The Experience and Legacy of African Muslims in the Americas Michael

Cambridge University Press 0521840953 - Black Crescent: The Experience and Legacy of African Muslims in the Americas Michael. A. Gomez Index More information

Index

abada´ (agbada, aqbada), 108 Ali, Abdul Wali Farad Muhammad, 214, 256. abë ıd¯ See also Muhammad, Fard. servile armies in Iberia, 6 Ali, Duse´ Muhammad, 259–260. See also Abukar, Mala (Mala Mubakar), 106, 116 African Times and Orient Review (ATOR) Abyssinian Movement, 212–214. See also Ali, Muhammad (Cassius Clay), 360–361 Redding, Grover Cleveland; Jonas, R.D.; Ali, Noble Drew (Timothy Drew). See also Peace Movement of Ethiopia; Ethiopian Garvey, Marcus; Moorish Science; Circle World Federation Council, Inc. Seven Koran; Koran for Moorish Children; African importation to Freemasonry Old World, 8 Ishmaelites, 186, 199–200 Latin America, 14, 23, 34, 38, 41, 43, 45 background, 203–206 Caribbean, 47 claims of Moorish descent, 205–206, 274 Jamaica, 50 claims of Cherokee descent, 205–206 Trinidad, 63, 69 early challenges to leadership, 214–215 Saint Domingue, 83 identiﬁcation with Marcus Garvey, 226–227 Brazil, 91–92, 123 sources of ideas, 232–250 Bahia, 117 a mason, 247 New Amsterdam, 128–129 struggles with Moorish Science leaders, New York, 134–136 268–271 North America, 166 demise, 271–272 African Methodist Episcopal Church, 209 succession through “reincarnation,” African Times and Orient Review (ATOR), 259. 272–273 See also Ali, Duse´ Muhammad legacy, 274, 275 Ahmad, Ghulam,¯ 250–251, 274, 275, as a nationalist, 274–275 287 Ali, Sunni (of imperial Songhay), 362–363 Ahmadiyya, 250–254 almaamate and jazz musicians, 253 in Futa Jallon, 51 rejection of racism, 274 Almoravids, 5–6 Ahuna (Aluna), 105 and West African army, 6. See also ‘abıd¯ Akan Alpujarras rebellion, 13 in Jamaica, 50 alufa´, 105, 106, 122, 124, 125. See also mestre; Akram, Wali, 253 malomi Alagoas, 122 Alvorado, Pedro de, 4 Alcac¸ovas, Treaty of, 8 Ancient Arabic Order, Nobles of the Mystic Aldridge, Ira, 135–136 Shrine (Shriners), 241, 244–245

377

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521840953 - Black Crescent: The Experience and Legacy of African Muslims in the Americas Michael. A. Gomez Index More information

378 Index

Ancient Egyptian Arabic Order, Nobles of the bori, 37 Mystic Shrine, 245–247 Boston Guardian, 208–209 Angola. See West Central Africa Boukman, 89–90 Antigua, 48, 80–81 bozales, 15, 16, 17, 23 Aprıgio,´ 106 Brass Ankles, 185, 194 Aquarian Gospel of Jesus the Christ, 211, Brazil, 33 233–234, 236–238. See also Circle Seven compared with Cuba, 36 Koran as source of slaves for Rio de la Plata, 46 Arabic documents Islam in early twentieth century, 123–124 in Jamaica, 50 Brown People, 185 in Brazil, 107 Brown, Katie, 155–156, 157–158, 159 Arawak Bundu, 141, 163 in Jamaica, 49 Arima, 65, 66 cacao Auta, 77–78 in Venezuela, 38 azenague (possibly Tuareg), 7 Cadiz´ and slave trade, 7, 8 Bahia, 92 Cajans, 185 background to revolt, 97–99 Calafate, Manoel, 106, 107 social divisions, 99 Canaanite Temple, 206–207, 214. See also Ali, African-born population, 99–100 Noble Drew; Moorish Science; Newark baianas, 96, 108 Candomble´, 115–116, 122, 124–125 Bailey, Cornelia, 156, 162 cantos, 100, 107 Ball, Charles, 171, 177–178, 182 Carmel Indians, 185 Ballano, 21 Casa de Contratacion,´ 8 bantu (West Central Africans), 9 Casely Hayford, J.E., 259 Baptist War, 54–55 Castellanos, Juan de, 17–18 Baquaqua, Mahommah Gardo, 92, 94 Castro, Fidel, 350 baraka, 363 Castro, Melchoir de, 3 Barbados, 33, 48 cedula´ of 1783, 61–62 Barcelona cedulas´ de gracias al sacar, 24 and slave trade, 8 cedulas´ reales, 42 Bath, Muhammad (Leonas Bath, Jonas Bath), Cesaire,´ Aime´ 70–76 critique of Europe, 306–307 Bayen, Maluku E., 213 Challouehliczilczese, Wyxzewixard S.J., 213, Bell, Dupont, 210 283 bella, 7, 171 Cheswold Moors, 195–196 Bey, William Prothro, 200 Chicago biafras, 24 site of Moorish Science Temple, 212, Bight of Biafra 260–261 as source of origins for Jamaica, 50 site of businesses, 263 as source of origins for Trinidad, 63, 69 site of Nation of Islam, 292 Bight of Benin Chicago Defender, 208, 271 as source of origins for Saint Domingue, 83 Christian Science, 235–236 as source of origins for Brazil, 92, 101 Circle Seven Koran, 214, 274. See also Ali, as source of origins for North America, 166 Noble Drew; Moorish Science Bilali, 154–158, 161, 162, 171, 172, 174–176, major tenets, 215–232 177, 179, 200 blacks as Canaanites, 218 Bilali, Salih, 153–158, 161, 171, 172, 173, blacks as Moabites, 218–219 174–176, 200 blacks as Moroccans, 219 Black Dragon Society (Kokuryukai), 283 view of Europeans, 224–225 Blyden, Edward, 257–258 relationship to Qur’an,¯ 228–229 Bogardus, Everardus, 132–133 formed from other texts, 232–238

Index 379

original ideas, 236 early African American orthodoxy, 253 orthodox reaction to, 254–256 East Indian Muslims as forerunner to Nation of Islam’s theology, in Trinidad, 80 274, 282 Edwards, Bryan, 51–52 absence of reference Islamic references, Emancipation Act (British Caribbean), 52 275 Emereciana, 106 clerical letter (wathıqa¯ ) of Muhmmad Kaba, esclavos blancos, 13, 28–30 54–55 Estevanico,´ 5 cocoa Ethiopian World Federation Council, Inc., in Trinidad, 63, 71 213 coffee in Venezuela, 39 Fachon and Dupont (Rio bookstore), 121 in Jamaica, 49 Faisal, Daoud Ahmed, 253, 254, 257. See also in Trinidad, 71 Islamic Mission of America in Brazil, 91 Fard, Wali Dodd, 277–278. See also cofradıas´ , 16, 43 Muhammad, W.D. Fard Colombia, 40–41 Farrakhan, Louis (Louis X), 317, 358, 369, Columbus, Diego, 3 370 “Company villages,” 64. See also Trinidad Fatiman, Cecile,´ 90 Congo. See West Central Africa fatwa¯ (against Noble Drew Ali), 255–256 Cordele, Georgia, 288, 289 “Five Percenters” Cortes,´ Hernan, 4 origins of teachings, 318–319 Costa Rica, 21 Fodio, Usuman dan, 79, 83, 109–110, 111, Couper, James Hamilton, 153 115, 145, 166, 183, 363 Couper, John, 153 Fort Mose, 144 Creoles (Alabama and Mississippi), 185 forzados, 30–33. See also galley slaves creoles (crioullos) in Brazil, 104–105 Freemasonry Crisis, 209, 275 as source for Moorish Science, 238–250, 275 Croatans. See Lumbees origins, 238–240 Cuba, 31–38 basic concepts, 240–241 Cubans (North Carolina), 185 development in United States, 241–243 Cunha, Belchoir da Silva, 106 Prince Hall masons, 209, 243 Cunha, Gaspar da Silva, 106, 116 and black leaders, 243–244 Fulbe (or Fula, Fulani, Tukulor, hal pulaaren) Dandara´ (Elesbao˜ do Carmo), 106, 107, in Latin America, 9, 14, 16, 21, 24, 25–26, 113 34, 36, 38, 46 Demerara, 81 in Jamaica, 52 DePriest, Oscar, 264 in Trinidad, 77 De Soto expedition, 190 in Saint Domingue, 84, 85–86 Detroit in Brazil, 95–96 site of early activity of W.D. Fard in North America, 172, 173, 178, 180, Muhammad, 279–281 181–182 al-Dhahab, Satti Majid Muhammad al-Qadi Futa Jallon Suwar, 254–257. See also Islamic Mission holy war in, 50–51 of America following in United States, and slave trade, 51 256–257 Diab, Jamil, 350 galley slaves, 9, 12, 30–33. See also forzados diamonds Garvey, Marcus in Brazil, 91 relative to Noble Drew Ali, 204, 207 Divine, Father, 211 and George W. Hurley, 211 Du Bois, W.E.B. rejection of Noble Drew Ali, 226–227 critique of Europe, 306 as mason, 244 Dutch West India Company, 128, 133 Negro World, 259

380 Index

gelofes, 8, 15–16, 20, 21, 24, 25, 42. See also beliefs, 199 Mande; negros de jalof; Wolof relation to Noble Drew Ali, 199–200 Georgia, 143, 150–151, 158–162 Islamic Mission of America, 254, 257 Ghani, Daoud, 253 The Islamic News, 356 Gobineau, Joseph Arthur de, 121 Islamic reform in West Africa, 110–113 gold in Brazil, 91 Jackson Whites, 185 Gold Coast Jakhanke, 52, 168, 169 as source of origins for Jamaica, 50 Jamaica, 33, 47 as source of origins for Saint Domingue, 83 expansion of enslaved population, 48, 50 as source of origins for Brazil, 91 Jansen, Jan, 132 as source of origins for North America, Jarvis, Malcolm “Shorty,” 343 165–166 Jejes (Ewe-Fon), 102 Grace, Daddy, 211–212 jihad¯ Great Dying, 7–23, 39 in West Africa, 12, 25–26 Greene, Claude D., 271 Jolof, 9 Guineas (West Virginia), 185, 194 Jonas, R.D., 212–213 jornal, 23, 41 Joseph, Captain, 35 7, 360, 368 h. adıth¯ , 108 Haitian Revolution juntas de alforria, 100, 105 and Islam, 87 Juula, 20, 58, 166 Halliday, Andrew, 71 Kaba, Lamine (Lamen Kebe), 168–169, 176, Hamilton, J.H., 66–67 179 Hamitic curse, 8, 43–45 Kaba, Muhammad (Robert Peart, Robert Harris, Robert, 284, 291 Tufﬁt), 50–56 Harvey, Jackson, 68 Kanuri, 46 “The Hate that Hate Produced,” 356 Karim, Benjamin, 346, 35 9 Hausa, 46, 166 Kennedy, John F., Jr., 351, 35 9 in Trinidad, 77–80 Kenyatta, Charles, 367 in Saint Domingue, 85–86 Kingsley, Zephaniah, Jr., 174–175 in Brazil, 94, 95–96, 101–104, 112–114, 116 Kongo. See West Central Africa in Louisiana, 145 Koran for Moorish Children, 225, 226, 236, 274 Hausa, Muhammad (Philip Finlay), 68, 69 Henry (“the Navigator”), 7 La Seiva, 65 Hispaniola, 3, 14 ladinos, 4–5, 12, 14, 16, 17, 23 Hotel Theresa, 350 Larten, Benjamin, 55 Hurley, George W., 210–211, 302. See also Las Casas, Bartolome,´ 15 Universal Hagar’s Spiritual Church Licutan, Pacıﬁco´ (Bilal), 105 limamo, 124–125 Iberia (al-Andalus) Lisbon, 13 and Muslim expansion, 5 Lomax, Louis E., 356, 366 indigo Louisiana, 145 in Venezuela, 38 Lucumı´ religion, 36–37. See also Yoruba Ishmael, Ben, 196 Lumbees, 185, 194 Ishmael, Jennie, 196 Lumumba, Patrice, 350–351 Ishmaelites, 186 origins, 196 Maasina, 163 in Kentucky, 196 machachalis (machacalis), 107, 122 in Indianapolis, 196 M’Culloch, Oscar C., 197–198 in Illinois, 196 McGavich, Oscar, 212–213 economic plight, 197 Madagascar state response, 197–198 as source for slave trade to New York, migration patterns, 198 136–141 family names, 198–199 Islam in, 138–140

Index 381

Madden, R.R., 52, 55, 56, 57–58 in Saint Domingue, 84, 85–86 madrasa, 108, 167, 179–180 in Brazil, 94 Mahmud, Yarrow, 168 in Florida, 145 Makandal, François, 87–90 in North America, 146, 173 Malcolm X (Malik al-Shabazz) mandingas, 9, 16–17, 18–20, 24, 25, 27, 45, on whites as devils, 302, 313–314 58, 108. See also Mande on his light complexion, 317, 345–346 mandingueiros, 95 early life, 333–336 Manhattan, 128 Autobiography, 333, 335, 336, 341, 342, 345, Manzanilla, 65, 66, 67, 68 346 maroons father Earl Little’s involvement with the Hispaniola, 4, 14 Universal Negro Improvement and Enriquillo, 15 Association, 333–334 Panama, 21–22 mother Louisa (Louise) Langdon Norton, Cuba (El Portillo), 34 also a Garveyite, 334, 344 Mayo, 77 move to Boston, 336 Melungeons, 184, 186 sister Ella, 336, 364 physical descriptions of, 186–187 pre-incarceration years, 336–338, 343 claims of Moorish descent, 187–188, 189, as a Shango figure, 338–343 194–196 brother Wilfred, 341, 344, 367 claims of Portuguese descent, 187–188, apparition of W.D. Fard Muhammad, 189–190 341–343 classified as “mulattoes,” 188 brother Philbert, 343, 368 population clusters, 188–189 brother Reginald, 343–344 etymology of term, 190 initial encounter with Elijah Muhammad, theories of origin, 190–194 344 ties to similar groups, 194 pan-Africanism, 348–355 The Messenger Magazine, 356 support for Asia, 348–349 mestre, 105, 126. See also alufa´; malomi “dark world,” 349 Mexico, 22–30 Organization of Afro-American Unity migration (OAAU), 349, 352–355 of blacks in North America, 207–209 travel to Africa, Egypt, Middle East, 350, Minas, 94–96, 118, 119, 121 352, 363–364 Montejo, Esteban, 37–38 “chickens coming home to roost” statement, Montserrat, 48 351 Moorish Antiseptic Bath Compound, 262 Muslim Mosque, Incorporated, 353 Moorish Body Builder and Blood Purifier, 262 Garvey influence, 354 Moorish Guide, 261, 262, 263, 266 tensions within Nation of Islam, Moorish Manufacturing Company, 263 355–362 Moorish Manufacturing Corporation, 262 psychological ties to the Nation of Islam, Moorish Mineral and Healing Oil, 262, 263 366–368 Moorish Review, 256, 262 as Malik al-Shabazz, 367–368 Moorish Science, 199 assassination, 369 early temples, 206–207 Malcolm Shabazz Temple No. 4, 370 establishment in Chicago, 212, 215 maleˆ revolt, 92, 101–116 names, 219 post-revolt Bahia, 117–118 flag, 219 twentieth century, 126 “Asiatics,” 219–220 malomi (malam¯ ), 105. See also mestre; alufa´ worship services, 229–230 Mande. See also mandingas observances, 230 in Latin America, 20, 22, 26–27, 34, 36, marriage, 230–231 39–40 diet, 231 and association with evil, 26–27, 38, 40 dress, 231 in Jamaica, 52, 58 “divine” laws, 231 in Trinidad, 66, 70, 77 organizational structure, 260–262

382 Index

Moorish Science (cont.) initial activity as Detroit merchant, 279 businesses, 262–264 attack on Caucasians, 280 political involvement, 264 divinity as developed by Elijah Muhammad, identity cards as resistance, 264–268 285–287 internal struggles, 268–271 arrest and disappearance, 291–292 succession through “reincarnation,” Muhammad, Wallace (Warith Deen 272–273 Muhammad) FBI harassment, 273, 293 on Elijah Muhammad’s teachings, 296 and class issues, 275 on W.D. Fard Muhammad’s teachings, Moorish Science Monitor, 262 302–303, 317 Moors. See also Ali, Noble Drew; North influence on Malcolm X, 363 Africans; Melungeons; Moorish Science repentance, 369 in Iberia, 5 successor to Elijah Muhammad, 369–370 as war captives, 31 Muhammad Speaks, 356, 368, 369 influencing captives brought to Rio de la “mulattoes” Plata, 46 in Peru, 43 in Saint Domingue, 84–85 Musa, Anna (Benjamin Cochrane), 55, 56 in Brazil, 93–94 Muslim (sufi) brotherhoods in New York, 134 in Jamaica, 53 in North America, 147–149, 170, 172, influence in North American Freemasonry, 180–181, 182 248–250 Moors (Delaware), 185. See also Melungeons Muslim diet, Moravians, 53, 55, 66 in Trinidad, 78 moriscos, 12–13, 55, 121 in Brazil, 108–109 Moslem Sunrise, 252 in North America, 156 Mozambique, 28, 45 Muslim dress mudejares´ , 12 in Brazil, 108 Muhammad, Abdul (Brown El), 283–284, Muslim influence on Christianity 294 in Brazil, 127 Muhammad, Clara (Clara Evans), 289, in North America, 160–162, 183 290–291, 341, 344, 35 7 Muslim names Muhammad, Elijah (Elijah Poole), 214, 274. in North America, 146–147, 149–152 See also Nation of Islam; Muhammad, Fard Nagosˆ , 94, 105, 125–126 role of Abdul Muhammad in conversion, Naji, Anta Majigeen, 175–176 284, 290 Naparima, 64 as Elijah Karriem, 284, 291 Napoleonic Wars, 64 background, 287–289 Naticokes, 185, 195–196 a mason, 289–290 Nation of Islam initial encounter with W.D. Fard founding, 276 Muhammad, 290–291 relationship to Moorish Science, 276, 282, early opposition, 292 295–296 as Muhammad Rassoull, 292 scholarship on, 277 as Gulam Bogans, 292 importance of diet, 280, 281, 298, 321–322 prison, 293 black Southerners as early followers, 281 as formulator of doctrine, 295–297 Garvey influence, 282 as witness to white terrorism, 308–310 influence of Freemasonry, 282 minor pilgrimage, 350 economic aspirations, 282–283 death, 365, 369 support for Japan, 283, 292–293 Muhammad, W.D. Fard, 214. See also Nation labeled “voodoo cult,” 284–285 of Islam; Muhammad, Elijah fragmentation in early years, 283–285 background, 277–279 Ahmadiyya influence, 287 possible membership in Moorish Science, as “Temple People,” 292 278 postwar revitalization, 294–295

Index 383

original names, 297 Old King, 175–176 tribe of Shabazz, 297, 299, 300 Ovando, Nicolas´ de, 4, 14, 18–20 proscriptions, 297 Muslim Girls’ Training and General Paciﬁc Movement of the Eastern World, 227, Civilization Class (MGT and GCC), 298, 293 327, 347 Palmares, 101 University of Islam, 298 Panama, 21–22 whites as devils, 298, 301–315 Peace Movement of Ethiopia, 213 stressing mathematics, 297, 298 pearl diving, 38 origin accounts, 299–300 Pernambuco, 122–123 scientists and deity, 299–300 Peru, 22, 41–45 Mecca, 300 petitions (Trinidad), 68–69, 72–76 rejection of spirituality, 300–301 Philipse, Frederick, 137–138 Secret Ritual of the Nation of Islam, 310, 316, Pierpoint, Richard, 141 317 Port of Spain (Trinidad), 64, 65, 70, 72 Teaching for the Lost-Found Nation of Islam in Portugal a Mathematical Way, 310 and early slave trade, 7–8 Yakub (Yacub), 310–313 Portuguese Inquisition, 12 teaching on W.D. Fard Muhammad’s racial “post-emancipation Africans,” 76 makeup, 314–315 celebration of blackness, 315 Quare,´ 65, 66, 67, 68 equivocation regarding Africa, 315–317 quilombos, 101 The Supreme Wisdom, 317 and light-complected leadership, 317 ar-Rahman, Abd, 169–170, 171, 172, 176, “tricknology,” 319, 322–323 177, 178, 179, 181–182 critique of Christianity, 319–321 Rainsford, William, 55 women, 323–328 Red Bones, 185 eschatology, 328–330 Redding, Grover Cleveland, 212 National Association for the Advancement of Reyniers, Grietje, 132–134 Colored People (NAACP), 208–209 Richardson-Bey, Juanita, 261–262 National Association of Afro-American Rio de Janeiro, 92 Women, 209 Muslims in, 118–122 National Association of Colored Women, Rio de la Plata, 45–46 209 Roanoke, 192 National Baptist Convention, 209 Robinson, Ida, 211 negros de ganho (ganhadores), 95, 100, Rosicrucianism, 234–235, 236, 238, 275 107 negros de jalof, 8, 9, 13, 20. See also gelofes sadaka (sar` ak´ a`), 78 Nevis, 48 Sadiq, Muhammad, 251–253 New Amsterdam, 128 sahil¯ , 10 New Netherlands, 128 Said, Muhammad Ali b. (Nicholas Said), slavery in, 129 182–183 Angolans in, 130–131 Said, Umar b. (Omar ben Said), 168, 172, New Thought, 235–236 176–177, 178, 179 Newark St. Augustine, 144 as site of Canaanite Temple, 206–207 Saint Domingue, 33, 47. See also Haiti Nicobe´ (Sule), 106 St. Helena, 143 Nigeria, 46 Saint Kitts, 48 Nguni-speakers, 27–28 St. Simons, 143, 153–158, 172 North Africans. See also Moors Sale,´ 132 in North America, 147–149, 185, Salee, Abraham Van, 134 186 Salee, Anthony Jansen Van (Anthony Jansen North Carolina, 151 Van Vaes), 131–134 Nupe, 94, 101 Samba, 169–170, 172

384 Index

sambo, 23–24 sugar Sambo in Venezuela, in New York, 136 in Barbados, 48, 50 in North America, 147 in Jamaica, 49 Sandersville, Georgia, 288 in Trinidad, 63 Sanim (Luıs),´ 106 in Saint Domingue, 82–83 Santa Elena colony, 191–193 in Brazil, 91 Santo Domingo, 4 Sulayman, Auyba b. (Job Ben Solomon), 167, Sapelo, 143, 153–158, 161, 171–172, 183, 171, 179, 180 205 Sullivan, Ben, 154 Saviour’s Day, 35 7–358 , 369, 370 Swahili coast, 28 Selim, 148–149 as source for enslaved in Brazil, 91 Senegambia, 5–6, 7–8, 9–12, 13, 15–21, Swift, Sambo, 199, 200 24–27, 33, 39–45, 46. 0See also negros de jalof; gelofes; Mande; mandingas; Wolof; tafsır¯ , 108 Fulbe Takahashi, Satokata, 283, 294 as source for Latin America, 3, 9, 20, 21, Takis, Ashima, 294 24–25, 33 Tamerlan, 86–87 as source of origin for Caribbean, 47, 48 Ta’rıkh¯ al-Fattash¯ , 221 as source of origin for Jamaica, 50 Ta’rıkh¯ as-Sud¯ an¯ , 221 as source of origin for Trinidad, 69 Tate, Sonsyrea, 327 as source of origin for Louisiana, 145 Terrell, Mary Church, 209 as source of origin for North America, 146, tessuba´ (teceba´), 122 162–164, 183 Tobago, 77 Seville Trinidad, 47 and slave trade, 8, 13 growth of enslaved population, 62–64 sharı¯ aë American freedpersons in, 64–65 in Futa Jallon, 51 tri-racial isolates, 185–186 in Trinidad, 70 Tristao,˜ Nuno, 7–8 in imperial Songhay, 363 Tuareg, 8 Sharrieff, Raymond, 35 7, 369 Ture, Askia al-h. ajj¯ Muhammad, 362–363 as-Siddiq, Abu Bakr (Edward Donellan, Turks, 131, 134 Edward Donlan, Edward Doulan), 53–54, Turks (South Carolina), 185, 186 55, 56–61, 179 Turner, Lorenzo, 157–158, 159, 205 Sierra Leone Turure, 65, 66 as source for Latin America, 9, 20, 21, 33 Tuskegee Institute, 210 as source of origin for Caribbean, 47, 48 Twain, Mark, 182 as source of origin for Jamaica, 50 as source of origin for North America, 146, Umayyads, 6 164–165 Universal Hagar’s Spiritual Church, 210–211, Siete Partidas, Las, 4 302. See also Hurley, George W. silver mines, 7–23 Universal Negro Improvement Association. See Sisse, Muhammad (Felix Ditt), 67–68, 69, 71, Garvey, Marcus 76 Unto Thee I Grant, 232–233. See also Circle slave revolts Seven Koran Hispaniola, 3, 16 Urban League, 209 Puerto Rico, 18–20 social stratiﬁcation and Islam Valenica in North America, 173–183, 184 and slave trade, 8 Society for the Development of Our Own, 284, Venezuela, 38–40 294 South Carolina, 143, 150–151, 158–162 Walker, David S’Quash, 148, 172, 174, 177 his Appeal and whites, 303–308

Index 385

Walloons, 128 imbalances in Trinidad, 78 walo (patako), 107 perceptions in Brazil, 93 Washington, Booker T., 259, 320–321 imbalances in Brazil, 96–97 Wells, Ida B., 209 in maleˆ revolt, 106–107 Wesorts, 185 along coastal Georgia, 156–157 West African “secret” societies Daughters of Isis, 246 inﬂuence on Freemasonry in United States, as leaders in Moorish Science, 260–262 247–248 exploitation of, 272 West Central Africa in Nation of Islam, 323–328 as source for Latin America, 9, 19, 24, World’s Columbian Exposition (World’s Fair), 33 Chicago, 245–246 as source for Trinidad, 63, 69 as source for Brazil, 91, 94, 116 Yoruba, 36, 46. See also Nagosˆ . West India Regiments, 65–66, 69 in Trinidad, 77 Wolof, 9, 20, 26, 34, 36, 42–43, 162–164 in Brazil, 94, 96, 101–104, 112–114 women and transsaharan slave trade, 6 Zaﬁ, 29–30 enslaved in Spain, 9 zambo, 23. See sambo esclavos blancas, 30 Zeferina, 102–103 African women and Spanish men, 42–43 Zurara, Gomes Eanes de, 8