Mao's Third Front Covell F. Meyskens Index More Information Www

Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-48955-3 — Mao's Third Front Covell F. Meyskens Index More Information

Index

acceleration of Third Front construction automotive sector, 15, 29, 79, 116, 202, agriculture, impact on, 70 215, 225, 235 campaign time, 27–28, 123 see also First Automobile Works; Second Gezhouba Dam, 154 Automobile Works railroad projects, 126, 143, 208 security concerns, 63, 72–73, 159 Bachman, David, 17 administration Base, 61, 130 central ministries, 220 construction, 133 centralization, 8, 88–89 deaths, 133 ministerial regulation Cultural Revolution, 144–145 Metallurgy Ministry, 222 location, 130–131 Ministry of Post and mobilization of workforce, 131–133 Telecommunications, 223–224 self-reliance, 131–132 Railroad Ministry, 220–222 basic industry, 150 Transportation Ministry, 222–223 Third Five Year Plan, 51, 55–56 see also Coal Ministry; Metallurgy Third Front construction, 28, 58, 59, Industry; Oil Ministry; Post and 82, 128 Telecommunications Ministry; see also development blocks; economic Railroad Ministry; standardization; achievements Transportation Ministry Belt and Road initiative, 236 aerospace industry, 12, 15, 127, 152, 218 Big Third Front, 4, 10, 11, 15, 60, 103, 104, Base, 61, 130–131 125–129 agriculture centralized oversight, 8, 88, 220 Third Five Year Plan, 7, 51–52, 56, 76 Bo Yibo, 77 Third Front construction basic industry, development of, 128 concerns regarding agricultural policy, Cultural Revolution, 147 70, 71, 77, 79–80, 81, 99–102, 228 ﬁrst mobilization orders, 84 airplanes ﬁrst report on relocating enterprises, air raids, concerns about, 3, 4, 47, 159, 86–87 170, 209, 230 Panzhihua industrial complex, 126, 128, aviation sector, 127, 129, 209, 217, 230 166, 172–173 American imperialism, 21, 37, 47, 62, 64, prioritizing production, 166 70, 96, 97, 123, 132, 151, 162, 174, Third Five Year Plan, 51, 68, 71–72, 75 176, 177, 229 Third Front, attitude towards, 65–66, see also Sino-American relations 84–85, 87–88 austerity, 27, 42, 76, 166, 189 Bramall, Chris, 17, 28 building socialism, 10 Brown, Jeremy, 17, 31, 34, 115 consumer austerity, 3, 232 Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 229 malnutrition, 180 building materials, 12, 173, 219, 225 Panzhihua, 176–182, 187–200 repressed consumption, 10 capital constraints, 52, 71 worker discontent, 194 mobilization of the labor force, 59

272

Index 273

capitalist roaders, 124–125, 141, 143, 144, anticapitalism, 20 148, 224 conceptions of the Cold War, 20–21 Base, 144–145, 224 militarization of China, 22 Cultural Revolution, 146 social engineering, 19–20 First Mechanical Engineering see also Sino-American relations; Sino- Department, 148 Soviet relations science and technology, 232 Connelly, Matthew, 19 see also Cultural Revolution consumer goods, production of, 3, 228 Carter, Jimmy, 229 consumer shortages, 31, 198, 232 cement and building materials, 12, 173, see also austerity 219, 225 counterrevolutionaries, 97, 118, 144, 151, Central Military Commission, 15, 45, 46, 159, 162 48, 63, 64, 89, 92, 152, 157, 231 cross-strait relations, 48, 60 Cheek, Timothy, 34 cultural activities, 36, 38, 180–182, Chen Boda, 67, 75 195–196 Chen Chao, 17 Cultural Revolution, 140 Chen Donglin, 8, 18, 34, 35, 146, 205 Cheng Zihua, 98–100 Chen Jian, 8 militarization of Third Front Chen Xi, 203 construction, 123–125 Chen Yi, 77 suspicion and paranoia, 140–141 Cheng Zihua, 86, 97–98, 125 Third Front construction conduct during the Cultural Revolution, contradictory goals, 140–146 98–100 impact on, 28, 141, 224 Panzhihua industrial complex, 126, Zhou Enlai, 142, 147 170–171 see also Shanghai Chiang Kai-shek, 6, 24, 45, 46, 73, 96 see also Taiwan Daqing oilﬁeld, 8, 42, 215 children, 35 militarization of workforce, 53 education, 184, 189, 199–200, 233, 238 model of economic development, as a, family separation, 81, 108, 111, 182–184, 52, 68–69 196–200, 234 mobilization of workforce, 53 hardship, 197–199 oil production, 53 mobilization, 111–112 success, 53–54 nutrition, 197–198 social engineering, 29 Chinese Civil War (1927–1947), 4, 22–23 defense-centered developmental strategy, Chinese Foreign Ministry, 48 25, 66, 209–210 Ci Jiwei, 31 Defense Ministry, 110, 127, 151 coal industry, 9, 12, 15, 29, 202 defense sector, 209, 217 demand, 235 see also defense-centered developmental development block, 211–214 strategy; nuclear weapons program North China, 211 Deng Xiaoping, 44 reorientation to south, 195, 211 Cold War politics, 39 Southwest Coal Construction ﬁrst mobilization orders, 85 Headquarters, 211 Mao Zedong, relations with, 7, 74, standardization, 224 97, 141 see also Coal Ministry; Liupanshui coal new era of peace and development, 232 mines Sino-American relations, 229–230 Coal Ministry, 12, 15, 89, 127, 211, Sino-Soviet relations, 229 investment, 77, 212 Third Five Year Plan, 6, 7, 29, 51, 52 coastal development, 3, 4, 7, 29, 37, 42, 51, Third Front, 52, 56, 58–59, 67–68, 73, 54, 229 75, 82, 147, 162 see also Third Five Year Plan desertion Cold War Panzhihua industrial complex, 188–189 central driving force, 19, 227 development blocks, 28, 201–202 China coal development block, 211–214

274 Index

development blocks (cont.) negative impact of Third Front, 2–3, 101, electricity development block, 216–220 147, 183–184 oil development block, 214–216 source of labor, as a, 83, 84, 87, 89, 143 Diamant, Neil, 30 see also coastal development; Shanghai First Machine- Building Ministry, 12, 90, economic achievements 103, 104 development of mineral resources, First Opium War (1840), 22 28, 216 Foucault, Michel, 30 efﬁcient factories, 28 Four Clean-Ups movement, 74, 75 railroad sector, 28 see also development blocks gender imbalance Economic Commission, 129 Panzhihua industrial complex, 182 relocation orders, 88 Great Leap Forward, 2, 3, 6 supervisory role, 85, 88 failure of, 25, 37, 40, 101 Third Front Construction Support and famine, 3, 40, 44, 101 Examination Small Group, 85 infrastructure projects, importance of, 40 Third Front recruitment, 89–90, 126 Mao’s reservations, 7 physical criteria, 90 railroad projects, 126 political criteria, 90 Soviet model compared, 40 economic depression, 3, 203 Third Front compared, 10–12 see also Great Leap Forward transition to a communist economy, 25 educational facilities, 233–234 Gu Xiu, 194–195 Panzhihua industrial complex, 189, Guangdong 199–200 Small Third Front, 11 electricity sector war preparations, 60, 72 electrical grids, 15, 29, 127, 132, 202, guerilla warfare, 10, 21, 27, 46, 49–50, 60, 206, 217, 235 173, 210 electricity production, 29, 154, 217 Gulf of Tonkin incident (1964), 7, 27, 63, 65 see also hydropower Chinese response to, 9, 42 electronics industry, 12, 202, 219 US response to, 9 standardization, 224 see also Sino-American relations; expansion of Third Front construction, 71, Vietnam War 76–78 Guobin Yang, 124 Guomindang (GMD), 23, 135 Factory, 9334, 206 see also Chiang Kai-shek; Chinese Civil factory efﬁciency, 28, 29 War (1927–1947); Taiwan family separation Gurtov, Mel, 17 authorized leave, 196 children, 81, 108, 111, 182–184, He Haoju, 18 196–200, 234 He Long, 45, 103 mobilization of workforce, 108 Hershatter, Gail, 27, 36 Panzhihua, 182–184, 196–200 housing, 176–178 morale, impact on, 183, 234 family housing, 197 relocation of family members, 196, 234 hydropower, 12, 15, 202, 217, 235 see also children Gezhouba Dam, 154–155, 156–159 famine, 77, 97 Three Gorges Dam, 153–159 Great Leap Forward, 3, 6, 40, 44, 52, 101, 127 imported machinery, 228–229 Feigenbaum, Evan, 143 industrialization policy see Third Front Fifth Machine-Building Ministry, construction 86, 131 infrastructure First Automobile Works, 79, 116 standardization, 88, 225 First Five Year Plan, 2, 25, 40, 58, 204 see also Infrastructure Commission; return on investment, 205 Infrastructure Corps; railroad First Front, 4, 57, 60 projects; roads development

Index 275

Infrastructure Commission Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963), 50 supervisory role, 88 Lin Biao, 41 Infrastructure Corps American imperialism, 151 disbanding of, 144, 231 Lin Biao clique, 152, 153 formation of, 130 military strategy, 46–47, 152, 153 Gezhouba Dam, 157 Soviet revisionism, 151 see also Base Lin Yishan, 155, 156 inland development, 3, 4, 9, 28, 29, 32, 41, little society, 206 96, 201, 210–211 Liu Shaoqi, 40, 44, 49 Small Third Front, 4, 235 Mao Zedong, relations with, 7, 141 transfer of machine-building factories, 62 Third Five Year Plan, 7, 41, 51 see also Third Front construction Third Front, attitude towards, 58 integration of inland areas, 202 Liupanshui coal mines, 55, 58, 61, 67, 125, 127 Jiuquan industrial complex, 54, 58 factional struggles, 195 Johnson, Lyndon, 9, 63 mobilization of workforce Johnson, Matthew, 31 rural workforce, 89 urban workforce, 89 Kaishan, 131, 144 Shuicheng industrial complex see also Base factional struggles, 145–146, 235 Kander, Astrid, 28, 202 see also coal industry Kang Shi’en, 53 living conditions (Panzhihua), 171–172 Khrushchev, Nikita cultural activities/entertainment, Mao, relationship with, 7, 42, 44, 62–63, 180–182, 195–196 227 drinking water, 178–179 see also Sino-Soviet relations; Soviet food, 179–180 revisionism gender imbalance, 182 Kissinger, Henry, 229 housing, 176–178 Kong Qingde, 159–160 safety and public health, 187–188 Korean War (1950–1953), 7, 9, 20, 64, sanitation, 178–179 97, 112 Lu Dadong, 86 Kosygin, Alexei, 151 Lu Zhengcao, 64, 83, 86, 135, 139 Kuomintang see Guomindang (GMD) Luo Ruiqing, 9, 49, 52, 54, 56, 57, 58, 64 central oversight, importance of, 87 labor camps defense planning, 128–129 mobilization of workforce compared, 80 ﬁrst mobilization orders, 84, 85 Leese, Daniel, 124 Small Third Front, 129 Li Fuchun Third Front, attitude to, 65 austerity, 166 Lüthi, Lorenz, 17 basic industry, development of, 128 ﬁrst mobilization orders, 84 MacFarquhar, Roderick, 129, 142 Mao Zedong, relations with, 7, 59, 67, machinery manufacturing, 12, 67, 96, 68–69 162, 225 Panzhihua industrial complex, 172–173 Mao Zedong removal from Third Front planning, 68 attitude towards Soviet revisionism, 7, small planning committee, 75 12–14, 37, 47, 123, 162, 224, Third Five Year Plan, 7, 51, 54, 56 229–230 Third Front, attitude towards, 58, 61, 65, concerns regarding implementation 69–71, 73, 74–75, 83–85, 128 speed, 66–68 Li Jingquan, 85, 86, 99, 126, 139 criticisms of Third Five Year Plan, 56 Li Xiannian, 77 Cultural Revolution, 140 Great Leap Forward, 100 see also Cultural Revolution railroad projects, 214 death, 39 Li Yiqing Great Leap Forward, 40 agricultural policy, 101 mobilization policy, 82–84

276 Index

Mao Zedong (cont.) basic rules, 89–90 proposals for Third Front, 4–6, 7, central oversight, 87–89 41–42, 140 Daqing oilfield, 53 CCP support, 8, 42–43 Economic Commission’s basic rules, marriage, 109, 113, 139, 197, 237 89–90 Metallurgy Ministry, 12, 159, 165, 167, first mobilization orders, 84–87 186, 222 two labor systems, 84–85 investment, 212 grassroots support, 114–121 militarization of China inland leaders, perspective of, 97–102 Chinese Civil War, 22–23 nonpolitical qualifications, 91 Cold War, 22 objective, 122 militarized industrialization, 15–17, Panzhihua Steel, 82 122–125 physical criteria, 90 nuclear weapons program, 25, 44–45 policy, 80 weaknesses, 45 political criteria, 90–91 militarization of Third Front political privilege, as, 80 construction, 125 railroad industry, 64, 83–84 Cold War security threats, 122–123 recruitment criteria, 89–93 Cultural Revolution, 123–125 regulations on usage of rural labor, 91 self-reliance strategy, 122 revolutionary mission, 96–97 militarized industrialization, 66–71, 78, rural concerns, 110–114 122–125, 232 rural militias, 91–93 military capacity, 152 Sent-Down Youth Movement, 203 Chongqing weapons complex, 61, 69, 86, Shanghai leaders, perspective of, 125, 127 102–104 conventional weapons production, 153 Shanghai propaganda guidelines, 95–96 Jiuquan weapons complex, 69 sources of labor nuclear weapons program, 25, 44–45, 50, coastal areas, 82–83 51, 66, 153 First Front cities, 83, 84 mineral exploitation urban concerns, 81, 104–110 mobilization of the workforce, 165 Mongolia mineral resources, 28, 224 Sino-Soviet border tensions, 48–49 see also coal industry; oil sector more measured development, 40, 51 ministerial regulation Metallurgy Ministry, 222, 226 national security Ministry of Post and decreased expenditures, 231 Telecommunications, 223–224 prioritization of, 8, 25, 41, 152 Railroad Ministry, 220–222 China’s international Transportation Ministry, 222–223 vulnerability, 8–10 see also standardization guerilla warfare, 10, 21, 27, 46, 49–50, Ministry of Water Resources and 60, 173, 210 Power, 153 Small Third Front, 4, 11 mobilization meetings, 94–97 Third Front construction, 23, 26, 60 revolutionary mission, 96 worker discipline, 125 mobilization of workforce, 1, 11, 27–28, natural-gas sector, 12, 110, 214, 225 59, 79 Naughton, Barry, 1–2, 8, 17, 28 administration Nixon, Richard, 227 Economic Commission, 89–91 Northwest Third Front Commission, 88 mobilization meetings, 94–97 nuclear weapons program, 25, 44–45, notification, 93 74, 219 oath-swearing ceremony, 94 Lin Biao, 153 Planning Commission, 91 relocation to hidden sites, 50, 51, 66 rural militias, 24, 91–93, 97, 114, 121, 161 oath-swearing ceremony usage of rural labor, 91–93 Base, 61, 132

Index 277

mobilization of workforce, 94 Panzhihua Investigation Team, 82, 83, Office of National Defense Industry, 10, 88, 98, 128 92, 128, 148 Peng Zhen, 53, 56, 58, 73, 77 Oil Ministry, 12, 15, 52, 53, 66, 74, 75, 214 Panzhihua industrial complex, 174–176 oil sector, 15, 29, 202 People’s Liberation Army (PLA), 6, 43, 115 investment, 214 conscription, 111, 122 oil development block, 214–216 labor model, as, 53, 94 standardization, 224 military strategy, 45, 46, 122, 230–232 see also Oil Ministry suppression of political factions, 148, 150 origins of the Third Front, 53–54 see also Red Army China’s international vulnerability People’s Republic of China (PRC) Gulf of Tonkin incident, 9, 63, 66 American imperialism, attitude national security, prioritization towards, 21 of, 8–10 global capitalism, attitude towards, 21 Sino-American relations, 7, 25–26, 27, Soviet revisionism, attitude towards, 21 39, 41, 48–49, 60, 227, 229 petrochemical sector, 29, 202, 225 Sino-Soviet relations, 6–7 petroleum development, 2 international relations, 8–9 demand for, 224, 235 Mao’s proposals, 4–6 see also oil sector Third Five Year Plan, 7–10 Planning Commission, 69, 73 Mao’s animosity, 74 Panzhihua industrial complex, 54, 58, 61, reform, 74–75 67, 69, 125, 127 relocation orders, 88 children, 184 small planning committee, 75 nutrition, 197–199 Third Front Construction Support and family life Examination Small Group, 85 family separation, 196 Third Front recruitment housing, 197 nonpolitical qualifications, 91 marriage, 197 relaxation of political qualifications, relocation of family members, 196 91 family separation, 196 plastics production, 15 relocation of family members, 196 pollution Great Leap Forward, 71–72 Panzhihua industrial complex, 188 infrastructure, 54–55 radioactive pollution, 204 living conditions, 171–172 Post and Telecommunications Ministry, cultural activities/entertainment, 216, 220 180–182, 195–196 Power and Water Resources Ministry, drinking water, 178–179 216 educational facilities, 189, 199–200 preparation for war, 72 food, 179–180 civil defense structures, 152 housing, 176–178, 197 work-unit study sessions, 151 safety and public health, 187–188, prioritizing a socialist China, 23 189 prioritizing agriculture, 56, 228 sanitation, 178–179 see also agriculture mobilization policy, 82, 167–171 prioritizing inland development, 90, 201, central Party leaders, 172–176 210 gender imbalance, 182 see also inland development living conditions, 171–172 prioritizing production, 165–166 possible locations, 126 prioritizing security, 50, 72, 231 production, 184–186 see also national security social engineering, impact of, 38–39 produce first and consume later, 165, 166 social services, 189 see also austerity; prioritizing production Southwest Third Front Preparatory public health Small Group, 86 Panzhihua industrial complex, wages, 190–191 187–188, 189

278 Index

Qian Xuesen, 74 relocation of enterprises Quotations of Chairman Mao, 26, 176, 186 centralized oversight, 87 planning, 86–87, 203 Railroad Corps see also mobilization of workforce Cultural Revolution, vii residence permit system, 10 disbanding of, 231 married women, 182 mobilization of workforce, 64, 82–83, residency status, 81, 115 111, 137, 167, 194 rural–urban migration, 196, 197 Railroad Ministry, 12, 55, 64, 126, 137, revisionism, criticisms of see Soviet 160, 220, revisionism Chengdu–Kunming line, 137–138 roads development, 216, 225 investment, 213 see also infrastructure railroad projects, 9, 12, 15, 28, 29, 202 rural militias administration of, 64 mobilization, 91–93, 97, 110–114 Beijing–Baotou line, 213 rural workers Beijing–Guangzhou line, 213 mobilization Beijing–Liuzhou line, 213 impact of, 81, 110–114, 166 Chengdu–Kunming line, 55, 58, 61, 64, Liupanshui coal mines, 89 65, 67, 71, 125, 126, 127, 134, Panzhihua industrial complex, 166 159, 213 Russo, Alessandro, 124 factional struggles, 144, 159 geological surveys, 134–136 sanitation, 178 Mao’s motivation, 139–140 Schmalzer, Sigrid, 24, 81 self-reliance, 135–137 Schoenhals, Michael, 34, 129, 142 tunnels, 137–139 school see educational facilities construction problems, 162–163 Schram, Stuart, 34 Great Leap Forward, 126 science and technology Guiyang–Kunming line, 55, 127, 213 Mao’s approach to, 3, 24, 81, 83, 96, Hubei–Sichuan line, 67 141–142, 202 Hunan–Guizhou line, 69, 160, 213, 214 post-Mao approach to, 229, 232–233 construction problems, 164 Scott, James, 23 Jiaozuo–Zhicheng line, 159–160 Second Automobile Works, 15, 33, 79, 116, construction problems, 164 208, 215 Longhai Railroad, 213 Second Five Year Plan, 40, 126 mobilization of workforce, 64, 83–84 see also Great Leap Forward mobilization policy, 82–83 Second Front, 4, 57, 60 Qinghai–Tibet line, 213 Second Heavy Machinery Works, 103, 219 Shijiazhuang–Taiyuan line, 213 Second Machine-Building Ministry, 153 Sichuan–Guizhou line, 51, 64, 65, Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), 4, 67, 127 49, 98, 129 Southern Xinjiang Railroad, 213 secrecy surrounding Third Front speed of construction, 126 construction, 1, 29, 91, 115, steel sector, development of, 55 128, 187 Xiangfan–Chongqing line, 89, 161, 213 archival access, 33, 37 Yunnan–Guizhou line, 51, 64, 65, 67 economic consequences, 206–207 Zhicheng–Liuzhou line, 160, 220 Panzhihua, 105, 186–187 construction problems, 164 Second Automobile Works, 207–208 see also infrastructure; Railroad Corps; subsidy to keep secrets, 187, 207 Railroad Ministry see also national security Red Army security precautions see national security self-reliance, 38, 96, 122, 231 self-reliance policy, 24, 32, 122 see also People’s Liberation Army (PLA) Base, 131–132 re-engineering of economic Yan’an, 25 geography, 202 Sent-Down Youth Movement, 80, 201, 203 relocation of criminals, 80 mobilization of workforce compared, 80

Index 279

sexual violence, 182 Mao’s attitude towards, 7, 12–14, 37, 47, Shaanxi Heavy Duty Automobile 123, 162, 227, 229–230 Factory, 215 see also Sino-Soviet relations Shanghai Soviet Union concerns about Third Front, war preparations as model, 6, 24, 66, 84, 102–104, 146 186–187 Cultural Revolution, 146–148 speed of development, 40, 63, 65, 81, 126, First Mechanical Engineering 143, 154, 177, 208, 231 Department, 147–148 agriculture, impact on, 70 mobilization of workforce Gezhouba Dam, 154 attempts to block relocation orders, railway projects, 126, 143, 208 102–104, 125 security concerns, 63, 72–73, 159 Shanghai Construction Bureau, 103 splittist activities, 151 Shapiro, Judith, 17, 25, 188 standardization Shengli oilfield, 215 coal industry, 224 Sichuan Automobile Factory, 215 electricity production, 224 Sino-American relations, 7, 25–26, 27, 39, infrastructure, 225 41, 48–49, 60, 65, 227, 229 negative impact, 225 see also Vietnam War oil sector, 224 Sino-Laotian relations, 62 positive impact, 226 Sino-Soviet border conflict (1969), 7, 12, telecommunications, 223, 225 27, 48, 125, 149–150, 227 see also ministerial regulation Sino-Soviet relations, 41, 62–63, 227 State Construction Commission, 195 Sino-Soviet border tensions, 7, 12, 27, steel industry, 9, 12, 54 47–49, 62–63, 125, 149–150 coal, 55, 200 Sino-Soviet Split, 7, 229 see also Panzhihua industrial complex see also Soviet revisionism suicides, 144, 194 Sino-Soviet split (1956–1966), 7, 62 Sun Yat-sen, 23, 135 Sino-Vietnamese war (1979), 230 see also Guomindang (GMD) small planning committee supervisory structure, 87–88 Third Five Year Plan, 74–78 supply lines, 87, 126, 136, 206 Small Third Front, 4, 10, 11, 14, 60, 129 supply shortages, 52, 194 factional struggles, 149 surveys, 61–62 oversight, 88 mobilization needs, 82 social engineering of the labor force, 3, 11 Szonyi, Michael, 27 CCP core, 32 Daqing oilfield, 29 Taiwan governmental simplification, 32 Chiang Kai-shek, 6, 45, 46, 96 unintended consequences Guomindang, 48 death and injury in the workplace, 30 Taiwan Straits Crisis (1958), 6, 60 self-segregation along regional lines, 30 see also cross-strait relations urban–rural divide, 30 Taiwan–China relations see cross-strait urban recruits, 30 relations South-Central Third Front tank manufacturing, 15 Commission, 88 Tao Xicheng, 145 Southwest Railroad Construction technoscience see science and technology Headquarters, 86 telecommunications, 219–220 Southwest Third Front Commission, 88, 97 radio infrastructure, 219 agricultural policy, 100 standardization, 225 Southwest Third Front Preparatory Small telegraph lines, 219 Group, 85, 88 Ten Great Relationships speech, 23, 86 Southwest Third Front Railway Third Five Year Plan, 6, 7, 29, 40 Construction Headquarters, 135 agriculture, promotion of, 51–52, 56 Soviet revisionism, 97, 143, 144, 161–162 basic industry, promotion of, 51–52, criticisms of, 67, 74 55–56

280 Index

Third FiveYear Plan (cont.) Soviet Union see Sino-Soviet relations; changing the course of, 9 Soviet revisionism consumables, promotion of, 51 Third Five Year Plan compared, 29 costs, 77 Vietnam War, impact of, 26, 65 development of, 41, 51 see also Vietnam War national defense, promotion of, 51–52, Third Front Construction Support and 56, 77 Examination Small Group, 85 revised objectives, 54–56 Third Front studies, 17–18 small planning committee, 75, 76 Thompson, E.P., 123 Third Front compared, 29 Transportation Ministry, 126, 212, Third Front construction 216, 222 acceleration see acceleration of Third two labor systems, 84 Front construction approval, 65–66 urban workers Cold War anxieties, 27–28 concerns about Third Front, 104–110 cost, 2, 17, 57, 77–78, 224, 228 mobilization, impact of, 81 Cultural Revolution welfare privileges, 81, 166 contradictory goals, 140–146 mobilization of workforce impact of, 28, 224 Liupanshui coal mines, 89 description, 1–2 Shanghai propaganda guidelines, 95 development blocks see development Panzhihua see Panzhihua industrial blocks complex economic achievements, 28 urban–rural divide, 30–31, 39, 233 end of, 233 social engineering, 30–31 everyday life, 38–39 socioeconomic benefits, 10, 187–191 expansion see expansion of Third Front urban–rural migration, 10, 30–31 construction USS Maddox incident (1964) see Gulf of first phase, 10–14 Tonkin incident (1964) Great Leap Forward compared, 10–12 van de Ven, Hans, 22 High Command, 69 Vietnam War, 9, 26, 41, 49, 50, 62, 63–64 historical importance economic priorities, impact on, 64–66 economic trajectory of the People’s Republic of China, 2–3 wages, 38, 108, 110, 203, 235 international military tensions, 2 militias, 117 social engineering, 3 Panzhihua industrial complex, 190 impact, 9 technical personnel, 233 industrialization efforts, 23, 39 Wang Dongxing, 77 inefficiencies, 205–210 Wang Jinxi, 74 investment, 202–203 war of annihilation, 52, 59 negative consequences, 204–205 war of attrition, 61, 210 militarization, 38, 42, 46–47, see also guerilla warfare 60–62 war zones mobilization of workforce, 1 First Front, 4 national security, 23, 26, 60 Second Front, 4 objectives, 128, 235 Third Front, 4 origins see origins of the Third Front Westad, Odd Arne, 19 post-Third Front policy, 39 work ethic, 22, 123, 174, 195 prioritizing a socialist China, 23 worker discontent, 31, 167, 181, 191–192, rebalancing industrial geography, 23 193–194, 233 redressing imperialist humiliation, 24, family separation, 183–184 49–50, 69–70 worker pride, 93, 167, 192–193 return on investment, 205 workers in state-owned enterprises second phase, 14–17 benefits, 166 secrecy surrounding, 1, 29, 128 mobilization, impact of, 81

Index 281

Wu Faxian, 185 Zhang Tixue Wuhan Steel, 186 Gezhouba Dam, 154–155 Three Gorges Dam, 154, 155–156 Xi Jinping Zhenbao Island, 149–150, 227 Belt and Road initiative, 236 see also Sino-Soviet border conﬂict (1969) Xu Chi, 86 Zhou Enlai, 50, 51, 77 Xu Youwei, 18, 203 Cultural Revolution, 142 Gezhouba Dam, 155, 156, 157–159 Yan’an, 24 investigation team, 125–126 self-reliance, 25 Sino-Soviet border tensions, 151 Yang Chengwu, 54 Third Front, attitude towards, 57–58, Yangzi River Commission, 155, 156 61–62, 66, 125, 144 Yu Qiuli, 52 Zhou Peiyuan, 143 Daqing oilﬁeld, 52–54, 68 Zunyi aerospace complex, 127 Third Five Year Plan, 8, 75–77 see also Base