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Bokkeveld Group: Cape Supergroup), Western Cape Province, South Africa

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Bokkeveld Group: Cape Supergroup), Western Cape Province, South Africa Facies analysis, palaeo – environmental successions and sequence stratigraphy of the Early to Middle Devonian Ceres Subgroup (Bokkeveld Group: Cape Supergroup), Western Cape Province, South Africa Cameron Roy Penn-Clarke Volume I A dissertation submitted as fulfilment for the degree of Master of Science at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg Johannesburg, 2013 I Declaration I, Cameron Roy Penn-Clarke, declare that this Dissertation is my own, unaided work. It is being submitted for the Degree of Master of Science at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. It has not been submitted before for any degree or examination at any other University. _______________________________________ (Signature of candidate) On the________day of_________20 at_____________ II Abstract From fieldwork intensive research on the sedimentology, stratigraphy and palaeontology of the Ceres Subgroup (Bokkeveld Group: Cape Supergroup), a total of 12 lithofacies and 8 lithofacies associations have been recognised and described between the farm Grootrivierhoogte (GPS: 32°38'55"S; 19°24'43"E) and the town of Wupperthal (GPS: 32°18'16"S; 19°14'24.88"E) in the Cederberg, Western Cape, South Africa. Based on comparison with modern and ancient marginal – marine and shallow – marine depositional environments, the lithofacies associations recognised in this project are representative of sedimentation within 8 distinct sub – environments. These sub – environments, in turn, have been grouped into 2 larger environments of deposition, namely a wave and storm dominated shoreline and a wave and tidal influenced estuary. Wave and storm dominated shoreline environments are restricted to the Gydo – Gamka and Voorstehoek – Hex River Systems only. Here Lithofacies Associations A – D represent sedimentation within Os, OT – dLSF, pLSF and USF – Beach Complex sub – environments respectively. Both systems are regressive and conformable with one another following transgression. Palaeontological finds within these systems indicate that Os sub – environments are the most species rich and are dominated by typical Malvinokaffric Realm Biota. Fossils found in interpreted Os sub – environments are usually disarticulated with a low degree of damage. This suggests a major benthic Os lifestyle for the Malvinokaffric Realm Biota in calm marine conditions below storm wave base. OT – dLSF and pLSF sub – environments contain a more restricted assemblage of fossils and are restricted to the brachiopods Australocoelia cf. tourteloti and Australospirifer sp. indet. as well as crinoids (based on disarticulated ossicles). Fossils found in OT – dLSF and pLSF sub – environments are always disarticulated and highly damaged suggesting storm and wave activity entraining fossils (prior to fossilisation) and damaging them at or above storm wave base within these sub – environments. Plant fossils within these sub – environments are all interpreted to be allocthonous and were brought in with offshore directed storm and wave activity. Dubious plant rootlet ichnofossils have III been found in USF – Beach complex environments and possibly may be from a Bs sub – environment. A wave and tide influenced estuarine environment is present only in the Tra-Tra – Boplaas System. Lithofacies Associations E – H represent sedimentation within respective outer estuary (channelised tidal flat), inner estuary (lagoon to washover flats) and inner estuary (estuary bay to subaqueous and subaerial bayhead estuary) sub – environments. Australospirifier sp. indet. fossils have been found, often within communities, in interpreted washover fan sub – environments in addition to plant fossils, plant rootlet ichnofossils and Skolithos sp. and surface cast ichnofossils suggesting a mixed salinity environment with marsh development in lagoons. Coalified plant fossils are most numerous in inner estuary environments. The facies control of Malvinokaffric Realm fossil occurrences indicate that biostratigraphy for the Bokkeveld Group does not appear possible as the majority Malvinokaffric Realm Biota appear to have existed within an Os sub – environment. A sequence stratigraphic analysis of the Ceres Subgroup has revealed a total of five parasequences. These are bound by M.R.S. sequence stratigraphic surfaces and have been associated with 3rd order T-R cycles. Parasequences 1.1 – 1.4 represent T-R cycles within the Gydo – Gamka and Voorstehoek – Hex River Systems. The Gydo – Gamka and Voorstehoek – Hex River Systems are regressive and conformable with each other with the Gamka-Voorstehoek transition representing a T.S.T. The Gydo – Gamka System is associated with the 1st 2nd order flooding event into the Cape Basin marking the start of Bokkeveld Group sedimentation during the late Emsian and is hypothesised to have started earlier into Rietvlei time sedimentation. A total of 3 sea level rises and falls appear to have been evident during Voorstehoek – Hex River time sedimentation as parasequences 1.2 – 1.4 are present within it. The contact between the Hex River and Tra-Tra Formations is paraconformable and appears to represent a S.R. – U associated with a large and 2nd 2nd order flooding event within the Cape Basin. The Tra-Tra – Boplaas System is a part of parasequence 2.1 and is overall transgressive representing a T.S.T. which is hypothesised to continue into the Waboomberg Formation and terminate at an M.R.S. somewhere in the Wupperthal Formation. IV For my grandfather, George Melbourne Penn-Clarke 17 February 1927 – 01 February 2013 V Acknowledgements I would like to personally acknowledge the numerous people and organisations involved in this dissertation, without which it would not be a reality. • My supervisors, Prof. Bruce Rubidge, Dr. Zubair Jinnah and Dr. John Almond for their supervision, support, corrections of various drafts and helpful discussions. • The National Research Fund (NRF) and the Palaeontological Scientific Trust (PAST) for financial support. • The South African Heritage Resources Agency for granting me a fossil collecting permit. • The farmers and shareholders of the Cederberg Wilderness Area for allowing access onto their properties and keeping me sane. Special mention must be made to the Marais and Vorster families at Mount Ceder for accommodation. • Ms. Rika du Plessis, manager of Matjiesrivier Reserve for facilitating my stay at the Reserve and for allowing ranger Mr. Willem Titus to help me during fieldwork exercises in Wupperthal. • Profs. Arthur Boucot (Oregon State University), Peter Isaacson (University of Idaho), Dr. Norton Hiller (University of Canterbury) and Dr. John Maisey (American Museum of Natural History) for insightful discussions on the Malvinokaffric Realm Biota and furnishing of information. • Dr. Anthony Tankard (Tankard Industries) for insightful discussions on Cape Basin Geology and information. • Mr. Eugene Bergh of Iziko Museum, Cape Town for allowing me access to the invertebrate collections. • Ms. Claire Browning from Council for Geoscience Bellville, for discussions on the Bokkeveld Group and facilitating access to the palaeontological collections at CGS Bellville. • Dr. John Almond and his wife, Mrs. Madelon Tusenius for giving me a warm meal and a place to stay whilst in Cape Town. • My family who have supported my geological passions and endeavours since a child. • My girlfriend, Ms. Natalie Brand, for her support during the best and worst of times. VI Contents Page Declaration I Abstract II Dedication IV Acknowledgements V Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Palaeotectonic Setting of the Cape Basin and the Cape Supergroup 5 1.1.1 Base of the Cape Basin 6 1.1.2 Subsidence Analysis of the Cape Basin 7 1.1.3 Models for the Tectonic Setting of the Cape Basin 11 1.1.3.1 Back-arc Basin Model (Catuneanu, et al. (1998)) 12 1.1.3.2 Margin-sag-Interior-sag Basin (Broquet, (1992)) 13 1.1.3.3 Episutural Aulacogen Basin Model (Tankard, et al. (1982)) 15 1.1.3.4 Episutural Sag Basin Model (Tankard, et al. (2009)) 15 1.2 Structural Features Associated with the Cape Fold Belt 16 1.3 Geology of the Bokkeveld Group 19 1.3.1 Palaeoenvironmental Setting of the Bokkeveld Group 19 1.3.2 Allocyclic vs. Austocyclic Models for Megacycle Cyclicity 21 1.4 Lithostratigraphy of the Bokkeveld Group in the Western Cape Province 24 1.5 Palaeontology of the Bokkeveld Group 26 1.5.1 The Malvinokaffric Realm 27 1.5.2 The Faunal Assemblage and Attributes of the Malvinokaffric Realm 29 1.5.3 Previous Attempts at Establishing a Biostratigraphy for the 29 Bokkeveld Group VII Chapter 2 Aims and Methods 31 2.1 Aims 31 2.2 Materials and Methods 31 Chapter 3 Geology of Study Area 33 3.1 General Geology and Geography of Study Area 33 3.2 Introduction to Sedimentary Facies Analysis 34 3.3 Current lithofacies model for the Bokkeveld Group (Theron, 1972, Tankard 35 and Barwis, 1982, Theron and Loock, 1988) 3.3.1 Storm/wave dominated Delta Model 35 (Theron, 1972, Theron and Loock, 1988) 3.3.2 Mixed wave/tidal dominated Delta Model 36 (Tankard and Barwis, 1982) 3.4 Lithofacies Descriptions 41 3.4.1 Lithofacies 1 (Clayshale Lithofacies) 42 3.4.2 Lithofacies 2 (Siltstone Lithofacies) 43 3.4.2.1 Sub-lithofacies 2.1 44 (Plane -laminated Siltstone Sub- lithofacies) 3.4.2.2 Sub-lithofacies 2.2 44 (Ripple bedded Siltstone Sub-lithofacies) 3.4.3 Lithofacies 3 46 (Heterolithic Silty Sandstone and Mudstone Lithofacies) 3.4.4 Lithofacies 4 49 (Hummocky and Swaley Cross Stratified Sandstone Lithofacies) 3.4.4.1 Palaeocurrent Indicators Associated with Lithofacies 4 53 VIII 3.4.5 Lithofacies 5 (Coarse Grained Ripple
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