theSecond Thegrowing was endperiod ofby marked theinterwar amon pessimism Theyet State Duma theperiod itselfoffered in another immediately proposition 149 oskvy / Interv’yuoskvy / /Oleg Mironov

- Soviet period and Soviet v, “UpravaGubernatora Na Dnyahv, Dumy Na Rassmotrenie // Na

n]…And inordern]…And toanswer they whether thisquestion, want to ths before the outbreak of war. Still, similarths before ofwar.Still, tothe propositions theoutbreak ’

a law without granting independence.without a it law Nonetheless, one

indicated support forindicated some support kindofreferendum to es toignore and license federal refuse to mandates 55 ,” August 11,1999, August ,” 150

The proposed thatlaw a didindicate

uncontrolled”reflecteda sense of only a small concern aonly small at the wouldption allowChechnya gst l terms. CEU eTD Collection emergingclear answer. as a remainedto resolvewithnosingle the policy divided Chechen inhowquestion, option Nonetheless, in1999,war acommentators even conclusion. wasnot foregone Officials and Dagestan, of terrorist thecontinuation and activityand hostage Chechnya, thebuilding inMoscow, ofBasayev’s drama invasion politics internal of growing were thefailures government’s central pessimism adin ofthe hoc policies concern, voices,and amongst some endFirst ofbyWar, Chechen the kernel ofanxiety 1999this grown intowidespread had

conflict seemed the conflict seemed 56

onlyremaining op - taking s in Chechnya.s in tion. Tied to this Tiedtothis tion.

CEU eTD Collection strong, nuancing further regionalized withindividuals econo calling to it, for solutions Chechnyafederal under back control. the Chech supporters, simply someofgenerate whom closerconnections between soughtto and Russia status) via more narrow Thisapproach economicandvariety social policies. a of had employeda bottom many, this inKhasavyurtoutlined Federation,Russian inth politicians “territorial side) Russian prevented integrity” such onthe a compromise. sides regarding theter accommodated federalist theflexible within created system obstinacy Yeltsin, the by onboth possibility onhold togetherirreconcilable inMoscow, the could have withthe asymmetrical federalism reconciled been had Yeltsin’sregime pieced Nonetheless,fact despite the coming thatfromindependence the demands Grozny for thatspac and generatedearlyoptimism some the Chechenbroughta variety question both ofseemingly policy tothefore formulas viable including from theRussianThisinitial tangibleConstitutional resolve Court. efforts pushto Chechen Groznyfive a signing oftheAccord Chechen Khasavyurt First Moscow endingprovided War theand years, heldarollercoaster shorttime it this within ofpolicyand shifts. public opinion Conclusion Unable tocome to Although bet theperiod Republic. S en Republic, others of whom saw it as a coercive for ofa useful en bringing mechanism Republic,whomsaw others it as effort was expected to bring the two governments closer to resolution. Moscowgovernments expectedeffort tobring thetwo was closer toresolution.

- year p — - up eriod duringeriod toestablishamutually which agreeablestatus formal for the everal initial steps were initial everal tobegin made that is, although for have Chechendemands that sovereigntycould been minology of their demands (“independence”minologyChechen oftheir onthe demands side,

— approach, an toresolve (that overarching question seeking of political that is, cooperationthat is, economic, projects. security onsocial, and

a concretea agreement onChechnya’s(or status in outside)the weenFirstmere Chechen andSecond thea lastedthree Wars e Kremlin instead focused policy ontheother mandates Initially,prospects thea for projectseemed such

rhetorical epeaceful for resolution was possible. 57

positions ofthesepositions tworegimes put this formulation process, formulation this

such The mic likely For a CEU eTD Collection these intervention. Still, ma Deterioratingcircumstancescertainly inChechnya prompted persistence a floating solutions ofpossible wide of around set thepublic government,federal st though proposingsolution, legislationtodeem Chechnya ofthe outsidethecontrol temporarily in order toreestablish authority inthe region. (and perhapstheentireNorth even others Caucasus), question. Whereasindividuals some clouding thediscussion, leadingChechen theoverarching isthat,despite War ofpessi uptothe Second sense Chechnyaarmed conflict nowviewing as demoralized, withmany whohad previous individuals reelection. Caucasian among asone as conflict platformpoliticians well upfor point many bullet for greaterin even asthe exasperation Chechen devolved into question of Dage the process became the increasingly towards prospect pessimistic resolutio of decreasing criminal activity inthe republic, goal. the conditions in cooperation withlegitimatelyelected Chechen officials. and socialexpressing issues North intheentire and inthe potentialfor Caucasus some faith ny,advocated as those who such As economic failedAs cooperation ideas However stan and pre stan Nonetheless, perhaps the most interestingNonetheless, most perhapsthe of publicdiscourse feature theRussian

As these becameacute, circumstances more did not did not , this bottom , this

region the North unable proved to Caucasus, of in contrast what ofnational to expected might insuch a crisis, be situation gain - election politicking inMoscow onlyresultingelection exacerbated situation, this

broad consensus, nor didthey consensus, armedbroad nor endorse unreservedly there still existed noconsensus existed there still - ill partill ofthe federal up approach,conjunction thedevelopment with unstable in of

jetti pushed for simply ofChechnya relinquishingcontrol

and aid from thecenteraid from and soning a necessity observers as well as as involved those politicians well observers 58 The State Duma offered yetState DumaThe offeredanother potential the entire pushedthe for North or Caucasus

system. These . activelyfor agitated

ly against been offorce theuse in public sentiment became even more

how to more extremesuggestions frommore made no tangible impact on notangible made achieve its political end achieve its suggestions illustrate thesuggestions illustrate deal with theChechendeal with

piece of a largerNorthpiece

discourse. discourse.

armed intervention armed n. The invasion mism mism in CEU eTD Collection strategygreatereven inperhaps confusion. how tosolve theChechen question,culminat intervention. To the start o To the start f the second Russiandividedon public discourse war, remained

ing period this withanad that hadbegun hoc 59

CEU eTD Collection 151 Appendix

Map of Chechnya, Available: http://www.unc.edu/~aneurysm/images/chechnyabigmap.jpg 151

CEU eTD Collection Hirsch, Francine. Hale, HenrySakwa, E.,Richard and Stephen White. Gulko, Nikolai.“ Grishkovets, Andrei. “ Gitelman, Zvi Sakwa, and Y.,Richard Stephen White. Gevorkyan,Natalia. “ Gammer, M. B. Dunlop, John Dorofeev, Az Vladislav, and ——— ——— Dorofeev, Vladislav. “ Brubaker, “NationhoodandQuestion Unionand Rogers. theNationalin Soviet Post Bragov, andAvtorkhanov,Broxup. Marie Abdurakhman, Union Durham: Duke UniversityPress http://ko Terrorizm. iSoglasievRegione Mir Budut Voss Plana 6th ed.Durham, University Press Duke NC: 3, 1996.http://kommersant.ru/doc/12878. Rule Russian U.K. http://kommersant.ru/doc/13263. Posledniy On Mir, Trudniy Samiy http://kommersant.ru/doc/14113. . “ December 24, 1996. http://kommersant.ru/doc/13218. . “ Bylo Stalinym Sdelano 1, 1994): 47 Eurasia:InstitutionalistSoviet Account.” An http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/14754. World Advance the Muslim Towards Andrei. Chechenskiy Bjudzhet // Polmilliarda // Bjudzhet Chechenskiy vPervom Chtenii NavstreTerrorizm/ ; New ; York: Cambri ,” The Lone Wolf andtheBearThe Lone . Ithaca,. N.Y.: Vlast', Vlast', mmersant.ru/doc/15280. “Syuzhet Nedeli /Komandy ‘Vol’no!’ne bylo,” Russia Russia ChechnyaConfronts Blits Empire ofNations Empire – . London:. & Co. Hurst 78. doi:10.2307/657812. Syuzhet Nedeli // Lebedyu Nedeli // Mira KhoroshoSyuzhet vNebe - September 3,1996. http://kommersant.ru/doc/12888. Syuzhet Nedeli Chechenskie Peregovory: // Syuzhet V Kavkazskiy Ramazan // Abdulatipov: My Politik Zhivem Tem, Chto krik Generala Stepashina // “Uveren, Generala Mykrik Chto Stepashina Obuzdat’ // Sumeyem

Cornell UniversityCornell Press er Mursaliev. “ chuFrontu Chechnya: Vyboram // PoVsemu Mir ,” Vlast', Vlast', dgeUniversity Press : Ethnographic Knowledge & : Ethnographic Knowledge theSoviet theMakingof , February http://kommersant.ru/doc/14121. 24,1998.

References 2010. ,” ,” : Three CenturiesChechen of : Three Defiance of , Ambitsii /Chechenskoe BudushcheyeAmbitsii //

Vlast', Vlast', . New York: St. Martin’sSt. Press York:. New 2006. : Roots of a Separatist Conflict aSeparatist : Rootsof

The North Caucasus Barrier Caucasus The North

February 4,1997. ,

Theory and Soc 2005. Developments 7 Politics Russian in ,

2005. Developments 6 Politics Russian in , ,” 1998.

Vlast', Vlast',

March 16,1999. Vlast', Vlast', ,” Vlast', Vlast', iety oennye Tayny oennye Mirnovo

,” September 15, 1998, 23, no. 1 (February23, no.1

Vlast', Vlast', February 17,1998. ,

1992. . Cambridge, : the Russian ,” Vlast', Vlast',

September - . .

CEU eTD Collection “Look Scott. Radnitz, Tal Who’s Naimark, Norman M. ——— Mursaliev, Azer. “ Mickiewicz, Ellen. Matanov, Artur, GrogoriyBrynza, “ and AndreiGrishkovets. Martin, Terry(Terry Dean). Map of http://www.unc.edu/~aneurysm/images/chechnyabigmap.jpg Chechnya, Available: Lieven, Anatol. ——— Lapidus, “Contested Sovereignty: W. Gail Tragedy ofChechnya.” The Kempton, Terry Daniel and R., D.Clark. Kamyshev, “У Dmitri. ——— Hughes, James. an, M. P. Papers USSR Harvard 2001. University Press, http://kommersant.ru/doc/13081. . “ http://kommersant.ru/doc/15879. R 2008. http://kommersant.ru/doc/13055. Vragov V // the Soviet Union,1923 Press . 23, no.1(July5 1,1998): the Former Soviet Union http://kommersant.ru/doc/15612. Byt' VynesenZakonoproekt o"Vremenno Neko Studies inthe Russian Potential . “Managing Federation.” Secession Pennsylvania Press The NewRussia:Transformation Troubled ossiyskie"PoHakery Mnogochislennym Pros'b Syuzhet /Mirniy Krovnaya Nedeli // Front Neft’ ,

. Central European University. Central European2004. Press,

1998.

34, no. 2 (2006): 237 34, no.2(2006): 11, no.3(2001): 36 Against Their Will: TheirAgainst the in Migrations Geography and TheHistory ofForced Chechnya Chechnya S LermontovymV MinuvshiyNeizvestnyeNapereves S Ponedel'nik // oyna Vnich’yu Television, Power,andthePublic inRussia Television,

Fires of

Uprava Na Gubernatora // NaUprava Gubernatora Dumy Na Dnyah Rassmotrenie // Na Dolzhen : Tombstone of Russian Power : Tombstone ofRussian to : fromNationalism Jihad ,

2007. The Affirmative Action Empire - Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing inTwentienth Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing 1939 . Greenwood Publishing Group,. 2002. king! Islamicking! Wars.” Discourseinthe Chechen –

,” 49. doi:10.1162/isec.23.1.5. – . Ithaca:. CornellUniversity Press – 68. Vlast', Vlast', 256.

doi:10.1080/714004707.

Unity

October 29,1996. 62 Or Separation: Center Or

. Westview Press,. Westview 1995. ,” . Philadelphia: University of

,” Vlast', Vlast', ,” ,” . New University Haven: Yale Vlast', Vlast', : Nations and Nationalism in Nationalism and : Nations Vlast', Vlast', Syuzhet Nedeli /ChechnyaSyuzhetBez Nedeli

. Cambridge University Press,

June 15,1999. June September 7,1999. November 12,1996. Regional & Regional Federal ,

2001. - Periphery Relations in Periphery Relations in International Security International century Europe

Nationalities Nationalities .

CEU eTD Collection “ “ “ “ “ Ronald Lampman,Watts, Queen’sInstitute(Kingston,IntergovernmentalOnt ) Universityof Ware, Robert Bruce Vladislav. “ Trenin, V.,and V.Malashenko. Dmitri Alesksei Tishkov, Valeriĭ Aleksandrovic Igor.Svinarenko,“ Seely, Robert. Ivan.Safronov,“ Rogozhnikov, “ Mikhail. Prem'er Generala Pokhishhenie Otstuplenie// Sygral ShpigunavVopros Vneslo o Yasnost' Druzhba Narodov/TRUBAChechenskiy // RAZDORA Tupik ‘VoynyGoryachiy // Kavkaz Budet’; sChechneyZayavilVnutrennikh Ne Ministr Del Nravitsya?Vam Boris Polozhenie Kakoe // Zayavil, Chrezvychaynogo El'tsin Chto Istoria Media Russkikh http://kommersant.ru/doc/15266. Tom, KtoUpravlyaet Strano http://www.afisha.ru/article/mediahistory/. http://kommer Vladimir Rushaylo http://kommersant.ru/doc/15836. PolozheniyaBudet. Ne vRossii Emu Mnogie University by McGill FederalComparing Systems Relations, and Queen’sUniversity(Kingston,Ont ) School ofPolicy Studies. Resistance inthe North http://kommersant.ru/doc/13186. Polgoda Voyna Nachalas’ Factor Post in University CaliforniaPress of http://kommersant.ru/doc/15267. Ravno DadutMy Chto Deneg!Potomu Oruzhiem Bryacaem 2012. http://kommersant.ru/doc/15838. Generaliteta Rossiyskim Voyskam http://kommersan Goschinovnikam ZalozhenyByudzhete v Syuzhet

The Russian Tantsy s Volkami // Voprekis Volkami// ZavereniamTantsy ArmyeyskovoiMilitseyskevo Khuliganstvo v Osobo Krupnyh Razmerah Denutsya,Khuliganstvo ...Kuda // Oni Vse vOsoboKrupnyh , and Enverand Kisriev. , Nedeli /Samomnenie//SergeiNedeli Cherez Shakhrai: i Menya Snyali; sant.ru/doc/13761. - Soviet Russia

Syuzhet Nedeli Vzyatki / Kak slozhitsya Kudrin: Aleksei // t.ru/doc/13376. : 1989 ,” - Chechen 1800 Conflict Vlast', Vlast', - Queen’s 2008. University Press, Caucasus h. — ,” Chechnya 2011.” Accessed May 23,2013. August 1999.http://kommersant.ru/doc/15800. 10, . Published ofPoli for. Published theSchool Vlast', ,” . Carnegie 2010. Endowment, ,

Vlast', Vlast', 2004.

Dagestan: Russian Hegemony and Islamic Russian Hegemony and Dagestan: . M.E. Sharpe, 2009. . M.E.Sharpe, ,” December1996. 17, : Life in a War ina : Life

Vlast', Vlast', Marc 63

Russia’s Restless Frontier: The ChechnyaRussia’s ,”

h 16, 1999. h 16,1999. - Vlast', August 24,1999. 2000: ADeadly ,” Vlast', Vlast', March 11,1997. - torn Society

August 1999. 24, ,”

Vlast', Vlast',

,” Embrace cy Queen’s Studies, Vlast', Vlast', . Berkeley:. September 9,1997. . Routledge, March 16,1999.

CEU eTD Collection “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ Ekho Moskvy / Interv’yuEkho Moskvy / Interv’yuEkho Moskvy / Interv’yuEkho Moskvy / Interv’yuEkho Moskvy / Interv’yuEkho Moskvy / Interv’yuEkho Moskvy / Interv’yuEkho Moskvy / Interv’yuEkho Moskvy / IlyukhinInterv’yuEkho Moskvy /Viktor / Interv’yuEkho Moskvy / Interv’yuEkho Moskvy / Interv’yuEkho Moskvy / Interv’yuEkho Moskvy / Interv’yuEkho Moskvy / Interv’yuEkho Moskvy / Sovyet Sekretarya Postoronnego Putin. // Bezopasnosti Vladimir Dlya Sovyeta Teper'Zovut Ekho Moskvy / Interv’yuEkho Moskvy / http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/132 http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12784/. http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12741/. http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/13275/. http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12774/. http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12882/. http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/11161/. http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12657/. http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12369/. http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/besed http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12887/. http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12409/. http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12433/. http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12415/. http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12445/. http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/beseda/12875/. On StalVos'mym Uzhe

/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / Abdul Yusup Soslanbekov Pain Emil SergeiKaraganov Ramazan Abdulatipov Mairbek Vachagaev Kim Tsagolov Valentin Vlasov Boris Berezovsky Arkadiy Gukasyan Andrei Nikolaev AleksandrLebed' Lu Ivan Rybkin Oleg Mironov igi Ippolito, Igor'Ippolito, igi Golembiovsky ,” ,” Vlast', Vlast', - Hakim Sul ,” August 1999. 18, April 6,1999.http://kommersant.ru/doc/15347. ,” November 13, November 1998. ,” ,” December 9,1998. ,” December ,” ,” ,” August 10,1999. ,” August ,” August 1999. 6, ,” June 11,1997. ,” June August 11,1999. August 64 ,” November 6,1997. ,” May,” 9,1997. tigov ,” August 1999. 18, ,” ,” October 13,1997. ,” a/12724/. ,” March 9,1999.

,” August,” 1999. 11, ,” May 3,1999. ,” August 1999. 23, 65/.

,” October 18, 1999. ,” October 18,