Ministère de l’Education, de la Recherche, de la Jeunesse et du Sport L’Université Valahia Târgovi şte Faculté de Sciences Humaines

D’UNIVERSITÉ VALAHIA TARGOVISTE

SECTION d’Archéologie et d’Histoire

TOME XIII Numéro 2 2011

Valahia University Press Târgovi şte

Annales d’Université Valahia Targoviste Section d’Archéologie et d’Histoire publie des mémoires originaux, des nouvelles et des comptes-rendus dans le domaine de l’archéologie préhistorique, de l’histoire du moyen âge, de l’environnement de l’homme fossile, de l’archéologie interdisciplinaire et de patrimoine culturel.

Rédacteur en chef:

Prof. dr. Marin Cârciumaru

Secrétaire général de rédaction:

Conf. dr. Corneliu Beldiman

Secrétariat de rédaction:

Prof. Ioan Opri ş, dr. Denis C ăpr ăroiu, dr. Radu Cârciumaru, dr. Marian Cosac, dr. Monica M ărg ărit, dr. Roxana Dobrescu, dr. Ovidiu Cîrstina, dr. Elena-Cristina Ni ţu, dr. Daniela Iamandi, dr. Adina Elena Boronean ţ

Comité de rédaction:

Prof. Eric Boëda, prof. Marcel Otte, prof. R ăzvan Theodorescu, prof. Alexandru Vulpe, prof. Victor Spinei, prof. Sabin Adrian Luca, prof. Gheorghe Lazarovici, Dr Marylène Patou-Mathis, Dr Marie- Hélène Moncel, dr. Alexandru Suceveanu, dr. Cristian Schuster, dr. Dragomir Nicolae Popovici, dr. Adrian B ălăş escu, dr. Radu Ştef ănescu

Correspondants:

Prof. Jacques Jaubert, prof. Jean-Philippe Rigaud, prof. Árpád Ringer, prof. Alain Tuffreau, dr. Aline Averbouh, dr. Alain Turq, prof. Ivor Iancovi č, prof. Ivor Karavani č, prof. Ştefan Trâmbaciu, dr. Eugen Nicolae, dr. Emilian Alexandrescu, dr. Sergiu Iosipescu

Technorédacteurs:

Dr. Elena-Cristina Ni ţu, Marius Alexandru Floric ă

Revue indexée B+ par CNCSIS/CNCS - Roumanie

Indexée dans:

AWOL, FRANTIQ, LAMPEA, SCRIBD, DAPHNE

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ISSN: 1584-1855 Annales d’Université Valahia Targoviste, Section d’Archéologie et d’Histoire, Tome XIII, Numéro 2, 2011, p. 77-82 ISSN : 1584-1855

Of Mircea the Elder’s Rule. Historiographic Views on the so-called Battle of “Rovine” and its Consequences

Radu Cârciumaru*

*Valahia University of Târgovi şte, Faculty of Humanities, 34-36 Locotenent Stancu Ion St., 130018 Târgovi şte, Dâmbovi ţa County, , e-mail: [email protected] .

Abstract: Historiographic Views on the so-called Battle of “Rovine” and its Consequences of Mircea the Elder’s Rule. Mircea the Elder remains one of the outstanding figures of the Romanian Middle Ages in a stage in which southeastern Europe was deeply marked by the Ottomans’ ascension in Asia Minor. The policy of territorial reunification pursued in the prejudice of the Kingdom of , which was undergoing the change of the powerful Angevine dynasty, and of the , which had reached as far as the mouths of the , prefigured an important reign. In terms of an ample historical analysis, the evolution of , in late 14 th century, still clusters several conflicting aspects. The battle called by the Serbian chronicles that of “Rovine” marks such a moment. Whether we talk about the chronology of the event or the place where this formidable confrontation occurred, historiography was unable to reach common ground. It is thus necessary to once again lay stress on the important historiographic contributions and establish the consequences of the Romanian victory.

Key words: alliance, chronicle, military campaign, pretender, prince.

Mircea I’s rule is of exceptional which have the Romanian prince in the importance in the medieval history of the foreground. Romanian space, as it brought the first major Before focusing on the issues related to political-military confrontation between a this particular time, we find it useful to include Romanian state and the Ottoman Empire which Wallachian policy within a general framework of was on the rise in the central parts of Europe. relations with the major countries of the area, For this reason, the rule of Mircea the during the last quarter of the 14 th century. Elder became a particularly interesting concern In 1386, Mircea I, the son of the former of both Romanian and foreign historiography. prince Radu I, came to the throne of Wallachia. The conflicting interpretations, the lack of a The political context in which this ascension documentary base and the divergent positions of occurred lay under the sign of the Ottoman the historians have pushed the research further in expansion in the European territories started by the realm of speculations without clearing the sultan Murad I. If the first part of the 14 th century way towards removing uncertainties. had found the Romanian space engaged in the Consequently, controversial issues of interests of Hungary, and the Golden chronological nature or those related to fact Horde, the latter was replaced, after the fall of the interpretation are still far from being resolved. Bulgarian tsardoms, by the Turkish power. The We can assert, without departing from weaknesses of the two catholic kingdoms, the truth, that the period of time covering the first Hungary and Poland, were endangering the Wallachian-Turkish military confrontation and evolution of Wallachia as an independent state in the so-called ‘crusade’ tragically stopped at the context of an evident Turkish expansion Nicopolis gathers most of the unclear aspects towards southeastern Europe.

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Under the Anjou dynasty, the Kingdom neglected by Sigismund of Luxemburg. A of Hungary had attained not only political rapprochement between the two Christian states stability but also a coherent plan of subordinating became a necessity. the eastern European states. The death of Louis I The Wallachian campaign of 1388-1389 of Anjou, in 1382, entailed the breach of the to annex after expelling the Turkish Hungarian-Polish dynastic alliance and the domination should be judged considering both beginning of fierce internal struggles which the context of the trade blockade on the Danube would remove Hungary from the anti-Ottoman and the idea of destroying a perfect base of attack front, settled along the Danube. Poland’s walk- against Wallachia. It was the first sign of out from the Hungarian trusteeship took defiance to the empire that had proved sometimes the shape of military conflicts unforgiving of such acts of disobedience in the gradually quenched by the formation of a new case of the Bulgarian tsardoms. dynastic Polish-Lithuanian union following the The first attacks against Wallachia took accession to the throne of Władysław Jagiełło (P. place in 1391-1392 and were carried out with the Engel, 2001). main purport of plundering; at the same time, Between these reorganisations, the they are analysed as an integrant part of the measures taken by the new Wallachian prince can imperial policy which aimed to intimidate the be considered courageous as they were part of a Wallachian state, forcing it to adopt a neutral territorial consolidation plan designed to annex position south of the Danube (T. Gemil, 1991). several territories which were under Hungarian Some Ottoman chronicles mention and Turkish authority. The seizure of much Mircea’s response, namely the attack on the disputed territories, the Banate of Severin, Ottoman base of Karanovasa, east of the Balkans, Amla ş, F ăgăra ş, and their inclusion in the royal alongside the bey of Sinope (A. Decei, 1978). title* brought further tensions to the relations In 1393 Turnovo Tsardom became a with Hungary even amid the nobiliary revolts Turkish pashalik and the powerful fortifications that had preceded the taking-over of the throne of Nicopolis and Silistra, on the Danube, were by Sigismund of Luxemburg. conquered by the Ottomans, which permanently Therefore, the Wallachian state was pushed Wallachia on the anti-Ottoman front forced to quickly find foreign support in order to alongside Hungary, and the Empire, in its turn, stop a possible military response. The good was well aware of that. The last obstacle relations with the other Romanian stat, , represented by the presence of Lenk in smoothed the way towards an alliance with Anatolia had been surpassed. The powerful khan Poland. Materialised in 1389, it appears rather as of Central Asia was to unexpectedly leave the a military union directed, in effect, against the Anatolian offensive following the outbreak of Hungarian Kingdom. conflicts in the Sirvan area (R. Grousset, 1948). The ascension of the Ottoman Empire The Ottomans’ invasion beyond the after the victory of Kosovo Polje in 1389 made Danube was open and meant the beginning of king Sigismund of Luxemburg reconsider the Turko-Wallachian confrontations in which the relations with Wallachia. The new sultan, Hungarian kingdom was forced to intervene in its , who had come to the fore on the turn in order to secure its borders. Sultan Bayezid Kosovo Polje battlefield, would abandon the I’s offensive was to reveal the ampleness of its system of gradual expansion of his predecessors proportions within two years. Blockade against and initiate the plan to unite Anatolia with the Constantinople was initiated, Thessaly and European parts (T. Gemil, 1991). Morea were occupied and Albania fell under the The Ottoman campaign against Ottoman rule (H. Inalcik, 1996). and Dobruja in 1388 and subordination of Serbia, So, at the end of the 14 th century, following the defeat of the last great Christian Wallachia appeared as the first Christian outpost coalition at Kosovo Polje, had changed the facing the wave of Islamic expansion towards geopolitical configuration of the area (S. central Europe. Thrown into the Ottoman vortex, Turnbull, 2003). The entry corridor to the Wallachian prince received no actual military and Hungary by subjugating support from Hungary, not even in the last Wallachia was taking shape and could not be minute, therefore he was forced to organise the

Tome XIII, Numéro 2, 2011 78 Of Mircea the Elder’s Rule. Historiographic Views on the so-called Battle of “Rovine” and its Consequences defence with his own internal forces, directly controversies related to the dating of the event. interested in maintaining a number of privileges We shall nevertheless attempt to make a brief and which were to be in danger in case of natural presentation of the stages recorded in subordination to the Turkish power. historiography. The Ottoman campaign against the A new source, brought into discussion in Wallachian state still raises questions related to early 20 th century, would change the historical the chronology and location of several events that opinion regarding the date of occurrence of this have not found a final answer at historiographic event (C. Litzica, 1901). The document in level. The place of occurrence of the main battle question is a gift given in October 1395 to a between the two armies is one of the issues that Byzantine monastery for the commemoration of have received various interpretations. Constantin Dragaš, perished during the Ottoman Late Wallachian seventeenth and campaign in Wallachia. The document points out eighteenth-century chronicles point to the first that his death had occurred barely six months location of the famous Ottoman-Wallachian before, which is extremely relevant to our confrontation stating that Mircea defeated discussion. Bayezid’s army on the bank of the Ialomi ţa Reference works of interwar Romanian river**. The opinion was little used by modern historians (I. Minea, 1919; D. Onciul, 1968) historians who proved its groundlessness, for that continued to support the date of 10 th October matter. 1394, assimilated with the first phase of the From late 19 th century dates the first sultan’s campaign in Wallachia. The next stages historical localization of the battle, somewhere marked, according to them, the continuation of around , the entire demonstration being the Turkish advance along the Arge ş river and based on a Serbian source, an account on the the battle of 17 th May 1395 that presumably death of Marko Kraleviç (B. Petriceicu-Ha şdeu, acknowledged Constantin Dragaš’s death. 1884). The great Romanian historian Nicolae Discussions would be reanimated on the Iorga would use part of this information asserting 600 th anniversary of the great voivode’s that, after the Ottoman army had crossed the accession to the throne and would continue until Danube, Mircea the Elder would withdraw the first decade of the 21 st century with the towards the centre of the country choosing a appearance of new studies and reference works “strong position” on the road to the Arge ş to face which equally embraced both dates. We shall put the Turkish force (N. Iorga, 1899). The theory forward two examples, just as valuable in terms was to be amplified by outstanding of the accuracy of using resources. representatives of Romanian historiography who The identification of a passage in a suggested precise locations situated in the Florentine chronicle helped its discoverer see a vicinity of Curtea de Arge ş, capital city of succession of events as follows ( Ș. Papacostea, Wallachia (N. Constantinescu, 1981). 1998). In autumn 1394, sultan Beyazid I The simple conclusion would be that the undertook a campaign in Wallachia where he terrible confrontation occurred somewhere on the underwent defeat. Aware of the imminence of the road to the Arge ş river, in a place not accurately Turkish attack, Mircea I met the Hungarian located, mentioned in Serbian chronicles under sovereign in Braşov, in early spring 1395, in the name of “Rovine” that would designate an order to strengthen the political-military alliance. area with ravines, trenches or a marshy place. The new Turkish offensive occurred in May 1395 However, primary sources of Slavonic and and the empire got the victory materialized by Byzantine chronicles do not support this installing as head of the country a submissive terminology, which explains its absence in the prince, namely Vlad I. Romanian historical tradition (S. Iosipescu, In contrast, another opinion, based 1987). predominantly on the analysis of Serbian sources, As for chronology, historiographically leads to the conclusion that the only expedition of speaking, discussions have focused on two dates, the sultan took place in spring 1395, therefore the 10 th October 1394, 17 th May 1395, while the battle of the place known as “Rovine” occurred outcome of the formidable clash raises the same on 17 th May, 1395. Furthermore, according to the heated debates. We shall not insist on the endless author of the study, the same Florentine chronicle

Tome XIII, Numéro 2, 2011 79 Radu Cârciumaru

points out, by mentioning the month of May raids carried out on the road between the Danube 1395, that the theory advanced was correct (A. V. and the Arge ş. The lack of such tactics should be Di ță, 2000). A source discovered at the end of viewed as at least strange given that, six years the 19 th century but translated entirely into later, in 1400, during a Turkish attack on a Romanian only a decade ago was to support this smaller scale, described extremely suggestively dating (D. N ăstase, 2002). This document in the work of a Byzantine chronicler (L. generally known as the anonymous Bulgarian Chalkokondyles, 1953), Mircea the Elder would chronicle states that sultan Bayezid I, while choose precisely the solution of starting the fight retreating from Wallachia, crossed the Danube, when an inimical unit separated from the bulk of caught and killed the Bulgarian tsar Shishman on the army in search of food or to loot cattle. 3rd June, 1395. If we were to completely trust this Therefore, one must keep in mind that a controversial (in point of origin and dating) single decisive confrontation reduced chronicle, then there would be only one considerably the chances of success of Wallachia campaign of the sultan which ended sometime in and questions the very result of the battle hailed late spring 1395 with the banishment of Mircea I as victory. The disproportionate manpower of the and enthronement of the pretender Vlad. Wallachian state as against the Ottoman army A relatively recent study introduced a pushes the adoption of such a solution to the general comment on the event which is absurd. absolutely worthy of attention in the given Mircea the Elder's success was context. We refer to the fact that many historians temporary in character mainly because of search for a specific day of the confrontation, Sigismund of Luxemburg’s initiative to attack the though certain reliable sources indicate that the Moldavian state. Prepared to intervene in battle lasted a whole week (D. I. Mure şan, 2004). Wallachia and informed of the Wallachian In conclusion, we may admit that in the triumph, the Hungarian sovereign chose to push last century historiography has generally adopted into Moldavia on an attempt to remove this state the view according to which the battle of Rovine from Poland’s sphere of influence. The reason: took place on 10 th October 1394 and ended with before Stara Wie ś congress, which was to reunite the clear victory of the Wallachian army (N. the two royal families of Hungary and Poland Iorga, 1993; P. P. Panaitescu, 1944; Ş. and the ruler of , Sigismund of Ştef ănescu, 1970). The second major Luxemburg wished to appear as the ‘puppeteer’ confrontation with the Ottoman armies occurred of the situation in the Romanian countries who on 17 th May 1395 and had an indecisive result, directly controlled the anti-Ottoman front opened enough however to impose to the throne a prince along the Danube (C. Rezachevici, 2001). with Philo-Turkish sympathies, Vlad I. Sovereign As for the situation in Moldavia, towards Sigismund of Luxemburg’s presence in the end of 1394, voivode Roman I died and his Wallachia in the summer of 1395, at Câmpulung eldest son, Stephen I, succeeded him to the and Severin***, where he even issued throne, having a more overt position against documents, reinforces the idea of the existence of Hungary and a more submissive attitude to the a new Turkish campaign. If, between these two Polish sovereign, Władysław Jagiełło, who had confrontations, we could place other military brought him to power. clashes as well, it is hard to say. It would not be The king of Hungary had been aware, impossible that voivode Mircea’s retreat to ever since December 1394, of the political Transylvania, in early 1395, should have taken change in Moldavia. While in Transylvania, place in the context of another confrontation partly influenced by the favourable result of the meant to further undermine his internal support. Wallachian-Ottoman confrontation, Sigismund of Certainly, Beyazid I's campaign launched Luxemburg was to invade the Moldavian state in in early autumn 1394 aimed to eliminate the early 1395. As pointed out in documents, the Wallachian state from the anti-Ottoman front on Hungarian troops, on retreating after several the Danube. However, there is little reason to fierce battles, were defeated at Hind ău***. A believe that the Wallachian prince simply waited campaign that had been supposed to be a simple for the Turkish troops in a strategic place without training exercise for the anti-Ottoman war on the trying to decimate the enemy's forces by short

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Danube would have a completely unhappy defeat suffered by Sigismund of Luxemburg lit ending for the Hungarian kingdom. the flame nurtured by Poland and Moldavia The oath sworn to Poland shows which had received support for Vlad I from some Moldavia’s determined attitude in foreign policy. of the Wallachian boyars. Voivode Stephen engaged to give and receive The accession to the throne of Arge ş of military support against the Hungarians, the another prince remains clearly recorded in the Turks, the Tatars, the Teutonic Knights and the letter written by the bishop of Transylvania on voivode of Wallachia (M. Cost ăchescu, 1932). 21 st March 1396 in which there is a mention of Thus, the evolution of events in the the royal emissary Ioan Tatar, whom voivode Moldavian state had negative implications on Vlad entrusted with a mission***. Restoring Mircea the Elder’s position as ruler, as well. relations with Poland and admitting vassalage, Under voivode Stephen I’s authority and with the which required a certain amount of time to tacit approval of Poland, a group willing to accomplish, pushed his final installation towards enthrone the pretender Vlad I emerged in late 1395. Wallachia (P. P. Panaitescu, 1944). The king of Hungary himself accepting The solution chosen by the Wallachian to maintain diplomatic relations with Vlad I prince was to reach out to Hungary. The treaty ultimately confirmed that, at that time, full power signed in Bra şov in March 1395 was intended to was no longer in Mircea the Elder’s hands. guarantee the continuation of the anti-Ottoman In conclusion and somewhat fight and, at the same time, to put pressure on the surprisingly, the first triumph against the Wallachian nobility that was becoming Ottoman Empire paved the way for a increasingly willing to accept his replacement development with unsuspected consequences. with a ruler that would be more open to an The prince who, through his military genius, had agreement with the Ottoman power. The absence decisively contributed to this Romanian success of the large seal, on signing the first act of anti- was forced to accept the political games of the Ottoman alliance in the history of the Wallachian great powers, partially or totally losing the rule state, shows in a way the hastiness of concluding for more than a year. The last crusading action of the oath and the stringent need of external the 14 th century, tragically ended at Nicopolis, support capable of guaranteeing the Wallachian was to quickly restore him to full power in prince internal stability as well. Wallachia. This time, the illustrious voivode Evidence prompts us to consider that, Mircea would be able to find a way through all when the alliance of Bra şov was concluded, the scruffiness of foreign policy and succeed in Mircea the Elder was the ruler of the entire bringing Wallachia undeniable prestige in Europe Wallachia as he granted the royal army the right at the beginning of the new century. of free passage through any region, city or port of his country***. The intromission of the pretender BIBLIOGRAPHY Vlad I must have occurred only in the second half of 1395. Otherwise, Sigismund of * Documenta Romaniae Historica, B , Luxemburg would have given less importance to Ţara Româneasc ă, vol. I, Editura Academiei his plan of anti-Ottoman crusade which included Române, Bucure şti, 1966 (p. 32-33). even a major military action in the Balkans, ** Istoria Ţă rii Române şti. 1290-1630. ultimately stopped when his wife, Mary of Letopise ţul Cantacuzinesc (Editat de C. Anjou, died and dynastic issues re-emerged in Grecescu şi Dan Simionescu), Editura Academiei relation with Poland (V. Pervain, 1975). Române, Bucure şti, 1963 (p. 13). Vlad I’s accession to the throne should *** Documenta Romaniae Historica, D , be judged in relation with the triangle of forces Rela ţii între Ţă rile Române , vol. I (1222-1456), represented by Poland, Moldavia and the Editura Academiei Române, Bucure şti, 1977 (p. Ottoman Empire that circumstantially joined the 141, 151, 153, 159). first two in an attempt to rid of an inconvenient Chalcocondil L., 1958, Expuneri istorice , adversary, namely Mircea I. The Turkish (translated by V. Grecu), Ed. Academiei offensive launched in spring 1395 paved the way Române, Bucure şti. for the replacement of Mircea the Elder. The

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Constantinescu N., 1981, Mircea cel Litzica C., 1901, Din domnia lui Mircea Bătrân , Ed. Militar ă, Bucure şti. cel B ătrân , Convorbiri Literare, XXXV (p. 378). Cost ăchescu M., 1932, Documente Minea I., 1919, Principatele române şi moldovene şti înainte de Ştefan cel Mare , vol. II, politica oriental ă a împ ăratului Sigismund , Ia şi. Bucure şti. Decei A., 1978, Expedi ția lui Mircea cel Mureşan D. I., 2004, Avant Nicopolis: la Bătrân împotriva acîngiilor de la Karinovasi campagne de 1395 pour le contrôle du Bas- (1393 ), in Relaţii româno-orientale, Editura Danube ", in Quaderni della Casa Romena 3 Știin țific ă şi Enciclopedic ă, Bucure şti, p. 140- (2004): Studi di storia, di critica e di teoria 156. letteraria raccolti e pubblicati da Ioan-Aurel Pop Di ță A. V., 2000 , Mircea cel Mare între e Cristian Luca, Casa Editrice dell’Istituto realitatea medieval ă şi ficţiunea istoriografic ă Culturale Romeno, Bucarest, p. 177-195. modern ă, Bucure şti. Onciul D., 1968, Scrieri istorice , Critical Engel P., 2001, The Realm of St. edition attended to by A. Sacerdo ţeanu, vol. II, Stephen. A History of Medieval Hungary, 895- Editura Ştiin ţific ă, Bucure şti (p. 24). 1526 , London, 2001. Năstase D., 2002, Cronica expansiunii Gemil T., 1991, Români şi otomani în otomane, 1296-1417 , in In Honorem Ioan secolele XIV-XVI , Editura Academiei Române, Capro şu. Studii de istorie , Attended to by L. Bucharest, p. 30, 33. Leu ştean, Maria Magdalena Székely, Mihai- Grousset R., 1948, L'empire des steppes. Răzvan Ungureanu, Petronel Zahariuc, Editura Attila, Genghis-khan, Tamerlan , Payot, Paris, p. Polirom, Ia şi, p. 227-269. 521. Panaitescu P. P., 1944, Mircea cel Ha şdeu-Petriceicu B., 1884, Originile Bătrân , Bucure şti. Craiovei , Oltenescele, Craiova (p. 126). Papacostea Ş., 1998, Mircea cel B ătrân Inalcik H., 1996, Imperiul Otoman. şi Baiazid. O întregire la cunoa şterea Epoca Clasic ă (1300-1600) , Editura confrunt ărilor lor armate , Studii şi materiale de Enciclopedic ă, Bucure şti. istorie medie, vol. XVI, p. 19-21. Iorga N., 1899, Studii istorice asupra Pervain V., 1975, Din rela ţiile Ţă rii Chiliei şi Cet ăţ ii Albe , Editura Academiei Române şti cu Ungaria la sfîr şitul veacului al Române, Bucure şti. XIV-lea , Anuarul Institutului de istorie şi Iorga N., 1993, Istoria românilor , III, arheologie, Cluj-Napoca, XVIII, 1975, p. 108. Attended to by V. Spinei, Editura Enciclopedic ă, Rezachevici C., 2001, Cronologia Bucure şti. domnilor din Ţara Româneasc ă şi , vol. Iosipescu S., 1987, Dou ă chestiuni de I, Bucure şti. geografie istoric ă: I) în Podunavia sub Marele Ştef ănescu Ş., 1970, Ţara Româneasc ă Mircea Voievod al Țării Române şti; II) locul de la Basarab I „Întemeietorul” pân ă la Mihai bătăliei de la “Rovine” , in I. P ătroiu Viteazul , Editura Academiei Române, Bucure şti. (coordinated), Mircea cel Mare , Editura Turnbull S., 2003, The Ottoman Empire, Academiei Române, Bucure şti, p. 430-447. 1326-1699 , New York, Osprey Publishing.

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