sign in sign up
<<
Home , Sailfin molly

View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE

provided by Aquila Digital Community

Northeast Gulf Science Volume 9 Article 1 Number 1 Number 1

4-1987 Alligator Feeding Habits: New Data and a Review James L. Wolfe Mississippi State University

Dwight K. Bradshaw Mississippi State University

Robert H. Chabreck Louisiana State University

DOI: 10.18785/negs.0901.01 Follow this and additional works at: https://aquila.usm.edu/goms

Recommended Citation Wolfe, J. L., D. K. Bradshaw and R. H. Chabreck. 1987. Alligator Feeding Habits: New Data and a Review. Northeast Gulf Science 9 (1). Retrieved from https://aquila.usm.edu/goms/vol9/iss1/1

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by The Aquila Digital Community. It has been accepted for inclusion in Gulf of Science by an authorized editor of The Aquila Digital Community. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Wolfe et al.: Alligator Feeding Habits: New Data and a Review Northeast Gulf Science Vol. 9. No. 1, April 1987 p. 1-8

ALLIGATOR FEEDING HABITS: NEW DATA AND A REVIEW

James L. Wolfe1 and Dwight K. Bradshaw, Mississippi State University Research Center, NSTL, MS 39529

Robert H. Chabreck, School of Forestry, Wildlife, and Fisheries, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70803

ABSTRACT: Nutria (Myocastor coypus) and muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus) are the predomi­ nant food items of alligators over 1.5 min length in southeastern Louisiana. Our data and a review of the literature on alligator diets indicate that the are apparently major components of the diet of large alligators over much of their range, with and crusta· ceans being more important to smaller alligators.

In areas where alligators (Alligator mammals are eaten in significant num­ mississippiensis) coexist with furbearing bers. Giles and Childs (1949) state that , commercial trappers perceive mammals are an important food item for serious competition between themselves alligators over 5 feet (1.5 m), but not for and these (personal communica­ smaller individuals. tion; McNease and Joanen, 1977). In this paper we present new data Managers are aware that such problems on the diet of large alligators from an may exist, but avai I able data provide a area of Louisiana adjacent to its border limited basis for informed decisions. with Mississippi, which has been studied Management options are also limited by much less intensively than the south­ legal protection afforded alligators over western part of the state. We also much of their range. Alligators are legally present additional documentation of the harvested in significant numbers only in important role of nutria and muskrats in Louisiana, and on a more limited basis the diet of alligators. A summary of in and . previous work on alligator food habits is Previous studies have stated that included. alligators are largely opportunistic feeders (Mcilhenny, 1935). Neill (1971) METHODS lists as prey, with little corroborating evidence, virtually every vertebrate Stomachs were obtained from 100 sharing the range and habitat of alligators killed during the 1984 season the alligator. (September) in Louisiana. The animals Mcilhenny (1935), LeBuff (1957) and were taken from coastal marshes, rang­ others have reported dietary shifts with ing from fresh to brackish, between the age. In general, studies directed toward Mississippi state line (Pearl River) alligators of less than 1.5 m in length and eastern New Orleans. Length was (Chabreck, 1971; Fogarty and Albury, recorded to the nearest 0.3 m, and 1968) have found mammals to be absent ranged from 1.5 to 3.0 m, averaging 2.1 m. or unimportant in the diet. Studies which Stomach contents were washed, include larger alligators (Giles and sorted, and identified. Procedures for Childs, 1949; Valentine et a/., 1972; analyzing and expressing data on food McNease and Joanen, 1977) indicate that items has varied considerably between 'Present address: Archbold Biological Station, studies. Chabreck (1971) argued con­ P.O. Box 2057, Lake Placid, FL 33852. vincingly that measures based on weight 1 Published by The Aquila Digital Community, 1987 1 Gulf of Mexico Science, Vol. 9 [1987], No. 1, Art. 1 2 Wolfe, J.L., O.K. Bradshaw, and R.H. Chabreck

of prey were more meangingful than diet, with snakes being more than twice frequency of occurrence of prey as important as turtles both in number and that analyses based on estimates or and by weight. The cottonmouth (Agkis­ measurements of prey live weights were trodon piscivorous) was the most better than those based on weight or frequently eaten . volume of undigested remnants in the were less important in our stomach. sample accounting for only 1.4 percent Weight estimates were obtained by of the diet. Clapper rails (Rallus weighing intact specimens when they longirostris) were found in four occurred in the stomach, weighing live or stomachs. preserved representatives of the species, While had a high fre­ or in a few instances, using weights quency of occurrence, they accounted reported in the literature. A represen­ for only about 1 percent of the diet by tative series of known weight muskrats weight. Blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) (Ondatra zibethicus) and nutria and crayfish (Procambarus spp.) were the (Myocastor coypus) skins and skeletons most important invertebrates in the diet. were available for comparison. When Muskrats and nutria were well­ only hair or other items with no size infor­ represented in our sample among alli­ mation were found, we used the average gators of all size classes (Table 2). for that species based on the total Muskrats greatly outnumbered nutria in sample. While these estimates were at the diet of the smallest alligators, but times inexact, they are far more repre­ nutria predominated in the larger size sentative of the relative importance of classes. food items than other methods. We also Other vertebrates showed no con­ express food items as percent frequency sistent trends as related to alligator size. (the percentage of alligators examined Invertebrates exhibited a slight trend that had that particular item in the toward decreasing in the diet of larger stomach.) individuals (Table 2).· Non-food items found in the sto­ RESULTS mach were wood and other plant materials, two plastic shotgun shell Our results are summarized in Table cases, and parts of four plastic worm 1. Muskrats and nutria, based on weight, fishing lures. accounted for over 83 percent of the diet. Together, they were found in 77 percent DISCUSSION of the stomachs examined. Muskrats had a higher frequency of occurrence We found the highest level of but, by weight, accounted for less alligator predation on mammals ever than a third of the mammalian flesh reported, although Valentine et at. (1972) consumed. and McNease and Joanen (1977) also Fishes were second in importance found mammals taken in substantial to mammals, comprising almost 11 per­ numbers. This may in part be due to the cent of the sample, and occurring at a method of calculating weights, but our frequency of 26 percent. Gars frequency of occurrence is also the (Lepisosteidae) and drums (Sciaenidae) highest on record. were the most common fishes in the diet. The results shown in Table 2 along Reptiles comprised 3 percent of the with other studies using similar methods https://aquila.usm.edu/goms/vol9/iss1/1 2 DOI: 10.18785/negs.0901.01 Wolfe et al.: Alligator Feeding Habits: New Data and a Review Alligator feeding habits 3

Table 1. Foods of 100 large (1.5-3.0 m) alligators from coastal marshes of southeastern Louisiana.

Food Item % Frequency %by Weight

Crustacea 73 1.0 Cal/inectes sapidus (Blue crab) 47 0.8 Procambarus sp. (Crayfish) 36 0.2 Uca sp. (Fiddler crab) 2 Tr

Insects 13 Tr Mantidae (Praying mantis) 1 Tr (Water bug) 7 Tr Dytiscidae (Water beetle) 3 Tr Unidentified Coleoptera 2 Tr

Other Invertebrates (spiders, shrimp) 5 Tr

Fishes 26 10.9 Lepisosteus sp. or Atractosteus spatula (Gar) 8 5.7 lctalurus sp. (Catfish) 3 0.7 Unidentified Cy;:>riniformes 7 0.5 Sciaenidae (Drums) 7 3.8 Centrarchidae (Sunfish) 4 0.2 Other fishes (Brevoortia, Cyprinodontidae) 2 0.1

Reptiles 20 3.0 Chrysemys scripta (Pond slider) 1 0.2 Graptemys sp. (Sawback turtle) 1 0.1 Kinosternon subrubrum (Mud turtle) 1 0.1 Unidentified turtles 2 0.5 Storeria dekayi (Dekay's snake) 1 Tr Nerodia fasciata clarki (Gulf salt marsh snake) 1 0.1 N. cyclopion (Green water snake) 2 0.5 Agkistrodon piscivorus (Cottonmouth) 6 1.4 Unidentified snakes 5 0.2 Unidentified reptile eggs 1 Tr

Birds 10 1.4 Rallus longirostris (Clapper rail) 4 0.6 Fulica americana (Coot) 1 0.3 Unidentified duck 1 0.5 Agelaius phoeniceus (Red-winged blackbird) 3 0.1 Unidentified Tr

Mammals 77 83.6 Ondatra zibethicus (Muskrat) 46 24.0 Myocastor coypus (Nutria) 37 59.6

(Table 3) show consistent trends in diet reflects prey availability. Nutria and related to size. Invertebrates in the diet muskrats are abundant in coastal tend to decrease with increasing alli­ marshes along the northern Gulf of gator length. Mammals become impor­ Mexico between Mobile Bay and eastern tant to alligators of about 1.5 m in length, Texas (Perry, 1982, Willner, 1982). In parts and there is a general shift from musk­ of the alligator's range where these semi­ rats to nutria as alligator length aquatic rodents are less common, increases. mammals may be less important in the The prevalence of these mammals in diet. While neither is common in Florida the diet of larger alligators probably (no record of muskrats), Kinsella (1982)

Published by The Aquila Digital Community, 1987 3 Gulf of Mexico Science, Vol. 9 [1987], No. 1, Art. 1 4 Wolfe, J.L., O.K. Bradshaw, and R.H. Chabreck

Table 2. Alligator size in relation to diet in southeastern Louisiana. Food categories are listed as per­ cent by weight, followed by number of prey individuals in parentheses.

Alligator Size Class 1.5 m 1.8 m 2.1 m 2.4 m 2.7 m 3.0 m Food Item N=6 N =31 N=33 N = 19 N=6 N =5 Invertebrates 1.5(10) 1.8(45) 0.9(33) 0.8(19) 0.5(5) 0.5(3) Fishes 12.0(6) 10.1(8) 10.5(7) 7.0(7) 21.7(4) 15.1(2) Reptiles 6.0(2) 3.8(1) 3.2(9) 1.2(6) 3.7(2) 3.0(1) Birds 0(0) 2.3(2) 2.4(4) 0.6(2) 0(0) 0(0) Muskrats 59.6(7) 28.4(13) 22.3(17) 19.2(10) 18.5(3) 18.1(3) Nutria 19.9(1) 53.5(11) 60.7(14) 71.2(11) 55.6(3) 63.3(5)

reports that the round-tailed muskrat alligators in our study, but they ranged (Neofiber allem), which can be locally from fresh to brackish. abundant, is sometimes preyed upon. A listing of wild mammals reported Hopefully new studies on large alligators as alligator prey from studies using from other parts of the species' range stomach content analyses or direct (first will be forthcoming. hand-observation) is given in Table 4. Of McNease and Joanen (1977) noted these, all appear to be taken infrequently that alligators took more mammals in except for muskrats and nutria. freshwater marshes than in intermediate Nutria were introduced into Loui­ and brackish marshes. Valentine et at. siana in 1938, and populations com­ (1972) found no difference in parable to those present today were consumption between brackish canals reached in the late 1950's (Lowery, 1974). and freshwater habitats. Mcilhenny In the 1962-63 season, nutria surpassed (1935) found muskrat remains in all muskrats in numbers taken by Louisiana alligators (N =50) taken from "marshy trappers, and have been equally abun­ pools in muskrat territory" but none in dant in the harvest since that time alligators (number not reported) from (Ensminger and Linscombe, 1980). This open bays and canals. We were unable trend is reflected by the data available on to determine the exact habitats of alligator diets. Mcilhenny (1935) reported

Table 3. Relative importance of alligator foods, based on mass or volume, in relation to average length of alligators in sample.

Reference a 1 2 2 3 1 4 5 Length (m) 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.7 2.0 2.1 2.2 Number 79 10 10 36 25 309 100 314 Localityb SWLA SW LA SW LA S FL SW LA SW LA SE LA SW LA Rank 1 Fishes Crustaceans Crustaceans Snails Mammals Mammals Mammals Mammals 2 Crustaceans Birds Fishes Crustaceans Crustaceans Birds Fishes Fishes 3 Reptiles Insects Fishes Birds Crustaceans Reptiles Crustaceans 4 Mammals Fishes Insects Fishes Fishes Crustaceans Birds 5 Birds Reptiles Reptiles Reptiles Birds Reptiles 6 Insects Insects Insects Insects aReferences: bLocalities: (1) Valentine, et a/., 1972 SW LA - Southwestern Louisiana (2) Chabreck, 1971 S FL - Southern Florida (3) Fogarty & Albury, 1968 SE LA - Southeastern Louisiana (4) Present Study (5) McNease & Joanen, 1977 https://aquila.usm.edu/goms/vol9/iss1/1 4 DOI: 10.18785/negs.0901.01 Wolfe et al.: Alligator Feeding Habits: New Data and a Review

Alligator feeding habits 5

Table 4. Food items excluding domesticated animals and humans identified from alligator stornach con­ tents or by direct observation of feeding. A reference, generally the most recent one, is indicated by the letter following the item. A key to these is given at the end of the table. Scientific names have been updated wherever applicable.

CRUSTACEA Unidentified Cyrpiniformes ps Penaeus sp. (Penaeid shrimp)a lctiobus bubalis (Buffalofish)c P. setiferus (White shrimp)a lctalurus sp. (Catfish)a Palaemonetes sp. (Freshwater shrimp)a Cyprinodon variegatus (Sheepshead P. intermedius (Grass shrimp)e minnow)a Cambarus sp. (Crayfish)d Fundulus sp. (Killifish)c Procambarus sp. (Crayfish)ps Fundulus semina/us (Florida killifiSh)d P. clarki (Red crayfish)a Jordanel/a f/oridae (Fiagfish)d Ca/linectes sapidus (Blue crab)a Unidentified Cyprinodontidae (Ki llifi sh)ps Sesarma sp. (Wood crab)g Gambusia atfinis ()d S. reticulatum (Wood crab)g Poeci/ia latipinna (Sailfin molly)a Uca sp. (Fiddler crab)a Menidia sp. (Silversides)c U. pugnax (Fiddler crab)c Lepomis sp. (Sunfish)a U. minax (Fiddler crab)g Micropterus salmoides ()d INSECTA Aplodinotus grunniens (Freshwater drum)a Unidentified Odonata Pogonias cromis (Black drum)a (larvae, nymphs, and adults)g Unidentified Scaenidae (Drums)ps Unidentified Mantidae (Praying mantis)d Mugil sp. (Mullet)a Unidentified Blattidae (Cockroach)g Unidentified Acrididae (Grasshopper)f AVES Bucrates malivolans (Bucrates katydid)g Podilymbus podiceps (Pied-billed grebe)g P. auritus (Horned grebe)g lxobrychus exitus (Least bittern)a Dyscinetus trachypygus (Scarab beetle)g Egretta thu/a ()c Phyllophaga sp. (Scarab beetle)f Egretta caerulea (Little blue heron)c Bothynus gibbosus (Carrot beetle)g Casmerodus a/bus (Common egret)c Halticus sp. (Fieahopper)g Butorides striatus (Green-backed heron)a Cybister sp. (Predaceous diving beetle)g Nycticorax nycticorax (Black-crowned night C. fimbriolatus (Predaceous diving beetle)g heron)c Dytiscus sp. (Predaceous diving beetle)f Egretta tricolor (Tricolored heron)h Hydaticus sp. (Predaceous diving beetle)g Plegadis chihi (White-faced ibis)c H. bimarginatus (Predaceous diving bettle)g Anas fulvigu/a (Mottled duck)a Rhantus sp. (Predaceous diving beetle)g Anas platyrhynchos (Mallard)g Thermonectus sp. (Predaceous diving Ral/us /ongirostris (Clapper rail)c beetle)g R. e/egans (King rail)g Listronotus obliquus (Weevil)g Porzana carolina (Sora)c Sphenophorus sp. (Billbug)g Porphyrula martinica (Purple gallinule)a S. aequalis (Billbug)g Gallinu/a ch/oropus (Common moorhen)a S. cal/osus (Billbug)g Fulica americana (Coot)c S. cariosus (Billbug)g Calidris melanotis (Pectoral sandpiper)g S. pertinax (Billbug)g Himantopus mexicanus (Black-necked stilt)c S. venatus (Billbug)g Asia f/ammeus (Short-eared owl)g Berosus sp. (Water scavenger beetle)g Progne subis (Purple martin)a B. striatus (Water scavenger beetle)g Cyanocitta cristata (Blue jay)a Dibolocelus ovatus (Water scavenger beetle)g Age/aius phoeniceus (Red-winged blackbird)a Enochrus sp. (Water scavenger beetle)g Quiscalus sp. (Grackle)a Neohydrophilus castus (Water scavenger Quisca/us major (Boat-tailed grackle)c beetle)g Conocepha/us sp. (Meadow katydid)g Hydrophilus triangularis (Water Gryl/us sp. (Field cricket)g scavenger beetle)g Unidentified Nepidae (Water scorpion)d OSTEICHTHYES Ranatra sp. (Water scorpion)f Atracosteus spatula (Alligator gar)g Notonecta undulata (Backswimmer)g Lepisosteus sp. (Gar)a Be/ostoma sp. (Giant water bug)f Amia calva (Bowfin)a Lethocerus sp. (Giant water bug)f Brevoortia sp. (Menhaden)a L. griseus (Giant water bug)e Dorosoma sp. (Shad)a Unidentified Lepidoptera Anchoa sp. (Anchovy)a (Butterflies and Moths)g

Published by The Aquila Digital Community, 1987 5 Gulf of Mexico Science, Vol. 9 [1987], No. 1, Art. 1

6 Wolfe, J.L., O.K. Bradshaw, and R.H. Chabreck

Amara sp. (Ground beetle)g Nerodia cyc/opion (Green water snake)ps Bembidion sp. (Ground beetle)g Nerodia fasciata (Banded water snake)g Chlaenius sp. (Ground beetle)g Nerodia fasciata clarki (Gulf salt marsh C. erythropus (Ground beetle)g snake)g Harpalus sp. (Ground beetle)g Regina sp. (Crayfish snake)c Pasimachus marginatus (Ground beetle)f Farancia abacura (Mud snake)a Pterostichus sp. (Ground beetle)g Storeria dekayi (DeKay's snake)a Scarites substriatus (Ground beetle)g Thamnophis sauritus (Ribbon snake)a S. subterraneus (Ground beetle)g Agkistrodon piscivorous (Cottonmouth)a A taenius sp. (Scarab beetle)g Graptemys sp. (Sawback turtle)ps Chrysemys 1/oridana (Coastal plain turtle)g Tropisternus sp. (Water scavenger beetle)g Chrysemys scripta (Pond slider)a T. latera/is (Water scavenger beetle)g Kinosternon subrubrum (Mud turtle)c T. striolatus (Water scavenger beetle)g Sternotherus minor (Musk turtle)g Languria sp. (lizard beetle)g Malaclemys terrapin (Diamondback terrapin)g Naemia seriata (Lady beetle)g Trionyx ferox (Soft shelled turtle)g Blapstinus fortis (Darkling beetle)g Crematogaster sp. (Umbrella ant)g Pheidole sp. (Big headed ant)g MAMMALIA Ponera sp. (Ponerine ant)g Didelphis virginiana (Opossum)a Solenopsis sp. (Fire ant)g Dasypus novemcinctus (Armadillo)a Bombus sp. (Bumblebee)g Sylvilagus aquaticus ( rabbit)a Tiphia sp. (Tiphiid wasp)g Oryzomys pa/ustris (Rice rat)a Dasymutilla sp. (Velvet ant)g Peromyscus gossypinus (Cotton mouse)g Odontomyia sp. (Soldier fly)g Ondatra zibethicus (Muskrat)a Tabanidae (Horse fly)f Neoflber alieni (Round-tailed muskrat)b ARACHNIDA Myocastor coypus (Nutria)a Dolomedes sp. (Water spider)ps Procyon lotor ()a Tetragnatha sp. (Tetragnathid spider)g Mustela vison (Mink)a Lycosa sp. (Wolf spider)g Lutra canadensis (River otter)c L. carolinensis (Wolf spider)g Odocoileus virginiana (White-tailed deer)a GASTRODODA Pomacea paludosa (Apple snail)e Physa sp. (Snail)g PELECYPODA a. McNease and Joanen, 1977 Rangia sp. (Ciam)a b. Kinsella, 1982 Modiolus sp. (Ciam)g c. Valentine, et at., 1972 d. Chabreck, 1971 AMPHIBIA e. Fogarty and Albury, 1968 Rana catesbeiana (Bullfrog)a f. Giles and Childs, 1949 Gastrophryne carolinensis (Narrow-mouthed g. Kellog, 1929 toad)g h. Chamberlain, 1930 REPTILIA ps. Present study Alligator mlssissippiensis (Gators and eggs)a Scincella /aterale (Ground skink)g Nerodia sp. (Water snake)a

that alligators taken in 1916 from 413 stomachs collected in the same area "muskrat habitat" fed predominantly on from 1961 to 1964. McNease and Joanen muskrats. Studies by Kellog (1929) and (1977) found a ratio of about 5 nutria to O'Neil (1943, 1949) documented the one muskrat in a sample of 314 presence of muskrats in the diet of stomachs taken in 1972 and 1973. alligators, but neither reported nutria. Invertebrates, especially crusta­ Giles and Childs (1949) reported musk· ceans, usually rank first in the diet of rats and no nutria in 318 stomachs smaller alligators (Table 3). Blue crabs collected in 1946, but Valentine et a/. and crayfish rank relatively high in impor­ (1972) found nutria and no muskrats in tance, even in alligators of larger size. https://aquila.usm.edu/goms/vol9/iss1/1 6 DOI: 10.18785/negs.0901.01 Wolfe et al.: Alligator Feeding Habits: New Data and a Review

Alligator feeding habits 7

Insects are frequently taken (Table 4), but ing (Giles and Childs, 1949). Stones and rarely rank high in terms of weight (Table pebbles are commonly found in 1-3). Although there is some active preda­ stomachs. It has been suggested that tion on insects by young alligators these are concretions which form from (Mcilhenny, 1935) many are undoubtedly pieces of wood in stomachs of over­ ingested accidentally or secondarily wintering alligators (Mcilhenny, 1935). (Jackson and Campbell, 1974). In some While such objects may form, alligators geographic areas, other invertebrates are do seem to intentionally swallow stones, major dietary items. Fogarty and Albury possibly to facilitate the processing of (1968) found a large ampullarid snail food by the gizzard (Kennedy and (Pomacea paludosa Say) to be the most Brockman, 1965; Brazaitis, 1969; Sokol, important species in the diet of young 1971). The list of non-food items found in alligators in a canal in the Florida alligator stomachs is a long one and Everglades. includes such items as fishing lures Fishes are consumed in significant (present study) and aluminum bird bands numbers by all alligators over 1 m in (Chamberlain, 1930; Valentine et a/., length (Table 3). Gars are probably the 1972) which were likely ingested in the most frequent taken by larger in­ process of capturing prey to which they dividuals (Mcilhenny, 1934; McNease and were attached. Shotgun shell cases are Joanen, 1977; present study); however, often reported (Valentine eta!., 1972) and some authors report that gars, while were found in the present study. abundant in their study areas, were not The diet of alligators seems to be taken (Giles and Childs, 1949; Fogarty determined largely by the availability and and Albury, 1968). Although some vulnerability of prey (McNease and gamefish are eaten, alligator predation Joanen, 1977). If these are equal for prey on these seems to be infrequent (Table species in an area, selecting the largest 1; McNease and Joanen, 1977). should maximize feeding efficiency. are rarely reported as Semi-aquatic mammals, especially alligator foods, but reptiles, especially nutria and muskrats, fulfill these criteria snakes and turtles, are frequently eaten for larger alligators over much of their (Tables 1, 3, 4). Among the snakes, range. While the high reproductive rate the cottonmouth is often reported. of nutria and muskrats (Perry, 1982; Mcilhenny (1935) describes differences in Willner, 1982) makes it unlikely that feeding behavior between alligators alligator predation has a long-term effect taking cottonmouths and non-venomous on their populations, there is little doubt snakes. that substantial numbers are taken in Birds are often included in the diet areas where they coexist. (Table 4), but are rarely major items (Table 3), except under exceptional ACKNOWLEDGMENTS circumstances (Mcilhenny, 1934). Winter dormany of alligators seems to account We thank J.R. Love of the Louisiana for their infrequent predation on water­ Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, fowl (Giles and Childs, 1949). and commercial hunters Lloyd Garcia, Wood and other plant materials are Joe Billiot, David Singletary, Butch Jof­ often ingested. This is almost certainly frion, and Fran Joffrion for their incidental to prey-catching behavior assistance. (McNease and Joanen, 1977) or burrow- Financial support was provided by

Published by The Aquila Digital Community, 1987 7 Gulf of Mexico Science, Vol. 9 [1987], No. 1, Art. 1

8 Wolfe, J.L., O.K. Bradshaw, and R.H. Chabreck

the Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration crocodilians. Herpetologica 13:25-28. Program, Project W-48-28 to 33, ad­ Lowery, G.H., Jr. 1974. The mammals of ministered by the Mississippi Depart­ Louisiana and its adjacent waters. ment of Wildlife Conservation. Louisiana St. Univ. Press, Baton Rouge, 565 p. LITERATURE CITED Mcilhenny, E.A. 1934. Notes on incuba­ tion and growth of alligators. Copeia Brazaitis, P. 1969. The occurrence and in­ 80-88. gestion of gastroliths in two captive _____. 1935. The alligator's life crocodilians. Herpetologica 25:63-64. history. The Christopher Publishing Chabreck, R.H. 1971. The foods and House, Boston, 117 p. feeding habits of alligators from fresh McNease, L. and T. Joanen. 1977. and saline environments in Louisiana. Alligator diets in relation to marsh Proc. Ann. Cont. S.E. Assoc. Game and . Proc. Ann. Cont. S.E. Game Fish Comm. 25:117-124. and Fish and Wildl. Agencies 31:36·40. Chamberlain, E.B. 1930. Notes on Neill, W.T. 1971. The last of the ruling rep­ stomach contents of an alligator. tiles- alligators, crocodiles, and their Copeia (3):83-84. kin. Columbia Univ. Press New York Ensminger, A. and G. Linscombe. 1980. 486 p. ' ' The fur animals, the alligator, and the O'Neil, T. 1943. Louisiana: Fur research fur industry in Louisiana. Louisiana and management investigation. Pitt­ Dept. of Wildl. and Fisheries, Baton man-Robertson Quarterly 3:125. Rouge, 69 p. ___. 1949. The muskrat in Louisiana Fogarty, M.J. and J.D. Albury. 1968. Late coastal marshes. Lou is ian a Dept. summer foods of young alligators in Wildlife and Fisheries, New Orleans Florida. Proc. Ann. Cont. S.E. Assoc. 152 p. ' Game and Fish Comm. 21:220-222. Perry, H.R., Jr. 1982. Muskrats, p. 282-325 Giles, L.W. and V.L. Childs. 1949. in J.A. Chapman and G.A. Feldhamer, Alligator management on the Sabine eds., Wild Mammals of North America. National Wildlife Refuge. J. Wildl. Johns Hopkins, Baltimore and London Manage. 13:16-28. 1147 p. ' Jackson, J.F. and H.W. Campbell. 1974. Sokol, 0. 1971. Lithophagy and geophagy The feeding habits of crocodilians: in reptiles. J. Herpetol. 5:69-71. validity of the evidence from stomach Valentine, J.M., Jr., J.R. Walther, K.M. contents. J. Herpetol. 8:377-378. McCartney, and L.M. Ivy. 1972. Alligator Kellog, R. 1929. The habits and economic diets on the Sabine National Wildlife importance of alligators. U.S. Dept. Refuge, Louisiana. J. Wildl. Manage. Agr. Tech. Bull. 147, 36 p. 36:809-815. Kennedy, J.P. and H.L. Brockman. 1965. Willner, G.R. 1982. Nutria, p. 1059-1076 in Stomach stone in the American J.A. Chapman and G.A. Feldhamer alligator, Alligator mississippiensis eds., Wild Mammals of North America.' Daudin. British J. Herpetol. 4:103-104. Johns Hopkins, Baltimore and London Kinsella, J.M. 1982. Alligator predation 1147 p. ' on round-tailed muskrats. Florida Field Nat. 10:79. LeBuff, C.R., Jr. 1957. Observations on captive and wild North American https://aquila.usm.edu/goms/vol9/iss1/1 8 DOI: 10.18785/negs.0901.01