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Xxxyyy Xyxxyy Xyxyxy Xxyyxy Xxyxyy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia In combinatorial mathematics, the Catalan numbers form a sequence of natural numbers that occur in various counting problems, often involving recursively-defined objects. They are named after the Belgian mathematician Eugène Charles Catalan (1814–1894). Using zero-based numbering, the nth Catalan number is given directly in terms of binomial coefficients by The C5 = 42 noncrossing partitions of a 5-element set (below, the other 10 of the 52 partitions) The first Catalan numbers for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … are 1, 1, 2, 5, 14, 42, 132, 429, 1430, 4862, 16796, 58786, 208012, 742900, 2674440, 9694845, 35357670, 129644790, 477638700, 1767263190, 6564120420, 24466267020, 91482563640, 343059613650, 1289904147324, 4861946401452, … (sequence A000108 in the OEIS). 1 Properties 2 Applications in combinatorics 3 Proof of the formula 3.1 First proof 3.2 Second proof 3.3 Third proof 3.4 Fourth proof 3.5 Fifth proof 4 Hankel matrix 5History 6 Generalizations 7 See also 8Notes 9 References 10 External links An alternative expression for Cn is which is equivalent to the expression given above because . This shows that Cn is an integer, which is not immediately obvious from the first formula given. This expression forms the basis for a proof of the correctness of the formula. The Catalan numbers satisfy the recurrence relation moreover, This is because since choosing n numbers from a 2n set of numbers can be uniquely divided into 2 parts: choosing i numbers out of the first n numbers and then choosing n-i numbers from the remaining n numbers. They also satisfy: which can be a more efficient way to calculate them. Asymptotically, the Catalan numbers grow as in the sense that the quotient of the nth Catalan number and the expression on the right tends towards 1 as n → +∞. Some sources use just .[1] (This can be proved by using Stirling's approximation for n!.) k The only Catalan numbers Cn that are odd are those for which n = 2 − 1. All others are even. [2] The only prime Catalan numbers are C2 = 2 and C3 = 5. The Catalan numbers have an integral representation where This means that the Catalan numbers are a solution of the Hausdorff moment problem on the interval [0, 4] instead of [0, 1]. The orthogonal polynomials having the weight function on are There are many counting problems in combinatorics whose solution is given by the Catalan numbers. The book Enumerative Combinatorics: Volume 2 by combinatorialist Richard P. Stanley contains a set of exercises which describe 66 different interpretations of the Catalan numbers. Following are some examples, with illustrations of the cases C3 = 5 and C4 = 14. [3] Cn is the number of Dyck words of length 2n. A Dyck word is a string consisting of n X's and n Y's such that no initial segment of the string has more Y's than X's. For example, the following are the Dyck words of length 6: XXXYYY XYXXYY XYXYXY XXYYXY XXYXYY. Re-interpreting the symbol X as an open parenthesis and Y as a close parenthesis, Cn counts the number of expressions containing n pairs of parentheses which are correctly matched: ((())) ()(()) ()()() (())() (()()) Cn is the number of different ways n + 1 factors can be completely parenthesized (or the number of ways of associating n applications of a binary operator). For n = 3, for example, we have the following five different Lattice of the 14 Dyck words of length parenthesizations of four factors: 8 - ( and ) interpreted as up and down ((ab)c)d (a(bc))d (ab)(cd) a((bc)d) a(b(cd)) Successive applications of a binary operator can be represented in terms of a full binary tree. (A rooted binary tree is full if every vertex has either two children or no children.) It follows that Cn is the number of full binary trees with n + 1 leaves: The associahedron of order 4 with the C4=14 full binary trees with 5 leaves Cn is the number of non-isomorphic ordered trees with n vertices. (An ordered tree is a rooted tree in which the children of each vertex are given a fixed left-to-right order.)[4] Cn is the number of monotonic lattice paths along the edges of a grid with n × n square cells, which do not pass above the diagonal. A monotonic path is one which starts in the lower left corner, finishes in the upper right corner, and consists entirely of edges pointing rightwards or upwards. Counting such paths is equivalent to counting Dyck words: X stands for "move right" and Y stands for "move up". The following diagrams show the case n = 4: This can be succinctly represented by listing the Catalan elements by column height:[5] [0,0,0,0][0,0,0,1][0,0,0,2][0,0,1,1] [0,1,1,1] [0,0,1,2] [0,0,0,3] [0,1,1,2][0,0,2,2][0,0,1,3] [0,0,2,3][0,1,1,3] [0,1,2,2][0,1,2,3] Cn is the number of different ways a convex polygon with n + 2 sides can be cut into triangles by connecting vertices with straight lines (a form of Polygon triangulation). The following hexagons illustrate the case n = 4: Cn is the number of stack-sortable permutations of {1, ..., n}. A permutation w is called stack-sortable if S(w) = (1, ..., n), where S(w) is defined recursively as follows: write w = unv The triangles correspond to nodes of where n is the largest element in w and u and v are shorter the binary trees. sequences, and set S(w) = S(u)S(v)n, with S being the identity for one-element sequences. These are the permutations that avoid the pattern 231. Cn is the number of permutations of {1, ..., n} that avoid the pattern 123 (or any of the other patterns of length 3); that is, the number of permutations with no three-term increasing subsequence. For n = 3, these permutations are 132, 213, 231, 312 and 321. For n = 4, they are 1432, 2143, 2413, 2431, 3142, 3214, 3241, 3412, 3421, 4132, 4213, 4231, 4312 and 4321. Cn is the number of noncrossing partitions of the set {1, ..., n}. A fortiori, Cn never exceeds the nth Bell number. Cn is also the number of noncrossing partitions of the set {1, ..., 2n} in which every block is of size 2. The conjunction of these two facts may be used in a proof by mathematical induction that all of the free cumulants of degree more than 2 of the Wigner semicircle law are zero. This law is important in free probability theory and the theory of random matrices. Cn is the number of ways to tile a stairstep shape of height n with n rectangles. The following figure illustrates the case n = 4: Cn is the number of rooted binary trees with n internal nodes (n + 1 leaves or external nodes). Illustrated in following Figure are the trees corresponding to n = 0,1,2 and 3. There are 1, 1, 2, and 5 respectively. Here, we consider as binary trees those in which each node has zero or two children, and the internal nodes are those that have children. Cn is the number of ways to form a “mountain ranges” with n upstrokes and n down-strokes that all stay above the original line.The mountain range interpretation is that the mountains will never go below the horizon. Cn is the number of standard Young tableaux whose diagram is a 2-by-n rectangle. In other words, it is the number of ways the numbers 1, 2, ..., 2n can be arranged in a 2-by-n rectangle so that each row and each column is increasing. As such, the formula can be derived as a special case of the hook-length formula. Cn is the number of ways that the vertices of a convex 2n-gon can be paired so that the line segments joining paired vertices do not intersect. This is precisely the condition that guarantees that the paired edges can be identified (sewn together) to form a closed surface of genus zero (a topological 2-sphere). [6] Cn is the number of semiorders on n unlabeled items. In chemical engineering Cn is the number of possible separation sequences which can separate a mixture of n components.[7] There are several ways of explaining why the formula solves the combinatorial problems listed above. The first proof below uses a generating function. The other proofs are examples of bijective proofs; they involve literally counting a collection of some kind of object to arrive at the correct formula. First proof We first observe that all of the combinatorial problems listed above satisfy Segner's[8] recurrence relation For example, every Dyck word w of length ≥ 2 can be written in a unique way in the form w = Xw1Yw2 with (possibly empty) Dyck words w1 and w2. The generating function for the Catalan numbers is defined by The two recurrence relations together can then be summarized in generating function form by the relation in other words, this equation follows from the recurrence relations by expanding both sides into power series. On the one hand, the recurrence relations uniquely determine the Catalan numbers; on the other hand, the generating function solution has a power series at 0 and its coefficients must therefore be the Catalan numbers. The chosen solution satisfies the following condition. The other solution has a pole at 0 and this reasoning doesn't apply to it.
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