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Section 2 Biographies

List of entries Dutschke, Rudi Kennedy, Charles Kiesinger, Kurt Georg Adams, (Gerry) Gerard Eanes, General António Kinnock, Neil Adenauer, Konrad Eden, Anthony Kohl, Helmut Andreotti, Giulio Eichmann, Karl Adolf Kreisky, Bruno Arias Navarro, Carlos Engholm, Björn Krenz, Egon Ashdown, Paddy Eppelmann, Rainer Attlee, Clement Erhard, Ludwig Lafontaine, Oskar Auriol, Vincent Erlander, Tage Lambsdorff, Otto Graf Aznar López, José María Laval, Pierre Fabius, Laurent Lemass, Sean Francis Bahr, Egon Fini, Gianfranco Leone, Giovanni Bahro, Rudolf Finnbogadóttir, Vigdís Le Pen, Jean-Marie Balladur, Edouard Fischer, Joschka Lubbers, Ruud Barre, Raymond Fitzgerald, Garret Lübke, Heinrich Barzel, Rainer Foot, Michael Bastian, Gerd [See: Kelly, Fraga Iribarne, Manuel Macmillan, Harold Petra] Franco, Francisco de Maizière, Lothar Baudouin, King of Belgium Major, John Bérégovoy, Pierre Gaitskell, Hugh Makarios, Archbishop Berlinguer, Enrico de Gasperi, Alcide Marchais, Georges Berlusconi, Silvio de Gaulle, Charles Martens, Wilfried Bevan, Aneurin Genscher, Hans-Dietrich Mauroy, Pierre Bevin, Ernest Giscard d’Estaing, Valéry Mendès , Pierre Bildt, Carl Goldsmith, James Mitterrand, François Blair, Tony González Márquez, Felipe Modrow, Hans Bohley, Bärbel Grass, Günther Mollet, Guy Böll, Heinrich Grimond, Jo Monnet, Jean-Marie Bossi, Umberto Gysi, Gregor Moro, Aldo Brandt, Willy Mussolini, Benito Brundtland, Gro Harlem Hague, William Haider, Jörg Ollenhauer, Erich Callaghan, James Hallstein, Walter Carrero Blanco, Luis Haughey, Charles Paisley, Ian Carrillo, Santiago Havemann, Robert Palme, Olaf Carstens, Karl Heath, Edward Papandreou, Andreas Chaban-Delmas, Jacques Herzog, Roman Pétain, Marshal [See: Vichy Chirac, Jacques Heuss, Theodor regime*] Churchill, Winston Heym, Stefan Pflimlin, Pierre Ciampi, Carlo Hitler, Adolf Pöhl, Karl Otto Constantine II of Greece Home, Lord Pompidou, Georges Cosgrave, Liam Honecker, Erich Poujade, Pierre-Marie Cossiga, Francesco Hume, John Prodi, Romano Coty, René Craxi, ‘Bettino’ (Benedetto) Jenkins, Roy Rau, Johannes Cresson, Edith Jospin, Lionel Robinson, Mary Juan Carlos, King Rocard, Michel Debré, Michel Rohwedder, Detlev Delors, Jacques Karamanlis (Caramanlis), Dewar, Donald Konstantine Salazar, Antonio Dini, Lamberto Kekkonen, Urho Santer, Jacques Duncan Smith, Iain Kelly, Petra Scalfaro, Oscar

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access List of entries

Scharping, Rudolf Spaak, Paul-Henri Thorpe, Jeremy Scheel, Walter Spring, Dick Tindemans, Léo Schmid, Carlo Springer, Axel Trimble, David Schmidt, Helmut Steel, David Schönhuber, Franz Stoiber, Edmund Ulbricht, Walter Schröder, Gerhard Stoph, Willi Schumacher, Kurt Strauss, Franz Josef de Valera, Eammon Schuman, Robert Suárez González, Adolfo, Smith, Iain Duncan [See: Duke of Waldheim, Kurt Duncan Smith, Iain] Wehner, Herbert Smith, John Thatcher, Margaret von Weizsäcker, Richard Soares, Mário Thorez, Maurice Wilson, Harold

BIOGRAPHIES Soustelle, Jacques Thorn, Gaston Wörner, Manfred List of entries 78

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Biographies

Related entries are listed at the end of West of the Northern Ireland Assembly an entry by ‘[See also: . . .]’. An asterisk from 1998. indicates a cross-reference to Section 1, [See also: Hume; Irish Republican ‘Events, groups and developments’. For Army*] example, the entry for Auriol, Vincent has at the end ‘[See also: de Gaulle; Adenauer, Konrad Vichy regime*]’. The entry for de Gaulle is in this section; that for Vichy regime Chancellor of the Federal Republic of is in Section 1. 1949–63; leader of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) 1950–66. Adenauer was born in Cologne Adams, (Gerry) Gerard in 1876. He studied law and economics, Leader of the Northern Ireland party then practised law in Cologne. He joined Sinn Féin (Ourselves). Born in the the Catholic Centre Party in 1906, and Falls Road area of Belfast in 1948, was elected to the Cologne city council Adams was a founder member of the in 1908, becoming Lord Mayor in 1917, Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association an office he filled until 1933. In the and a member of the Belfast Housing he was elected to the Action Committee. He joined the Prussian legislature. He was dismissed Republican movement in 1964. In from his offices by the Nazis, and was March 1972 Adams was interned in twice imprisoned by them. Appointed Long Kesh under suspicion of Lord Mayor of Cologne in 1945 by the but was released in July 1972 to take US occupation authorities, when the part in secret talks between the UK British took over the administration of Secretary of State for Northern Ireland the region, they dismissed Adenauer for and the Irish Republican Army (IRA). non-co-operation. He was active in He was rearrested in 1973 and tried to founding the CDU in the British zone of escape from the Maze Prison. After his occupation, and became Chairman of release in 1977, he was charged in the Parliamentary Council (1948–49) 1978 with membership of the which met in to draft the Basic Provisional IRA but released after seven Law (the provisional constitution for the months through lack of evidence. Federal Republic). He was elected by Vice-President of Sinn Féin 1978–83, the as the first federal he became President of the party in Chancellor in September 1949, and led 1983. He was elected MP for Belfast his party to victory in the federal West 1983–92 and again from 1997. In elections in 1953, 1957 and 1961. 1988 and 1993 he met with John Following coalition negotiations which Hume, leader of the nationalist required of Adenauer that he resign the Social Democratic and chancellorship before the 1965 elections, (SDLP), to discuss proposals for the and a series of governmental crises future of Northern Ireland. He has (including the Spiegel Affair) which been the key representative of the damaged his authority, he left the nationalist Catholic community in chancellorship in 1963. He was elected negotiations with the UK government. as federal Chairman of the CDU in 1950, He has been member for Belfast when the CDU created an organisation

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Adenauer, Konrad Andreotti, Giulio

for the Federal Republic (having served as President of the Federation of previously existed as zonal and Land Catholic Universities 1942–45. A member parties). Adenauer was tempted to seek of the Christian Democrats (DC), he the office of federal president in 1959, was elected to the Italian Constituent but withdrew when he was assured that Assembly in 1945 and served in the he could not extend the very limited Chamber of Deputies from 1946, powers of that office. His chancellorship becoming a life senator in 1992. In a was marked by a search for the security ministerial career spanning four of the Federal Republic through close decades, Andreotti had responsibility for alliances with other West European many policy areas including the interior,

BIOGRAPHIES countries and with the USA, leading to finance, the treasury, defence, industry the Federal Republic becoming an and commerce, the budget and 80 enthusiastic partner in the institutions of economic planning and foreign affairs. and NATO. The He was Chairman of the DC Friendship Treaty between the Federal parliamentary party group 1948–72. In Republic and France in 1963 was February 1972 he became Prime another indication of this diplomatic Minister for the first time at the head of policy. Adenauer was accused of being a single party interim government. He insufficiently enthusiastic about then formed a coalition government of promoting German reunification, and it the centre, but resigned in June 1973. was under his leadership that the From 1976, Andreotti led a DC Hallstein Doctrine was promulgated. The government with the support of the Federal Republic became extremely Communist Party until the Communists prosperous during Adenauer’s withdrew their backing in 1979. In July chancellorship. As Chancellor, Adenauer 1989 he formed a five-party coalition frequently experienced difficulties with which fell after the elections of 1992. In his coalition partners, especially the 1993 he became embroiled in the FDP. His authoritarian style similarly led Tangentopoli scandal: in 1993 his to problems within his own party. immunity was lifted and in March 1995 Nevertheless, his undoubted success in he was charged with links to the Mafia developing the new Federal Republic as (acquitted in 1999), with complicity in a secure and prosperous democratic murder in November 1995, and with state during the period of the Cold War, financial corruption. and his active utilisation of the office of [See also: Tangentopoli*] federal chancellor to promote his policies, led commentators to apply the Arias Navarro, Carlos term ‘chancellor democracy’ to the period of his leadership. Adenauer died General Franco’s feared head of security in 1967. and Prime Minister of Spain 1973–76. [See also: Basic Law*; chancellor Arias Navarro was born in 1908 in democracy*; economic miracle*; Madrid and received a doctorate in law German question*; Hallstein Doctrine*; from the Central University of Madrid. Spiegel Affair*; Stalin Note*; Young He worked at the Ministry of Justice as a Turks’ revolt*] civil servant before becoming a public Adenauer, Konrad Andreotti, Giulio prosecutor in Malaga in 1933. He supported the rebellion led by General Andreotti, Giulio Franco during the Spanish civil war and Andreotti was Prime Minister of was arrested by the republican 1972–73; 1976–79; and 1989–92. Born in government in 1936. He was freed by in 1919, Andreotti graduated in pro-Franco Falangist forces and joined law from the University of Rome and Franco’s army. When Franco won the

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Arias Navarro, Carlos Ashdown, Paddy civil war, Arias Navarro was appointed Liberals had representation, and the to a series of provincial governorships appointment of a Commission to before becoming Director General of examine the case for some kind of security in 1957, renowned for his harsh electoral reform, though it soon became dealings with enemies of the regime. He clear that electoral reform would not be was appointed Minister of the Interior in brought as Labour policy in the Carrero Blanco’s government of 1973. foreseeable future. When Carrero Blanco was assassinated [See also: Blair] by terrorists in December 1973, Arias Navarro succeeded him as Prime Attlee, Clement

Minister. He was faced with the difficult BIOGRAPHIES task of promoting a gradual political Prime Minister of the United Kingdom liberalisation to ensure a peaceful 1945–51; leader of the Labour Party 81 transfer of executive power from the 1935–55. Attlee was born in London in failing Franco to King Juan Carlos. He 1883, and studied at Oxford University. was reappointed by King Juan Carlos He became a lawyer, then a lecturer in after Franco’s death in 1975 but the King social sciences. He served in the First was critical of his slow progress in World War, and was then briefly mayor democratising Spain. Arias Navarro of Stepney, in London. He became an resigned in 1976 and retired from MP in 1922, and served as a junior politics. He died on 27 November 1989. minister in the Labour governments led [See also: Carrero Blanco; Franco; by Ramsay MacDonald in 1924 and Juan Carlos, King; Spanish civil war*] 1929–31. As leader of the Labour Party Arias Navarro, Carlos Ashdown, Paddy during the Second World War, he was brought into Churchill’s coalition Ashdown, Paddy cabinet. After the general election of Former leader of the British Liberal 1945 had taken place (but before votes . Ashdown was born in had been counted, a delay because of New Delhi in 1941. After a career as an the large numbers of votes from the officer in the Royal Marines (1959–72), armed forces serving overseas), Attlee work for the Foreign Office and a accompanied Churchill to the Potsdam period in private industry, he entered conference, in case it turned out that the House of Commons in 1983. He Labour would form a government after became leader of the Liberal Democrats the election results were known. in 1988, but resigned in 1999. He led Attlee’s Labour government introduced the party to an astonishing electoral an ambitious programme of radical success in 1997, when – thanks to a policies, particularly implementation of successful electoral campaign focused welfare state provisions (including the on ‘target’ seats and a clear identity as National Health Service) outlined in the an anti-Conservative party – it acquired Beveridge Report, and nationalisation of nearly fifty MPs, more than at any time public utilities such as the coal mines, since the 1920s (though it had a slightly railways and gas and electricity supply, lower vote-share in 1997 than in 1992). as well as policies to cope with Ashdown had hopes that Blair would post-war reconstruction in a context of invite him to take a cabinet post, as a severe austerity and adjustments of symbol of cross-party co-operation, but Britain’s international status during a the large size of Labour’s majority period when parts of the British Empire dissuaded Blair from doing this. were seeking self-rule. Attlee died in Ashdown did obtain the creation of a 1967. cabinet committee to deal with [See also: Beveridge Report*; constitutional issues, upon which the Potsdam conference*]

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Auriol, Vincent Bahr, Egon

Auriol, Vincent Bahr, Egon President of the Bahr was born in 1922 in Treffurt 1947–53. Auriol was born in the (Thuringia). He became a journalist, Haute-Garonne in 1884. After studying and joined the West German Social law, he practised as a lawyer, entering Democratic Party in 1957. Bahr was the Parliament of the Third Republic as given a leading foreign policy advisory a Socialist deputy in 1914. He served as role during the grand coalition, serving Finance Minister and Justice Minister in under Foreign Minister Brandt. When 1936–38. After internment as an Brandt became Chancellor in 1969, Bahr

BIOGRAPHIES opponent of Marshal Pétain and the became a senior negotiator of the Vichy regime, he fled to Britain in 1942 agreements later embodied in the 82 and became associated with de Gaulle’s ‘Ostpolitik’ treaties with the USSR, Free French group in London. After Poland and the German Democratic representing France at the United Republic. Having been elected to the Nations, then serving briefly as president Bundestag in 1972, he was appointed as of the National Assembly, he was Minister without Portfolio 1972–74, and elected as first President of the new Minister for Overseas Development Fourth Republic in 1947. He died in 1974–76. He served as federal business 1966. manager (the equivalent of party [See also: de Gaulle; Vichy regime*] general secretary) of the SPD 1976–81. Auriol, Vincent Bahr, Egon [See also: Ostpolitik*] Aznar López, José María Bahro, Rudolf Prime Minister of Spain since 1996. Born in 1953 in Madrid, Aznar studied East German dissident and one of the law at the University Complutense of founders of the German Green Party. Madrid before working as a tax Bahro was born in Bad Flinsberg in inspector. He joined the Alianza Popular 1935, and studied philosophy at the (AP) in 1978 (the forerunner of the Humboldt University in . He was a Partido Popular (PP)) and was elected member of the SED (the East German to the Spanish Parliament in 1982. In communist party). Employed first in 1987 he was elected President of the journalism, then as an economist in a autonomous community of factory, Bahro became increasingly Castilla-León, a position he held until critical of the regime of the German 1989. He has been president of the PP Democratic Republic. This criticism, since 1990. He re-entered Parliament in based on the conclusion that the ruling 1989. He became Prime Minister of party in the GDR had distorted true Spain in 1996 following the general communism, was laid out in his book: election that year, and again following The Alternative, which was published in his party’s successes in the general in 1977. The decision to election in March 2000. He played a publish led to his arrest and Bahro was major role in modernising his party, sentenced to eight years’ imprisonment enabling it to discard its Francoist in 1978 on grounds of anti-socialist and legacy and bringing it electoral success. subversive activity, but under an His leadership of the government has amnesty was then allowed to emigrate been largely responsible for Spain’s to the Federal Republic of Germany in economic growth in recent years. He 1979. There Bahro associated himself survived a car-bomb attack by ETA with the nascent Green movement, terrorists in 1995. helping to found the Green Party in [See also: ETA*] 1980, and aligning himself with the

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Bahro, Rudolf Barre, Raymond fundamentalist wing of that party. His 1924. After studying political science and Marxist and environmentalist beliefs led law at the University of , he him to resign from the party in 1985 in entered the civil service, became a protest at the party’s failure to persist professor at Paris University, and joined with ‘pure’ ecological policy positions. the EEC Commission as Vice-President [See also: Realos and Fundis*] responsible for financial and economic Bahro, Rudolf Barre, Raymond affairs (1967–73). In 1976 he served briefly as Minister for Foreign Trade in Balladur, Edouard Chirac’s government, before succeeding Prime Minister of France 1993–95. Chirac in August 1976 as Prime Minister,

Balladur was born in 1929 at Smyrna in serving as his own Minister for BIOGRAPHIES Turkey. He studied law at Economics and Finance until 1978. His Aix-en-Provence and at the Paris ‘Barre Plan’ sought to deal with the 83 Institute of Political Studies and economic and currency problems facing graduated from the National College of France. He became Prime Minister for a Administration in 1957. In 1963 he second term following the general joined the staff of Prime Minister election of 1978, but resigned in 1981 Pompidou to advise on social and following Mitterrand’s election as industrial relations. He was part of President. He stood unsuccessfully as Pompidou’s crisis team, presidential candidate in 1988. taking part in the Grenelle negotiations [See also: Chirac] with the unions. When Pompidou became President, Balladur worked for Barzel, Rainer him, becoming the Elyseé Secretary-General in 1972. After Leader of the West German Christian Pompidou’s death in 1974, Balladur Democrats 1971–73. Born in 1924 in moved to the private sector. From 1980, East Prussia, Barzel qualified as a Chirac often consulted him informally lawyer. He was elected as a Christian on political and economic issues. Democratic candidate in the Bundestag Balladur was elected a Deputy of the election of 1957. He served briefly as National Assembly on the Adenauer’s Minister for All-German Rassemblement pour la République Affairs (1962–63). On the death of von (RPR) list in 1986. A supporter of Brentano in 1964, Barzel became leader ‘cohabitation’, he joined Prime Minister of the Christian Democrat parliamentary Chirac’s cabinet as Minister of the party, retaining that post until he Economy and Finance, taking resigned in 1973. Barzel was elected as responsibility for the government’s party leader in 1971, was the free-market programme. Re-elected in unsuccessful nominee for chancellor in 1988, Balladur worked to transform the the first ever ‘constructive vote of no alliance between the RPR and the confidence’ in 1972 and was selected Union pour la Démocratie Française as chancellor-candidate for the Christian (UDF) into a moderate conservative Democrats for the 1972 Bundestag grouping putting forward a single election. After resigning as party leader presidential candidate. He was Prime and leader of the parliamentary party in Minister of France 1993–95. 1973, he returned as Minister for [See also: Chirac; Pompidou] Inner-German Relations in Kohl’s cabinet in 1982, and became Chairman of the Bundestag in 1983 (equivalent to Barre, Raymond the in the House of Prime Minister of France 1976–81. Barre Commons), a post he retained until he was born on the island of Réunion in resigned in 1984 because of his

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Barzel, Rainer Baudouin, King of Belgium

involvement in the scandal surrounding 1993 and was succeeded by his the Flick Affair. brother, Prince Albert. [See also: Adenauer; constructive vote of no confidence*; Flick Affair*] Bérégovoy, Pierre Barzel, Rainer Baudouin, King of Belgium Prime Minister of France 1992–93. Bastian, Gerd [See: Kelly, Petra] Bérégovoy was born in Deville-les-Rouen in 1925. He left school Baudouin, King of Belgium at 16, becoming a manual worker who King of Belgium 1951–93. Baudouin was eventually became Director of the

BIOGRAPHIES born in 1930 in Stuyvenberg, near national gas utility in 1978. A member Brussels. Reflecting the divisions in of the , after the 84 Belgian society, his education was Second World War he joined the conducted half in French, half in (SFIO), but broke with Flemish. The reigning King Leopold’s the party over his opposition to the clumsy attempts at intervening in . A prominent member of politics during the inter-war period various left-wing groups, Bérégovoy caused resentment against the royal played a leading role in the Parti family in Belgium, and, after the Socialiste (PS) as it consolidated Second World War, they went into 1969–71. One of Mitterrand’s closest exile in Switzerland. Leopold was only supporters, Bérégovoy managed the PS allowed to return to the throne in 1950 co-operation with the Communist Party on condition that his son Baudouin take (PCF). He failed, though, to revive the on most of his powers, becoming 1972 electoral pact (the Joint Prince Royal of Belgium and head of Programme for Government between state. Leopold abdicated on 16 July the PS, PCF and left radicals) for the 1951 in Baudouin’s favour. Unlike his 1978 elections. Bérégovoy was father, Baudouin was widely respected, campaign manager for Mitterrand in the particularly for his scrupulously neutral Socialist presidential election victory of dealings with the Flemish and Walloon 1981, and again in 1988. Under (French-speaking) communities and for Mitterrand, he was appointed his part in securing the country’s long Secretary-General of the President’s transition to a federal state. His reign Office, the first in the Fifth Republic not restored faith in the monarchy in to have been a senior civil servant. As Belgium. The extent of his popularity Minister of Social Affairs and National was revealed when he caused a Solidarity (1982–84), he improved the potential constitutional crisis in April social security system and as Minister 1989. The Belgian Parliament had of Finance (1984–86), he modernised passed legislation to legalise abortion, the financial markets and implemented but Baudouin, childless and a staunch the Socialists’ policy of economic Catholic, could not in good conscience austerity. After the 1988 campaign, he sign the bill. The crisis was resolved returned as Minister of Finance under through the co-operation of the the Rocard government, becoming government: the Council of Ministers Prime Minister in 1992. When the PS ruled that Baudouin was unfit to suffered a major defeat in the govern, giving them the right to enact parliamentary election of 1993, the abortion measure on their own Bérégovoy was replaced by Edouard authority. The following day, Balladur. Bérégovoy was implicated in a Parliament was convened and minor financial scandal concerning the Baudouin’s royal powers were returned personal use of campaign funds. to him in full. Baudouin died on 31 July Blaming himself for the Socialist Party’s

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Bérégovoy, Pierre Berlusconi, Silvio parliamentary defeat, he committed football club). In 1993 he formed the suicide on 1 May 1993. populist, right-wing political movement [See also: Balladur; Mitterrand; FI and began a full-time political career Rocard; Resistance groups*] in 1994, leading his party to win the Bérégovoy, Pierre Berlusconi, Silvio general elections of that year in alliance with the separatist Northern League and Berlinguer, Enrico far-right National Alliance. As Prime Former leader of the Italian Communist Minister of this coalition government Party (PCI). Berlinguer was born in (called the ‘Freedom Pole’) in 1994 he Sardinia in 1922. He led the PCI at the broke with standard conventions of

height of its ‘eurocommunist’ phase. liberal democracy. The coalition BIOGRAPHIES Since the Second World War, the PCI terminated through inter-party had been marginalised in Italian politics disagreements at the end of 1994, and 85 through the successful tactics of its rival, Berlusconi became leader of the the Christian Democratic DC. The PCI opposition. In 1996 he was charged with had retreated into a stance of fraud, bribery of tax officials and illegal fundamental opposition and alignment party financing and in 1998 was with the . After the Soviet sentenced to over five years’ invasion of Hungary in 1956, though, the imprisonment for these offences. On 9 party adopted an independent, May 2000 various convictions on eurocommunist position which aimed to charges of bribery were overturned on achieve socialism within the existing appeal. He became Prime Minister form of regime. Berlinguer in 1973 again following the general election in adopted the strategy of ‘historic May 2001, when his party formed a compromise’, aiming to establish the coalition with the Northern Alliance and PCI as a mainstream party. The strategy Northern League. culminated in the agreement in 1976 to [See also: Northern Leagues*] tolerate DC Prime Minister Andreotti’s coalition government, but was Bevan, Aneurin abandoned in 1980 after anticipated electoral gains had failed to materialise. Minister of Health 1945–51 and Minister Berlinguer died in 1984. of Labour 1951; deputy leader of the [See also: Andreotti; *; Labour Party (1959–60). Bevan, son of a *] Welsh coalminer, was born in Tredegar in 1897, and worked as a coalminer from the age of 13. He became an Berlusconi, Silvio active trade unionist, leading the Welsh Berlusconi, controversial politician and miners during the 1926 . businessman, leader of the Italian party He was first elected to Parliament in Forza Italia (FI). He became Prime 1929 as an Independent Labour Party Minister of Italy in 1994 and again in candidate. He joined the Labour Party in June 2001. Born in in 1936, 1931. He was frequently in trouble with Berlusconi studied at the University of the party leadership because of his Milan before embarking on a successful outspoken left-wing views, and was business career. Starting with a building expelled briefly from the party in 1939 and property development business at and resigned as Minister of Labour in the age of 26, his business empire 1951, along with , over came to span commercial TV, the Chancellor of the Exchequer Gaitskell’s printed media, publishing, advertising, imposition of charges within the insurance and financial services, National Health Service (of which Bevan retailing and football (through AC Milan had been the principal founder in 1948).

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Bevan, Aneurin Bildt, Carl

In opposition, Bevan was the of Economic Affairs 1976–78 and with standard-bearer of wing in the the cabinet office 1979–81. He joined party, and his followers acquired the the executive committee of the name of ‘Bevanites’, seeking to reduce conservative Moderate Party (MP) in defence expenditure and expand social 1981 and was the party’s Chairman services, though Bevan himself renounced from 1986 to 1999. He successfully led unilateral disarmament in a speech at the moderate coalition in the elections the party conference of 1957. He sought of 1991 and replaced Social Democrat the party leadership in 1955, but was Carlsson as Prime Minister. Sweden defeated by Gaitskell. He died in 1960. was renowned for the highly developed

BIOGRAPHIES [See also: Gaitskell; Wilson] welfare state which had been promoted Bevan, Aneurin Bildt, Carl under Social Democratic rule, but Bildt 86 stood for rolling back the state, Bevin, Ernest reducing taxation and government Trade union leader and Labour Party interference in private enterprise. He minister during and after the Second also pressed for Sweden to join the World War. Bevin was born in Somerset European Union (EU). He became EU in 1881, and became a trade union peace envoy to the former official, then creator and in 1995 and acted as High General-Secretary (1921–40) of the Representative of the International Transport and General Workers’ Union Community in Bosnia and Herzegovina (a federation of numerous smaller 1995–97. He was Vice-Chairman of the separate trade unions). Bevin was a International Democrat Union 1989–92 leading organiser of the general strike in and Chairman 1992–99. In 1999 he was 1926. In 1940 Churchill invited him to appointed Special Envoy of the join the all-party war cabinet, as minister Secretary-General of the United Nations responsible for employment and to the Balkans. national service. Attlee selected him as his Foreign Secretary in the Labour Blair, Tony government of 1945–51, during which period he coped capably with the many British Prime Minister since 1997 and challenges of post-war diplomacy and leader of the British Labour Party. Blair the Cold War. He was regarded as a was born in Edinburgh in 1953, studied stalwart of the moderate centre of the at Oxford University and qualified as a Labour Party, attracting the scorn of lawyer. He entered Parliament in 1983, left-wingers as a result. Bevin died in and was appointed to a shadow cabinet 1951. position responsible for employment [See also: Attlee; Churchill] policy by Neil Kinnock in 1988; he later became opposition spokesman for home affairs. On the death of John Bildt, Carl Smith, he became a candidate for the Prime Minister of Sweden, 1991–94 and party leadership in 1994, and was international statesman. Bildt was born elected by a large margin. In the period in 1949 in Halmstad. He studied at the between his election as leader and the University of Stockholm and was general election in 1997, Blair made Chairman of the Confederation of radical changes to the organisation of Liberal and Conservative Students the party, making it a more centralised 1973–74 and of the European and efficiently managed organisation, Democratic Students 1974–76. He and improving dramatically its public worked as an adviser on policy relations performance. He also did all co-ordination for the Swedish Ministry he could to rid the party – which he

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Blair, Tony Bohley, Bärbel referred to as ‘new Labour’ – of those Bohley, Bärbel aspects of its policy likely to arouse distrust among uncommitted voters; this Campaigner active in the citizen involved the abandonment of Clause movement during the fall of the GDR Four of the party’s constitution, which regime. Bohley was born in Berlin in committed the party to nationalisation 1945. She became an artist in the GDR. of ‘the means of production and Her activities as a peace campaigner exchange’. Labour’s overwhelming brought her into conflict with the victory (in terms of seats, though not in authorities, leading on two occasions to terms of vote-share) in the 1997 election her arrest and then to her expulsion

made Blair’s position as leader totally from the GDR. Pressure from her BIOGRAPHIES secure, despite continuing criticism from associates in West Germany led to a minority of socialists within the party. revocation of that expulsion. During the 87 In government, he has introduced a period of crisis for the communist number of major constitutional changes, regime in Autumn 1989, Bohley was ranging from the introduction of elected among those instrumental in founding assemblies for Scotland and Wales and New Forum, the best known of the a directly elected mayor for London to new groups which tried to provide a removal in stages of the hereditary structure for discussion within the peers from the House of Lords. His burgeoning citizen movement. The pace government’s economic policies, of events in the GDR in 1989–90 tended implemented by Gordon Brown as to force the citizen movement to the Chancellor of the Exchequer, have been margins of the political process, and conservative and have produced large Bohley became an opponent of the public sector surpluses. He has made rush to reunification, arguing for a ‘third statements expressing commitment to way’ which would produce a European integration and favours democratic but socialist form of state eventual British membership of the within the GDR. European currency project, provided [See also: reunification of Germany*] economic conditions permit this. Blair Blair, Tony Bohley, Bärbel has been criticised for seeking to Böll, Heinrich exercise control over the party at the expense of democratic choice by German author and political members, in matters such as selection campaigner. Böll was born in Cologne of the candidate for mayor of London in 1917. After the Second World War and leadership of the Labour Party he became renowned for his novels group in the Welsh Assembly. He has and short stories, dealing with life in also diluted several conventional the Nazi period, the war and the practices connected with cabinet post-war years. He was awarded the government, such as using cabinet Nobel Prize for Literature in 1972. Böll’s meetings less than his predecessors, fame enabled him to publicise his and he attends the House of Commons views on political matters such as the very infrequently. He led his party to radicals’ decree and what he regarded another sweeping general election as the revival of militarism in the victory in 2001. He played a significant Federal Republic of Germany. His international role in the diplomatic and commitment to the protection of the military developments following the 11 persecuted was demonstrated by his September 2001 attack by terrorists on welcome to Solzhenitsyn when that New York. author left the Soviet Union in 1974. [See also: Kinnock; Smith; Clause Böll died in 1985. Four*] [See also: nazism*; radicals’ decree*]

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Bossi, Umberto Brandt, Willy

Member until 1957, then again from Bossi, Umberto 1969 to 1992. He was elected to the Leader of the Italian party, the Berlin city legislature in 1950 and Lombardy League, then of the Northern became lord mayor of West Berlin in League. Born in 1941 in Varese, Bossi 1957, a post he held until 1966, including studied at Pavia University. He the period of the erection of the Berlin co-founded the Lombardy Autonomy Wall. He was chancellor-candidate of League in 1982 and has led the party the SPD in the federal elections of 1961 (which changed its name to Lombardy and 1965. After a period as Deputy League) since 1984. He was elected as Chancellor and Foreign Minister in the

BIOGRAPHIES a Senator in 1987 and has been leader grand coalition (1966–69), Brandt was of the Federation of Northern League again chancellor-candidate of his party 88 Movements from 1989. In 1991 he in 1969, and because after that election played a leading part in creating the the FDP preferred to ally with the SPD Northern League from five regional rather than the CDU, Brandt was elected parties, and became its leader. He as Chancellor. He pursued a very active served as minister responsible for policy of improvement of relations with reform and devolution in Berlusconi’s the Soviet Union, the GDR and other coalition government in 1994, one of East European states, in contrast to the five Northern League ministers in that policies of the Adenauer government. government. Personal and political Having survived the first ever disagreements between Bossi and constructive vote of no confidence in Berlusconi led to the break-up of that the Bundestag in 1972, Brandt led his coalition at the end of 1994. In 1995 he party to victory in the Bundestag election called for the secession of the northern later that year. He resigned as area of Italy to form a new state called: Chancellor in 1974 following the ‘Padania’. He rejoined Berlusconi in the Guillaume Affair, but remained as party new coalition formed in 2001. In 1995 leader. He had been awarded the Nobel he was sentenced to five months’ Peace Prize in 1971 for his Ostpolitik imprisonment for libel and eight achievements, and went on to take an months’ for illegal party financing. active role in several international [See also: Northern Leagues*] organisations, including the Socialist Bossi, Umberto Brandt, Willy International. He served for a period as a Member of the European Parliament, Brandt, Willy and was Chairman of the Independent Chancellor of the FRG 1969–74 and Commission on International leader of the SPD 1964–87. Brandt (born Development Issues (the Brandt as Herbert Frahm) was born in Lübeck Commission) which produced reports in 1913. He joined the SPD in 1930, and on the North–South divide and other then the Socialist Workers’ Party – ‘third world’ issues. Brandt died on which had broken away from the SDP – 9 November 1992. in 1931. When Hitler came to power in [See also: Adenauer; Hitler; Berlin 1933 Brandt fled to Norway, assuming Wall*; Guillaume Affair*; Hallstein the name ‘’ which he was Doctrine*; Ostpolitik*; Spanish civil war*] to retain after the war, and spent the war in that country and Sweden, Brundtland, Gro Harlem studying history and law and working as a journalist, reporting for a time on the Norwegian Prime Minister Spanish civil war. Having rejoined the February–October 1981; 1986–89; SPD in 1947, Brandt was elected to the 1990–96 and leading international Bundestag in 1949 and remained a politician. Born in Oslo in 1939,

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Brundtland, Gro Harlem Callaghan, James

Brundtland studied medicine at the Minister. The Labour government lost its Universities of Oslo and Harvard. She small majority due to defeats in acted as a consultant to the Norwegian by-elections, and Callaghan had to Ministry of Health and Social Affairs negotiate with, first, the Liberals, then 1965–67, was medical officer for Oslo the Scottish and Welsh Nationalists and city health department 1968–69 and Northern Irish MPs, to retain a majority Deputy Director of Oslo’s school health over the Conservative opposition. He service in 1969. Minister of the was Prime Minister during the ‘winter of Environment 1974–79, she was discontent’ when strikes plagued the deputy leader of the Labour Party British economy. That, and his

1975–81 and leader of the parliamentary misjudgement concerning the timing of BIOGRAPHIES party group 1981–92. In 1981, she the general election, are generally held became Norway’s first woman Prime to have contributed to the heavy defeat 89 Minister. During her first two periods in of his party in the 1979 general election. office, she introduced several He continued as party leader and thus controversial economic reforms to as leader of the opposition only until reduce Norway’s budget deficit. She 1980, when he was replaced by became active internationally as a Kinnock. He became a member of the leading spokeswoman on the House of Lords in 1980. environment, the equality of women, [See also: Gaitskell; Kinnock; Wilson; and international co-operation. Her Lib–Lab pact*; winter of discontent*] report as Chair of the UN World Commission on the Environment and Carrero Blanco, Luis Development (1987) established the concept of sustainable growth. She was Prime Minister of Spain June–December a leading figure in the 1995 UN 1973. Carrero Blanco was born in womens’ conference in China, and was Santona in 1903. He graduated from the appointed Director-General of the WHO Spanish naval academy, becoming an in 1998. A pro-European, she was ensign in 1922, a lieutenant in 1926 and unable to mobilise the majority of later a submarine commander. He Norwegians to agree to entry of the EU, joined the staff of the naval academy in but remains a popular leader. 1934 and in 1966 was promoted to Brundtland, Gro Harlem Callaghan, James admiral. He joined the Nationalist navy during the Spanish civil war and in 1939 Callaghan, James became Franco’s chief of naval British Prime Minister 1976–79. operations. He was appointed Callaghan was born in Portsmouth in Under-Secretary to the presidency of the 1912. He became a civil servant, and government in 1941 and became was elected to the House of Commons Vice-President of the Parliament, the in 1945. He failed in his attempt to be Cortes, in 1942. In 1951 he joined elected as Labour Party leader in 1963, Franco’s cabinet and was a trusted following the death of Gaitskell. He was adviser throughout the and , appointed as Chancellor of the serving as Deputy Prime Minister from Exchequer, Home Secretary and Foreign 1968, and was viewed as the likely Secretary by Wilson in the period successor to Franco. He favoured 1964–76 (one of the few politicians ever changes in the regime which would to hold all three of these leading restore the monarchy, though he did ministerial positions). Following Wilson’s not favour political reform of a resignation in 1976, Callaghan was democratic type. In 1973, when a new elected as party leader and thus constitution was introduced in Spain, became Wilson’s successor as Prime Franco kept the presidency, but handed

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Carrero Blanco, Luis Carstens, Karl

his powers as head of government to single term as federal President, during Carrero Blanco. On 20 December 1973 which he became noted for his plan to Carrero Blanco was killed in a walk – in stages and accompanied by car-bomb attack, believed to have been local citizens – the length of the Federal carried out by ETA, the Basque Republic from the Danish border to the separatist organisation. His death made Lake of Constance. He died in 1992. political reform in Spain more likely. [See also: Franco; ETA*] Chaban-Delmas, Jacques Carrero Blanco, Luis Carstens, Karl A leading Gaullist figure in post-war Carrillo, Santiago BIOGRAPHIES French politics and Prime Minister of Leader of the Spanish Communist Party France 1969–72. Born Jacques Delmas

90 (CP), 1960–82 and of the United in 1915 in Paris, he studied law and Communists (UC) since 1985. Born in politics and worked as a journalist for 1915 in Gijón, Carrillo became leader of the Radical Socialist economic daily the United Socialist Youth in 1936. L’Information before fighting in the Having close links to the Italian Italian campaign. From 1941 to 1943 he Communist Party, Carillo tried to worked in the Ministry of Industrial introduce their ideas of Production and joined the resistance, eurocommunism to his party, with afterwards adopting ‘Chaban’, his some success. A member of the resistance pseudonym, as part of his Congress of Deputies from 1977, he was surname. He became the national expelled from the Communist Party in military delegate of de Gaulle’s 1985, becoming President of the United provisional government and was closely Communists in the same year, a party involved in the liberation of Paris. After which became absorbed in the PSOE. a brief association with the Radical He left politics in 1993, and has since Party, in 1947 he joined the Gaullist published his memoirs and several Rassemblement du Peuple Français other books. (RPF). He served as Minister of Public [See also: eurocommunism*] Works, Transport and Tourism; and Defence Minister. Following the upheavals of 1968, in 1969 Carstens, Karl Pompidou appointed Chaban-Delmas as CDU politician and President of the Prime Minister to try to stabilise the Federal Republic of Germany 1979–84. situation. Chaban-Delmas formed a Carstens was born in Bremen in 1914. government which included two He studied law and political science in members of the social democratic Germany, France and the USA. After opposition. He promised his government service in the army in the Second would create a ‘new society’ in France, World War he practised law and served setting out to reduce the inequalities the Bremen government. He followed and rigidity of French society through this with a period as a professor progressive social measures including combined with diplomatic service. He more effective collective bargaining and was appointed as State Secretary, first in the liberalisation of government, the Defence Ministry in 1967, then in the particularly in public sector Chancellor’s Office from 1968 to 1969. broadcasting. However, Chaban-Delmas’ He was elected to the Bundestag in initiative failed to integrate the more 1972, and became parliamentary leader hard-line Gaullists and the parties of the of the Christian Democrats in 1973 until left. Pompidou increasingly came to see his election as President of the Chaban-Delmas as irresponsible and in Bundestag in 1976. He then served a danger of alienating conservative

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Chaban-Delmas, , Jacques support for the party. Relations between Chirac resigned. Chirac then became President and Prime Minister party leader of the new Gaullist deteriorated and in 1972 Pompidou was Rassemblement pour la Republique furious when Chaban-Delmas called (RPR), a post which he held until 1994. (and won) a parliamentary vote of He was elected mayor of Paris confidence on his own initiative. Six (1977–95), an important power base. weeks later, the President dismissed After his resignation as Prime Minister, him. Chaban-Delmas at first appeared to Chirac worked to undermine Giscard. In be consolidating his position as a future the presidential elections of 1981, he leader of the Gaullist party, but in the split the right by standing against

presidential election of 1974 he lost Giscard, consolidating his reputation for BIOGRAPHIES heavily to his rival, Giscard d’Estaing, being divisive and ambitious. During and withdrew to his provincial Mitterrand’s first presidency, Chirac was 91 stronghold of Bordeaux, allowing Chirac effectively leader of the opposition in to take over leadership of the Gaullists. France. When the right won a narrow He continued to figure large in majority in the parliamentary elections parliamentary politics (he was three of 1986, Mitterrand called on Chirac to times President of the National form a ‘cohabitation’ government to Assembly), but did not regain a party work in tandem with his Socialist leadership role. presidency. France’s poor economic [See also: Chirac; de Gaulle; Giscard performance during Chirac’s d’Estaing; Pompidou; resistance premiership (1986–88) hampered him in groups*] the presidential race of 1988, again won Chaban-Delmas, Jacques Chirac, Jacques by Mitterrand. Chirac finally succeeded in his ambition to become President in Chirac, Jacques 1995. He resumed a Gaullist foreign Prime Minister of France 1974–76; policy in launching nuclear testing at 1986–88 and President of France 1995–. Mururoa and through adopting a Chirac was born in 1932 in Paris and Eurosceptic stance. His economic policy studied at the Paris Institute of Political had two central but conflicting aims: to Studies. After active service in , fight and to reduce the he graduated from the National College budget deficit. Chirac’s popularity of Administration in 1959. During the plummetted during his first year as early part of his political career, Chirac President, but he was able to shift was appointed to Prime Minister much of the blame for his policies onto Pompidou’s staff and forged close links his Prime Minister, Juppé. He made a with him. His ministerial career spanned political blunder by calling an early employment (1967–68); finance general election, which the Socialists (1968–71); relations with Parliament (at won, forcing Chirac to govern in which he was not judged a success, cohabitation with Prime Minister Jospin. having little interest in Parliament) [See also: Giscard d’Estaing; (1971–72); agriculture (1972–73; Mitterrand; Pompidou; Algerian conflict*] 1973–74) and the interior (1974). He was instrumental in Giscard d’Estaing’s Churchill, Winston nomination as Gaullist presidential candidate in 1974 and was rewarded by British Prime Minister 1940–45 and Giscard with the post of Prime Minister. 1951–55. Churchill was born at Giscard and Chirac soon clashed Blenheim Palace in 1874. He took up a personally and over policy and in 1976, military career after training at following Giscard’s refusal to dissolve Sandhurst military college. He was the Parliament and hold fresh elections, elected to Parliament as a Conservative

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Churchill, Winston Ciampi, Carlo

in 1900, but switched to the Liberal constitutional reform was pursued. After Party in 1906, and held various his term as Prime Minister he served as ministerial posts, including Home Minister of the Treasury and the Budget Secretary and First Lord of the in the d’Alema government (1996–98). Admiralty, a post he resigned following From 1998 until 1999 he was Chairman the failed Dardanelles military landings of the IMF Interim Committee and has in 1915. Churchill served in the army in been a member of numerous economic France until, in 1917, Lloyd George institutions. In 1999 he was elected appointed him Minister for Munitions. . Changing back to the Conservatives in [See also: Tangentopoli*]

BIOGRAPHIES 1924, Churchill was Chancellor of the Exchequer 1924–29. His critical attitude

92 Constantine II of Greece towards the Baldwin and Chamberlain governments’ appeasement policies Deposed King of Greece. Born in 1940 towards European dictators aroused near Athens, Constantine studied law at hostility towards him among the more Athens University and received military orthodox members of his party, but training 1956–58. He won a gold medal when the Second World War in the Rome 1960 Olympic Games for commenced, he accepted office as First yachting. When his father King Paul I Lord of the Admiralty again. The died in March 1964, he succeeded to downfall of Chamberlain in 1940 left the the throne. Constantine had a tense way open for Churchill to become relationship with the left-wing Prime Prime Minister and lead an all-party Minister Georgios Papandreou and national government. After the war, this dismissed him in 1965. This launched a government broke up, and in the period of civil disorder and a vacuum in general election of 1945 Churchill, government culminating in a military despite the accolades given him for his coup on 21 April 1967. Constantine had leadership in the war, was heavily little choice but to accept the military defeated by the Labour Party. He dictatorship which was imposed after returned as Prime Minister in 1951, but the coup. He called for a return to a was by then ageing and unwell. He was democratic civil regime, but, when an persuaded to retire in 1955. He attempt in 1967 to topple the military remained an MP until 1964. He was government failed, he was forced to awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature leave Greece for Rome, then London. in 1953, and was made a Knight of the Constantine was formally deposed on 1 Garter in that same year. On his death June 1973. The abolition of the Greek in 1965 he was given a state funeral. monarchy was confirmed by popular Churchill, Winston Ciampi, Carlo referendum in December 1974. In 1994 Constantine was deprived of his Greek Ciampi, Carlo citizenship and the property he owned Italian Prime Minister 1993–94. Born in in Greece was nationalised. Livorno in 1920, Ciampi studied at the [See also: Papandreou; Colonels’ University of Pisa, and, after serving with coup (Greece)*] the Italian army 1941–44, joined the Bank of Italy in 1946 and pursued a Cosgrave, Liam career as a research economist. He was Governor of the Bank of Italy 1979–93, Leader of the Irish Fine Gael (FG) party after which he was asked to form a 1965–77; Prime Minister of Ireland ‘government of technocrats’ in order to 1973–77. Cosgrave was born in 1920 in restore confidence in the collapsing Templeogue, County Dublin. His father parliamentary institutions while was William T. Cosgrave, President of

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Cosgrave, Liam Cossiga, Francesco the Executive Council of the Irish Free and when Moro was murdered in May State 1922–32. studied in 1978, Cossiga resigned. In 1979 he Dublin and Kings Inns and was called to agreed to form a coalition government the Bar in 1943, becoming a Senior and immediately introduced legislation Counsel in 1958. In 1943 he was elected to curb terrorism. He resigned as Prime to Parliament as a representative of the Minister in March 1980 in the face of a FG. He acted as Parliamentary Secretary vote of no confidence, but immediately to the Prime Minister and to the Minister formed another coalition government of for Industry and Commerce 1948–51. In Christian Democrats and Socialists. He 1956, as Minister for External Affairs, he resigned again in October 1980 when

led the first Irish delegation to the his economic plan to support the value BIOGRAPHIES United Nations General Assembly. In of the lira was defeated in Parliament. 1965 he was elected leader of the FG He was President of the Italian 93 and in 1973 became Prime Minister at 1983–85 before being elected President the head of an FG–Labour coalition. He of the Republic 1985–92. He was was respected as a moderate leader implicated in the corruption crisis which who tried to ease tensions between the engulfed the Italian political elite in the Republic of Ireland and Northern early and resigned early in 1992. Ireland, although his attempt to promote [See also: Moro; Tangentopoli*; compromise through the Sunningdale terrorism*] Agreement of December 1973 met with little success. In 1977 the National Coty, René Coalition government was defeated by the Fianna Fail (FF) and Cosgrave As President of the Fourth French stepped down both as Prime Minister Republic 1954–59, Coty guided the and as leader of the FG. He retired from peaceful transition between the Fourth politics in 1981. and the Fifth Republics. Coty was born Cosgrave, Liam Cossiga, Francesco in in 1882 and studied law at the University of Caen. He was elected Cossiga, Francesco to the National Assembly in 1923, sitting 1979–80; with the left Republican party group. President of Italy 1985–92. Cossiga was From 1935 to 1940 he was a member of born in 1928 in Sassari, Sardinia, and the Senate, and was amongst those received a law degree from Sassari who supported the transfer of powers to University in 1948. He joined the Pétain. After the Second World War he Christian Democrats (DC) in 1945, led the Independent party group in the becoming a provincial secretary 1956–58 National Assembly and was Minister for and a member of the party’s national Reconstruction and Town Planning council 1956–85. In 1958 he was elected 1947–48. In the presidential election of to the Chamber of Deputies. He was 1953, it took seven days of negotiations Under-Secretary of State for Defence and thirteen ballots before Coty, an 1966–70 and Minister for Public outsider who entered the field only on Administration 1974–76. As Minister of the eleventh ballot, emerged as the Interior 1976–78 in the cabinet of President. Aware of his shaky mandate, he had to deal with an he worked to restore the dignity and upsurge in urban violence and political unity of the parliamentary institutions, terrorism. In April 1977, his offices were exercising his powers with restraint and bombed by radicals. In March 1978 adopting a conciliatory stance towards Cossiga took charge of the investigation the Communist Party. In 1958, when into the kidnapping of Aldo Moro. He France faced a crisis over Algerian refused to negotiate with the terrorists independence and the threat of military

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Coty, René Cresson, Edith

intervention, Coty helped to secure the Cresson, Edith transition to the Fifth Republic. He threatened to resign, potentially leaving First woman Prime Minister of France the way open for a 1991–92. Born in Boulogne-sur-Seine in government, unless de Gaulle was 1934, Cresson graduated from a allowed to introduce the new republic. prestigious Paris business school and Once the Fifth Republic was took a doctorate in demography before inaugurated, Coty stepped down as beginning a career in economic President in favour of de Gaulle. Coty investment and marketing. She was died on 22 November 1962. national secretary of the Socialist Party

BIOGRAPHIES [See also: de Gaulle; Algerian (PS) 1974–79 and was also responsible conflict*; Vichy regime*] for its youth section. She was elected to 94 Coty, René Cresson, Edith the European Parliament in 1979 and to the National Assembly in 1981. She was Craxi, ‘Bettino’ (Benedetto) a member of all three Mauroy cabinets: Prime Minister of Italy 1983–87 and Minister for Agriculture 1981–83; Foreign leader of the . Born Trade and Tourism 1983–84; and in 1934 in Milan, Craxi joined the Italian Industrial Restructuring and Foreign Socialist Youth Movement in the early Trade 1984–86. From 1988 to 1990 she 1950s and became active in the was Minister for European Affairs, Socialist Party. He was elected to the famously attacking Mrs Thatcher by Chamber of Deputies in 1968. He declaring that the EC was ‘more than a became Deputy Secretary of his party in glorified grocer’s shop’. As Prime 1970, and General Secretary in 1976 and Minister 1991–92 she often caused succeeded in integrating the various offence with her rash comments and factions of the party. In 1983 he became failed to promote the popularity of the the first Socialist Italian Prime Minister. PS. When the party lost support in the His government’s austerity programme March 1992 parliamentary elections, she was met with a series of strikes. In stood down. From 1994 to 1999 she was October 1985, the Italian liner the EU Commissioner for Science, Research Achille Lauro was hijacked by and Development. She was deeply Palestinian terrorists. Craxi’s government implicated in the scandal which brought negotiated with the terrorists through down the commission team in 1995. the Palestinian Liberation Organisation [See also: Mauroy] and released the suspected organiser of the hijacking. These events caused a Debré, Michel government crisis, but Craxi was able to stay in power until 1987. After his Prime Minister of France 1959–62 and resignation he remained sufficiently designer of the constitution of the Fifth powerful to force the resignation of French Republic. Debré was born in several subsequent governments. He Paris in 1912. After studying law, he resigned as leader of the Socialist Party served as an officer in the Second in February 1993 following allegations of World War, became a prisoner of war political corruption. He fled to but escaped in 1940 and fled to and in 1994 he was sentenced in his England. Here he worked closely with absence to eight and a half years’ de Gaulle’s Free French resistance imprisonment for having accepted 7 movement. He became a Senator in the billion lire from the corrupt Milanese Fourth Republic, and, when de Gaulle Banco Ambrosiano for the Socialist accepted the call to introduce a new Party. He died in January 2000. constitution in 1958, Debré played a [See also: Tangentopoli*] leading role in drafting that constitution.

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Debré, Michel Delors, Jacques

After serving as Prime Minister, he later engineered major changes including a became Foreign Minister and Defence restructuring of the EC’s finances and Minister. In 1981 he was a candidate for agricultural policy and significant the presidency, but received only about constitutional and institutional reform. 1 per cent of the vote on the first round Encouraged by a proactive of balloting. Franco-German leadership (Mitterrand [See also: de Gaulle; resistance and Kohl), he moved the EC towards groups*] further integration. His efforts were Debré, Michel Delors, Jacques consolidated in the Single European Act (SEA) and the Treaty on European Delors, Jacques

Union (TEU or Maastricht Treaty). In BIOGRAPHIES French christian democrat/socialist and addition to various EU posts, he has President of the EC/EU Commission acted as special adviser on economic 95 1985–95. Delors was born in 1925 in and social affairs to the OECD since Paris, where he studied law and 1999. banking before joining the Bank of [See also: Chaban-Delmas; Kohl; France in 1944. He acted as consultant Mitterrand; Maastricht Treaty*; Single in social and economic affairs in the European Act*] preparation of the Fifth Plan (1962–69), a position he gained partly through his Dewar, Donald ties with the Catholic union, the CFTC. He associated briefly with the First Minister (Prime Minister) of the Mouvement Républicain Populaire and Scottish Executive 1999–2000. Dewar with socialist splinter groups before was born in Glasgow in 1937. He leading the Catholic Citoyen 60 club. studied history and law at Glasgow After the social upheaval of May 1968, University. Dewar was first elected as a his vision of a less authoritarian, Labour Party MP to the House of consensus-led mode of conducting Commons in 1966, but was defeated in industrial relations became more the 1970 general election. He returned popular. In 1969, Prime Minister as an MP in 1978, and became the Chaban-Delmas, keen to promote a Opposition spokesman on Scottish ‘new society’ in France, appointed affairs in 1983, a post he held until 1992. Delors as his adviser on social affairs. In He became a strong supporter of the 1974, Delors joined the Socialist Party idea of a devolved Parliament for (PS) and became a supporter of Scotland, campaigning in favour of Mitterrand. When Mitterrand became devolution in the unsuccessful 1979 President in 1981, Delors was appointed referendum, supporting the Scottish Minister of Finance. He kept France in Constitutional Convention created in the European Monetary System (EMS), 1988 which investigated ways and and, in the Spring of 1982, implemented means of bringing about a Scottish an austerity programme aimed at Parliament, and managing the campaign curbing consumption to reduce the in 1997 which produced an trade deficit. A second, more stringent overwhelming majority in a referendum phase adopted in March 1983 curtailed favouring a Scottish Parliament. When collective bargaining, particularly in the that Parliament was elected in 1999, public sector. Although the government Dewar, as leader of the largest proved unpopular, Delors’ performance parliamentary party group, became the was approved by the financial First Minister and formed a coalition community. First elected MEP in 1979, government with the Liberal Democrats. Delors became President of the EC In 2000 he had treatment for a heart Commission in 1985. As President, he condition, and died in October 2000.

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Dini, Lamberto Duncan Smith, Iain

single European currency scheme. He Dini, Lamberto was appointed by Hague in 1997 as Leading Italian economist and opposition spokesman for social security ‘technocratic’ Prime Minister of Italy policy. In the leadership election in 1995–96. Dini was born in 1931 in 2001, he rather surprisingly obtained and studied at the Universities more votes from Conservative MPs than of Florence, Minnesota and Michigan. Portillo, and competed successfully He became an economist with the IMF against Clarke in the membership ballot in Washington and took various among the top two contenders. consultancy posts before joining the [See also: Hague]

BIOGRAPHIES Bank of Italy, first, in 1979, as Assistant General Manager, then as General

96 Dutschke, Rudi Manager. He was a member of the Monetary Committee of the EU. He was Leading figure in the German student Minister of the Treasury 1994–95, Prime movement, especially in the late 1960s. Minister 1995–96 and Minister of Foreign Dutschke was born in Schönefeld near Affairs 1996–2000. In spite of a bitterly Luckenwalde (south of Berlin) in 1940. divided Parliament in the wake of As a conscientious objector in the GDR Berlusconi’s failed government of 1994, he was excluded from higher education, Dini was able to find majorities to pass so moved to West Berlin to study a new budget in March 1995 and a sociology. As a leading member of the significant pension reform to introduce a left-wing Socialist German Student new system of benefits by 2008. Association (SDS), he organised However, he was not able to pass demonstrations in the late 1960s, anti-cartel laws directed against including a protest demonstration Berlusconi’s control of the media: the against the visit of the Shah of Iran in measure was rejected by referendum by 1967, against the grand coalition and its 57 per cent of the vote. He resigned as policies and against what the SDS Prime Minister under growing pressure perceived to be undemocratic from the established parties, but formed dominance in universities and other a new party: the centrist Italian Renewal institutions by elites. In Party, shortly before the 1996 general Dutschke was shot by an assassin, and election, and became a prominent for a time his life was in danger. He member of Prodi’s ‘Olive Tree’ coalition made a recovery, eventually finding government in 1996. employment at Aarhus University [See also: Berlusconi; Prodi; (Denmark). He supported the founding Tangentopoli*] of the Green Party in Germany. Dini, Lamberto Duncan Smith, Iain Dutschke died in 1979 from the effects of his gunshot injuries. Duncan Smith, Iain [See also: extra-parliamentary Leader of the Conservative Party since opposition*] 2001. Duncan Smith was born in Edinburgh in 1954 and educated at Eanes, General António Sandhurst, following which he became an army officer, then a business An army officer, General Eanes was executive. He was first elected to the President of Portugal 1976–86. Eanes House of Commons in 1992. He was born in 1935 in Alcains. He studied established a reputation within the party psychology and law before military for his outspoken opposition to further training in 1953. He was commissioned developments in European integration, to Portuguese India 1958–60; and especially British entry into the Mozambique 1962–64, 1966–67;

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Eanes, General António Eden, Anthony

Portuguese Guinea 1969–73; and Angola to his humiliation as Prime Minister and 1973–74. He became a General in 1978. to divisions within his party. He resigned After the April Revolution he was as Prime Minister on grounds of named to the first ‘Ad hoc’ Committee ill-health in January 1957. He became for mass media in June 1974 and Earl of Avon in 1961. He died in 1977. subsequently to other media posts, but [See also: Churchill; *] resigned after accusations of ‘probable implication’ in the abortive counter-coup Eichmann, Karl Adolf of March 1975. He was later cleared of this charge. He was a member of the Nazi war criminal responsible for

Military Committee of the Council of the administration of the Holocaust. BIOGRAPHIES Revolution and was responsible for the Eichmann was born in Solingen in 1906. Constitutional Law approved in He joined the Nazi Party in 1932 and 97 December 1975. In addition to the was recruited to the SS (state security presidency, Eanes was service). As a high-level bureaucrat with Commander-in-Chief of the Armed experience in managing anti-Jewish Force 1976–80, 1980–81. After his policies in Vienna, he attended the presidency, he led the Portuguese Wannsee conference which planned Democratic Renewal Party 1986–87. the so-called ‘final solution’ and was in Eanes, General António Eden, Anthony charge of administration of this policy of eliminating Jews in by murder Eden, Anthony in concentration camps. Escaping from British Prime Minister and Conservative American custody after the war, he fled Party leader 1955–57. Eden was born in to Argentina, but a group of so-called 1897 in Durham. After studying at ‘Nazi hunters’ located his residence Oxford, he was awarded the Military there in 1960 and he was kidnapped by Cross during his service in the First Israeli security agents, transported to World War. He was first elected to the and put on trial. Found guilty of House of Commons in 1923. After crimes against the Jewish people, he holding junior ministerial posts, he was was sentenced to death and executed appointed Foreign Secretary in 1935. in 1962. Disagreements with Prime Minister [See also: anti-Semitism*; final Chamberlain, especially concerning the solution*; Holocaust*; nazism*] need actively to resist aggression by Italy in Abyssinia, caused Eden to resign Engholm, Björn from the cabinet in 1938. Eden became Dominions Secretary in Chamberlain’s Prime Minister of Schleswig-Holstein, government when the Second World 1988–93 and leader of the West German War commenced in 1939. Churchill Social Democratic Party 1991–93. appointed him in 1940 as Secretary of Engholm was born in Lübeck in 1939. State for War, then as Foreign Secretary, He had been a Member of the which involved Eden closely in the Bundestag, and, briefly, a minister in war-time conferences with the USA and ’s coalition government. USSR. When Churchill returned as Engholm was a popular politician, who Prime Minister in 1951, Eden became seemed set to become Foreign Secretary for the third time, and chancellor-candidate for the SPD for the was the recognised successor-in-waiting 1994 Bundestag election. However, his to the aged and ailing Churchill. He admission that he had given false became Prime Minister when Churchill evidence to an inquiry into the Barschel resigned in 1955, but in 1956 became Affair led to his resignation from party embroiled in the Suez crisis, which led and public office in 1993. He was

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replaced as SPD leader by Rudolf 1897 in Fürth (Bavaria). Prior to and Scharping. during the Second World War he [See also: Scharping; Schmidt; directed an economics research Barschel Affair*] institute. In 1944 he produced a scheme Engholm, Björn Erhard, Ludwig for the economic recovery of post-war Germany based on the notion of a Eppelmann, Rainer social market economy, a combination Dissident and leading eastern German of the free market and welfare state politician during German reunification provisions, which guided West German (1989–90). Eppelmann was born in economic policy after the war. After the

BIOGRAPHIES Berlin in 1943. After his trade war he was appointed as Professor of apprenticeship he was jailed as a Economics at University, served 98 conscientious objector. He studied as Bavarian Minister for Industry in theology and became a leading pacifist 1945–46 and became Economic Director and critic of the German Democratic in the Bizone Economic Council Republic (GDR). As a pastor, he housed Executive in 1948. In this post he meetings for opponents of the regime implemented the currency reform of in his East Berlin church. He was 1948, designed to produce a stable co-founder of the political movement: currency and eliminate the black Democratic Renewal (Demokratische market in the western zones of Aufbruch) and represented it at the occupation. He was elected to the Round Table talks on constitutional and Bundestag in 1949, and became Minister political reform which took place in late of Economics in Adenauer’s 1989 and early 1990 under the Modrow government, serving in that post until he government. From February 1990 he succeeded Adenauer as Federal was Minister without Portfolio in the Chancellor in 1963. His skills as an Modrow cabinet. When the leader of economist and administrator, though Democratic Renewal, Wolfgang Schnur, earning him the title of ‘Father of the resigned over alleged links with the Economic Miracle’, did not benefit him GDR state security police (Stasi), he in election campaigns, and the failure of was replaced by Eppelmann. the CDU–CSU to do as well as expected Eppelmann was Minister for in the 1965 Bundestag election left Disarmament and Defence in the de Erhard in a vulnerable position. When Maizière cabinet in 1990 following the the Free Democrats forced a coalition parliamentary elections. He became a crisis in 1966 over taxation policy, member of the CDU when Democratic Erhard was forced to resign as Renewal was merged with the CDU Chancellor, and was replaced by shortly before reunification, and took a Kiesinger. Erhard succeeded Adenauer leading role in the CDU employees’ briefly as leader of the Christian organisation. He chaired committees of Democratic Union (1966–67). Erhard inquiry into past events in the GDR. He died in 1977. has been a Member of the Bundestag [See also: Adenauer; Kiesinger; since 1990. economic miracle*; social market [See also: de Maizière; Modrow; economy*] reunification of Germany*; Round Table*; Stasi*] Erlander, Tage Prime Minister of Sweden 1946–69. Erhard, Ludwig Erlander was born in Ransäter in 1901. Chancellor of the Federal Republic of He entered the Swedish Parliament Germany 1963–66. Erhard was born in () in 1933 as a Social Democrat,

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Erlander, Tage Fabius, Laurent and rapidly rose to become a member rivals in the party, and also with of the cabinet in 1944. In 1946 he was Mitterrand. He was criticised for his elected as party leader and became pragmatism and viewed as not being a Prime Minister. His main achievement true socialist: he was dubbed the was the development of Sweden’s ‘Giscard of the left’. Lacking an welfare state system. He emphasised independent political power base, consensus in his relations with other Fabius lost public profile when the right parties, which enabled many of his regained the government in 1986. He policies to be adopted without much failed to gain the leadership of the PS political controversy. He defended the during the election year of 1988 and his

policy of neutrality for Sweden, but selection as President of the National BIOGRAPHIES combined this with internationalism Assembly in that year was understood expressed through generous foreign aid as a consolation prize. He was briefly 99 and Swedish membership in the First Secretary of the PS (1992–93) and European Free Trade Association. led the PS party group in the National Erlander, Tage Fabius, Laurent Assembly 1995–97. [See also: Giscard d’Estaing; Jospin; Fabius, Laurent Mauroy; Mitterrand] Prime Minister of France 1984–86, the youngest to hold this office since Fini, Gianfranco Decazes in 1815. Fabius was born in Paris in 1946 and studied there at the Leader of the right-wing National Institute of Political Studies and at the Alliance party in Italy, and Deputy Prime National College of Administration. In Minister in Berlusconi’s government. Fini 1973 he joined the Council of State, was born in Bologna in 1952, and France’s highest administrative tribunal, studied education and psychology at becoming Master of Petitions in 1981. In university. He played a leading role in 1974 he joined the Socialist Party (PS) Italy’s neo-fascist youth group (the and rose rapidly from economic adviser Fronte della Gioventú) and was elected to Mitterrand in 1975 to First Secretary to Parliament for the neo-fascist Italian of the party, and, in 1976, Director of Social Movement (MSI) in 1983. He Mitterrand’s advisory staff. Together with became leader of that party in 1987, Jospin, Fabius worked to secure but, because of problems affecting that Mitterrand’s power base within the party, decided to form a new party in party. In 1978, Fabius became PS 1994: the National Alliance (AN), which parliamentary spokesman on budgetary took a more moderate and orthodox matters, and, in 1981, Minister for the political stance than had the MSI. That Budget. His reflationary budget of 1982 same year the AN joined in Berlusconi’s aimed to implement the series of social coalition government, and it also and economic reforms proposed by the became a partner in Berlusconi’s 2001 Socialist–Communist coalition. In March coalition government. 1983, Fabius was promoted to the [See also: Berlusconi] flagship ‘superministry’ of Research, Industry and Telecommunications, Finnbogadóttir, Vigdís intended to mastermind France’s ‘third industrial revolution’. When Mauroy President of Iceland 1980–96. resigned as Prime Minister in 1984, Finnbogadóttir was born in 1930 in Mitterrand replaced him with Fabius, Reykjavik and studied at the Universities who introduced the surprisingly of Iceland, Grenoble and the Sorbonne successful austerity programme. Popular before becoming a French teacher. She with the public, Fabius clashed with became involved in the Icelandic tourist

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industry, was Director of the Reykjavik Fitzgerald, Garret Theatre Company 1972–80 and taught French drama at the University of Leading Irish and EU politician and Iceland. In politics, she was first a economist, leader of the Fine Gael (FG) Member, then Chair, of the Advisory party 1977–87 and Prime Minister of Committee on Cultural Affairs in the Ireland 1981–82, 1982–87. Fitzgerald was Nordic countries 1976–80 before born in 1926 in Dublin, where he becoming President of Iceland 1980–96. graduated in law from University Finnbogadóttir, Vigdís Fitzgerald, Garret College. From 1947 to 1958 he worked as a manager for Aer Lingus before Fischer, Joschka

BIOGRAPHIES taking up posts in political economy at Foreign Minister of Germany, and Dublin University 1958–73. He was a leading personality in the Green Party. member of the Irish Senate (Seanad 100 Fischer was born in Gerabronn in 1948. Éireann) 1965–69, then of the lower He was one of the more notorious house (Dáil Éireann) for Dublin radicals of the ‘1968 movement’. He South-East 1969–92. He was Minister for joined the Green Party in 1982, as it was Foreign Affairs 1973–77 before first first developing into a national political becoming Prime Minister (Taoiseach) in force. In 1985 he became Minister for 1981. During this period in office he set the Environment in the Hesse Land up an Inter-Governmental Council on government, in what was the first Land Northern Ireland with the UK Prime coalition government in which the Minister, . His Green Party had participated. He coalition government with the Labour retained that office until 1987, and was Party fell when its budget was defeated again Minister for the Environment in the in 1982, and fresh elections gave power second SPD–Green Party coalition in to the opposition, the Fianna Fail (FF). Hesse, from 1991 to 1994. He had been Fitzgerald led the FG from 1977 to 1987. a Member of the Bundestag 1983–85, He again became Prime Minister in and was again elected to the Bundestag December 1982. On 15 November 1985 in 1994. In the period 1987–94 he was a he signed the Anglo-Irish Agreement Member of the Hesse Land Parliament. with Thatcher. This gave the Republic a Fischer was always seen to be a consultative role in Northern Ireland for supporter of a more pragmatic policy for the first time, while recognising the the Green Party: one of the ‘Realos’. He right of the majority in Northern Ireland was the most widely recognised to decide the political allegiance of the personality in that party, certainly since province. With respect to domestic the death of Petra Kelly. When the SPD policy, Fitzgerald failed to reduce formed a governing coalition after the government spending or bring down 1998 Bundestag election, Fischer the rate of unemployment and barely became Foreign Minister and Deputy survived a no-confidence motion in Chancellor. His policies whilst in office October 1986. His government have sometimes met with strong collapsed, again over the budget, in disapproval from elements within his January 1987, and Fitzgerald promptly own party, such as his support for resigned from the leadership of FG. He German military participation in has held numerous national and peacekeeping in areas of the former international positions relating to Yugoslavia. In 2001 allegations economics and in association with the concerning his radical activities in the EU. While Minister for Foreign Affairs, early cast a shadow over his he was President of the Council of position in the Schröder government. Ministers of the EEC January–June 1975. [See also: Kelly; Realos and Fundis*] He was a leading figure in the

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European People’s Party of the for the Interior and Deputy Prime European Parliament. He has been Minister 1975–76. In 1976 he formed the active as a political journalist, working AP which he led for much of the 1980s. for the BBC, the Financial Times, The He was a Member of the European Economist and the Irish Times. Parliament 1987–89 and was involved in [See also: Thatcher] regional politics in Galicia, becoming Fitzgerald, Garret Fraga Iribarne, Manuel the President of the region in 1990 (and re-elected to that post in 1993, 1997 and Foot, Michael 2000). During the Franco regime he was Leader of the British Labour Party a supporter of partial liberalisation, both

1980–83. Foot was born in Plymouth of the ruling party and of the regime. BIOGRAPHIES in 1913. Educated at Oxford University, He removed aspects of censorship of he became a journalist noted for his the press by legislation in 1966, for 101 left-wing views. He was first elected to instance. However, he was too closely the House of Commons in 1960 and linked to Franco’s regime to be a key became a minister in the 1974 Wilson figure in the transition to democracy in government. He was leader of the Spain. House of Commons 1976–79. He was elected deputy leader of the Labour Franco, Francisco Party in 1976, and then leader in succession to Callaghan in 1980. His Military leader of Spain from the civil left-wing views were blamed for the war until his death in 1975. Franco was heavy defeat of the Labour Party in the born in Galicia in 1892. He entered 1983 general election, after which Foot upon a military career, and became resigned as party leader. He has always Chief of Staff in 1935. His overt been associated with pacifist causes, in opposition to the democratic regime particular the Campaign for Nuclear in Spain at the time led to his posting Disarmament. as military commander in the Canary [See also: Callaghan; Wilson; Islands, and Franco’s decision in 1936 Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament*] to lead a military uprising against the socialist government. This led to the Spanish civil war, which ended in a Fraga Iribarne, Manuel victory for the military forces in 1939. Leader of the former Spanish party He then ruled Spain as a dictatorship Alianza Popular (AP) (now Partido in which he was head of state and Popular (PP)) 1979–86, 1989–90 and a Prime Minister, with the aid of his leading writer and diplomat. Fraga was Falange party. Other parties were born in 1922 in Villalba, Lugo and prohibited, democratic rights were studied at the Universities of Santiago abolished, regional identity was and Madrid before becoming a suppressed and a corporate form of Professor at the Universities of Valencia economic regulation introduced. (1945) and Madrid (1948). He was Franco was regarded by some as active in the diplomatic service from fascist and he benefited during the 1945. From 1951 to 1961 he held various civil war from military aid sent by public posts related to culture, the Nazi government. Nevertheless, education and political studies. He was he refused to join in the Second Minister of Information and Tourism World War, maintaining Spanish 1962–69 and also Secretary-General of neutrality. Before his death, Franco the cabinet 1967–69. He was arranged that the monarchy should be Ambassador to the UK 1973–75. After restored and that Juan Carlos should Franco’s death, Fraga became Minister succeed him as head of state, in the

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Franco, Francisco de Gasperi, Alcide

hope that his style of regime would the Italian resistance. When Mussolini persist after his death. fell, de Gasperi joined the Bonomi [See also: Juan Carlos, King; Spanish government of 1944, becoming Foreign civil war*] Minister in December. He was elected Franco, Francisco de Gasperi, Alcide leader of the newly founded Christian Democrats (DC) and in 1945 became Gaitskell, Hugh Prime Minister, introducing a period of Leader of the British Labour Party DC participation in government which 1955–63. Gaitskell was born in London was to last until the party’s dissolution in 1906. He studied at Oxford University in 1994. As Prime Minister, de Gasperi

BIOGRAPHIES and then became a lecturer in committed the Italian Republic to NATO, economics. He was elected to the promoted links with the USA, House of Commons in 1945 and held a established a fairly liberal economic 102 number of ministerial positions in the policy and remained staunchly Attlee governments, becoming anti-communist. He grew increasingly Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1950. committed to the goal of European His decision to introduce charges for integration. During his period in office, certain National Health Service Italy recovered its international standing provisions led to a bitter feud with and the economy improved. After losing Bevan (who resigned from the a vote of confidence in June 1953, de government on this issue) and the left Gasperi stepped down. He resigned as wing of the party, and to criticism of leader of the DC in June 1954 and died Gaitskell’s revisionism. In 1955 Gaitskell on 19 August 1954. defeated Bevan in the election for the [See also: Mussolini; resistance party leadership. He tried to modify groups*] Labour’s commitment to nationalisation, and strongly opposed attempts to de Gaulle, Charles impose unilateral nuclear disarmament as party policy. He died Leader of the Free French resistance in 1963. during the Second World War and [See also: Bevan] President of France 1958–69. De Gaulle was born in Lille in 1890. He made a career in the army, and was a de Gasperi, Alcide prisoner-of-war in the First World War. Prime Minister of Italy 1945–53 during When France was defeated in 1940 by the reconstruction period after the the German military, de Gaulle, at the Second World War. De Gasperi was time a General with a post in the born in 1881 in Pieve Tesino in Ministry of Defence, fled to London and Trentino. He studied at the University of set up a committee of the Free French Vienna before becoming editor of the to continue resistance to the Germans. newspaper Nuovo Trentino. He was Following the liberation of France in elected to the Austrian Parliament in 1944–45, de Gaulle became head of the 1911 as a representative of the Italian provisional government, until the Fourth Irredentist movement. After the union of Republic was established in 1946, his province with Italy, he was elected following a referendum. He removed to the in 1921. An himself from an active role in national opponent of Mussolini’s dictatorship, he politics, but in 1958, as a result of the was arrested in 1926 and his newspaper growing crisis in Algeria and the lack of was banned. He was jailed for 16 support for the Fourth Republic, he was months. During the Second World War, invited to become Prime Minister with de Gasperi was an active member of the mandate to produce a new

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access de Gaulle, Charles Genscher, Hans-Dietrich constitution. He became the first deputy leader of his party in 1968. He President of the new Fifth Republic, served as Minister of the Interior in the introduced direct election for the Brandt government from 1969 to 1974. presidency and was re-elected in 1965 The resignation in 1974 of the under this new system. He successfully incumbent Foreign Minister and party managed the Algerian crisis, eventually leader, Scheel, allowed Genscher to ensuring that Algeria became assume both those positions. Genscher independent. He played an active part in played a leading role in bringing about shaping the politics of European the fall of the Schmidt government and integration, though always with a view its replacement by a Christian

to protecting the interests of France. In Democrat–FDP coalition in 1982 by use BIOGRAPHIES particular, he negotiated the of the constructive vote of no Franco-German treaty with Adenauer confidence. As Foreign Minister under 103 which was signed in 1963 and twice two Chancellors of different parties: exercised a veto against the entry of the Helmut Schmidt (Social Democrats) United Kingdom into the European and (Christian Democrats), Economic Community. He withdrew Genscher provided continuity of foreign France from various aspects of NATO policy and was able to promote his membership in 1966. The events strategy of combining the pursuit of surrounding the student and left-wing détente with measures to ensure the demonstrations in 1968 seemed to military and diplomatic security of the weaken his position, though he agreed Federal Republic – a policy stance that to a range of reforms in an effort to became known as ‘Genscherism’. He meet popular demands. In 1969 de soon became the most prominent of all Gaulle’s plans for regional reform were the FDP politicians, and his reputation defeated in a referendum which was and fame contributed much to the perceived as a test of confidence in his electoral survival of the FDP in 1983 leadership, and he resigned. He died in and its electoral successes in 1987 and 1970. 1990. He played a leading role both in [See also: Adenauer; Algerian dealing with diplomatic incidents conflict*; empty chair crisis*; May during the collapse of the communist Events*; resistance groups*] regime in the GDR (such as emigration de Gaulle, CharlesGenscher, Hans-Dietrich of GDR refugees in Western embassies in Eastern Europe in 1989) and in Genscher, Hans-Dietrich the diplomatic strategies which led Foreign Minister of the German Federal to the reunification of Germany in Republic 1974–92 and leader of the 1990. Free Democratic Party (FDP) 1974–85. [See also: Brandt; Scheel; Schmidt; Genscher was born near Halle, in what constructive vote of no confidence*; later became the German Democratic reunification of Germany*] Republic, in 1927. He studied law at the Universities of Halle and Leipzig, then Giscard d’Estaing, Valéry migrated to the Federal Republic in 1952, the year in which he joined the President of France 1974–81. Giscard FDP. He was appointed to the staff of was born in 1926 in Koblenz the FDP parliamentary party in the (Germany). He served in the Second Bundestag in 1956, becoming business World War and then received an elite manager of that parliamentary party in civil service education, graduating from 1959, and business manager of the FDP the newly created National College of in 1962. He was first elected to the Administration to take a post at the Bundestag in 1965. He was elected as a Bank of France. Minister of Finance

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Edgar Fauré appointed Giscard to his presidential election of 1981. Giscard’s staff in 1954, keeping him on when presidency ended in a welter of Fauré became Prime Minister in 1955. scandals, including the murder of a In 1956 Giscard inherited his Giscardian Deputy of the National grandfather’s parliamentary seat of Assembly and the suspicious suicide of Puy-le-Dôme. In the 1958 crisis, Giscard a government minister. The last straw backed de Gaulle and retained his seat was Giscard’s refusal to account for his at the first elections of the Fifth acceptance of a gift of diamonds from Republic. In 1962 he became Minister of the African dictator Emperor Bokassa. Finance and Economic Affairs. From Giscard returned to the National

BIOGRAPHIES 1962 to 1974, Giscard led the Assembly as a Deputy in 1984. He was development of liberalism in French President of a weakened UDF 1988–96. politics. After the 1962 elections, his He became President of the European 104 party group, the Independent international movement 1989–97 and led Republicans, supported the Gaullist the UDF–RPR list in the 1989 European government as a coalition partner with elections. In 1997, he became President the aim of promoting European of the Council of European integration and a less authoritarian style Municipalities and Regions. of government. In 1966 Giscard left the [See also: Chirac; de Gaulle; government and openly criticised de Pompidou; oil crisis*] Gaulle, refusing to support him over the Giscard d’Estaing, ValéryGiscard d’Estaing, Valéry 1969 referendum on regional and senate Goldsmith, James reform. The failure of the referendum was to bring down de Gaulle’s Founder and principal financier of the presidency. Giscard transferred his Referendum Party, which presented loyalty to Pompidou and was rewarded candidates at the 1997 British general by the new President with the Finance election. Goldsmith was born in Paris Ministry (1969–74). When Pompidou in 1933. He became a businessman, died in 1974, Giscard won the amassing great wealth as a result of presidential elections. Determined to be founding and developing companies. a new-style ‘popular’ president, the high He became convinced that British entry expectations at the start of his term of into the single European currency office faded to disillusionment. Giscard system would be a national disaster, so took office as the oil crises of 1973 and he first campaigned vigorously for a 1979 were taking their toll in economic promise by the Conservative recession and . Giscard had government that they would promise a promised liberal social reforms, but referendum on the issue on his terms, failed to deliver as anticipated. On and, when that demand was rejected, Europe, Giscard backed significant financed candidacies of Referendum initiatives including the establishment of Party supporters in constituencies the , the EMS and the where he and his party regarded the Franco-German entente, but his Conservative candidate as unsound on administration was not noticeably less the referendum issue. None of his nationalist than that of his predecessors. candidates was elected, but some From 1976 to 1981, the Gaullists received several thousand votes in became increasingly critical of the way their constituencies, and could, in which Giscard himself kept tight in some cases, be regarded as having control over policy. Jacques Chirac, cost the Conservative candidate that Giscard’s first Prime Minister, became seat. The Referendum Party was his bitterest rival, and played a major wound up after the election. Goldsmith part in Giscard’s defeat in the died in 1997.

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González Márquez, Felipe Grass, Günther Prime Minister of Spain 1982–96 and German leftist intellectual, writer and leader of the Spanish Socialist Party artist: a vocal critic of the values of the (PSOE) 1979–97. González was born in Federal Republic of Germany and 1942 in Seville and studied law at the particularly of the reunification project. Catholic University of Louvain in Grass was born in 1927 in Danzig (now Belgium. Working in Seville as a Gdánsk, Poland) and went to art school. lawyer, in 1966 he introduced the first Best known as an author, Grass labour law centre specifically for received numerous prizes for literature

workers. During Franco’s regime, he and the arts, notably the West German BIOGRAPHIES was arrested several times for his Group 47 Prize 1959; the literary prize of association with the banned socialists. the Association of German Critics 1960; 105 He had joined the Spanish Socialist the Thomas Mann prize 1996 and the Youth in 1962 and the PSOE in 1964 Nobel Prize for Literature 1999. His best and rose rapidly in the party ranks, known works are the fictional Tin Drum becoming a member of the Seville (1959); From the Diary of a Snail Provincial Committee 1965–69, the (1972); and the political commentary National Committee 1969–70, and the Two States – One Nation? (1990). He Executive Board in 1970. In 1972, he was President of the Berlin Academy of became leader of the largest faction the Arts 1983–86 and a member of the within the party. He became first American Academy of Arts and Secretary of the PSOE 1974–79, Sciences. A long-standing member of resigned for a brief period before the Social Democratic Party (SPD), he being re-elected in September 1979 resigned in 1992. and then held the post of [See also: reunification of Germany*] Secretary-General of the party until his González Márquez, Felipe Grass, Günther resignation in 1997. In 1982, the Grimond, Jo Socialists won a landslide election and replaced Súarez’s centre-right Leader of the British Liberal Party government. González was Prime 1956–67. Grimond was born in 1913. Minister of Spain 1982–96, as well as Trained as a lawyer, he fought in the leading the PSOE party group in Second World War, then entered Parliament. Initially very popular, his Parliament in 1950 as MP for Orkney government was increasingly troubled and Shetland. Elected as party leader in by economic problems and by 1956, Grimond succeeded in increasing corruption scandals, including the the very small number of Liberal MPs, FILESA scandal, when a judge ordered and brought about a general, if limited, searches of party records which revival of the party. He acted briefly as revealed illegal payments to the PSOE provisional party leader in 1976 and later the trial of several officials of following the resignation of Jeremy the party. These scandals, although not Thorpe. He left Parliament in 1983. directly involving González in criminal Grimond died in 1993. charges, affected his reputation and [See also: Thorpe] probably prevented him being considered as successor to the Gysi, Gregor discredited as President of the EU Commission. González has First leader of the Party of Democratic now retired from politics. Socialism (PDS), after its emergence [See also: Franco; Suárez González; from the Socialist Unity Party (SED) at Felipeism*] the end of 1989. Gysi was born in Berlin

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Gysi, Gregor Hague, William

in 1948. He joined the SED in 1967. He 1989. Prior to becoming leader of the was a lawyer by profession, and gained Conservative Party, he was a reputation as a defender of dissidents. Parliamentary Private Secretary to the He became known as a reformer within Chancellor of the Exchequer 1990–93; the SED in the closing months of the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State communist regime. This led to his in the Department of Social Security election as Chairman of the SED at its 1993–94; Minister for Social Security and emergency congress in December 1989, Disabled People 1994–95; and Secretary leading a provisional committee given of State for Wales 1995–97. He has been the task of adapting the party to the Chair of the International Democratic

BIOGRAPHIES change of regime in the German Union since 1999. Following the defeat Democratic Republic. He led the PDS in of his party in the general election of its electoral campaign for the elections 2001, he announced his intention to 106 to the People’s Chamber in March 1990, resign as party leader. Following a and entered the Bundestag in 1990 as a lengthy and complex electoral process, delegate in October following he was replaced by Iain Duncan Smith reunification, and became an elected in September 2001. Member in December 1990. Gysi had to [See also: Duncan Smith] cope with accusations that the SED had misused funds and had improperly Haider, Jörg sought to avoid public accountability for its finances by sending large sums of Leader of the far right Austrian Freedom money to foreign bank accounts. Party. Haider was born in 1950 in Despite suspicions of association with Carinthia and studied at Vienna the Stasi, Gysi remained leader of the University. He joined the Liberal Youth PDS until 1993, when he voluntarily Movement in 1964 and the Freedom gave up that office in order to Party in 1971. He worked in private concentrate on his activities as leader of industry 1976–77 and was a Member of the PDS parliamentary group in the Parliament 1979–83 and again from Bundestag. Gysi was re-elected to the 1986. His controversial and charismatic Bundestag in 1994 and 1998, retaining leadership of the Freedom Party his Berlin constituency seat in each case. promoted the party to the in [See also: reunification of Germany*; Austrian politics. There was an Stasi*] international outcry, particularly amongst Gysi, Gregor Hague, William EU countries, when Haider’s party was asked to participate in a coalition Hague, William government after the elections in Leader of the British Conservative Party February 2000, and EU states imposed and leader of the opposition in the various sanctions. He gave up the House of Commons 1997–2001. Hague leadership of his party, but remains was born in 1961 in Rotherham and active in the regional politics of studied at Oxford University, where he Carinthia. was President of the Union 1981. After university he worked as a management Hallstein, Walter consultant for McKinsey and Co. 1983–88 and acted as a political adviser German diplomat and first President of to the Treasury. He made an early start the European Commission 1958–67. to his political career when he Hallstein was born in Mainz in 1901. He addressed the annual Conservative studied law and became a Professor of Conference at the age of 15. He has Law at Rostock and Frankfurt been MP for Richmond, Yorkshire since Universities. He became a senior civil

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Hallstein, Walter Haughey, Charles servant in Adenauer’s government, accusations of financial impropriety first in the Federal Chancellery, then in were made against him concerning the newly established Foreign Office. large political donations made by In this position he was the chief industrialists. negotiator for the Federal Republic in the creation of the European Coal and Havemann, Robert Steel Community and the Messina negotiations which led to the Treaty of German scientist and political dissident. Rome. In 1955 he formulated the Havemann was born in Munich in 1910. famous ‘Hallstein Doctrine’ concerning After studying chemistry at Munich and

relations with states which recognised Berlin Universities, he was employed in BIOGRAPHIES the GDR. He served as President of the a scientific research institute until forced EEC Commission, but French from his post because of his 107 opposition prevented him from membership of the Communist Party in accepting the presidency of the EC 1933. He was active in resistance groups Commission following fusion of the in the Hitler period, and on one EEC, ECSC and EURATOM institutions. occasion was caught, tried and He served as a Member of the sentenced to death, but reprieved Bundestag for the CDU 1969–72. because the research he was Hallstein died in 1982. engaged in was of relevance to the [See also: ECSC*; Hallstein Doctrine*] German military. After the war, he Hallstein, Walter Haughey, Charles became a Professor at the Humboldt University in East Berlin, a post he held Haughey, Charles until he was expelled from the SED in Former Prime Minister of the Irish 1964 because of his dissident views. He Republic. Haughey was born in County was also an SED member of the Mayo in 1925. After studying law and Volkskammer (the GDR Parliament) accountancy, he went into the property 1950–63. He continued to publicise his business before entering politics. He dissident views, and was regarded as became a member of the Irish the leading theorist of a democratic legislature for Fianna Fail in 1957, and form of socialism in the GDR. This led held a number of ministerial posts from to his being placed under house arrest 1961 onwards. He resigned as Minister in 1976. He died in 1982. of Finance in 1970 because of [See also: Hitler; Resistance groups*] allegations of links to Irish Nationalist groups, but following his acquittal on Heath, Edward charges arising from those allegations he was again appointed as Minister in 1977, Leader of the Conservative Party and became Prime Minister and leader 1965–75 and British Prime Minister of his party in 1979. He remained Prime 1970–74. Heath was born in Broadstairs Minister until 1981, and was again Prime in 1916. He studied at Oxford University Minister briefly in 1982. In opposition, and served as an officer in the Second internal party conflicts led to a World War. He was first elected to the break-away from Fianna Fail by some of House of Commons in 1950, becoming its parliamentary group, to form a new his party’s chief whip in 1955 and party: the Progressive Democrats. Minister of Labour in 1959. In 1960 he Haughey was again Prime Minister from was appointed as Lord Privy Seal (a 1987. In 1992 he resigned as Prime ministerial post without specific Minister because of his association with departmental responsibilities) and was cases of illegal phone-tapping by his principal negotiator – though government. In retirement, further unsuccessful – of British entry to the

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Heath, Edward Herzog, Roman

EEC. He was Secretary of State for Vice-President of the Federal Industry in Home’s government Constitutional Court (FCC) 1983–87 and (1963–64). He became leader of the President of the FCC 1987–94. He was Conservatives in 1965 and, somewhat nominated as the CDU candidate for unexpectedly, led his party to victory in President of the FRG after Kohl the 1970 general election. He called an withdrew his proposal to nominate early general election in February 1974 Heitmann, a minister in the Saxony to try to defeat a series of strikes by Land government, whose lack of coalminers. However, he failed to popularity within the party and outside it obtain a majority and the Labour Party called into question his suitability as

BIOGRAPHIES formed the government. Heath also presidential candidate. failed to win the general election in October 1974, and he was defeated in a 108 Heuss, Theodor leadership election by Margaret Thatcher in 1975. He never seemed to First President of the Federal Republic reconcile himself to this loss of party of Germany and first leader of the Free leadership, the more especially as Mrs Democratic Party (FDP). Heuss was Thatcher was electorally more born in Württemberg, in south-west successful than he had been and Germany, in 1884. After a period as a because she represented a very journalist, he taught political science in sceptical approach to further Berlin (1920–33) and was elected to the developments in European integration, Reichstag (the Parliament of the developments which Heath seemed to Weimar Republic) for the German welcome uncritically. Heath became Democratic Party 1924–28 and 1930–33. ‘Father of the House of Commons’ in Having criticised Hitler in his books and 1992, having served longer than any journalism, Heuss was dismissed from other sitting MP. He was re-elected in his university post when the Nazis the 1997 general election, and as such came to power. After the Second World presided over the controversial election War, Heuss helped to found the Liberal of a Speaker in 2000, following the Party in south-west Germany, was the resignation of Mrs Boothroyd. When he first Minister of Education for the Land left the House of Commons in 2001 of Württemberg-Baden, and a member Heath had served over half a century in of the Land Parliament. When a liberal the House of Commons. party for West Germany was founded [See also: Thatcher] in 1948, he was elected as its first Heath, Edward Herzog, Roman leader. He was an influential member of the Parliamentary Council, which Herzog, Roman drafted the Basic Law for the new President of Germany 1994–99. Herzog Federal Republic. Coalition negotiations was born in 1934 in Landshut and between the FDP and Adenauer’s studied at the University of Munich, the Christian Democrats led to an Free University of Berlin, and the agreement that Heuss would be College of Administrative Sciences at supported by both parties for the Speyer. He has held high office in position of Federal President when the protestant organisations and in the Federal Republic was founded in 1949. Christian Democratic Party (CDU). In the Heuss was a much-respected President, state of Baden-Württemberg he was and enjoyed a good relationship with Minister for Culture and Sport 1978–80 Adenauer. He was re-elected as Federal and Minister for the Interior 1980–83. He President in 1954 for a second term. He was a member of the Federal died in 1963. Committee of the CDU 1979–83. He was [See also: Adenauer; Hitler; nazism*]

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Heym, Stefan Hitler, Adolf

provided opportunities for both electoral Heym, Stefan advances and direct action by the Nazis, Controversial writer from the former and in 1933 President Hindenburg was German Democratic Republic (GDR) compelled to ask Hitler to form a and latterly social democratic politician. coalition government. Hitler used this Heym was born 10 April 1913 in opportunity to manufacture an election Chemnitz and studied at the Universities victory with the aid of the Reichstag fire of Berlin and Chicago. In 1933 he fled (allowing him to exclude communists – the National Socialist regime to blamed for starting the fire – from the Czechoslovakia where he worked as a Parliament) and then to pass emergency

journalist until 1935. He left for the USA legislation (the Enabling Acts) which in BIOGRAPHIES in 1935, working as a waiter as he effect marked the end of democracy edited an anti-fascist newspaper. He and the commencement of the 109 served in the American army 1943–45. dictatorial Third Reich. Exerting a form He was co-founder of the newspaper: of totalitarian rule in Germany, which the Neue Zeitung in Munich in 1945. In included a policy of violent 1950 he led the American delegation to discrimination against the Jewish the Second World Peace Congress in population and, later, their transfer to Warsaw. In 1952 he returned to what concentration camps and their mass was now the GDR. He was a member murder, Hitler was able to commence of the executive board of the GDR what he regarded as ‘rectifications’ of Writers’ Association but was expelled in the Versailles Treaty, including 1979. After German unification he joined reoccupation of the Rhineland by the the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and German military, the annexation of was a Member of the Bundestag Austria and then seizure of territory from 1994–96. He died in 2001. Czechoslovakia and Poland. This led to Heym, Stefan Hitler, Adolf the Second World War, in which Hitler, after initial successes in northern and Hitler, Adolf western Europe, sought to defeat the Chancellor and then President of the USSR. The entry of the USA into the war Weimar Republic; leader (‘Führer’) of in 1941 marked the beginning of Hitler’s the Nazi state – the Third Reich. Hitler downfall. The German army was halted was born in 1889 in Braunau (Austria). at Stalingrad and at El Alamein (North After failure to enter training courses for Africa), and Allied invasions of Italy art and architecture, he served in the (1943) and France (1944) led to the Bavarian army in the First World War, defeat of the German military, their attaining the rank of corporal and being unconditional surrender and the awarded the Iron Cross. After the war, occupation of Germany in 1945. Hitler, he became employed in various tasks who had been the target of for the military, then joined and took assassination attempts (most notably the over the National Socialist Workers’ ‘July plot’ in 1944), committed suicide in Party (Nazi Party). In 1923 he attempted, his Berlin headquarters a few days with General Ludendorff (one of the before the surrender of German forces. military rulers of Germany during the [See also: nazism*] war), to seize control of the Bavarian government by an armed putsch. This Home, Lord failed, and he was sentenced to imprisonment, during which time he British Prime Minister and leader of the commenced writing his manifesto: Mein Conservative Party 1963–64. Alec Kampf (My Struggle). The crises which Douglas-Home was born in London in weakened the Weimar Republic 1903 and was educated at Eton and

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Home, Lord Honecker, Erich

Oxford University. He was elected to the GDR to support of repression of House of Commons in 1931, and reformist movements in other countries became an aide to Chamberlain during of the Soviet bloc. At Soviet insistence, pre-war negotiations with Hitler. He he participated in the development of succeeded to the hereditary title of Earl policies of détente in the 1970s, including of Home in 1951, and held several signing of the Basic Treaty with the ministerial positions in Conservative Federal Republic of Germany and the governments before Macmillan appointed Helsinki Treaties. He made a long-awaited him as Foreign Secretary in 1960. When official visit to the Federal Republic in Macmillan announced his resignation as 1987. As events unfolded in the second

BIOGRAPHIES party leader and Prime Minister, he half of 1989, Honecker maintained a surprisingly recommended Lord Home stubborn refusal to adapt the policies of as his successor. This led necessarily to the regime in any way, even, in this 110 Home resigning his peerage under the case, rejecting the lead of Gorbachev 1963 Peerage Act, and he was elected to and the Soviet Union Communist Party the House of Commons in a by-election. with their policies of glasnost and Home never established his authority as perestroika. Though he was still leader Prime Minister, and was defeated in the of the GDR when the state celebrated 1964 general election. He resigned as the fortieth anniversary of its foundation party leader in 1965, and became in October 1989, he was compelled by Foreign Secretary for a second time in his colleagues (with the acquiescence of Heath’s 1970 government. He returned the USSR) to resign on 17 October 1989. to the House of Lords as a life peer in After German reunification, he was 1974. He died in 1995. charged with various offences, including [See also: Heath; Hitler; Macmillan] the ‘shoot to kill’ orders which resulted Home, Lord Honecker, Erich in the deaths of many would-be escapees at the East German border. He Honecker, Erich escaped trial because of illness, and General Secretary (i.e. leader) of the died of cancer in Chile in 1994. ruling communist party (the Socialist [See also: Berlin Wall*; détente*; Unity Party: SED) in the German glasnost*; Helsinki Agreements*; Democratic Republic from 1971 until his nazism*; perestroika*; reunification of forced resignation in 1989. He was born Germany*; Vergangenheitsbewältigung*] in the Saarland in 1912. He joined the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) in Hume, John 1929. Honecker was imprisoned during the Third Reich because of his underground Leader of the Irish Social Democratic political activities. In the Soviet zone of and Labour Party (SDLP) since 1979. occupation, later the German Born in 1937 in Londonderry, Northern Democratic Republic, he was leader of Ireland, Hume studied at the National the communist youth organisation (the University of Ireland. He was appointed Free German Youth: FDJ) until 1955. He Research Fellow at Trinity College and rose rapidly within the SED organisation, then Associate Fellow at the Centre for and was put in charge of the building of International Affairs at Harvard. He was the Berlin Wall in 1961. As leader of the a founder member of the Credit Union SED, he attempted to introduce a in Northern Ireland and its President measure of economic modernisation, 1964–68. Opposed to violence, he was a though remaining within the confines of civil rights leader 1968–69. Hume a strictly controlled and planned economy. represented Londonderry in the He was a loyal follower of the Soviet Northern Ireland Parliament 1969–72 and Union’s policies, eagerly committing the the Northern Ireland Assembly 1972–73.

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Hume, John Jospin, Lionel

He was Minister of Commerce in the 1995–97. Jospin was born in 1937 at power-sharing executive of 1974 and Meudon (Seine-et-Oise). He graduated again represented Londonderry in the from the Institute of Political Studies Northern Ireland Convention 1975–76. He and the National College of has been a Member of the European Administration in Paris and embarked Parliament since 1979. He was a on a career in the Foreign Ministry Member of the Northern Ireland (1965–70) before taking up a university Assembly 1982–86 and from 1998. He post in economics (1970–81). A protégé participated in the SDLP New Ireland of Mitterrand, he joined the Socialist Forum 1983–84. He has held many Party (PS) in 1972 and was advanced

national and international posts, rapidly as one of a new cadre of BIOGRAPHIES particularly concerning workers’ issues, leaders who Mitterrand hoped would regional issues and civil rights. keep the party loyal to him. From 1973 111 Hume, John Jospin, Lionel to 1975 Jospin was the party’s National Secretary for Political Education before Jenkins, Roy taking charge of Third World Relations Former senior British Labour Party (1975–79) and then International Affairs politician, former President of the (1979–81). He was appointed First Commission of the European Secretary of the party in 1981, leading Community, and co-founder of the the party in a process of ideological Social Democratic Party. Jenkins was transformation away from traditional born in Abersychan, Wales, in 1920. He socialism towards a new style of social was first elected to the House of democracy, which culminated in the Commons in 1948, and was appointed party’s 1985 Congress at Toulouse. As to several ministerial offices in Labour party leader he was forced to adopt a governments, including those of Home rather passive leadership role during the Secretary (1965–67 and 1974–76) and cohabitation period from 1986 and Chancellor of the Exchequer (1967–70). faced growing criticism from within the He was elected as deputy leader of the PS. He stood down in 1987, but later British Labour Party in 1970. Jenkins took up the party leadership again served as President of the EC (1995–97). After Mitterrand’s re-election Commission 1977–81. As one of the as President in 1988, Jospin was ‘Gang of Four’ he founded the Social rewarded with the prestigious post of Democratic Party in 1981, and became Minister of State for Education, Research its first elected leader in 1982, though and Sport in Rocard’s government, he gave way as leader to David Owen keeping education as the ministerial in 1983. He entered the House of Lords responsibilities were restructured. In as Lord Jenkins of Hillhead in 1988. He 1997 he was appointed Prime Minister served as Chancellor of Oxford following the general election called by University, and has written several newly elected President Chirac, and well-received books, especially which resulted in ‘cohabitation’ when biographies of Asquith, Dilke and the PS won that election. Gladstone. In 1998 he was Chairman of [See also: Mitterrand; Rocard; a Commission on Electoral Reform, cohabitation*] which reported in October 1998. [See also: Gang of Four*] Juan Carlos, King King of Spain since 1975. Juan Carlos Jospin, Lionel was born in Rome in 1938. He was the Prime Minister of France since 1997; grandson of King Alfonso XIII, who leader of the Socialist Party 1981–87; abdicated in 1931. Invited by Franco to

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Juan Carlos, King Karamanlis (Caramanlis), Konstantine

return to Spain from exile in 1960, he was successful again in 1961 and he was nominated in 1969 by Franco as resumed as Prime Minister, resigning in heir to the Spanish throne (bypassing 1963 over a dispute with King Paul I his father, Don Juan). On Franco’s over the respective powers of the death in 1975, Juan Carlos became monarch and the prime minister. King. Franco had believed Juan Carlos Karamanlis left Greece for Paris where would be a reliable defender of the he stayed for ten years. After the military values of his authoritarian regime, but takeover in 1967, he issued statements Juan Carlos proved to be a promoter of calling for the re-establishment of democracy, and sought to become a democratic rule. In 1974, following the

BIOGRAPHIES constitutional monarch on the model of crisis between Turkey and Greece over the British and northern European Cyprus, Karamanlis was asked to return monarchies. He bravely resisted the and form a civilian government. He 112 group of officers who attempted to negotiated a settlement to the war in engineer a military coup in February Cyprus and introduced democratic 1981. He has proved to be an integrative reforms. He lifted the military junta’s ban figure in the Spanish political system, on free speech and the press and characterised as it is by strong regional cancelled most of the martial law identities. measures. He founded the New [See also: Franco; Spanish coup Democracy party which formed a attempt*] majority government. He stepped down JuanKaramanlis Carlos, King (Caramanlis), Konstantine as Prime Minister to become President of Greece in 1980 and was again Karamanlis (Caramanlis), Konstantine President in 1990. Prime Minister of Greece 1955–58, [See also: Aegean Sea dispute*] 1958–61, 1961–63, 1974–80; President of Greece 1980–85, 1990. Karamanlis was Kekkonen, Urho born in 1907 in Macedonia and graduated in law from the University of President of Finland 1956–81. Kekkonen Athens in 1932. He was elected to was born in Pielavesi in 1900. He Parliament in 1935. The dictator Ioannis studied law at Helsinki University, then Metaxas closed the Parliament in 1936 was employed as a civil servant. He and offered Karamanlis a place in his entered the Finnish Parliament in 1936 government, but Karamanlis refused and as a representative of the Agrarian Party, stayed out of politics until after the and became a minister in the coalition Second World War. He was elected to government. After the Second World Parliament again in 1946 and served in War he helped to negotiate a treaty of various ministerial positions until the friendship with the USSR in 1948. He mid-1950s, becoming popular became Prime Minister in 1950, and particularly as Minister of Public Works served, with one interruption, until 1956. 1952–54. During his first term as Prime He was a proponent of a policy of Minister he formed the National Radical co-operation with the USSR, which has Union and won the elections of 1956. acquired the label: ‘Finlandisation’. He The defection of some of his party group resigned as President on grounds of to the opposition in 1958 led to his ill-health in 1981. He died in 1986. resignation, but he was again named [See also: Finlandisation*] Prime Minister after elections in May 1958. During this period he negotiated Kelly, Petra the establishment of an independent republic of Cyprus with Turkey. In spite Leading member of the West German of allegations of electoral fraud, his party Green Party in its early years. Kelly was

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Kelly, Petra Kiesinger, Kurt Georg born in Günzburg in 1947. She studied Kiesinger, Kurt Georg political science at university in the USA. She then was employed by the Chancellor of the Federal Republic of European Community as an Germany 1966–69. Kiesinger was born administrator. She was a member of the in Württemberg in 1904, and qualified SPD 1972–78, but resigned in protest at as a lawyer. He was employed in the the moderate and compromising German Foreign Office during the policies of the Schmidt government. She Second World War. He was elected to became involved in the feminist, peace the Bundestag as a Christian Democrat and ecological movements in Germany, in 1949, but resigned his seat in 1958 to

and played a leading part in establishing become Prime Minister of BIOGRAPHIES the Green Party in West Germany, Baden-Württemberg. When Erhard was including campaigning vigorously in the compelled to resign as Chancellor in 113 1980 and 1983 Bundestag elections. She 1966, Kiesinger was chosen to take his was elected to the Bundestag in 1983 place at the head of a ‘grand coalition’ and 1987, and was involved in the between the Christian Democrats and collective leadership of the party within the Social Democrats (SPD). That and outside the Bundestag. She was coalition was responsible for several associated with the ‘fundamentalist’ achievements, including the stabilisation wing of the Green Party, rejecting any of the economy, some improvements in idea of forming coalitions with relations with Eastern European states, established parties, though she came to and the preservation of a democratic oppose several of the party’s regime challenged by extremists from organisational tenets, such as rotation of the left-wing student movement and the office, and came to view the party’s radical right-wing National Democratic organisation as primitive and Party. Though his party secured the amateurish. Her views and her obvious largest share of votes in the 1969 federal charisma (which led to her being seen election, Kiesinger had to make way for by the media as the personification of Chancellor Brandt who led a coalition the Green movement) led to her between the SPD and Free Democratic increasing unpopularity within the Green Party. Kiesinger was leader of the CDU Party. She committed suicide with her 1967–71 and was again a Member of partner, the former General Gerd the Bundestag from 1969 to 1980. He Bastian, in 1992. died in 1988. Kelly, Petra Kiesinger, Kurt Georg [See also: Brandt; Erhard; grand coalition*] Kennedy, Charles Leader of the British Liberal Democratic Kinnock, Neil Party since 1999. Kennedy was born in Fort William in 1959. He studied at Leader of the British Labour Party Glasgow University and commenced a 1983–92. Kinnock was born in Tredegar career in broadcasting before being in 1942. He engaged in socialist political elected for the Social Democratic Party activity while a student, and was for the constituency of Ross, Cromarty elected to the House of Commons in and Skye in 1983. In 1988 he agreed to 1970. He was elected to succeed support the merger of the SDP with the Michael Foot as party leader. Though Liberals. In 1999, following the he, like Foot, had a left-wing reputation, resignation as party leader of Paddy being among other things a staunch Ashdown, Kennedy was elected leader supporter of the Campaign for Nuclear by a vote of the party membership. Disarmament, Kinnock realised that for [See also: Ashdown] Labour to win general elections in

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Kinnock, Neil Kohl, Helmut

future it would have to discard many of based mainly upon his leading role in its ideological attitudes. He thus promoting the reunification of Germany introduced measures of organisational in 1990. His ten-point plan of 28 and policy reform. Defeated in the 1987 November 1989 referred to the general election, Kinnock had high possibility of reunification. However, his hopes of winning in 1992. When negotiations with the government of the Labour was defeated again, even GDR in December 1989 and February though more narrowly than in the 1990; his personal popularity in the GDR 1980s, Kinnock resigned as party leader. in early 1990 and his successful He became a Commissioner of the sponsorship of the Christian

BIOGRAPHIES European Union in 1994, and survived Democrat-led electoral ‘Alliance for the scandals that led to the resignation Germany’ in the first free elections to of Santer and his fellow Commissioners the GDR People’s Chamber in March 114 in 1998, being reappointed with the 1990; his promotion of economic and responsibility of reforming the monetary union of the two German administration, financial control and states; and his role in negotiations with practices of the Commission. other states (especially the USSR) to lay [See also: Foot; Santer; Smith; the diplomatic foundations for German Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament*; reunification will all be seen as great Clause Four*] personal achievements. Following Kinnock, Neil Kohl, Helmut German reunification, he led his coalition to a narrow victory in the 1994 Kohl, Helmut Bundestag election, a victory which Chancellor of the Federal Republic of owed much to his personal popularity. Germany 1982–98; leader of the He was unable to capitalise on that Christian Democratic Union (CDU) popularity in the 1998 election, following 1973–98; Prime Minister of which some experts stated that he Rhineland-Pfalz 1969–76. Kohl was born should have made way for a in 1930 in Ludwigshafen, and was replacement chancellor-candidate well awarded his doctorate in political before that election campaign got under science from Heidelberg University in way. Immediately after the election 1958. He joined the CDU in 1946, and result was known on 27 September held numerous party offices at local and 1998 he announced his intention to Land levels. He was resign as leader of the CDU, and later chancellor-candidate in the 1976 that year was replaced by his protégé, Bundestag election, but, though securing Wolfgang Schäuble. In 1999 revelations the highest vote-share for the Christian of secret donations to the CDU led to a Democrats since Adenauer’s absolute scandal, in which Kohl was centrally majority of votes in 1957, this was involved. insufficient to defeat the Social [See also: Adenauer; Schmidt; Democrat–Free Democrat (FDP) constructive vote of no confidence*; coalition. He became Chancellor when reunification of Germany*] the FDP withdrew from that coalition in 1982, and supported Kohl in the first Kreisky, Bruno ever successful use of the constructive vote of no confidence, which dismissed Chancellor of Austria 1970–83. Kreisky Helmut Schmidt from the office of was born in Vienna in 1911. He studied Chancellor. Though Kohl had successes law at university, and became active in in politics prior to 1990, and led his politics as a socialist. He was coalition to election victories in 1983 imprisoned following the socialist and 1987, his place in history will be uprising in Austria in 1934, and was

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Kreisky, Bruno Krenz, Egon again briefly imprisoned in 1938 after a considered policy decision. Krenz the Nazis took over Austria. He resigned his offices in December 1989. emigrated to Sweden later in 1938, In 1999 he was sentenced to a term of returning to Austria after the end of the imprisonment for his implication in war. After periods in the diplomatic fraud. service and as a civil servant, he was [See also: Honecker; reunification of appointed Austrian Foreign Minister in Germany*] 1959, a position he retained until 1966. In 1967 he became leader of the Social Lafontaine, Oskar Democratic Party (the SPÖ). Though

head of a minority government in 1970, Former leader of the German Social BIOGRAPHIES Kreisky’s personal popularity contributed Democratic Party (SPD) and the SPD’s to his party’s successes in elections in chancellor-candidate in the 1990 115 1971, 1975 and 1979, where in each Bundestag election. Lafontaine was case it secured an absolute majority of born in Saarlouis (Saarland) in 1943 and seats. As leader of the government of a studied physics at university. He joined neutral state, Kreisky was able to play a the SPD in 1966, and was elected to the role (with others such as Olaf Palme) in Saarland legislature in 1970. He became mediation in several international lord mayor of Saarbrücken in 1976 (at conflicts, especially in the Middle East. the time, he was the youngest city He resigned as Chancellor following the leader in West Germany). In 1985 he loss of a parliamentary majority in the became Prime Minister of the Saarland 1983 elections. after the SPD’s first post-war election [See also: Palme; nazism*] victory in the Saarland parliamentary Kreisky, Bruno Krenz, Egon elections. He became a deputy leader of the SPD in 1987. He was unable to Krenz, Egon revive the fortunes of the SPD in the The last leader of the communist 1990 all-German Bundestag election: the regime in the German Democratic SPD only secured 33.5 per cent, its Republic. Krenz was born in 1937 in worst showing for thirty years. In that Pomerania, now part of Poland. Krenz campaign, Lafontaine was stabbed in developed a career within the Socialist the neck by a deranged person, who Unity Party (the SED) which he joined inflicted a serious wound. Lafontaine’s in 1955, becoming leader of the Free sceptical stance vis-à-vis German German Youth in 1974. He was long reunification, especially concerning its regarded as the probable successor to likely costs, is thought to have been a Honecker, and when Honecker was factor in that 1990 election defeat. In compelled to resign his offices in 1995, Lafontaine successfully challenged October 1989 because of manoeuvres the incumbent party leader, Scharping, initiated by Krenz and others, Krenz for the party leadership. This meant that took over as party General-Secretary when the SPD came to power in the and head of state. In his short period as 1998 Bundestag election, Lafontaine leader, he attempted to introduce could take much of the credit, and concessions on issues such as freedom could demand an important government to travel, but these reforms were always post; Schröder appointed him as too little to satisfy the growing numbers Finance Minister. However, Lafontaine’s of discontented East Germans. The traditionalist social democratic views opening of the border on 9 November were at odds with the more modernistic 1989 (the ‘fall of the Berlin Wall’) policies pursued by Chancellor Schröder seemed to result from a and the two were frequently in conflict. misunderstanding rather than Lafontaine unexpectedly announced his

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resignation from government and party in his constituency than in ideology, offices on 11 March 1999. when the Socialist and Communists [See also: Scharping; Schröder; split in 1920, Laval continued as an reunification of Germany*] independent and was elected to the Lafontaine, Oskar Laval, Pierre Senate in 1927. He was Minister and Prime Minister in a series of Lambsdorff, Otto Graf governments 1925–35, moving Leader of the German FDP 1988–93. progressively to the right of the political Lambsdorff was born in Aachen in 1926. spectrum in reaction to the success of He served in the Second World War, the left-wing Popular Front and through

BIOGRAPHIES and was seriously wounded in the his increasing attraction to . closing days of that conflict. Following Convinced that Bolshevism posed the study of law at university, after the war main threat to European civilisation, 116 was over he practised as a lawyer, then Laval tried actively to promote worked in the banking and insurance Franco-German relations. He joined sectors. He joined the FDP in 1951, and Marshal Pétain’s right-wing Vichy became a member of the party government, first as Deputy Prime executive in 1972, the year of his first Minister (1940), then as Prime Minister election to the Bundestag. After a period (1942–44). After the armistice with as economics spokesman for his Germany on 22 June 1940, Laval parliamentary party group, he became masterminded the suspension of the Minister of Economics in the Schmidt 1875 constitution and the transfer of full government in 1977. His strongly liberal powers to Pétain on 10 July 1940, and free-enterprise attitude to the ending the Third Republic. As Prime economy led to conflicts with Schmidt Minister, Laval made growing and eventually to the termination of the concessions to Hitler, including the SPD–FDP coalition in 1982. He remained authorisation of French labour for the as Economics Minister in the Kohl Nazi war effort and the deportation of government, but resigned in 1984 Jews. After the fall of the Vichy regime, because of his implication in the Flick he was executed after a notional trial Affair. As party leader, he decided to on 15 October 1945. remain outside the government, and led [See also: Hitler; nazism*; Vichy his party to an excellent result in the regime*] 1990 Bundestag election. [See also: Kohl; Schmidt; Flick Lemass, Sean Francis Affair*; ‘Wende’*] Irish revolutionary and Prime Minister of Ireland 1959–66. Lemass was born in Laval, Pierre 1899 in Dublin and took part in the Irish Prime Minister of the Vichy government independence movement that in war-time France, and executed for culminated in the Easter Week in 1945, Laval bore the brunt of Rebellion in 1916. When the rebellion recriminations against the Vichy regime collapsed he was arrested by the British which had collaborated with Nazi forces, but his young age saved him Germany. Born in the Auvergne in 1883, from imprisonment or execution. Laval studied science at and law Lemass joined the Irish Republican in Paris. He founded a law practice and Army (IRA) and was again arrested for a radio and press empire, which funded revolutionary activities. He was kept in his political activities. A socialist, he was prison until July 1921 when a truce was elected to the Parliament of the French declared. When civil war broke out in Third Republic in 1914. More interested July 1922, Lemass fought with the IRA,

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Lemass, Sean Francis Leone, Giovanni was captured, but managed to escape. resign his presidency through his Recaptured in December 1922 he stayed implication in a corruption scandal: the in prison until the Republicans were first Italian president to suffer this defeated in the spring of 1923. Lemass disgrace. He died in 2001. resigned from the Sinn Féin party and joined de Valera’s new Fianna Fail (FF) Le Pen, Jean-Marie party. In 1924 he was elected to the Irish Parliament. In 1932, he became de Leader of the radical right-wing National Valera’s Minister of Industry and Front party in France. Born in 1928 at Commerce. In 1939 he became Minister La Trinité-sur-Mer (Morbihan), Le Pen

of Supplies, a post he kept until 1945. studied in Paris, graduating in law and BIOGRAPHIES After the Second World War he was political science. Violently anti-Marxist, Deputy Prime Minister until Fianna Fail he was a student leader 1949–51 and 117 was defeated in the 1948 elections. was often in trouble with the police for Lemass then worked for the party taking part in fights. In 1953 he joined newspaper: the Irish Press until FF the Foreign Legion and went to returned to power in 1951 and he again Indo-China as a parachutist, where he became Deputy Prime Minister and worked as a political journalist for the Minister of Industry and Commerce. military’s press. He returned to his When, in 1959, de Valera resigned as studies and his activities in student Prime Minister to become President, politics in 1954. In 1956 he was elected Lemass was his successor. He as a Poujadiste (reactionary, negotiated with Northern Ireland in the anti-taxation party) Deputy and gained a hope of reuniting the country. In 1965 reputation as a charismatic speaker. He he arranged a free trade pact with rejoined his former regiment 1956–57. In Britain. He resigned as Prime Minister 1957 he was accused of torturing a in 1966 but remained in Parliament until young Algerian arrested by the his retirement in 1969. Lemass died in parachutists, but was not prosecuted. 1971. Back in France, Le Pen lost an eye in a [See also: Irish Republican Army*] fight at an electoral meeting trying to Lemass, Sean Francis Leone, Giovanni defend a Muslim friend. In late 1957, he left the Poujadistes and sat first as an Leone, Giovanni independent in the National Assembly, Prime Minister of Italy June–November then, from 1958 to 1962, with the 1963; June–December 1968; President of conservative party group Independents Italy 1971–78. was born and Peasants. Le Pen was sued for in 1908 in . He studied at the allegedly pro-Nazi statements. He University of Naples, then became a actively supported the presidential Professor of Law there. He began a long campaign of the right-wing candidate parliamentary career as a Christian Tixier-Vignancourt in 1965. In 1972 he Democrat (DC) representative with his launched his own party, the far right election to the Constituent Assembly in Front National (FN), on a platform of 1946. He was Vice-President of the nationalism, morality, anti-communism Chamber of Deputies 1948–49 and its and law and order. He and his family President 1955–63. After his first survived a bomb attack at their home in premiership, he became a life senator 1976. After a disastrous return of 0.74 in 1967. He was elected President of per cent of the vote at the presidential Italy in 1971 as a compromise candidate election of 1974, the FN made little after 23 ballots. His presidency impact until the 1980s, when it made a coincided with a period of terrorist credible showing at local and European campaigns in Italy. He was forced to elections and Le Pen became a media

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celebrity. Le Pen was returned to federal government, as Minister for Food Parliament for the FN in 1986, where he and Agriculture. When Adenauer was an outspoken advocate of the decided that he himself would not seek repatriation of immigrants and tougher the presidency in 1959, and when other policing, but was damaged by a very leading CDU politicians such as Erhard public and acrimonious divorce and by also refused to be candidates, Lübke his comments which played down the was chosen. He was criticised during Holocaust. In 1987, a cheap joke he his presidency for his blunders in public made about gas ovens resulted in the speaking, although it was subsequently one FN Deputy in Parliament leaving the suggested that these might have been

BIOGRAPHIES party and the RPR ruling out any future caused by advancing illness. He used local or national electoral alliance with his second term as President (1964–69) the FN. to promote the idea of a ‘grand 118 [See also: Poujade; Holocaust*; coalition’ of the CDU–CSU and SPD, an immigration*; nazism*] idea which became reality in 1966. Le Pen, Jean-Marie Lübke, Heinrich Lübke died in 1972. [See also: Adenauer; Erhard; grand Lubbers, Ruud coalition*] Prime Minister of the Netherlands 1982–86 and 1989–94. Lubbers was born Macmillan, Harold in Rotterdam in 1939. After studying economics, he managed the family British Prime Minister and leader of the machinery production business. A Conservative Party 1957–63. Macmillan Christian Democrat, he served as was born in London in 1894 and Economics Minister 1973–77. In 1982 he educated at Eton and Oxford University. became the youngest ever Netherlands He served and was wounded in the Prime Minister. He played a significant First World War. While directing the role in bringing about the Maastricht family publishing firm, he entered the Treaty in December 1991, since the House of Commons in 1924. He held Netherlands held the presidency of the various posts in Churchill’s war-time Council of Ministers at the time. government, and in the post-war [See also: Maastricht Treaty*] Conservative governments of Churchill and Eden, including the post of Foreign Secretary in 1955 and then Chancellor Lübke, Heinrich of the Exchequer. On Eden’s retirement, President of the Federal Republic of Macmillan became Prime Minister. He Germany 1959–69. Lübke was born in is particularly remembered for presiding Enkhausen, Westphalia in 1894. Having over a period of economic growth in studied engineering, his employment the late 1950s, coining the phrase: before the Second World War included ‘you’ve never had it so good’; for his that of director of the German Farmers’ acceptance of the decline of British Association. During the war he was power in its former African possessions, engaged in the design of buildings for where he used the phrase: ‘the winds war purposes, including the factories of change’ to describe the process of which produced the V–1 ‘flying bombs’ African states asserting their in Peenemunde (an activity which was independence; and for making an used by his opponents to attack Lübke unsuccessful attempt to take the United during his presidency). After the war he Kingdom into the European Economic was active in founding the CDU, and Community. Though he won the general served first in the Land government of election of 1959 with a large majority, North Rhine-Westphalia, then in the illness and a series of debilitating

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Macmillan, Harold de Maizière, Lothar political crises (including the Profumo such a political embarrassment to de scandal) persuaded him to resign in Maizière that he resigned from his party 1963, before the 1964 general election, offices, his political career at an end. handing over as Prime Minister and [See also: Honecker; Kohl; leader to Lord Home. He became the reunification of Germany*; Stasi*] Earl of Stockton in 1984, and died in 1986. Major, John [See also: Churchill; Eden; Home; Profumo Affair*] Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Macmillan, Harold de Maizière, Lothar and leader of the Conservative Party

1990–97. was born in 1943 BIOGRAPHIES de Maizière, Lothar in Carlshalton, Surrey. He entered a Prime Minister of the German career in banking, combining this with 119 Democratic Republic following the first local government activities in London. (and only) free elections to the People’s He became an MP in 1979. He rose Chamber (Volkskammer) in 1990. De rapidly within the ranks of the Thatcher Maizière was born in Nordhausen in government, serving as Foreign Minister 1940. He studied music and law, and and then Chancellor of the Exchequer joined the East German CDU (a party in 1989. In 1990 he persuaded Mrs within the block-party arrangement of Thatcher to allow Britain to join the GDR parties, under the dominance of European Exchange Rate Mechanism, the communist party, the SED). As a which limited currency fluctuations. lawyer, he defended several dissidents However, Britain had to abandon its prior to the collapse of the communist membership of that currency system in regime in 1989. He was active in church 1992. Though he had, somewhat affairs and held high office within the surprisingly, led the Conservatives to East German Protestant church. During victory in the 1992 general election, his the political turbulence following small majority in the House of Honecker’s resignation in 1989, de Commons soon eroded. This meant that Maizière was elected in November 1989 he could not afford to offend either the as Chairman of the GDR–CDU when the pro-European or the ‘euro-sceptic’ wings previous Chairman, associated with the of his party, which gave the impression years of CDU subservience to the SED, of indecisive leadership. He was unable had to resign. He led the to prevent the Conservative Party CDU-dominated electoral ‘Alliance for suffering a heavy defeat in the 1997 Germany’ to victory in the 1990 general election. Major took elections to the People’s Chamber, responsibility for that defeat, and becoming Prime Minister after that resigned as party leader shortly election. He enthusiastically pursued afterwards. negotiations with the government of the [See also: Thatcher; Exchange Rate Federal Republic and with foreign Mechanism*; euro-sceptic*] governments, leading to economic and monetary union, then to political fusion, Makarios, Archbishop with the FRG. Following reunification he served briefly in Kohl’s government as a President of the Republic of Cyprus minister without portfolio, and was 1959–77. Makarios was born as Mihail elected to the Bundestag in December Mouskos in Cyprus in 1913. He became 1990. However, as with many other a priest of the Orthodox church in 1946, prominent East German politicians, a bishop in 1948, and archbishop in accusations of association with the GDR 1950. He was a leader of the Enosis secret police (the Stasi) proved to be movement in Cyprus, which sought to

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link Cyprus to Greece. The British Marchais signed the historic Common colonial authorities arrested Makarios Programme for the alliance of the left and deported him to the Seychelles in with the Socialist Party (PS) and 1956. He returned to Cyprus in 1959 and left-wing Radicals, and later joined a became Prime Minister in the coalition governmnent with the PS government which combined Greek and (1981–84). During the 1970s, Marchais Turkish Cypriot leaders. Ousted by a presented the PCF as ‘eurocommunist’, military coup in 1974, he returned as adopting a specific French path to Prime Minister of the Greek part of communism in place of the model of Cyprus in 1975 and held that office until the Soviet Union. Under

BIOGRAPHIES his death in 1977. eurocommunism, the PCF dropped [See also: Colonels’ coup*; Enosis*] some aspects of Marxist–Leninist Makarios, Archbishop Marchais, Georges doctrine, accepted full democratic 120 rights as understood in Western Marchais, Georges countries, and acknowledged the Leader of the . principle of pluralism in free elections Born into a working-class background at and a multi-party system, social and La Hoguette (Calvados) in 1920, religious life. However, when electoral Marchais was a skilled mechanic in the gains in support fell in favour of the aeronautics industry. Later, his political Socialists rather than the Communists, career was dogged by controversy over Marchais withdrew the PCF from the his war-time record: Marchais denied co-operation with the PS and turned the the allegation that he worked voluntarily party back to a more pro-Soviet line, at the German Messerschmidt factory in particularly on world issues such as the Neu-Ulm before the introduction of Soviet intervention in Afghanistan and compulsory labour regulations in 1943. on events in Poland. As the PCF’s After the Second World War, he electoral support declined rapidly from became involved in trade union activity 1981 to 1986, Marchais’ support within and in 1947 joined the French the party crumbled. He was accused of Communist Party (PCF). In 1956, he authoritarianism and dissident became Secretary of the Seine-South ‘renovators’ began to contest the federation of the party and joined the leadership from the late 1980s. Central Committee and Political Bureau [See also: Mitterrand; in 1959. In 1961, he was made eurocommunism*] responsible for party organisation and in 1972 became leader of the PCF. He Martens, Wilfried stood in the presidential elections of 1981, losing to his socialist rival Prime Minister of Belgium 1979–81, Mitterrand. Throughout the 1960s, 1981–92 and prominent European Marchais was known as a christian democrat. Martens was born in plain-speaking pro-Soviet. 1936 at Sleidinge. He studied at Louvain Controversially, he did not see the social University and in 1960 became a lawyer unrest of May 1968 as an opportunity for at the Court of Appeal in Ghent. He was socialist revolution. Instead he criticised a leader of the Flemish People’s the student leader Daniel Cohn-Bendit Movement before becoming a christian as a ‘German anarchist’ and saw the democrat. He joined the Christian groups taking part in the protest as People’s Party (CVP) in 1962 and was ‘false revolutionaries’ and splinter President of its youth organisation groups. Marchais led the PCF to assert 1967–71. He was adviser to the Harmel the legitimacy of the Soviet Union’s cabinet (1965), the Vanden Boeynants invasion of Czechoslovakia. In 1972 cabinet (1966) and with the Ministry of

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Community Relations in 1968. He was 1978 elections and was ousted from the President of the CVP 1972–79, a ranks of the party leadership at the party Member of Parliament 1974–91 and a congress of 1979. However, in 1980, he Member of the senate 1991–94. His first was appointed as director of Mitterrand’s term as Prime Minister ended in his presidential election campaign. Mauroy resignation in when the was appointed Prime Minister in 1981 Socialists in his government refused to and headed three successive accept Martens’ economic plan to beat governments. The second of these Belgium’s rising unemployment and included four Communist ministers and budgetary problems. In 1976 he was carried through the major reforms of the

co-founder of the European People’s Mitterrand presidency. Mauroy resigned BIOGRAPHIES Party (EPP). During his second term as in 1984 after a disagreement with Prime Minister (1981–92), he introduced Mitterrand over secondary school policy, 121 legislation promoting regional autonomy but continued to promote the unity of in Belgium, but had difficulties in getting the left. In 1988, Mauroy succeeded the bill through Parliament. His Jospin as First Secretary of the PS (a government collapsed in 1991 and he post he held until 1992) in spite of became Minister of State in 1992. He Mitterrand’s preference for the became the EPP’s President 1990–99 moderniser Fabius. and also acted as President of the EPP [See also: Fabius; Jospin; Mitterrand; party group in the European Parliament Mollet] 1994–99. From 1993 to 1996 he was President of the European Union of Mendès France, Pierre Christian Democrats. Martens, Wilfried Mauroy, Pierre A controversial figure whose political career spanned three Republics, Mauroy, Pierre Mendès France was Prime Minister in The first Socialist Prime Minister of the the Fourth Republic from June 1954 to Fifth Republic (1981–84). Mauroy was February 1955. Born in Paris in 1907, born in 1928 at Cartignies. He was Mendès France was a brilliant student General-Secretary of the Socialist Party’s who became the youngest lawyer in (SFIO) Young Socialists 1950–58. A France at age 19. He later graduated in secondary school teacher from 1952, he politics and took a doctorate in law at was a branch General-Secretary of the 21. Politically active from an early age, main teacher’s union FEN 1955–59. In he joined the at 16. In 1966, he became Deputy 1932 he became the youngest Deputy in General-Secretary of the Socialist Party, the Parliament and in 1938, as but party leader Guy Mollet backed Under-Secretary of State for the Savary rather than Mauroy to succeed Treasury, the youngest member of a him as leader of the newly formed government in the Third Republic. Socialist Party (PS) in 1969. Mauroy Falsely charged with desertion during backed Mitterrand’s successful challenge the Second World War, he escaped to the party leadership in 1971 and was from prison to England, joined General rewarded with the party position of de Gaulle’s Free French air force and National Co-ordination Secretary. An served with a bomber squadron experienced and committed socialist, he 1942–43. He worked with de Gaulle in successfully integrated the different and as ‘minister’ of finance in what sometimes conflicting factions within the was to become the Provisional party, particularly the Christian and Government of France in May 1944. In secular tendencies. Mauroy clashed with 1944 he led the French delegation to Mitterrand after the left’s defeat in the the 1944 Bretton Woods conference on

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international monetary issues and personal experience and reputation. participated in the creation of the World During the 1970s, he devoted his Bank. In September 1944, after the attention to trying to broker an liberation of Paris, he was named by de agreement between Israel and the Gaulle as Minister of the National Palestinians. Mendès France Economy. Dynamic and stubborn, he supported Mitterrand in the presidential pursued unpopular anti-inflationary elections of 1981. He died in October measures and currency reform, but was 1982. opposed by Finance Minister René [See also: de Gaulle; Mitterrand; Pleven. De Gaulle opted to support Mollet; Algerian conflict*; European

BIOGRAPHIES Pleven and Mendès France resigned in Defence Community*] May 1945. He took a principled stance, Mendès France, PierreMendès France, Pierre refusing a ministerial post in 1946 as he 122 Mitterrand, François believed he would not be permitted sufficient autonomy to carry out his Leader of the French Socialist Party and duties, and instead accepted numerous President of France 1981–95. Mitterrand national and international economic was born in Jarnac (in the Charante assignments. During his short region) in 1916. He studied law, and premiership (1954–55), Mendès France worked in law and publishing. In the launched a radical programme. Serving Second World War he became a also as Foreign Minister, he brought the prisoner-of-war in 1940, but escaped via war in Indo-China to a close; he Algeria to London. He served in de resolved an explosive situation in Gaulle’s provisional government until Tunisia by granting its autonomy; 1946, then became a member of the allowed a vote in the National National Assembly, serving in various Assembly to decide an entrenched capacities in eleven different controversy over the European Defence governments during the Fourth Community (the vote went against the Republic. He played a leading role in project, which was dropped); and various efforts to reorganise the helped to negotiate the terms for Socialists, and in 1971 became leader of German rearmament and entry into the newly formed Socialist Party, NATO. His bold handling of remaining leader until 1981. He was the controversial issues mobilised various losing candidate in the second round of forces against him and he was voted voting in the presidential elections of out of office in February 1955, ostensibly 1965 and 1974 (against de Gaulle and over his Algerian policy. From 1955 to d’Estaing). He defeated d’Estaing in 1957 he tried to renovate the Radical 1981 to become the first Socialist Party, but failed, and resigned as leader. President of the Fifth Republic, and was After serving briefly as Minister without re-elected in 1988. In his second term Portfolio (1956) in Guy Mollet’s he twice had to govern under government, he remained in an conditions of cohabitation, with a prime opposition role for the next twenty-five minister from the right wing as a years. Mendès France opposed both the consequence of the outcome of institutional framework of the Fifth elections to the National Assembly. Republic and the way in which de Mitterrand had to confront rumours that Gaulle came to power at the head of he had collaborated with the Vichy the new Republic, which he saw as regime during the war and of corruption illegitimate. During the Fifth Republic, within the ranks of his own party. He Mendès France associated briefly with died in 1996. left-wing groups but was politically [See also: de Gaulle; Giscard active largely on the basis of his d’Estaing; cohabitation*; Vichy regime*]

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Modrow, Hans Mollet, Guy

family in Flers () in 1905 and Modrow, Hans was educated through a state Head of government of the GDR scholarship. He joined the Young 1989–90. Modrow was born in West Socialists in 1921 and the SFIO proper Pomerania in 1928. He joined the SED in 1923. A school teacher, Mollet helped in 1949, involving himself at first to found the union, the General especially in its youth organisation (the Federation of the Teaching Profession. Free German Youth), in which he During the Second World War he became a full-time employee, moving worked with the resistance and was a then to a staff position in the SED. He German prisoner-of-war 1940–41.

became head of the party organisation Elected Secretary-General of the SFIO in BIOGRAPHIES in Dresden in 1973, but was always 1946, he brought ideological and regarded as something of an outsider in strategic change to the party. He was 123 the party, and failed to attain positions elected to the first National Assembly of within the party that his experience and the Fourth Republic in 1946 and qualifications would seem to have appointed Minister of State in Léon deserved. This was associated with a Blum’s government 1946–47, a post he reputation in Dresden for resistance to, returned to under Pleven in 1950 before and criticism of, some policies of the becoming Deputy Prime Minister SED central committee in Berlin. Thus 1950–51. After the parliamentary when the SED came under pressure elections of 1956, Mollet became Prime during the citizen movement protests in Minister of a coalition government Autumn 1989, Modrow was seen as a comprising mainly Socialists and potential reformer who could rescue the Radicals. His programme featured party, and Krenz persuaded him to take stabilising the situation in Algeria and the post of Prime Minister. This post he social welfare reforms, but mounting retained until the first democratic problems led to his resignation in 1957. elections for the Volkskammer in March In 1958 Mollet was instrumental in 1990, but during his period in office he bringing de Gaulle’s Fifth Republic into was seen as too reactionary for the being, believing that this was the only times, being opposed by the Round way France could avoid a military Table and by other parties within and dictatorship. Mollet was appointed outside his coalition government. Minister of State in de Gaulle’s Following the reunification of Germany, government, and helped to draw up the Modrow became a Member of the new constitution of the Fifth Republic, Bundestag for the PDS. Accusations of but moved the Socialists into opposition electoral manipulation in Dresden in in 1959. By 1965, Mitterrand had 1989 led to his trial and conviction in emerged as the leading individual on 1993. He later became Honorary the left of the political spectrum. When Chairman of the PDS. the Socialists formed a new party (PS) [See also: Krenz; reunification of in 1969, Mollet resigned as Germany*; Round Table*] Secretary-General and devoted himself Modrow, Hans Mollet, Guy instead to his socialist research institute OURS. He died in 1975. Mollet, Guy [See also: de Gaulle; Algerian Secretary-General of the Socialist Party conflict*; resistance groups*] (SFIO) 1946–69 and Prime Minister of France 1956–57, Mollet played a key Monnet, Jean-Marie role in the transition between the French Fourth and Fifth Republics. The key thinker behind French post-war Mollet was born into a working-class economic planning and the visionary

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strategist behind European integration, of Paris (18 April 1951) formally Jean Monnet never held elected office, establishing the ECSC. He also nor did he follow a regular civil service participated in plans for a European career path. Monnet was born in Cognac Defence Community (EDC), abandoned in 1888, was apprenticed in London to when the French National Assembly learn English, and at 18 became an refused to ratify it. In spite of this international salesman for his father’s setback, Monnet and the Belgian Foreign wholesale brandy co-operative. Unfit for Minister Spaak managed to maintain the service in the First World War, he momentum towards European helped to initiate the creation in 1916–18 economic integration. In 1955, Monnet

BIOGRAPHIES of eight Allied Executives co-ordinating presented Spaak with plans for a scarce supplies of commodities and European Atomic Energy Community. pooling transport. After the war, he Together with Dutch proposals for a 124 became Deputy Secretary-General of the Common Market, this proposal new League of Nations and was culminated in the Rome Treaties of concerned with rehabilitation 1957, which established the EEC and programmes. In 1938, Monnet was EURATOM. De Gaulle’s return to power co-opted by the Prime Minister, Edouard in 1958 restored a nationalist mentality Daladier, to help with preparations for to French politics and undermined the Second World War. He negotiated Monnet’s internationalist stance and his aeroplane orders with the neutral USA personal influence in France. In 1959 he and took a leading role in Anglo-French persuaded the USA to co-found the co-ordination. Sent to the British Supply OECD. Monnet died in 1979. Council in Washington by Churchill, by [See also: Churchill; de Gaulle; 1941 Monnet was acting as an adviser to Schuman; Spaak; European Coal and Beaverbrook and Roosevelt, promoting Steel Community*; European Defence war production. Sent to Algiers to advise Community*; European Free Trade the Allies in North Africa, Monnet helped Association*] de Gaulle to gain control of the French Monnet, Jean-Marie Monnet, Jean-Marie committee of national liberation. Back in Moro, Aldo France, in 1946 Monnet took charge of the new, independent General Planning Prime Minister of Italy 1963–68, 1974–76, Commission attached to the Prime Moro was kidnapped and murdered by Minister, where he devised the ‘Monnet Red Brigade terrorists in 1978. Moro was Plan’ on investment priorities for born in 1916 in Maglie and studied at economic reconstruction through the University of , where he took American funding. The plan was part in Catholic student politics and intended to modernise France’s gained a PhD in law in 1940. After the economic capacity, to be responsive to Second World War, Moro joined the changing economic needs and to Christian Democratic party (DC) and integrate affected interests, including the was elected to Italy’s Constituent trade unions. It provided the foundations Assembly in 1946. Moro took part in the for French economic co-operation and drafting of the constitution which competition with Germany. In 1950, established the Republic of Italy in June Monnet turned his attention to European 1946. In 1948 he was elected to the integration, preparing a plan for the Chamber of Deputies and became a future European Coal and Steel leading member of the DC party group. Community (ECSC), which was He served as Under-Secretary of State in promoted by the French Foreign Minister de Gasperi’s government in May 1948. In . Monnet chaired the 1955 he became Minister of Justice and conference which produced the Treaty carried out a reform of the prison system.

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He was appointed Minister of Education daring glider rescue from this in May 1957 and in 1959 became leader imprisonment by German troops of the DC. In 1963 he formed a centre-left permitted Mussolini to set up a puppet government which he successfully regime in German-occupied Italy, but as steered and reorganised until , the war came to an end in April 1945 when the Socialists refused to take part. Mussolini was caught by partisans when He then took the post of Foreign attempting to escape to Switzerland, Minister until he again formed a coalition and was summarily hanged. government with the Republican Party. [See also: Franco; Hitler; Spanish civil From February 1976 he maintained a war*]

minority government in power until July BIOGRAPHIES 1976. He then became President of the Ollenhauer, Erich DC and it was anticipated that he might 125 be chosen as President of the Republic. Leader of the West German Social However, on 16 March 1978, he was Democratic Party (SPD) 1952–60. Born kidnapped by Red Brigade terrorists, in Magdeburg in 1901, Ollenhauer joined ‘tried’ and killed. His body was found in the SPD in 1916 and became a member Rome on 9 May 1978. of the party’s paid staff. He was a [See also: de Gasperi; *] member of the SPD contingent on the Moro, Aldo Mussolini, Benito Parliamentary Council which drafted the Basic Law, was elected to the Mussolini, Benito Bundestag in 1949, and, following the Fascist dictator of Italy. Born in 1883 in death of Schumacher, became party the Romagna, Mussolini became a leader in 1952. He was the SPD socialist agitator in his youth. He fought chancellor-candidate in the 1953 and in the First World War, then became a 1957 Bundestag elections. His failure in representative of an ex-servicemen’s the 1957 election (when Adenauer association. In 1919 he began to secured an absolute majority of votes promote fascist beliefs, based on radical and seats) and his discomfiture with the nationalism and authoritarian rule, and 1959 Bad Godesberg SPD reform engaged in terrorising his former programme led to his resignation as socialist allies. He became Prime party leader in 1960. He died in 1963. Minister of Italy following his ‘March on [See also: Adenauer; Schumacher; Rome’ by his blackshirted fascist Godesberg Programme*] supporters, but soon turned this post into that of a dictator (Il ). He then Paisley, Ian developed a policy of overseas expansion, to rival Hitler’s territorial Leader of the Democratic Unionist Party ambitions in Europe. The invasion of (Northern Ireland). Paisley was born in Abbysinia was followed by engagement Armagh in 1926. After a theological on the side of General Franco in the education, he was ordained as minister Spanish civil war, then the occupation in 1946 and became involved in and annexation of Albania. He entered Unionist politics. He was a member of into a pact with Hitler (the Axis pact). the Northern Ireland Parliament at Joining in the Second World War once Stormont 1970–72, and of the Northern France had collapsed, Mussolini’s Ireland Assembly 1973–74. He has been military advances in Greece and North an MP in the House of Commons since Africa were soon followed by serious 1970 and was elected to the new defeats. He was forced to resign from Northern Ireland Assembly in 1998. He his position as head of the government was elected leader of his party in 1979. in 1943 and was then imprisoned. A Paisley has a reputation as an

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intemperate orator, an uncompromising and tortured in 1939, he left in 1940 for opponent of Northern Ireland political the USA, where he studied at Columbia Catholicism and nationalism, a University and received a doctorate from propagator of fundamentalist Harvard in 1943. Papandreou took US Protestantism and a bitter critic of the citizenship, served in the US navy and British government whenever proposals began an academic career in for a compromise settlement in economics. He returned to Greece in Northern Ireland are mooted. Paisley 1959 and became Director of the Centre opposed the Sunningdale Agreement in of Economic Research. He renounced 1972, for instance. His behaviour in the his American citizenship in January 1964

BIOGRAPHIES House of Commons has resulted in his and was elected to Parliament as a exclusion on several occasions. representative of his father’s Centre [See also: Good Friday Agreement*; Union Party. When Georgios 126 Stormont*] Papandreou became Prime Minister in Paisley, Ian Papandreou, Andreas 1964, his son Andreas became his chief adviser. Andreas was an outspoken critic Palme, Olaf of the King and the military and was Prime Minister of Sweden 1969–76 and forced to step down in November 1964 1982 until his assassination in 1986. on charges of corruption. He was Palme was born in Stockholm in 1927. reinstated in the Spring of 1965, but fell He studied law, but began a career in with his father’s government in July politics within the organisation of the 1965. When the military staged a coup Swedish Social Democratic Labour in April 1967, was Party. He was elected to the Swedish charged with high treason and was kept Parliament in 1957 and from 1963 was in solitary confinement until he was appointed to several governmental released in an amnesty in December positions, before becoming party leader 1967. He went into exile as an opponent and Prime Minister in 1969. While out of of the junta, again working as an office between 1976 and 1981, he was a academic. He founded the anti-junta member of several international Panhellenic Liberation Movement in 1968. commissions concerned with Papandreou returned to Greece in 1974 third-world development and when the military government fell. He disarmament. His government refused to lead his father’s former party, undertook several important the Centre Union Party, and instead constitutional reforms in Sweden, founded the Panhellenic Socialist including making the Swedish Movement. For the rest of the 1970s, Parliament unicameral and eliminating Papandreou vigorously attacked the almost entirely the political role of the Karamanlis government. In the elections monarch. He was killed by gunfire from of 1981, his Panhellenic Socialist an unknown assailant in Stockholm in Movement beat Rallis’ New Democratic February 1986. Party and Papandreou became Prime Minister. His government introduced a series of socialist reforms. In 1988 his Papandreou, Andreas government’s popularity fell and he was Prime Minister of Greece 1981–89 and accused of corruption and the misuse of 1993–96. Papandreou was born in Chios power. He stepped down in 1989 after in 1919, the son of the former Prime electoral defeat. Once his parliamentary Minister Georgios Papandreou. He immunity was lifted, Papandreou was studied law at the University of Athens charged with corruption, but was and became a Trotskyist critic of the acquitted in January 1992. He led his dictatorship of Ioannis Metaxas. Arrested party to an election victory in 1993, but

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Papandreou, Andreas Pöhl, Karl Otto his health deteriorated from 1995, and (and parity for some transactions) when he resigned as Prime Minister in January the German Democratic Republic and 1996. He died later that year. the German Federal Republic entered [See also: Karamanlis] into a Treaty of Economic and Monetary Papandreou, Andreas Pöhl, Karl Otto Union. Pöhl warned that such a generous exchange rate would prove to Pétain, Marshal [See: Vichy regime*] be inflationary and would damage the East German economy. Pflimlin, Pierre [See also: Kohl; Bundesbank*] Prime Minister of France 1958. Pflimlin

was born in Roubaix in 1907. He was BIOGRAPHIES Pompidou, Georges educated in Mulhouse (in Alsace) and universities in Paris and Strasbourg and Prime Minister, then President, of the 127 qualified as a lawyer. He was a Fifth French Republic. Pompidou was prisoner-of-war in 1940, and on release born in the Auvergne in 1911. After joined the resistance. Elected to the studying classics, he became a National Assembly in 1946 as a secondary school teacher. Involved in Republican Party deputy, he became a the resistance during the Second World minister in many of the – usually War, he joined de Gaulle’s staff in 1944, short-lived – cabinets of the Fourth and held various political appointments Republic. After his very brief term as before entering banking in 1955. He last Prime Minister of the Fourth returned to politics when the Fifth Republic (except for de Gaulle himself ), Republic was established in 1958, and Pflimlin served in de Gaulle’s Fifth was principal negotiator of the Évian Republic government in 1962. He served Agreements, ending French involvement as mayor of Strasbourg from 1959 until in the Algerian struggle for 1984, and was a Member of the independence. De Gaulle made European Parliament 1979–89, holding Pompidou Prime Minister in 1962. In the office of President of the Parliament 1968, Pompidou played a major role in 1984–87. He was an enthusiastic calming the riots and protests initiated supporter of European integration. He by the students and workers. De Gaulle died in 2000. held Pompidou responsible for what he [See also: de Gaulle; Algerian saw as unwise concessions to the conflict*; resistance groups*] workers and dismissed him as Prime Minister that same year. However, following de Gaulle’s sudden resignation Pöhl, Karl Otto as President in 1969, Pompidou was President of the German Federal Bank elected as de Gaulle’s successor. (Bundesbank) 1980–91. Pöhl was born Pompidou set about extending the in Hanover in 1929. After an early career powers of the president into economic as a journalist, he became and other domestic policy areas, in a Vice-President of the Bundesbank in drive to modernise the French 1977, and became President in 1980. economy, especially in relation to its Though a member of the Social infrastructure. He died in office in 1974. Democratic Party, he resisted several [See also: de Gaulle; Évian measures of the SPD–Liberal coalition Agreements*; resistance groups*] designed to decrease unemployment through state expenditures. Pöhl is Poujade, Pierre-Marie particularly remembered for his criticism in 1990 of the plan by the Kohl Born in 1920 in Saint-Céré (Lot), government for an exchange rate of 2:1 Poujade was a political activist who

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Poujade, Pierre-Marie Prodi, Romano

challenged processes of modernisation Born in 1939 in Scandiano, Prodi in France. Brought up as a monarchist, studied at the Catholic University of he at first supported the Vichy regime. Milan. He became Professor of However, by 1942 Poujade was Economics and Industrial Policy at the disillusioned by Vichy’s subservience to in 1971. He was the Germans and tried to leave France Minister of Industry 1978–79. During the for Spain. He was arrested but was 1980s and 1990s he held high-ranking freed in 1943. After the war he went posts related to economic and industrial back to Saint-Céré and set up a research and has published widely on wholesale book business. By the early such issues. In 1995, following the

BIOGRAPHIES 1950s such small businesses, a strong public collapse in confidence in the feature of France’s economy, were traditional parties, he founded the Olive threatened by the rise of big business. Tree, a coalition of centre-left parties, 128 In 1953, Poujade began to organise and after the electoral success of the demonstrations against the way the coalition he became Prime Minister complicated tax system was 1996–98. In 1999 he became President implemented with respect to smaller of the European Commission. businesses. In 1954 he formed the [See also: Tangentopoli*] pressure group, the Union for the Protection of Businesses and Craftsmen, Rau, Johannes (UDCA), which soon took on a wider protest role, attacking aspects of President of the Federal Republic of modernisation including foreign Germany from 1999, and Prime Minister influences in France, republicanism, of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW) bureaucracy, the dominance of Paris 1978–97. Rau was born in Wuppertal in and urbanisation. In 1955 Poujade 1931. He went into a career in the book formed a political party, the Union and trade. He joined the Social Democratic Fraternity of the French (UFF) and Party in 1957, and was elected to the conducted major rallies throughout NRW Land Parliament in 1958. After France. In the 1956 elections, the UFF serving as lord mayor of his home gained 52 seats in the National town, Wuppertal, he became a minister Assembly. However, the party was in the NRW Land government from organisationally and electorally unstable, 1970 until his election by his party in and did not survive the transition to the 1978 as NRW Prime Minister. He led his Fifth Republic in 1958 as a credible party to a series of electoral successes political force. Poujade remained a wild in NRW, making what had previously card in French politics until the been a marginal Land for his party into mid-1960s, when he became reconciled one which provided the SPD with to the Fifth Republic and even became absolute majorities. He was SPD adviser to Pompidou on small chancellor-candidate in the 1987 federal businesses. He launched a further party election, but was unable to attract many (UDI) for the 1979 European elections, additional votes to his party. He served but it was not successful. In 1981, he in several senior positions in the supported Mitterrand’s candidacy for the national SPD organisation, becoming a presidential elections. deputy chairman in 1982. He ran as SPD [See also: Mitterrand; Vichy regime*] candidate for the office of federal Poujade, Pierre-Marie Prodi, Romano president in 1994, but without success. However, in 1999, supported by the Prodi, Romano large number of SPD Members of the Prime Minister of Italy 1996–98 and Bundestag elected in 1998, Rau was President of the European Commission. elected President of the republic on the

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Rau, Johannes Rocard, Michel second ballot. Rau has always had presidential campaign and joined the close links to the Protestant church in new Socialist Party (PS) later that year, West Germany. following the party’s integration of the Rau, Johannes Rocard, Michel bulk of the non-communist left of the party spectrum. He soon became the Robinson, Mary leading voice of the new left or ‘realist’ Former President of Ireland and UN within the PS and the High Commissioner for Human Rights. only serious rival to Mitterrand for the Robinson was born in 1944 in County party’s leadership. Popular with the Mayo, Ireland. She studied law at Trinity public in the late 1970s, in the 1980s he

College, Dublin and Harvard University. had to contend with a new generation BIOGRAPHIES She then practised as a lawyer and of ‘Mitterrandists’, particularly Fabius became a professor at Trinity College. and Jospin. Rocard was Minister of the 129 She was a member of the Irish Senate Plan 1981–83 and Minister of Agriculture 1969–89. In 1990 she was elected as 1983 but resigned in 1985 in protest President of Ireland and served until over the PS’s tactical decision to 1997. As President, she lent her support introduce proportional representation for to several measures promoting a more the 1986 parliamentary elections. He liberal society in Ireland. She was then distanced himself from the party to appointed as UN Commissioner for prepare his candidacy for the Human Rights, in which role she has presidential elections of 1988, but been involved in various crises all over withdrew when Mitterrand declared he the world, for example in East Timor. would stand. Rocard became Prime Minister of France (1988–91). He was Secretary of the Socialist Party 1993–94 Rocard, Michel and has been a Member of the French Prime Minister 1988–91, Rocard European Parliament since 1994. was born in 1930 at Courbevoie (Seine). [See also: Fabius; Jospin; Mitterrand; He studied at the Institute of Political Mollet; Algerian conflict*] Studies in Paris and at the National College of Administration. He pursued a Rohwedder, Detlev dual career as an inspector of finances and in the ‘new left’ in politics, using Head of the Treuhandgesellschaft the pseudonym Georges Servet for his (Trustee Agency) responsible for political activities until the mid-1960s. privatisation and restructuring of East Rocard was National Secretary of the German business enterprises following Association of Socialist Students reunification. Rohwedder was born in 1955–56. The group was allied to the Gotha in 1932. He studied law at the Socialist Party (SFIO), but Rocard split Universities of Mainz and Hamburg, then with the party over the Mollet was employed by various business government’s Algerian policy. In 1958, companies. He joined the SPD in 1969, he became a member of the and that same year was appointed as Autonomous Socialist Party (PSA) which the chief civil servant (State Secretary) joined with the Unified Socialist Party in the Ministry of Economics when the (PSU) in 1960. He was National SPD–FDP coalition was formed. He Secretary of the PSU 1967–73, the retained that post until 1978. In 1990 he youngest leader of an organised political was appointed Chairman of the party. Opposed to violence, he did not Treuhandgesellschaft. In 1991 he was join the street protests of 1968, but later assassinated by a bomb set by the Red became spokesman of that movement. Army faction. In 1974 Rocard supported Mitterrand’s [See also: Treuhandanstalt*]

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Salazar, Antonio Santer, Jacques

While Prime Minister he was Salazar, Antonio simultaneously Minister of State and of Prime Minister of Portugal 1932–68. Finance 1984–89 and Minister of State, Salazar was born in Santa Comba Dao of Cultural Affairs and of the Treasury in 1889. He studied economics and and Financial Affairs 1989–94. Santer finance at university, and became a became President of the European professor of economics in 1916, before Commission in 1994 but a series of entering politics. He was elected to scandals led to his resignation, together Parliament in 1921 and became Minister with his Commission team, in 1998. of Finance in 1926 and again from 1928.

BIOGRAPHIES He ruled as a dictator. He maintained Scalfaro, Oscar Portugal’s neutral stance in the Spanish civil war and the Second World War, President of Italy 1992–99, Scalfaro 130 though he gave support to Franco. He promoted the ongoing process of set himself firmly against the constitutional reform in Italy during the introduction of steps towards autonomy 1980s. Born in 1918 in Novara, Scalfaro for Portugal’s overseas colonies. He studied at the Catholic University of reluctantly agreed to allow a multi-party Milan. He was elected Christian system to develop after the Second Democratic (DC) deputy for - World War, though the secret police Novara-Vercelli in 1948. He played a kept opposition activities in check. He leadership role in the DC, acting as survived a number of attempts to Secretary, then Vice-Chair of the overthrow him and his regime by parliamentary party group and communists and elements of the participating in the party’s national military. He retired on grounds of council. During de Gasperi’s leadership, ill-health in 1968 and died in 1970. Scalfaro joined the DC central office. He [See also: Armed Forces Movement*] was Under-Secretary of State at the Salazar, Antonio Santer, Jacques Ministry of Labour and Social Security in the Fanfani government, Under-Secretary Santer, Jacques in the Ministry of Justice and Prime Minister of Luxembourg 1984–89 Under-Secretary at the Ministry of the and 1989–94 and President of the Interior 1959–62. He was Minister of European Commission 1994–99. Born in Transport and Civil Aviation in the Moro, 1937 in Wasserbillig, Santer studied at Leone and Andreotti governments, the Universities of Paris and Strasbourg Minister of Education in the second and at the Paris Institute of Political Andreotti government, and Minister of Studies. He became an advocate at the the Interior 1983–87. In April 1987 he Luxembourg Court of Appeal 1961–65. tried to form a government, but was not He worked with the Ministry of Labour successful. He became President of the and Social Security 1963–65 and was a Republic on 28 May 1992. government attaché 1965–66. He was [See also: Andreotti; de Gasperi; President of the Christian Social Party Leone; Moro; Tangentopoli*] 1974–82. He was Secretary of State for Cultural and Social Affairs 1972–74. He Scharping, Rudolf was a member of the Luxembourg Chamber of Deputies 1974–79 and of Former leader of the German Social the European Parliament 1975–79, Democratic Party and becoming its Vice-President in 1975–77. chancellor-candidate in the 1994 He then returned to Luxembourg Bundestag election. Scharping was born politics, acting as Minister of Labour, of in Niederelbert in 1947. After studying Finance and of Social Security 1979–84. law, politics and sociology at the

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Scharping, Rudolf Scheel, Walter

University of Bonn, he became an taking the FDP into coalition with the assistant to two Members of the SPD after the Bundestag election of Bundestag (1969–75) and was Land 1969. As Foreign Minister in the Brandt Chair of the Young Socialists 1969–74, government, Scheel played a significant and Deputy Chair of the federal Young role in Brandt’s Ostpolitik. Scheel resigned Socialists 1974–76. He was elected to as Foreign Minister and leader of his the Rhineland-Pfalz Land Parliament in party in 1974 on health grounds, and 1975, remaining a Member until 1994. was elected as federal President that He served as Chair of the Land same year, serving one term (1974–79). parliamentary party from 1985 to 1991, [See also: Adenauer; Brandt;

Chair of the Rhineland-Pfalz SPD Grabenwahlsystem*; Ostpolitik*; Young BIOGRAPHIES 1985–94 and Minister-President 1991–94. Turks’ revolt*] Elected to the Bundestag in 1994, he 131 became leader of the SPD Bundestag Schmid, Carlo party group, a post he held until the 1998 election. He was elected leader of Prominent politician in the West the SPD in 1993 but his failure to win German Social Democratic Party after the 1994 Bundestag election and poor the Second World War. Schmid was Land election results after that election born in 1896 in Perpignan, in southern led to a successful challenge by France. He was a lawyer by training, Lafontaine at the 1995 party conference. becoming a professor of law and then Following the 1998 election, as a result of political science. He served as of which the SPD formed a government Minister of Justice in the Land of with the Greens, Scharping was Württemberg-Hohenzollern 1947–50, and unsuccessful in his efforts to retain the as a member of the SPD delegation to leadership of the parliamentary party, the Parliamentary Council which drafted and instead was persuaded to become the Basic Law 1948–49. As a member of Minister of Defence. the Praesidium of the SPD Schmid had [See also: Lafontaine] great influence on the drafting and Scharping, Rudolf Scheel, Walter adoption of the Godesberg Programme. He was a Member of the Bundestag Scheel, Walter 1949–72, and played a leading role in Foreign Minister of the Federal Republic the parliamentary party of the SPD and of Germany, leader of the Free in Bundestag committees, as well as Democratic Party (FDP) and federal acting as a Vice-President of the President. Scheel was born in 1919 in Bundestag 1949–66 and 1969–72. He Solingen. He served in the German air served as Minister responsible for force during the Second World War, co-ordination with the Länder in the afterwards pursuing a business career. grand coalition (1966–69). He was also He joined the FDP and entered local author of several distinguished books on politics before his election to the political and historical topics, and did Bundestag in 1953. He was one of the much to foster Franco-German relations. group of young FDP members whose He died in 1979. campaign in North Rhine-Westphalia in [See also: Godesberg Programme*; 1956 resulted in the termination of the grand coalition*] Land governing coalition of the FDP and CDU, and its replacement by a coalition Schmidt, Helmut with the SPD, in protest at Adenauer’s proposed electoral system changes. He Chancellor of the Federal Republic of became a deputy leader of the FDP in Germany 1974–82. Born in Hamburg in 1958, and was elected as leader in 1968, 1918, Schmidt served in the German

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Schmidt, Helmut Schönhuber, Franz

army in the Second World War and was born in Trostberg (Bavaria) in 1923. was awarded the Iron Cross. He then In the Second World War he served as attended Hamburg University, and a member of the Waffen-SS (the joined the Social Democratic Party military arm of the SS). After the war he (SPD) in 1946. He was employed as a commenced a career in journalism, manager by the city government after which led to an important post with the graduation. First elected to the Bavarian broadcasting service, including Bundestag in 1953, he resigned in 1962 having his own talk-show, but was to become a minister in the Hamburg dismissed because of public and media Land government, where his actions reaction to his memoirs (published in

BIOGRAPHIES during the severe 1962 flooding of the 1981) in which he defended the city were praised. He returned to the Waffen-SS and the ‘idealism’ of its Bundestag in 1965, and, following members. In 1983 he was a co-founder 132 service as Chairman of the SPD of the Republican party, a breakaway parliamentary party group during the party of former CSU politicians, which ‘grand coalition’, became Minister of soon developed a radical right-wing Defence in the Brandt coalition in 1969. identity and anti-foreigner rhetoric once When Schiller resigned in 1972 as Schönhuber became Chairman. The Finance and Economics Minister, Republicans had surprising successes in Schmidt took those ministries, then the Berlin Land election and European served as Finance Minister after the parliamentary election of 1989 Bundestag election in 1972 until 1974. In (Schönhuber himself serving as an MEP 1974 he was the undisputed successor until 1994) and in the as Chancellor, after Brandt resigned that Baden-Württemberg Land election in office in the wake of the Guillaume 1992. Schönhuber lost the chairmanship scandal. As Chancellor, Schmidt was of the Republicans in 1994 and resigned effective and efficient, but, with Brandt from the party in 1995. He remained remaining as party leader, was not active in far-right political circles, and successful in integrating the various was a candidate for the German factions in the SPD. In particular, the People’s Party (DVU) in the 1998 hostile attitudes of his own left wing Bundestag election. towards defence and economic policies [See also: xenophobia*] led to a breach within the coalition. The FDP’s decision to support Kohl (the Schröder, Gerhard leader of the CDU) in a constructive vote of no confidence against Schmidt Chancellor of the Federal Republic of in October 1982 led to the replacement Germany since 1998 and leader of the of Schmidt’s government by a coalition Social Democratic Party (SPD) since of Christian Democrats and the FDP. 1999. Schröder was born in 1944 in Schmidt in political retirement took on a Mossenberg, near Detmold. He studied role as elder statesman, and from 1983 law at the University of Göttingen. He became involved in the editorship of the joined the SPD in 1963, and in 1986 news weekly: Die Zeit. became leader of the SPD parliamentary [See also: Brandt; Kohl; constructive group in the Lower Saxony Land vote of no confidence*; grand Parliament. In 1989 he was elected to coalition*; Guillaume Affair*] the Praesidium of the SPD, and in 1990 Schmidt, Helmut Schönhuber, Franz he became Minister President of Lower Saxony, winning the elections in 1994 Schönhuber, Franz and 1998 also. Though he had lost to Co-founder and former leader of the Scharping in the membership ballot for German Republican party. Schonhüber the post of party leader in 1993, his

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Schröder, Gerhard Schuman, Robert electoral successes in Lower Saxony integration. Schuman was born in made him the obvious choice to be Luxembourg in 1886, grew up in Metz chancellor-candidate for the 1998 (then German) and studied law at Bundestag election. He led his party to Bonn, Munich and Berlin. When an overwhelming electoral victory in Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France that election, and formed a coalition in 1918, Schuman entered French with the Greens. In 1999 he replaced politics, being elected to Parliament in Lafontaine as party leader, after 1919 as a christian democrat. In 1940 he Lafontaine resigned from his was appointed Under-Secretary of State governmental and party positions. for Refugees in Reynaud’s war cabinet.

[See also: Lafontaine; Scharping] After briefly supporting Pétain, Schuman BIOGRAPHIES Schröder, Gerhard Schuman, Robert resigned from the Vichy government and forged links with the resistance Schumacher, Kurt 133 instead. After the Second World War Leader of the Social Democratic Party of Schuman joined the new christian West Germany after the Second World democratic party: the Mouvement War. Schumacher was born in Prussia Républicain Populaire (MRP) and was in 1895. His wounds in the First World re-elected to Parliament. He was War resulted in the amputation of an Minister for Finance in the governments arm. He studied law and political of Bidault (1946) and Ramadier (1947). science at university. He then involved He became Prime Minister (1947–48) himself in socialist politics in the under conditions of financial crisis and Weimar Republic, being elected to the industrial unrest. From 1948 to 1953 Reichstag in 1930. He spent much of Schuman was Minister for Foreign the Hitler period in concentration Affairs in ten successive governments, camps. Involving himself in the revival faced with the task of restraining of the SPD even before the Second Germany in the context of European World War had ended, Schumacher co-operation. In May 1950 he adopted became a leading politician in the Monnet’s plan to merge the French and British zone of occupation. He German coal and steel industries. This vehemently opposed the scheme in the ‘Schuman Plan’ led to the creation of Soviet occupation zone to merge the the European Coal and Steel SPD and the Communist Party, rejecting Community (ECSC) and eventually the it for the western zones. He was elected EEC. His close association with the leader of the West German SPD in failed ‘Pleven Plan’ for a European 1946. The result of the Bundestag Defence Community ended his spell as election in 1949 meant that the SPD Foreign Minister in 1953. Schuman died was in opposition, and Schumacher, as in 1963. leader of the opposition, criticised many [See also: Monnet; European Coal of Adenauer’s policies, especially and Steel Community*; European concerning the market economy and Defence Community*; Vichy regime*] Adenauer’s preference for western integration rather than the pursuit of Smith, Iain Duncan [See: Duncan German reunification. Schumacher died Smith, Iain] in 1952. [See also: Adenauer; Hitler] Smith, John Leader of the British Labour Party from Schuman, Robert 1992 until his death in 1994. John Smith Schuman held high office in France, but was born in 1938, and qualified as a is best known for his work for European lawyer. He became an MP in 1970, and

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Smith, John Soares, Mário

held office in the Wilson and Callaghan League of Human Rights. After the coup governments. Having held various senior of April 1974, Soares returned to posts in the opposition’s ‘shadow Portugal. As Minister of Foreign Affairs cabinet’ from 1979 onwards, he was 1974–75, he led negotiations on the elected as party leader in succession to independence of the Portuguese Neil Kinnock, following Kinnock’s overseas colonies of Guinea-Bissau, resignation after the election of 1992. Mozambique and Angola. He was Smith continued and developed some Vice-President of the Socialist of the processes of reform of the International 1976–86 and its honorary Labour Party’s policies, image and president thereafter. The Socialists won

BIOGRAPHIES organisation which had commenced a majority in the Constituent Assembly under Kinnock’s leadership, and which elections in 1975, but a tense period were continued by . followed when the leftist military at first 134 [See also: Blair; Callaghan; Kinnock; refused to acknowledge the result. In Wilson] further elections of April 1976, the Smith, John Soares, Mário Socialists again won a majority of seats and Soares became Prime Minister until Soares, Mário 1978, and again 1983–85. During his Prime Minister of Portugal three times period in office he pursued negotiations 1976–85; President of Portugal 1986–96. leading to Portuguese membership of Soares was born in 1924 in Lisbon. His the European Community and signed father was João Soares, a liberal who the Treaty of Accession in 1985. In 1986 had served in the republican he became President of Portugal. He government overthrown by a military has held numerous other national and coup in 1926. Mário Soares studied at international positions. the University of Lisbon, where he [See also: Salazar; Armed Forces founded the United Democratic Youth Movement*] Movement in 1946, and, later, at the Sorbonne in Paris. An active opponent Soustelle, Jacques of Salazar’s dictatorship, Mário Soares was jailed 12 times on political grounds. Leading member of the French ‘Secret He was first arrested for Army’ opposed to de Gaulle’s Algerian anti-government activities in 1947. In policies. Soustelle was born in 1912. He 1958 Soares was active in the worked closely with de Gaulle during unsuccessful presidential campaign of the Second World War and its the opposition candidate General immediate aftermath. He was General Delgado. When Delgado was murdered Secretary of the RPF, de Gaulle’s party in Spain in 1965, Soares acted as the after the war. He served as Governor of lawyer for his family and attracted Algeria, but his intemperate statements international attention by revealing how concerning Algeria led to his recall in Salazar’s secret police were implicated 1956. He supported the recall of de in the crime. He was deported to São Gaulle and the creation of the Fifth Tomé March–November 1968 and went Republic, serving in de Gaulle’s first into exile in France during the early government. After his exclusion from 1970s. In West Germany in 1973, he the government following riots in Algeria founded the Portuguese Socialist Party in 1960, Soustelle joined the leadership and was its Secretary-General until 1986. of the ‘Secret Army’, and was exiled in Soares represented the Portuguese 1962, only returning to France when Socialists at various European socialist pardoned after the 1968 student riots. congresses and was the Portuguese [See also: de Gaulle; Algerian representative to the International conflict*; May Events*]

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Spaak, Paul-Henri Spring, Dick

Spaak, Paul-Henri Spring, Dick Prime Minister of Belgium 1938–39, Irish Foreign Minister and leader of the March 1946, 1947–49, and leading Irish Labour Party. Spring was born in international politician. Spaak was born Tralee in 1950. He studied and practised into a wealthy family of political law before entering the Irish Parliament activists in 1899 in Schaerbeek. He in 1981. He served as Deputy Prime spent two years as a German Minister in coalition governments in prisoner-of-war during the First World 1982–87 and 1993–97; in the second of War. After the war, he graduated in law those coalitions he was Foreign

from the Université Libre de Bruxelles. Minister. He was leader of the Irish BIOGRAPHIES He joined the Socialist Party in the Labour Party 1982–97. 1920s and in 1932 he was elected to Spaak, Paul-Henri Spring, Dick 135 the Belgian Chamber of Deputies, Springer, Axel where he led the Socialists’ left faction. He served in ministerial posts in German publisher and media 1935–36 before becoming Prime entrepreneur. Springer was born in Minister in 1938. When Germany Altona, near Hamburg, in 1912. In the occupied Belgium, he fled to London period immediately after the Second and acted as Foreign Minister in the World War he began his career as a Belgian government-in-exile. After the newspaper publisher, founding a liberation, Spaak returned to Belgium number of newspapers and magazines, as Deputy Prime Minister, but also took including in 1952 the enormously an active role in European and successful Bild tabloid daily paper, and international politics. Leading the acquiring the respected Die Welt Belgian delegation to the United newspaper in 1953. The student Nations (UN) Conference in 1945, he movement which developed in the late helped to draft the UN charter and 1960s targeted Springer as a ‘monopoly served as the first President of the capitalist’ because of his ownership of a United Nations General Assembly in large share of the newspaper and 1946. Spaak promoted the formation of magazine markets. Among other incidents the Benelux customs union between such as blockades of distribution centres Belgium, the Netherlands and to prevent circulation of his publications, Luxembourg and later played a a bomb attack on the Hamburg leading role in the creation of the headquarters of the Springer companies European Common Market in March in 1972 wounded 17 people. Springer 1957. He was Secretary-General of the was unremitting in his critiques of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation left-wing-dominated student movement, (NATO) 1957–61, after which he promoted the idea of German returned to Belgian politics as Foreign reunification and the illegitimacy of the Minister. He welcomed Britain’s first GDR regime, and defended his position application to join the EEC and was in the publishing market against those angered by the French veto on British who claimed his dominance should be membership in 1963. He worked to weakened by new legal constraints. ease tense relations between Belgium Springer expanded into broadcasting, and its former colony, the African including involvement in the Sat–1 Congo. When he retired from politics in commercial television channel. He was 1966, Spaak continued to work as a generous in his contributions to commercial international adviser. He charities, including to various charitable died in 1972. causes in Israel. He died in 1985. [See also: de Gaulle; Benelux*] [See also: May Events*]

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Steel, David Stoiber, Edmund

He was appointed Interior Minister in Steel, David the Bavarian government in 1988, and Leader of the British Liberal Party served until 1993, when he became 1976–88, when it merged with the Prime Minister of Bavaria. He has been Social Democratic Party to become the leader of the CSU since 1999. He Liberal Democratic Party. Steel was became the chancellor-candidate for born in Kirkcaldy, Scotland, in 1938. the 2002 Bundestag election on 11 Following study at Edinburgh University, January 2002, following the Steel became a journalist, then was announcement by Merkel that she elected to the House of Commons in a would not seek that position herself.

BIOGRAPHIES by-election in 1965. He became well known following the success of his 1967 Stoph, Willi Private Member’s bill to reform legal 136 restrictions on abortion. After serving as Head of the government (in effect, chief whip of his party, he was elected Prime Minister) of the German leader in 1976 following the resignation Democratic Republic 1964–73 and of Thorpe (Grimond, the former leader, 1976–89. Stoph was born in Berlin in serving as interim leader). In 1977 he 1914. He joined the Communist Party of took his party into an alliance with Germany in 1931. After military service Callaghan’s Labour government that in the Second World War, he made a was less than a formal coalition, and career within the communist Socialist seemed to bring little counter-rewards Unity Party (SED) in the Soviet zone of to the Liberal Party in return for occupation, then in the GDR. He served guaranteeing Callaghan a majority in the as head of state 1973–76. He House of Commons. This move was represented the GDR in talks with criticised within and outside Steel’s own Brandt in Erfurt and Kassel in 1970, as a party ranks. It resulted in electoral prelude to later steps towards improving defeats for his party before and after the relations between the two German dissolution of that alliance in 1978. In states. He was dismissed as Prime 1983 he succeeded Roy Jenkins as Minister in November 1989 during the leader of the Liberal–SDP electoral last days of the communist regime, and alliance. He decided not to seek was succeeded in that office by Hans leadership of the Liberal Democrat Party Modrow. Court cases following at the time of the merger between the reunification against Stoph on grounds Liberals and the SDP in 1988. In 2000 of corruption in office and responsibility he became the first Speaker of the new for the ‘shoot-to-kill’ orders concerning Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh. would-be escapees from the GDR were [See also: Callaghan; Grimond; later dropped, mainly on grounds of his Jenkins; Thorpe; Lib–Lab pact*] age and state of health. Steel, David Stoiber, Edmund [See also: Brandt; Modrow; German question*; Ostpolitik*] Stoiber, Edmund Leader of the Christian Social Union in Strauss, Franz Josef Germany and Prime Minister of Bavaria. Stoiber was born in Oberaudorf in 1941. Leader of the CSU, Prime Minister of He studied law at Munich University and Bavaria and Minister in the governments became a civil servant in the Bavarian of Adenauer and Kiesinger. Strauss was Land government. He has been a born in Munich in 1915. Following Member of the Bavarian Land university studies of history and Parliament since 1974. He served as economics, and from 1943 military General-Secretary of the CSU 1982–86. service in the Second World War, he

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Strauss, Franz Josef Suárez González, Adolfo, Duke of was one of the founders of the CSU in Democratic Centre (UCD) 1977–82. 1945 and became its General Secretary Born in 1932 in Cebreros in the in 1949, then its Deputy Chairman in Province of Avila, Suárez studied at 1952. He was elected as Chairman in the University of Salamanca and 1961, a post he retained until his death, received a doctorate from the University and was largely responsible for of Madrid. He became governor of consolidating, then expanding, the party Segovia in 1969, then took high-ranking within Bavaria and in its relations with positions in radio and television and in the CDU. He was elected to the tourism. He was involved with the Bundestag in 1949, and was appointed Falange until 1975, when he founded

to Adenauer’s government in 1953, the UCD and became its leader. He BIOGRAPHIES becoming Defence Minister in 1956. was appointed Prime Minister by King Forced to leave the government because Juan Carlos in 1976 and his post-Franco 137 of his responsibility for the improper government effected the transition to imposition of sanctions on the magazine democracy in Spain. It allowed the Der Spiegel in 1962, he was kept out of formation of political parties and the Erhard government by FDP organised free elections. Suárez’ UCD insistence. In the grand coalition led by won the elections of 1977 and 1979 but Chancellor Kiesinger, Strauss became then his popularity fell over his handling Finance Minister (1966–69). Strauss was of the economy and the issue of the unsuccessful chancellor-candidate of Basque terrorism. He resigned in the Christian Democrats in the 1980 January 1981, nominating Calvo Sotelo Bundestag election. When the Christian as his successor. The King named him Democrats returned to government in Duke of Suárez later that year. In 1982 1982, the insistence of the FDP that he left the UCD to form and lead Strauss should not displace Genscher as another party, the Democratic and Foreign Minister effectively kept Strauss Social Centre (CDS) but the party was out of the cabinet, as he would accept not an electoral success and he no other position. He instead remained stepped down as leader in 1991. He Prime Minister of Bavaria, a post he had was President of the International taken in 1979. Strauss was seen as being Liberals 1988–91. on the right of the Christian Democrats, [See also: Franco; Juan Carlos, King] and his various independent initiatives in foreign policy (such as his visit to China Thatcher, Margaret in 1972) and in German–German relations (his unauthorised promises of British Prime Minister and leader of the credits to the GDR government on a visit Conservative Party. Born Margaret in 1983) earned him publicity, but were Roberts in Grantham in 1925, she also grounds for criticism and concern studied chemistry at Oxford University, even within his own party. He was also then qualified as a lawyer. She was first involved in scandals concerning possible elected to the House of Commons in improper dealings with the arms trade. 1959. As well as holding various posts Strauss died in 1988. within the Conservative ‘shadow [See also: Adenauer; Erhard; cabinets’ 1967–70 and from 1974, she Kiesinger; Spiegel Affair*] was Minister of Education in Heath’s Strauss, SuárezFranz Josef González, Adolfo, Duke of government 1970–74. She replaced Heath as party leader in 1975, and Suárez González, Adolfo, Duke of became Prime Minister following the Prime Minister of Spain 1976–81 during 1979 general election. She led her party the transition to democracy in Spain to victories in the 1983 and 1987 and leader of the Union of the elections also. Her policy strategy

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Thatcher, Margaret Thorez, Maurice

became increasingly right wing, Moscow, and only returned to France emphasising market forces and national after its liberation. Apart from a brief sovereignty. This strategy, revealed in period when Thorez was a member of policies which limited trade union a coalition government (1946–47) he power, promoted the return of and his party took a stance of state-owned commercial activities, such uncompromising opposition to the as the telephone service and power Fourth Republic regime, using links to supply, to private ownership, restricted the trade unions to promote strikes. He local government autonomy and was a convinced supporter of Stalin, defended British interests in and ensured that the PCF kept rigidly to

BIOGRAPHIES negotiations within the European a Stalinist political programme and Community (EC), was given the label: Stalinist organisation of the party itself. ‘Thatcherism’. She became extremely He died in 1964. 138 popular as a result of the successful [See also: nazism*; popular front*] outcome of the Falklands War, overturning Argentinean invasion of the Thorn, Gaston Falkland Islands in 1982. However, her increasingly strident criticism of the EC Prime Minister of Luxembourg 1974–79 and the unpopularity of policies such as and a leading European liberal, a new system of local government President of the European Commission taxation (the ‘poll tax’) led to growing 1981–84. Thorn was born in 1928 in discontent with her leadership within Luxembourg and studied at the her own party. After an unsuccessful Universities of Montpellier, Lausanne challenge to her in a leadership and Paris. He became President of the election in November 1989, another Luxembourg National Union of challenge was mounted in 1990. Students. A Member of the Luxembourg Thatcher narrowly failed to obtain Parliament since 1959, he was also a sufficient votes on a first round of Member of the European Parliament balloting to win that election, and 1959–69, where he was Vice-President was persuaded not to remain in the of the Liberal group. He became contest for a second round, since it President of the Democratic Party of was almost certain she would be Luxembourg in 1961. Prime Minister defeated. She entered the House of and Minister of State 1974–79, from Lords in 1992. 1969 to 1980 he also held ministerial [See also: Heath; Falklands War*; responsibility (often overlapping) in poll tax*] foreign affairs and foreign trade; Thatcher, Margaret Thorez, Maurice physical education and sport; national economy and the middle classes; and Thorez, Maurice justice, as well as acting as Deputy Leader of the PCF 1930–64. Thorez was Prime Minister 1979–80. In tandem with born in 1900 in Noyelles-Godault. He his national political career, he was a was a founding member of the PCF in leading figure in the Liberal 1920. He was elected to the French International and in European politics. Parliament in 1932, and in 1936 agreed He was President of the Liberal to participate in the ‘Popular Front’ International 1970–82; President of the government led by Blum. He refused to 30th Session of the UN General fight in the Second World War and Assembly 1975–76; President of the deserted from the army, at a time when Federation of Liberal and Democratic the USSR was still linked to Nazi Parties of the European Community Germany by the Treaty between 1976–80; and President of the European Germany and the USSR. Thorez went to Commission 1981–84.

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Thorpe, Jeremy Tindemans, Léo

again from 1989, acting as President of Thorpe, Jeremy the EPP party group from 1992. Leader of the British Liberal Party 1967–76. Thorpe was born in London in Trimble, David 1929. Educated at Oxford University, he became a lawyer before becoming an Leader of the Ulster Unionist Party MP in 1959. He remained in the House (UUP). Trimble was born in Bangor of Commons until 1979. He was elected (Northern Ireland) in 1944. He studied as leader of his party in succession to law at Queen’s University, Belfast, and Grimond, but resigned when he then became a lecturer in law. He

became involved in a scandal which led became a Member of the House of BIOGRAPHIES to a series of court cases. Commons in 1990. Trimble was elected [See also: Grimond] leader of the UUP in 1995, and in that 139 Thorpe, Jeremy Tindemans, Léo capacity was a central figure in the negotiations leading to the Good Friday Tindemans, Léo Agreement and the institutional and Prime Minister of Belgium 1974–78 and political arrangements which followed a leading European christian democrat. from that. He was awarded the Nobel Tindemans was born in 1922 in Peace Prize jointly with John Hume in Zwijndrecht and studied at the 1998 for his efforts in producing a peace University of Ghent and the Catholic settlement in Northern Ireland. He was University of Louvain. He became elected to the Northern Ireland national Secretary-General of the Social Assembly in 1998, and, as leader of the Christian Party in 1958. He was a largest party, became First Minister member of the Belgian Chamber of (Prime Minister) that same year. Because Deputies 1961–89. He was Minister of of continued violence in Northern Community Affairs 1968–71; Minister of Ireland by extremist Protestant and Agriculture and Middle Class Affairs Catholic groups, the refusal of the IRA 1972–73; Deputy Prime Minister and satisfactorily to commence abolishing its Minister for the Budget and Institutional arsenals of weapons, and the Problems 1973–74. Named Prime concessions demanded of Unionists in Minister in 1974, he formed a Social relation to changes in the Royal Ulster Christian–Liberal minority government Constabulary and various other matters, and introduced an austerity programme Trimble has been hard put to retain the to counter the country’s economic support of a majority within his own problems, a plan which was endorsed party. In July 2001 he resigned as First by the electorate in the elections of Minister of the Northern Ireland 1977. He resigned in October 1978 government in protest at the failure of when the Flemish faction of his own progress on arms decommissioning by party refused to support his plan to the IRA, but was re-elected to that post divide Belgium into three linguistic later the same year, following negotiations regions. He served as Minister of relating to arms decommissioning. Foreign Affairs 1981–89; and Minister of [See also: Hume; Good Friday State in 1992. He was President of his Agreement*; Irish Republican Army*] party, the Belgian Christian People’s Party (CVP) from 1979 to 1981. From Ulbricht, Walter the mid-1970s onwards he also played a very active role in European politics. He Leader of the German Democratic was President of the European People’s Republic (GDR) 1949–71. Ulbricht was Party (EPP) 1976–85 and a Member of born in 1893 in Leipzig. He became a the European Parliament 1979–81 and qualified carpenter. He joined the Social

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Ulbricht, Walter de Valera, Eammon

Democratic Party in 1912, fought in the became leader of the nationalist First World War, and joined the organisation: Sinn Féin. Escaping from Communist Party (KPD) in 1919. He another prison term in 1919, he went to quickly rose within the party to become the USA. Though he opposed the 1921 a member of its Central Committee in Treaty between the United Kingdom 1923. He was elected first to the Saxony and the Irish nationalists and for a time Land Parliament, then to the Reichstag promoted direct action against the in 1928. When Hitler took power, British, he became founder and leader Ulbricht emigrated first to France, then of Fianna Fail in 1926, and became to the Soviet Union. Here he was leader of the Irish government in 1932,

BIOGRAPHIES trained to assume power after the a post he held until 1948 and then defeat of Hitler. He was sent to Berlin in twice more (1951–54, 1957–59). He died April 1945, and established the authority in 1975. 140 of the refounded Communist party in the Soviet occupation zone, working Waldheim, Kurt closely as political adviser with the Soviet Union occupation authorities. As General Secretary of the UN 1971–82 leader of the KPD, Ulbricht played a and Austrian President 1986–92. major role in compelling the fusion of Waldheim was born near Vienna in the KPD and SPD in 1946. Ulbricht 1918. After service in the German army, became General Secretary (and he entered the diplomatic service, therefore leader) of the SED in 1950 and holding a number of posts, including in 1960 became head of state. He was that of Foreign Minister (1968–70), generally a loyal follower of the policies before becoming UN General Secretary. of the Soviet Union, though this meant He was nominated as candidate of the severe disadvantages for the economy Austrian People’s Party for the of the GDR, and was responsible for presidency of Austria in 1986. During the agreeing to the violent suppression of campaign, allegations surfaced that the workers’ uprising in Berlin in 1953 Waldheim, as a young officer, had been and the erection of the Berlin Wall in involved in atrocities in the Balkans 1961. In 1971 he resigned as party during the Second World War. Several leader on grounds of age (but also countries refused to have dealings with under pressure from the USSR) and was Waldheim during his presidency succeeded by Honecker. Ulbricht because of these allegations. Though an remained head of state until his death investigation cleared Waldheim of the in 1973. more serious allegations made against [See also: Hitler; Honecker; Berlin him, it did confirm that he had uprising*; Berlin Wall*; German knowledge of the atrocities and that he question*] had not made full admissions of such Ulbricht, Walter de Valera, Eammon knowledge when questioned. He decided not to seek a second term as de Valera, Eammon President because of this affair. President of the Irish Republic 1959–73. De Valera was born in 1882 in New Wehner, Herbert York but moved to Ireland as a child. Trained as a teacher, he became Leading member of the Social involved with groups which espoused Democratic Party (SPD) in the Federal republicanism for Ireland. He was one Republic of Germany. Wehner was born of the leaders of the 1916 Easter Rising in Dresden in 1906. He joined the in Dublin and imprisoned afterwards, Communist Party of Germany in 1927, but released under an amnesty. He and went into exile from 1935.

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Wehner, Herbert von Weizsäcker, Richard

Returning to Germany after the Second presidential offices and his private World War, he joined the SPD in 1946. residence to Berlin in 1993. He was elected to the Bundestag in [See also: reunification of Germany*; 1949, and became a deputy chairman of Vergangenheitsbewältigung*] the SPD in 1958. He was a supporter of the idea of a grand coalition in the Wilson, Harold 1960s, and when that coalition was created in 1966 he became a minister James Harold Wilson was leader of the in Kiesinger’s government. He was British Labour Party from 1963 to 1976 leader of the SPD parliamentary party in and Prime Minister from 1964–70 and

the Bundestag from 1969 until his 1974 until he resigned in 1976. He was BIOGRAPHIES resignation in 1983. Wehner is knighted in 1976 and entered the House considered to have played a major role of Lords in 1983. He was born in 141 in securing the resignation of Chancellor Huddersfield in 1916. After studies at Brandt in 1974, following revelations Oxford University, and a brief period as about the espionage activities of a lecturer in economics, Wilson became Guillaume. Wehner died in 1990. a civil servant. He became an MP in [See also: Brandt; grand coalition*; 1945, and held various ministerial offices, Guillaume Affair*] including that of President of the Board Wehner, Herbertvon Weizsäcker, Richard of Trade from 1947 until he resigned in 1951 (along with Bevan) over the issue von Weizsäcker, Richard of charges being imposed within the President of the Federal Republic of National Health Service. When Gaitskell Germany 1984–94. Von Weizsäcker was died in 1963, Wilson was elected as born in 1920 in Stuttgart. After military leader of the Labour Party. He won the service in the Second World War and a 1964 general election with a majority of period as prisoner-of-war, he trained as only 4 seats, but called an election in a lawyer. He joined the Christian 1966, which gave Labour a comfortable Democratic Union (CDU) in 1954, and overall majority. In 1970 Wilson was was a Member of the Bundestag replaced as Prime Minister by Edward 1969–81. He was an unsuccessful Heath after unexpectedly losing the 1970 candidate for the office of federal general election. He became Prime president in 1974. He became lord Minister again in 1974, first heading a mayor of West Berlin from 1981 until his minority government, then after a election as federal President. He was second general election that year in federal President during the events charge of a government with a small leading to German reunification. As overall majority. He tried, unavailingly, to President, he became respected, take Britain into the EEC in 1967. In 1975 especially outside the Federal Republic, he instituted the first official national for the measured statements he made referendum in British politics, on the concerning Germany’s past and its issue of the terms of British membership responsibilities in the future, such as his of the European Community which speech on the 40th anniversary of the Heath had accepted for British entry in end of the Second World War, which he 1973. called a ‘day of liberation’ for Germany. [See also: Bevan; Callaghan; He gave a controversial press interview Gaitskell; Heath] in 1992 in which he criticised the way in which political parties in the Federal Wörner, Manfred Republic seemed to have neglected their representative role in favour of their Defence Minister of the Federal own institutional interests. He moved the Republic of Germany 1982–88 and

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/26/2021 04:48:26AM via free access Wörner, Manfred Wörner, Manfred

Secretary-General of the North Atlantic grounds of homosexual behaviour, but Treaty Organisation (NATO) from as this action was based on false 1988–94. Wörner was born in Stuttgart intelligence information Wörner had to in 1934, and studied law at university. make a public apology to the First elected to the Bundestag in 1965, Bundestag. As NATO Secretary-General he soon developed a reputation for he had to guide NATO through the expertise on military matters within the period leading up to German Christian Democratic (CDU) reunification and the collapse of the parliamentary party. In 1983 Wörner Soviet bloc, including NATO’s East took decisive action in dismissing European counterpart, the Warsaw Pact.

BIOGRAPHIES General Kiessling (a highly placed He died in 1994. German officer within NATO) on [See also: Kiessling Affair*] Wörner, Manfred Wörner, Manfred 142

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