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The Copyright in relation to this thesis*

Under the Copyright Act 1968 (several provision of which are referred to below), this thesis must be used only under the normal conditions of scholarly fair dealing for the purposes of research, criticism or review. In particular no results or conclusions should be extracted from it, nor should it be copied or closely paraphrased in whole or in part without the written consent of the author. Proper written acknowledgement should be made for any assistance obtained from this thesis.

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The Act, by Section 36( I) provides: 'Subject to this Act, the copyright in a literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work is infringed by a person who, not being the owner of the copyright and without the licence of the owner of the copyright, does in Australia, or authorises the doing in Australia of, any act comprised in the copyright'.

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*'Thesis' includes 'treatise', dissertation' and other similar productions. 0 RAYMOND ARTHUR DART: HIS LIFE AND WORK

Frances Wheelhouse

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Department of History University of Sydney

March 1998 Thirty-two years old Professor Raymond Arthur Dart with the skull Austra/opithecus africanus he discovered in South in 1924. Photo taken shortly after the announcement of the discovery in February 1925. (by courtesy Barlow Rand Archives, ) OB-~ SUO!lBJlSniiJ

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S.lN3.1NOO :tO 31B'tf.1 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Page Frontispiece- Professor Raymond A Dart with the Taung skull he discovered in 1924. Photo taken c. February 1925 (Barlow Rand Archives) 1 Eliza and Samuel Dart - Wedding Day 2 March 1880 1 (John and Betty Dart) 2 Dart family 1899 (Raymond and Marjorie Dart) 1 3 'Fair View' Farm, Bookfield, Queensland. (Aif Brimblecombe) 2 4 The Dart's Toowong Store (Constance Dart) 3 5 'Medeba', the Dart's Farm at Blenheim (A Brimblecombe 4 and C. Dart) 6 Picnics at 'Medeba' (C. Dart) 5 7 Eliza and Samuel Dart with family (R. & M. Dart) 5 8 Eliza Ann Dart (Harold Dart) 6 9 The eight Dart boys (R. & M. Dart) 7 10 (a) Lucinda Dart at piano, (R.& M.Dart),(b) Lucinda with 8 pupils and parents. (R. & M. Dart; C. Dart) 11 Ipswich Grammar School (Ipswich Grammar School Archives) 9 12 (a) 's class 1906; (IGS Archives. (b) pupils and 10 staff 1909. (IGSArchives) 13 C. A Flint, B. G. Lawrance, R.A Kerr (IGS Archives) 11 14 R. A Dart's signature (IGS Archives) 12 15 The Dart's Store, Laidley,Queensland (C. Dart) 12 16 (a) Queensland University- inaugural staff and students 13 1911 ; ( Archives S177, P791 , Miss M. Rich); (b) Original University building. (University of Queensland : A Portrait, p.2, Publications Dept.) 17 (a) Henry Caselli Richards (UQA 247 The University 14 of Queensland 1910-1935); (b) Thomas Harvey Johnston, (UQA S246/N The University of Queensland 1910-1922, p. 26) 18 R. A Dart, Graduation 1913, two photos.. (R & M Dart) 15 19 University of Sydney c. 1870 (University of Sydney Archives) 16 20 University of Sydney Medical School c. 1900. (University of 16 Sydney Archives; J.AYoung eta/, The Centenary Book of the University of Sydney : Faculty of Medicine, p. 181) 21 University of Sydney Medical School, south-east view 17 c. 1914 (University of Sydney Archives) 22 Professor Thomas Peter Anderson Stuart in 1919. (William 17 Epps, Anderson Stuart, M.D, Physiologist, Teacher,Builder, Organiser, Citizen, p. 144) 23 Professor James T. Wilson (University of Sydney Archives) 18 24 Dr Robert Scot Skirving, c. 1900, Ann Macintosh (ed . ). 18 Memoirs of Dr Robert Scot Skirving 1859-1956, Frontispiece) 25 Sir (F. W. Smidt, Manchester) 19 26 The Talgai Skull (Shellshear Museum Archives, Medical 19 School, University of Sydney) ii

27 The Duckmaloi Fraternity (D. Branagan & G. Holland (eds), 20 Forever Reaping Something New: A Science Centenary, p.150) 28 Prosectors at the Medical School 1914, University of Sydney 20 (The University of Sydney Medical Society Archives) 29 Pathology Notes of Raymond Dart (R and M. Dart) 21 30 Raymond Dart and four brothers (R. and M. Dart) 21 31 Council of the University of Sydney Medical Society 1917 22 (University of Sydney Medical Society Archives) 32 St Andrew's College, University of Sydney, 1917 (St Andrew's 22 College Archives) 33 Captain Raymond Arthur Dart- 1918, First World War 23 (H. W.Dart & family) 34 G. E. Smith's supporting letter for Dart's demobilisation in 1919 24 (Australian Archives, B 2455) 35 R. A Dart & J. L.Shellshear- Fellowship 24 winners 1920 (Grafton Elliot Smith) 36 (a) Dora Tyree (University of the Archives) 25 (b) Raymond Dart (R. & M. Dart) 37 John Irvine Hunter (1898-1924) (Shellshear Museum Archives, 26 University of Sydney) 38 Claude Witherington Stump (Shellshear Museum Archives) 26 39 Professor Raymond Dart on arrival in , January 27 1923. (R. & M. Dart) 40 Dart's letter in 1923 to Dr Fourie thanking him for Bushman 27 skeletons. (R. &. M. Dart) 41 R. A Dart & P. V. Tobias show specimens to students 28 from the Raymond Dart Collection. (R. &. M. Dart) 42 Professor Dart's first science class in 1924- Josephine Salmons 28 on his right began the train of events leading to discovery of the Taung skull. (R. &. M. Dart) 43 Josephine Salmons gained her BSc in 1925. Later she graduated 29 in medicine. (R. &. M. Dart) 44 The discovery of the century: Dart's of 1924 29 (R. &. M. Dart) 45 The 1924 Taung child discovery site at Buxton quarry. 30 Photo taken in 1925. (R. B. Young) 46 Raymond Dart holds in his hands the Taung child's skull 30 (R. &. M. Dart) 47 africanus the Taung child - front and side 31 views. (R. &. M. Dart) 48 Raymond Dart in 1924 holding the Taung child's skull 32 (R. & M. Dart) 49 Scientists associated with the discovery, 32 , Elliot Smith, Arthur Smith Woodward, E. R. Lankester, W. P. Pycraft, Charles Dawson, A S. Underwood, F. 0 . Barlow. (Geological Society, London) 50 Smith Woodward's reconstruction of the Piltdown Skull 33 (British Museum Natural History) 51 Dioptographic tracing of the right side of the Taung skull 33 iii

(R. & M. Dart) 52 The Taung skull- Dart's reconstruction at Wembley Exhibition 34 1925 June. (The Illustrated London News 13 June 1925) 53 (a) Taung skull in early stages of reconstruction of casts for 35 Wembley Exhibition 1925 (R. & M. Dart). (b) models of how may have appeared in life. (F.Wheelhouse) 54 Geological chart showing the earth's time in eons, eras, periods 36 and epochs (Encyclopaedia Britannica. vol. 5, p. 191) 55 Professor Dart showing the Taung skull in 1927 to a group 37 of students from Europe (R. & M. Dart). 56 University of the Witwatersrand - Medical School staff and 37 students in 1926 (University of the Witwatersrand Archives PL74/436) 57 Dora Dart when a medical student in 1923-24 at Wits 38 (University of the Witwatersrand Archives) 58 Taung skull showing separation of jaws achieved in 1929 38 as shown by Raymond Dart in 1974 (R. &. M. Dart) 59 Attilio Gatti leader of the Italian Scientific Expedition through 39 Africa in 1930 (Kay S. Smithford) 60 Cast of Rhodesian Man skull discovered at Broken Hill inN. 39 Rhodesia in 1921 (Kay S. Smithford) 61 The northern bluff of the Mumbwa rocks, N. Rhodesia 40 showing two main entrances (Signor Reverso/R. &. M. Dart) 62 Entrance to southern part of cavern at Mumbwa showing 40 furnace refuse- with Professor Dart & Nino del Grande (Reverso/R. &. M. Dart) 63 Collection of Moustierian implements - Mumbwa , includes 41 furnace stratum palaeoliths and polished axe-head (Reverso/R. &. M. Dart) 64 Mumbwa cave - Nino del Grande shows white ash stratum 41 and oval furnace floor (Reverso/R. &.. M. Dart) 65 The stratification of deposits in Mumbwa cave, N. Rhodesia 42 as drawn by Nino del Grande (Reverso/ R. &. M. Dart) 66 Mumbwa cave - Late Stone implements - teeth and 42 shell-beads (Reverso/R. &. M. Dart) 67 Professor Raymond Dart at Mumbwa cave N. Rhodesia in June 43 1930 when Scientific Director of the Italian Scientific Expedition traversing Africa (Signor Reverso/Kay Smithford) 68 Mumbwa cave - visiting weekend party July 1930 includes Bertram 43 Wood, Attilio Gatti, Delia Stevens, Helen Wood, Kay Stevens, Nino del Grande and Raymond Dart (Reverso/Kay Smithford) 69 Italian Scientific Expedition members 1930, R. A Dart, 44 A Gatti, Nino del grande at Mumbwa , N. Rhodesia (Reverse/Kay Smithford) 70 General Manager's bunglow, Broken Hill, N. Rhodesia visited by 44 Italian Scientific Expedition, 1930. 71 Royal Hillman and Delia Stevens in Durban South Africa, 45 Gen. Manager, Rhodesia Broken Hill Development Mine (Kay Smithford) iv

72 Gorilla specimen from lturi Forest, Belgian Congo 1930. 45 (Reverso/R. & M. Dart) 73 Professor Dart placing his Taung skull in its little black box 46 (R. & M. Dart) 74 Dr. L. H. Wells, Dr Alexander Galloway and Trevor-Jones 46 salvaging skeletons from Bambandyanalo 1936 (R.&. M. Dart) 75 (a) Advertising the play The Anatomist in Johannesburg, 1936. 47 (Kay Smithford). (b) Professor Dart as Robert Knox in this play. (R.& M.Dart) 76 (a) Marjorie Frew (Uni. of Witwatersrand Archives): (b) Wedding 48 Ceremony of Raymond Dart and Marjorie Frew (R.& M.Dart) 77 , cave 19 August 1936, discovers first 49 adult Australopithecus skull. (Star Johannesburg/Transvaal Museum, Pretoria) 78 Robert Broom with early skull mock-up (Libertas) 49 79 (a) The Darts relaxing in their Johannesburg garden. (R.&.M.Dart) 50 (b) Raymond as Commander of Ambulance Services, WW11 . (R.&.M.Dart) 80 Raymond and Marjorie Dart with daughter Diana, 1942 51 (R.& M. Dart) 81 Family group- the Darts (R.& M.Dart) 51 82 The Dart's Johannesburg home. R.& M Dart) 51 83 Phillip V. Tobias who brought Dart a baboon skull in 1945 from 52 . (R.& M.Dart) 84 World famous Prehistorians in Transvaal Museum, R.A. Dart, R. 52 Broom, Henri Breuil and C.R. van Riet Lowe, 1950. (Trans. Mus.) 85 Robert Broom discovers 'Mrs Pies' at Sterkfonten, 18 April 1947. 53 (Transvaal Museum) 86 Robert Broom with J.T. Robinson shares his discovery of 'Mrs Pies 53 (Transvaal Museum) 87 Robert Broom preparing the skull of 'Mrs Pies' (Transvaal Mus.) 54 88 Two famous Australopithecines, left - 'Mrs Pies' and right - 54 Australopithecus robustus. (F. Wheelhouse) 89 Adult Australopithecus prometheus reconstructions taken by Dart 55 to America in 1949. (R.&.M Dart) 90 Family group of Australopithecine casts displayed in America by 56 Dart in 1949. (R.& M.Dart) 91 (a) Elsa Dziomba preparing Broom's bronze bust. (R.& M.Dart) 57 (b) Broom's bronze bust and Australopithecus skull prepared by Elsa Dziomba for the entrance to the Transvaal Museum, Pretoria. (Transvaal Museum) 92 Raymond & Marjorie Dart at Sterkfontein 1973 with Broom's bronze 58 bust, erected December 1966 (Frances Wheelhouse) 93 Raymond & Marjorie Dart at the Viking Fund Seminar, New York 58 1949 (Kay Smithford) 94 Raymond Dart, Dr J. H. McGregor & Dr W. K. Gregory at 58 Gregory's Woodstock, N.Y. home in 1949. (R.& M.Dart) 95 Joseph Lexden Shellshear DSO, Dart's lifelong colleague. 59 (Shellshear Museum Archives, University of Sydney) v

96 Raymond & Marjorie Dart in Sydney in 1949-1950, meet brother 59 Rev. Dr Harold Whitmore Dart of Manly (H.W.Dart and family) 97 (a) Makapansgat Valley (F. Wheelhouse). (b) The Research 60 hut. (F. Wheelhouse) 98 (a) Cave of Hearths, Makapansgat Valley (F. Wheelhouse) 61 (b) End of Makapansgat Valley showing quartzite cliffs. (F. Wheelhouse) 99 (a) Scientists Judy and Brian Maguire at Limeworks area, 62 Makapansgat Valley. (F. Wheelhouse). (b) Fossil bone deposits in Limeworks cave. (F. Wheelhouse). (c) block of breccia containing fossil bones (F. Wheelhouse) 100 (a) Dart's assistant releases individual bones from breccia (F. 63 Wheelhouse). (b) bone tools in stages of preparation compared with English bone apple corers. (F. Wheelhouse). (c) Fossil bones showin_g other bones possibly inserted by human hand. (F. Wheelhouse) 101 (a) Makapansgat Limeworks- fossil bones showing natural and 64 artificial splitting and inserted bones. (R.& M.Dart). (b) Gazelle horn wedged into antelope thigh bone - Makapansgat Valley Limeworks. (R.&.M.Dart) 102 (a) Bone gouges from Emu tibia. (D.F.Thompson). (b) Antelope 65 long bones showing work on them (R.& M.Dart). (c) displays teeth used as implements. (F. Wheelhouse) 103 (a) James Kitching displays giraffe bone which shows bone 66 flakes have been made from it. (F. Wheelhouse) 104 (a) Comparative acid-eroded flakes from Pin Hole Cave in 66 Derbyshire, England & Makapansgat Limeworks. (R.& M.Dart) 105 (a)Professor Dart in his library, 1935. (R &.M.Dart) (b) Study 67 of Raymond Dart in 1938. (R. & M.Dart). (c) Raymond Dart preparing casts in laboratory with students. (R. & M. Dart) 106 (a) Professor Dart 1940 in his laboratory (R.& M.Dart) 68 (b) Professor Dart and some staff of Anatomy Department, University of the Witwatersrand 1954. (Maurice Arnold). 107 (a) Professor Dart in Toronto in 1958. (Harding Le Riche) 69 (b) James Kitching with breccia containing A prometheus skull 1958. (R.& M.Dart) (c) Professor Dart prepares the A prometheus specimen in 1958 (R.&.M. Dart) 108 (a) Raymond Dart visits L.S.B.Leakey 1960, 70 (R.& M.Dart). (b) L.S.B Leakey visiting R.A. Dart in Johannesburg, 1960. (R. &.M.Dart) 109 (a) Pebble tools from Australopithecine breccias Sterkfontein 70 and Makapansgat. (R.&.M.Dart). (b) Brain Maguire displays pebble tools from Makapansgat Limeworks. (F.Wheelhouse 110 Professor Dart views breccia dumps at Limeworks, 71 Makapansgat Valley. (R.&.M.Dart). 111 Judy Maguire surveys breccia dumps Makapansgat. 71 (F.Wheelhouse) 112 Dart family group 1962 as R. A. Dart and son Galen 71 depart Johannesburg for . (R.& M.Dart) VI

113 (a) M~p showing Swaziland. (R.&.M.Dart), (b) Lion Cavern, 72 Swaziland. (R.&.M.Dart). (c) Hand-held mining choppers Swaziland, , Postmasburg. (R.&.M.Dart). (d) Main trench , Swaziland-S.Africa border. (R.&.M.Dart) 114 (a) Adrian Boshier (F. Wheelhouse). (b) Peter Beaumont 73 (R.&.M.Da_rt): (c) Castle Cavern, Swaziland (R.&.M.Dart) (d) Rock pa1nt1ngs from Makgabeng Mountains, N.Transvaal. (Joan van Gogh) 115 Raymond & Marjorie Dart, 1981 at Transvaal Museum 74 Pretoria, examine C.K.Brain's bone tools from Swartk~ans cave Sterkfontein Valley (C.K.Brain) 116 Leighton Wilkie and Professor Dart at the Testimonial Dinner 74 in Dart's honour, Chicago, 9 September 1965. (R.&.M.Dart) 117 Statuette presented to R.A. Dart, Johannesburg 1 August, 74 1966 by Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential, Philadelphia, USA. (R.&.M.Dart) 118 (a) Raymond Dart at the Institutes for the Achievement of 75 Human Potential in 1982, sharing poetry with a young patient. (IAHP Philadelphia). (b) Raymond Dart at the Institutes, 1982, teaching high potential students about A. africanus. (Sherman Hines, IAHP) 119 Raymond & Marjorie Dart 1982 wearing their Brazilian Gold 76 Medals of Honour for their work for the children of the world. (Sherman Hines, IAHP) 120 Marjorie & Raymond Dart, 1982 in the Museum Raymond 76 established many years previously at the Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential, Philadelphia, USA (IAHP) 121 Professors S. M. Stekelis & R. A. Dart visiting Ubeidiya, Israel 77 in 1965. (R.&.M.Dart) 122 Professor Dart with Professor dos Santos, University of 77 Oporto, at Sterkfontein caves 1970. (R.&.M.Dart) 123 R. & M. Dart attending Seventh Pan-African Congress in 77 Prehistory, Addis Ababa, December 1971 . (R.&.M.Dart) 124 Buxton Limeworks site near Taung- Professor P.V. Tobias 78 addresses Taung Diamond Jubilee delegates 1985. (F. Wheelhouse) 125 Professor P.V. Tobias, 1985, unveils the cairn site of discovery 78 Taung skull, 1924. (Ann Macintosh, Sydney) 126 Sterkfontein caves grid system for excavation of fossils. 79 (F. Wheelhouse) 127 Professor P.V. Tobias displays fossils in 1985 to Taung 79 Diamond Jubilee delegates. (F. Wheelhouse) 128 Some stone and bone tools unearthed at Sterkfontein. 79 (F. Wheelhouse) 129 Dr Tim Partridge points out to Taung Diamond Jubilee Delegates 80 1985, pole reversal in rocks in the Makapansgat Limeworks cave (F. Wheelhouse) 130 Map of southern Africa showing some Australopithecine sites. 80 (R.&.M.Dart) 1

Figure 1 Eliza and Samuel Dart: wedding day 2 March 1880

Figure 2 Dart family 1899: back row I. to r: Samuel, William, Lucinda; centre: Eliza (mother) with Harold, Raymond, Percival, Samuel (father); front row: Silas in chair, John Leslie, Oliver not born until 1904. 2

Figure 3 above: 'Fair View' Farm, Brookfield, where Eliza spent much of her childhood; below: farm house seen high above the bridge on which her father James Stephens Brimblecombe and friends mingle. He is last adult on right. 3

Figure 4 The Dart's Toowong Store. Raymond Dart born there on 4 February 1893 during one of 's worst floods - mother and babe floated out on mattress through top storey window to safety. 4

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Figure 5 above: 'Medeba' (Quiet Waters). the Dart's fann at Blenheim. Queensland. below: The homestead built by Samuel Dart on tall piers - a typical Queensland design. 5

Figure 6 Picnics at 'Medeba' for family and friends were a regular event. Samuel Dart (father) far left, Eliza Dart (mother) centre, back row.

Figure 7 Eliza Dart - mother and mentor to her nine children. Young Raymond is in the back row to the right of his eldest brother, William and behind his older sister, Lucinda. The parents are seated in the centre. 9 7

Figure 9 The eight Dart boys with some of their instruments. They were chorists and band instrumentalists in the Blenheim German Baptist Church.

Front row: Oliver Maitland (17 June 190-f. Harold Whitmore (2 May 1900); Silas Norman (17 July 1898); John Leslie (12 May 1896). Back, row: Raymond Arthur (4 Feb. 1893); James Percival (13 Feb. 1890); Samuel Herbert (7 Dec. 1886); William Thomas (3 Feb. 1882). 8

Figure 10 above: At 'Medeba', Blenheim, Lucinda Dart plays the piano for her younger brother Raymond. Her music certificates adorn the wall. Note set-in candlesticks on piano. below: Some of Lucinda's piano pupils and parents picnic by the creek at 'Medeba'. Samuel Dart her father is on far left centre row - Lucinda on far right in same row. 9

Figure 11 above: Ipswich Grammar School, est. 1863 - the oldest in Queensland. below: part of the Great Hall where lessons began. Today this area serves as a Museum and houses the school's archival material. 10

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Figure 12 above: Raymond Dart's first class at Ipswich Grammar School in 1906- he is on the far right standing between the back and centre rows. below: The Ipswich Grammar School staff and pupils in 1908. Raymond Dart is in third row from front, the ninth boy in from the right side. 11

Figure 13 Ipswich Grammar School. above: Mr C. A. Flint, MA, Headmaster 1901-1907. below left: Mr B. G. Lawrance, MA, Headmaster 1908-1915. below right: Mr R. A. Kerr, MA, BSc, Assistant Master 1901-1911 , Headmaster 1915-1945. 12

Figure 14 As was the old school custom, R. A. Dart left his signature on the tower steps at Ipswich Grammar School while a pupil there during the years 1906-1910.

Figure 15 The Dart's Store at Laidley, 18 kilometres from their farm at 'Medeba', Blenheim. Samuel Dart also owned another store at Forest Hill a few kilometres from Laidley, towards Gatton. 13

Figure 16 above: Key people associated with the new University of Queensland in 1911 , including its first undergraduates. Raymond A. Dart, a scholarship holder, is in the back row, third from the left. below: Old Government House in George Street, Brisbane, the University of Queensland's first home. 14

Figure 17 Two of Raymond Dart's lecturers at the University of Queensland from 1911 . above: Henry Caselli Richards, DSc, Lecturer in Geology. below: Thomas Harvey Johnston, MA, DSc, Lecturer in Biology. Both later became Professors. 15

Figure 18 above As Raymond Dart appeared at his home 'Medeba', Blenheim. Queensland, following his graduation as BSc from the University of Queensland in 1913 below: later while in Sydney he had this photo specially taken in his graduation robes as a gift to his mother. 16

Figure 19 The University of Sydney est. 1850 - photo early 1870s.

Figure 20 left: The Medical School of the University of Sydney, opened in 1883. right: the main University of Sydney building incorporating the Great Hall on far right. Photo c. 1900. 17

Figure 21 View of the Medical School, University of Sydney from the south-east, c. 1930

Figure 22 Sir Thomas Peter Anderson Stuart in 1919 - founder of the University of Sydney Medical School. 18

Figure 23 Professor James Thomas Wilson. joined Anatomy Department. University of Sydney in 1887, was Professor of Anatomy from 1890-1920, and at Cambridge University from 1920 retired 1934; Emeritus Professor until his death in 1945. At Sydney University he had the ·most significant influence' on Raymond Dart.

Figure24 Dr Robert Scot Skirving, Lecturer in Clinical Medicine, whom Raymond Dart recalls in his student days as 'a man of eminence'. 19

l'hoto by F. IY. Mhmidt, Mnnd.Qtn- t--~~f~

Figure 25 Sir Grafton Elliot Smith. In 1914 he lectured at the British Association for the Advancement of Science Meeting at the University of Sydney and inspired student Raymond Dart.

·- - --·------

Figure 26 The Talgai cranium, the first Aboriginal fossil skull unearthed in Queensland in the 1880s, seen here at a partially developed stage of preparation in 1914 when it was the subject of lectures by Professors J. T. Wilson and T . Edgeworth David at the British Association of Science Convention at the University of Sydney in that year. 20

Figure 27 The Duckmaloi Fraternity, studying the platypus, 1895, Duckmaloi River, New South Wales, Australia. left to right: G. Elliot Smith, J. Hill and J. T. Wilson.

Figure 28 Prosectors at the Medical School, University of Sydney, 1914-1915. left to right: E. A. Woodward, 0 . G. Tunks, R. S. R. Mitchell and R. A. Dart. 21

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Figure 29 Some of Raymond Dart's Pathology notes written on 21 September 1915 while a student at St Andrew's College, University of Sydney in New South Wales, Australia.

Figure 30 Back home in Queensland on his 1914 end of year University vacation, Raymond Dart on left, with his brothers, I. to r. Oliver, Silas Norman, Harold and John Leslie. Raymond wears the insignia of the University of Sydney Union on his watch chain. The pocket watch was a 21st birthday gift from his father . Raymond treasured it all his life. 22

figure 31 Council of the University of Sydney Medical Society_ of 1917. Raymond Dart was secretary of the society at that time and is in the second row from the front, second from the right.

ST. ANDREW'S COLLEGE. 1917

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Figure 32 The St Andrew's College, University of Sydney,1917. Raymond Dart is in the front row sixth from the left and Herbert Vere Evatt, eighth from the left. 23

Figure 33 Captain Raymond Arthur Dart, Australian Army Medical Corps, AIF (Australian Imperial Forces) serving in the First World War 1914-1918. He was demobilised in London on 4 September 1919. --n I IW.I;~ • 24 THI UNI'WittlfT·¥ .

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Fig. 35 R. A. Dart & J. L. Shellshear first foreign Rockefeller Foundation Fellowship winners in 1920 25

Fig. 36 above: Dora Tyree. below: Raymond Dart- they married at Woods Hole USA, 3 September 1921 . Fig . 38 Claude Witherington Stump, applicant with R.A . Dart in 1922 for the Anatomy Chair in Johannesburg 27

Fig 39 Professor Raymond Dart on arrival in South Africa, January 1923.

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Fig. 41 R. A. Dart and P. V. Tobias show specimens to students from the Raymond Dart Collection

Fig. 42 Professor Dart's first science class in 1924 - next to him on the right is Josephine Salmons who began the train of events leading to Dart's discovery of the Taung skull in that year 29

Fig . 43 Josephine Salmons gained her BSc in 1925. Later she graduated in medicine

Fig. 44 The discovery of the century: Professor Dart's Australopithecus africanus, the Taung child he found in 1924 30

Fig. 45 The 1924 Taung child discovery site marked by an X at the Buxton quany in the oldest (Thabaseek) lime tufa. Photo taken in 1925

Fig. 46 The Taung child's skull cradled in Dart's hands. 32

Fig. 48 Raymond Dart in 1924 holding the Taung child's skull

Fig. 49 The John Cooke painting of scientists associated with the Piltdown Man discovery. Centre: (in laboratory coat) Arthur Keith, to his left (seated) Pycraft & Lankester, to his right, Underwood. Behind (left to right), Barlow, Elliot Smith, Dawson & Woodward. 33

Fig. 50 Smith Woodward's reconstruction of the Piltdown skull - the dark areas represent the original bone fragments - restored areas in white.

LUNATE PARALLEL,_------SULCUS SULCUS ---...... _____ .... I I " I ,' I, r 'I I

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Fig. 51 Dioptographic tracing of the right side of the Taung skull 34

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~ • - - • • Fig. 52 The Taung Skull - Dart's reconstruction at Wembley Exhibition June 1925. 35

Fig. 53 above: Taung skull in early stages of reconstruction of casts for Wembley Exhibition 1925. below : models of how Australopithecines may have appeared in life displayed in The Raymond Dart Collection, University of the Witwatersrand 36

~time •PPfONii- number ol eon period epoc~...- sub-epoch•) -- liill' ye.rs~ (tn mlllons)

Quaternary Holocene 0.01t Pleistocene 1.6 Late Pliocene 3.4 Early 5.3 Late Neogene 11.2 Middle Miocene 16.6 Early Cenozoic Tertiary 23.7

!. Late Oligocene 30 Early 36.6 Late 43.6 Paleogene Eocene Middle 52 Early 57.8 Late Paleocene 63.6 Early 66.4 Late 17.5 Cretaceous Early I .... Late J 'Ill Phanerozoic Mesozoic Jurassic Middle '1,117 -~ :• ~ .I ... h sllc ,._ 'I.. EMty 245 Late Permian 258 Early 286 Late Carboniferous (PennSifvenlan) 3aD

. (MII:a-=plan} Late Devonian Middle .--~: E.arly Paleozoic - Late .l;. ·~ Silurian "'';II p '11 Early "':!i Late Ordovician • ~ -- 478 ... 505 Late 523 Cambrian Middle 540 Early 570 Late 900 Proterozoic* Middle 1,600 Early ~~ Late .... Archeani Middle J,AOO Early 3,110

For Tertiary time only. t i. e.• the last 10.000 years. i Precambrian time. Fig. 54 Geological chart showing the earth's time in eons, eras, periods and epochs 37

Fig . 55 Professor Dart (centre) showing the Taung skull in 1927 to a group of students from Europe- the jaws has not yet been separated

Fig. 56 University of the Witwatersrand - Medical School staff and students in 1926. bottom row, Professor Dart (centre), Matron B. G. Alexander (far left), 3rd row: C. F. Beyers (4th left), Dora Dart,(Bth from right). 38

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Fig. 57 Dora Dart (front row 2nd from right) when a medical student in 1923-24 at Wits.

Fig. 58 Raymond Dart in 1974 displaying the separated jaws of the Taung skull which he achieved in 1929. This took him four years to do. 39

Fig. 59 Attilio Gatti, leader of the Italian Scientific Expedition through Africa in 1930

Fig. 60 A cast of The Broken Hill or Rhodesian Man skull discovered at Broken Hill in Northen Rhodesia in 1921 40

Fig. 61 The northern bluff of the Mumbwa rocks in which the cavern excavated is situated. The two X's mark the sites of the two main entrances on the western and north-western aspects

Fig. 62 Entrance to southern portion of cavern showing the furnace refuse littering the approach. Professor Dart (left) is reclining against a fallen limestone block and pointing downwards to subjacent rocks composed of furnace material. Signor del Grande (right) is standing in the trial trench commenced by Mr Macrae 41

Fig. 63 Collection of Moustierian implements. The photograph also includes for comparison two palaeoliths from the furnace stratum (at each end of upper row), and neolithic polished axe-head from furnace stratum (centre of upper row).

Fig. 64 View looking eastwards of the northern excavation showing the white ash stratum and the oval furnace floor which Nino del Grande is examining after his discovery of them. 42

Fig. 65 The stratification of the deposits in the Mumbwa cave, Northern Rhodesia

Fig. 66 Collection of implements together with some human teeth and shell-beads for comparison. 43

Fig. 67 Professor Raymond Dart Scientific Director of the Italian Scientific Expedition traversing Africa. At Mumbwa cave N.Rhodesia, June 1930

Fig. 68 Visiting weekend party to Mumbwa cave excavation with scientists. I. to r. (?), Bertram Wood, Attilio Gatti, Delia Stevens, wife of Royal H. Stevens, Helen Wood, Kay Stevens (later Smithford)), Nino del Grande; foreground, seated, Raymond Dart describing some artefacts unearthed, July 1930. 44

Fig. 69 Italian Scientific Expedition members 1930, I. tor. Raymond Dart, Attilio Gatti and Nino del Grande compare notes on their excavation at Mumbwa., Northern Rhodesia.

Fig. 70 General Manager's bungalow Broken Hill, N. Rhodesia where Italian Expedition members were often hosted in 1930 45

Fig. 71 General Manager of the Rhodesia Broken Hill Development Co., Royal Hillman Stevens and his wife Delia, holidaying,Durban,S.A. in the 1930s.

Fig.72 Gorilla specimen won by the Italian Scientific Expedition in the lturi Forest of the Belgian Congo in 1930. 46

Fig. 73 Professor Dart placing his Taung Skull in its little black box.

Fig. 74 I. to r. Dr L. H. Wells, Dr Alexander Galloway and student Trevor-Jones salvaging the skeletons from Bambandyanalo in 1936. 47

Tbe Job&nnubur• Hoapltal •" r.,." attracted oonalderablo """'* :.. the eltJ alrMU. Here, tor· lnatanoe, lAo the ecene at the -- ttl Lo'feda¥ and Pritchard Streett, wltll "Tbe An.atomlat," • ...... , Prote.uor R. A. Dart," ~ roWI4 tbe oomer,

Fig. 75 above: Advertising the play The Anatomist through the streets of Johannesburg in 1936. below: Professor Raymond Dart as Robert Knox in this play, produced in the Wits dissection hall in 1936. 48

Fig. 76 above: Marjorie Frew. below: Raymond Dart and Marjorie Frew married on 28 November 1936. The ceremony took place in the home of Marjorie's father, Medical Officer for the East Rand Proprietary Mines, Johannesburg. 49

Fig. 77 Robert Broom on 19 August 1936 at Sterkfontein cave, points to where the first Australipithecine adult fragments were found by him. G ~ W. Bartow, manager of the limeworks is on the left and behind him Saul Sithole, long serving assistant with the Transvaal Museum.

Fig. 78 Robert Broom in 1944 with a mock-up.of a generalised australopithecine skull. 50

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Fig. 79 above: Marjorie and Raymond Dart relaxing in their garden in Johannesburg, 1939. below: Raymond Dart serving as Commander of Ambulance Services during World War 11 . 51

Fig. 80 Raymond & Marjorie Dart with daughter Diana Elizabeth, 1942. Diana became a pathologist and practised in America.

Fig. 81 Family group, 1947. Professor Dart, Galen, Marjorie Dart and Diana.

Fig. 82 The Dart's Johannesburg home, 1946. Dart laid the slate paving in the drive while recuper­ ating from a nervous breakdown in 1943. 52

Fig. 83 above: Phillip V. Tobias- the student who brought Dart back a fossil baboon skull from Makapansgat in 1945.

Fig. 84 below: An historic meeting of four world-famous prehistorians at the Transvaal Museum on 16 November 1950. I. tor. Raymond Dart, Robert Broom, Abbe Breuil and C. R. van Riet Lowe. They took part in the film 'South Africa as the Cradle of Mankind'. 53

Fig. 85 above: Robert Broom pointing to 'Mrs Pies' in situ which he blasted out of Sterkfontein cave on 18 April 1947

Fig. 86 below: Robert Broom shares the discovery at Sterkfontein cave of 'Mrs Pies' (P/esianthropus) with his assistant John Talbot Robinson on 18 April1947. 54

Fig. 87 above; Robert Broom preparing the skull of 'Mrs Pies' he discovered at Sterkfontein 18 April1947.

Fig. 88 below: Two famous Australopithecines discovered by Robert Broom. left - 'Mrs Pies', Sterkfontein, 18 April1947 .. right - now Australopithecus robustus which schoolboy Gert Terblanche led Broom to at Kromdraai on 8 June 1938. 55

Fig. 89 Semi-reconstruction (lower left) and complete reconstruction of the bust of an adult female Australopithecus prometheus, by Raymond Dart and assistants B. Grobbelaar and Dr lsmond Rosen, taken for display in America in 1949. 56

Fig. 90 An Australopithecine family group in full face, semi-profile and profile of I. to r. Paranthropus (male}. A. prometheus, (female), A. africanus (infant). prepared by R. Dart and J. F. Heim for display in America in 1949. 57

Fig. 91 above; Elsa Dziomba preparing Broom's bronze bust. below: Broom's bronze bust with an Australo­ pithecus skull at Trans­ vaal Museum, Pretoria.

Fig. 92 Raymond & Marjorie Dart at Sterkfontein cave 1973, with Broom's bronze bust. and Australopithecine skull, erected DeceMber 1966, 58

Fig. 93 above: Raymond & Marjorie Dart in America at the Viking Fund Seminar in 1949, a happy man now his Taung skull discovery was accepted there.

Fig. 94 below: Raymond Dart (centre), Dr J . H. McGregor (left) and Dr W. K. Gregory at Gregory's Woodstock, N.Y. home in 1949 while attending the Viking Fund Seminar, 1949. 59

Fig. 95 above: Joseph Lexden Shellshear DSO, Dart's lifelong colleague Fig. 96 below: Raymond & Marjorie Dart in Sydney in 1949-1950, meet Dart's brother, Reverend Dr Harold Whitmore Dart of Manly. 60

Fig. 97 above: Makapansgat Valley - viewed by Frances Wheelhouse (1973) from Gordon Peppercorn's farm. below: Further up the valley, Brian Maguire looks down on the Research Hut from outside of the Cave of Hearths. 61

Fig. 98 above: Cave of Hearths, Makapansgat Valley after excavation. below: Eastern end of the Makapansgat Valley (as seen from the Cave of Hearths). enclosed by a semi-circle of 60-90 metre high quartzite cliffs over which water cascades entering later the Dorps River north of Potgietersrus. 62

Fig. 99 above: Limeworks area, Makapansgat Valley - Judy and Brian Maguire, scientists assisting Professor Dart on research at this site. centre: Judy and Brian point to the abundance of bone fossils in a cave at the Limeworks. below: a block of breccia as it arrives in Dart's laboratory at Wits. 63

Fig. 100 above: a block of breccia being worked on by one of Dart's assistants to release individual bones. centre: extracted bone tools in various stages of preparation -compared with English modem bone apple corers top left comer. below: showin,g_bones with other bones and flakes contained in them • might they have been inserted by a human hand! 64

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Fig . 101 above: Antelope long bones from Makapansgat Umeworks grey breccia showing natural and artificial spliting. Other bones have been inserted to achieve splitting. below: Diagram of specimen in Natural History Museum, South Kensington England, from Makapansgat Umeworks of a gazelle hom core wedged in the split shaft of a large antelope's thigh bone. 65

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Fig. 102 above: Bone gouges manufactured from emu tibiae and used by Australian Aborigines of the Edward River on the Gulf of Carpentaria and described by Donald F. Thomson 1936. centre: Antelope long bone flakes from Makapansgat drawn to show the marks of other bones and, apparently also, teeth used in trimming and splitting them, some show burin-like points. below: James Kitching displays teeth in jaws which could have been used for such trimming. 66

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Fig . 103 above: James Kitching holds the fossilised giraffe leg bone from Kalkbank, Northern Transvaal.. Note bone flakes have been taken off by prehistoric man, and possibly used as cutting tools.

Fig. 104 below: Comparative series of acid-eroded flakes and tali from Pin Hole Cave in Derbyshire, England and Makapansgat Limeworks' grey breccia in the Transvaal, South Africa-demonstrates Mousterian Man in England and the Australopithecines in South Africa killed hyenas shortly after they had gorged themselves with the bones of other animals. 67

Fig. 105 above: Professor Raymond Dart in 1935 in his library, Department of Anatomy of the Medical School, with two of his Science students. centre: Study of Raymond Dart in 1938 two years after Robert Broom had found the first adult Australopithecine at Sterkfontein. below: Professor Dart in his laboratory in 1941 preparing specimens of face masks assisted by Miss Kreyer and Mr E. W. Williams. 68

Fig. 106 above: Professor Dart in his laboratory, Anatomy Department, University of the Witwatersrand in 1940. below: Professor Dart with some of his staff in the Department of Anatomy in 1954 at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. Front Row, I. to r. Dr R. Samaker, Miss L. Le Roux, Mrs B. Wilson, Dr M. Arnold, Professor R. A. Dart, Dr P. V. Tobias, Dr S. Klempman, Mrs H. Eriksen, Miss A. Andrew. Back Row, I. to r. Dr S. Movsas, Dr H. Daitsh, Dr M. J. Toerien, Dr. H. S. Hurwitz, Dr I. Abramowitz, Mr C. R. Brand, Dr U. De V Pienaar, Mr. R. Klomfass, Dr. L. Klenennan. 69

rig. 107 above: A 'retired' Professor Dart in Toronto in 1958, taken by one of his ex­ students, Dr Harding Le Riche. centre: James Kitching with his present for Professor Dart on his retirement in 1958 - an almost perfect Australopithecine adult skull from Makapansgat Limeworks. below: Professor Dart painstakingly prepares the block of pink breccia from James Kitching with the adult Austra/opffhecus, December 1958. 70

Fig. 108 above: Raymond Dart visits Dr L.S.B.Leakey in the Olduvai Gorge in 1960 - Leakey's oldest son, Jonathan is also pictured. nght: Leakey visits Dart the same year in Johannesburg - Dart shows him the Taung skull.

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MAKAPANSGAT ....__..___. Clo4 PEBBLE TOOLS Fig 109 left: Drawings of Pebble tools from the red (Phase 2) Australopithecine breccias of Sterkfontein and Makapansgat. right: Brian Maguire shows some of the thousands of pebble tools he unearthed at Makapansgat Limeworks site. 71

Fig. 11 0 above: Professor Dart contemplates the formidable collection of breccia from the Limeworks at Makapansgat on the occasion of his visit there with the Science Writers' Association in 1964. (b) Fig. 111 Judy Maguire surveys the dumps of breccia which Brian Maguire and his helpers rescued from the mining operation and which she will help Professor Dart analyse.

Fig. 112 Family group taken in 1962 when Professor Dart and son Galen were departing from Airport, Johannesburg on an archaeological trip to Israel and . Dart was leader of the tour aranged by the Johannesburg branch of the South African Archaeological Society. From the left Diana, Profesor Dart, Galen and Mrs Dart. 72

Fig. 113 above left: Map of southern Africa indicating Swaziland. centre: View from inside Lion Cavern , Bomvu Ridge, Swaziland. below left: hand-held mining chopperJfrom the from Bomvu Ridge, Chowa in Zambia and Postmasburg in the northern Cape Province. below right: The main archaeological trench in Border Cave, in the cliff face, Lebombo mountains, Swaziland. 73

Fig. 114 above left: Adrian Boshier. above right: Peter Beaumont who assisted Professor Dart with the excavation of several caves in Swaziland, importantly Border Cave. centre right: Peter Beaumont inside Castle Cavern, showing the soft, bright red variety of haematite. From there a seven-year excavation of the caves began . centre left: skeleton found in Border Cave. Below: Rock paintings showing red ochre use found by Adrian Boshier in 1963 in the Makgabeng mountains 100 kilometres northwest of Pietersburg in the northern Transvaal; considered to be eastern trading people who may have travelled as far as Border Cave. 74

Fig. 115 1981 , Raymond and Marjorie Dart invited by C. K. Brain to examine his collection of bone tools housed at the Transvaal Museum. Dart was 88 years old. Brain advised, 'Raymond Dart was greatly excited by this evidence of the cultural use of bone by early hominids, after his earlier research on this topic at Makapansgat'.

Fig. 116 Leighton Wilkie September 1965 in Chicago, USA.

Fig, 117 Statuette presented on 1 August 1966 to Professor Dart in Johannesburg by Drs Glen Doman and Carl Delacato from the Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential, Philadelphia, USA. 75

Fig. 118 above: Raymond Dart at the Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential, Philadelphia, sharing his love of poetry with young patient Eric Downey. below: Raymond Dart teaching the first class of the lntenational School of the Evan Thomas Institute (a branch of IAHP) about Austra/opithecus africanus. This section taught normal children to reach higher potential - many in the group were already gifted musicians. Both brain damaged and normal children received Dart's respiratory and brachiation exercises. 76

Fig. 119 above: Raymond and Marjorie Dart served from 1966 for over twenty years at the Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential in Philadelphia, USA. above: In May 1982, each wearing their Brazilian Gold Medal of Honour for their work for the children of the world.

Fig. 120 below: In October 1982, Marjorie and Raymond Dart in the Museum Raymond Dart established in Clark Hall at the Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential, Philadelphia, USA. 77

Fig. 121 Professors S. M. Stekelis and R. A. Dart visiting a site at Ubeidiya, Israel in 1965, when the Darts were invited to the Hebrew University in Jerusalem.

Fig. 122 Professor Dart and(right), Professor dos Santos, Professor of at the University of Oporto, a long standing friend taken in 1970 at the Sterkfontein caves beside the bust of Dr Robert Broom.

Fig. 123 Raymond and Ma~orie Dart attending a session of the Seventh Pan-African Congress in Prehistory held in Addis Ababa in December 1971 . 78

Fig. 124 Buxton Limeworks site near Taung- cairn erected to mark the spot of the Taung skull discovery by Raymond Dart in 1924. Professor P.V. Tobias addesses nublic and delegates to the T~ung Diamond Jubilee Celebrations in 1985. Taung • was then in Bophuthatswana.

Fig, 125 Professor P. V. Tobias unveils the cairn site of discovery of the Taung skull in 1924. Note the limestone tufa formation still existing, but was of no value to the miners. 79

Fig . 126 above: Sterkfontein caves grid system used to ensure exact location of fossils excavated in Professor P. V. Tobias's research programme.

Fig. 127 centre: Professor P. V. Tobias discourses on the Australopithecine and human fossils unearthed there to the Taung Diamond Jubilee Delegates in 1985.

Fig.128 right: Some stone and bone tools unearthed at the Sterkfontein caves and shown to Conference Delegates in 1985. 80

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Fig. 129 above: Dr Tim Partridge points out to the Taung Diamond Jubilee Delegates in 1985 where pole reversal is indicated in the rocks in the Makapansgat Umeworks cave.

Fig. 130 below: Map of southern Africa showing some of the sites where Australopithecine remains have been found. L£6S£8£090000000 lllllllllll llllllllllll llllllllll lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll AMVM8Il A3NOAS :10 AliSM3AINn

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