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These De Doctorat De THESE DE DOCTORAT DE L'UNIVERSITE DE NANTES COMUE UNIVERSITE BRETAGNE LOIRE ECOLE DOCTORALE N° 600 Ecole doctorale Ecologie, Géosciences, Agronomie et Alimentation Spécialité : Sciences de la Terre et des Planètes Par Chloé LARRE H2O and S behaviors in martian magmatic system: An experimental and spectroscopic approach Thèse présentée et soutenue à Nantes, le 25 Novembre 2019 Unité de recherche : UMR CNRS 6112 LPG Rapporteurs avant soutenance : Gaëlle PROUTEAU Maître de Conférence (HDR), Institut des Sciences de la Terre d’Orléans Fleurice PARAT Maître de Conférence (HDR), Géosciences Montpellier Composition du Jury : Président : Olivier GRASSET Professeur, LPG Nantes Examinateurs : Violaine SAUTTER Directrice de recherche, MNHN Sorbonne Université Bruno REYNARD Directeur de recherche, ENS Lyon Sylvestre MAURICE Astronome 1ère classe, IRAP Toulouse Dir. de thèse : Yann MORIZET Maître de Conférence (HDR), LPG Nantes Co-dir. de thèse : Nicolas MANGOLD Directeur de recherche, LPG Nantes 1 H2O and S behaviors in martian magmatic system: An experimental and spectroscopic approach. 2 3 Remerciements Je pense que la première personne à remercier doit forcément être mon directeur de stage, et de thèse, Yann Morizet. Merci de m’avoir donné ma chance, il y a 5 ans, en acceptant de m’apprendre les bases de la pétrologie expérimentale et de m’y avoir donné goût (en même temps la géologie de terrain ce n’était pas vraiment mon truc). Tu as montré beaucoup de patience, en particulier au début du stage, de la thèse et peut être sur la fin aussi (enfin bref, tout du long quoi). Tu as prouvé à Nicolas Mangold que je pouvais être une bonne candidate pour ce sujet de thèse. Je te remercie à présent Nicolas d’avoir écouté Yann et d’avoir accepté le rôle de Directeur en premier lieu puis Co-directeur. Lorsque les résultats n’arrivaient pas, tu étais là pour remettre les choses à plat et calmer le stress grandissant. La complémentarité de mes deux directeurs de thèse m’a permis de réaliser jusqu’au bout ce travail de thèse. Par la même occasion je remercie les membres de mon jury pour leur participation à ma soutenance, et en particulier mes deux rapportrices Gaëlle Prouteau et Fleurice Parat. Mon moral tout au long de ces trois ans n’aurait pas pu être aussi bon sans mes collègues, que dis-je, mes amis du laboratoire. Ludivine, Maï, Maxime, Kémi, Kévin, Mathilde. Les parties de saboteurs, puis de Molky, étaient de bons moyens de décompresser à midi. Merci de m’avoir supporté, surtout pendant les pauses de 16h (et de midi aussi finalement). Merci pour les soirées en pleine semaine et le retour difficile au labo le matin. Merci de votre entraide. Un remerciement plus particulier à mes co-bureau qui ont enduré un tout petit plus mes sauts d’humeur/crise de nerfs, merci Sneha et Anthony pour votre soutien ! Enfin, je remercie tous les membres du LPG, notamment Christèle Guivel, Carole La, Antoine Bézos et Philippe Navarro pour m’avoir accompagné dans les différentes manipes au laboratoire et accompagné dans mes recherches. Malgré leurs difficultés à comprendre mon sujet d’étude (et mes études universitaires en général), ma famille m’a soutenue tout du long, et je les en remercie. Avoir un ovni (c’est plutôt approprié avec le sujet) comme fille parmi un professeur d’histoire et des juristes, je compatis ! Je ne peux pas remercier ma famille sans avoir une pensée pour petite mamie, mamie chignon et papi René. Ils ont toujours cru en moi. Je fninirais ces remerciements par un membre de ma famille plus particulier, Vincent. Ces trois années ont été mouvementées, et je te remercie de ta patience. Merci de m’avoir soutenue tout du long, ça ne devait pas être facile. Tu as toujours été là. Et je compte sur toi pour continuer ainsi sur les 50 à 60 prochaines années à venir. 4 Résumé étendu Mars est la planète la plus étudiée de notre système solaire. De par sa position au sein du système solaire, plus particulièrement parmi les planètes telluriques, Mars est une planète attractive pour les missions spatiales. En effet, aujourd’hui, plus de 40 missions spatiales ont été menées sur Mars. Comprendre son évolution, caractériser sa structure interne et comprendre son passé permettra de mieux comprendre comment les planètes telluriques, plus particulièrement la Terre, se sont formées. Mars possède une taille 2 fois plus petite que celle de la Terre avec un rayon moyen de 3389 km. Actuellement, l’atmosphère martienne est riche en CO2 et la pression atmosphérique très basse, de l’ordre de 6 mbar. Cependant, plusieurs indices obtenus à la surface impliquent la présence d’une atmosphère passée plus épaisse et riche en éléments volatils. De par l’absence apparente de plaques tectoniques, la surface de Mars a pu conserver les traces géologiques de son passé. Grâce aux missions spatiales orbitales telle que Mars Global Surveyor (en orbite depuis 2005), la minéralogie et géologie de surface ont pu être mieux contraintes. Ainsi, la surface de Mars est recouverte en majorité de roches volcaniques, de composition basaltique. Ces roches proviennent d’une activité volcanique accrue pendant les temps primitifs de Mars, soit pendant le Noachien et l’Hespérien principalement (< 3 Ga). Cette activité a permis l’édification du volcan le plus important de tout le système solaire, Olympus Mons, avec un diamètre basal atteignant les 500 km et 25 km de hauteur. Suite à cette intense activité volcanique martienne, la présence de minéraux mafiques tels qu’olivine, pyroxènes, plagioclase ont été détectés à la surface. Ces minéraux se retrouvent liés à des roches sédimentaires, recouvrant aussi la surface de Mars. Parmi les minéraux secondaires formés par altération, des sulfates, carbonates, phyllosilicates et oxydes de fer prédominent sur Mars. Ces minéraux mafiques et sédimentaires ont aussi été observés dans les météorites martiennes obtenues sur Terre. Ainsi, l’histoire géologique de Mars a pu être découpée en plusieurs ères : l’ère des phyllosilicates au Noachien (< 3.5 Ga), des sulfates fin Noachien et Hespérien (< 3 Ga), puis l’ère des oxydes de fer à l’Amazonien (3 Ga et aujourd’hui). Ces trois ères caractéristiques traduisent l’évolution climatique de la surface de Mars. La présence de phyllosicilates et sulfates est une preuve indéniable de la présence passée d’eau liquide sur Mars. De plus, différentes structures géologiques traduisant des traversées de fluides aqueux impliquent que de l’eau liquide était présente pendant les temps primitifs de la planète. Cependant, pour maintenir de l’eau liquide, l’atmosphère martienne doit être épaisse, et donc riches en espèces volatiles tels que CO2, H2O, S, CH4. La présence de sulfates, chlorures, carbonates, fluorures et apatites impliquent l’existence des éléments volatils S, C, O, Cl, F et P. Ces éléments volatils ont une origine volcanique et ont dû contribuer à l’élaboration d’une atmosphère primitive dense lors de leur dégazage. En premier lieu, les objectifs principaux des missions martiennes étaient de déterminer si la surface de Mars contenait de la vie. Les échecs de ces missions ont permis de redéfinir les objectifs pour envisager des signes de vies microscopiques passés, lorsque de l’eau liquide était présente à la surface. La future mission spatiale Mars 2020 est un rover qui comportera à la fois d’anciens instruments similaires au rover Curiosity déjà présent sur Mars ; mais aussi de 5 nouveaux outils pour mieux caractériser la surface. Parmi ces nouveaux outils, l’instrument SuperCam comportera un spectromètre Raman. Cette thèse est articulée autour de l’étude des matériaux analogues aux roches volcaniques martiennes par spectroscopie Raman pour définir une base de données pour la future mission spatiale Mars 2020. Couplée à l’élaboration de cette base de données spectrales, le comportement des éléments volatils H, O et S a été étudié dans des analogues aux basaltes martiens synthétisés à hautes pressions et températures. Comprendre le comportement de ces éléments dans un milieu atypique que sont les magmas basaltiques de Mars, contribue à établir le budget des éléménets volatils liés au transfert de ces magmas vers la surface. Ces budgets permettront de comprendre comment a pu se former une atmosphère dense ayant maintenue de l’eau liquide. Cette thèse comporte trois sujets de recherche. Un premier chapitre permet l’introduction et description des différentes méthodes expérimentales et analytiques employées. Une étude expérimentale sur le comportement de H2O et du S dans des verres basaltiques de compositions similaires aux basaltes martiens, a été réalisée et détaillée dans deux chapitres (Chapitre II et III). Le troisième sujet de recherche, et quatrième chapitre, développe la réalisation d’une quantification de S dans des mélanges de minéraux mafiques et sulfates, que nous pouvons retrouver à la surface de Mars via la spectroscopie Raman. Ces minéraux sont issus de l’altération de roches volcaniques. Chapitre I La pétrologie expérimentale est un outil de plus en plus utilisé par les géologues afin de modéliser le comportement des magmas en profondeur. En effet, les roches volcaniques récoltées aux pieds des volcans ont très souvent perdu de l’information, notamment sur la quantité d’éléments volatils présents dans les magmas. Ainsi, synthétiser des analogues aux roches volcaniques naturelles permet de comprendre quelles étaient les conditions de pression, température, d’oxydo-réduction et la teneur en éléments volatils du magma avant son ascension et dégazage. Pour réaliser ces synthèses, plusieurs outils sont mis à disposition permettant d’échantillonner différentes gammes de pressions et températures. Pour des basses pressions, l’autoclave à chauffage interne permet de synthétiser des roches à moins de 15 - 20 km de profondeur sur Terre. Au contraire, l’enclume multi-diamant va permettre de réaliser des expériences correspondant au manteau voire jusqu’au noyau externe sur Terre.
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