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JOHN P. HUBBARD (INTRODUCTION AND BIRDS) MARSHALL C. CONWAY (MAMMALS) HOWARD CAMPBELL (REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS) GREGORY SCHMITT (REPTILES, AMPHIBIANS, AND FISHES) MICHAEL D. HATCH (FISHES AND INVERTEBRATES)

NEW MEXICO DEPT. GAME & FISH 1979 Price $5.00, to include cost of reproduction, handling, and postage.

This document may be reproduced in whole or in part, as long as appropriate credit is given to the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish.

Financial support for this publication was provided by the Federal Aid in Fish and Wildlife Restoration Acts under Project FW-17-R of the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. The Acts are popularly known as the Pittman-Robertson and Dingle-Johnson, or P-R and D-J, Acts after Congressional sponsors. TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

MAMMALS

Arizona shrew - State endangered (Group II) A-1 Southern yellow bat - State endangered (Group II) A-3 Western mastiff bat - State endangered (Group II) A- 3a White-sided jackrabbit - State endangered (Group I) A-4 (Tularosa) black-tailed prairie dog - State endangered (Group II) A-6 Southern pocket gopher - State endangered (Group II) A-8 Nelson's pocket mouse - State endangered (Group II) A-9 (Arizona) montane vole - State endangered (Group II) A-9a Gray wolf - Federal endangered/State endangered (Group I) A-10 Coatimundi - State endangered (Group II) A-11 Marten - State endangered (Group II) A-12 Black-footed ferret - Federal endangered/State endangered (Group I) A-13 Mink - State endangered (Group II) A-15 River otter - State endangered (Group I) A-16

Literature Cited A-20

BIRDS

Olivaceous cormorant - State endangered (Group II) 8-1 Mississippi kite - State endangered (Group II) 6-5 Gray hawk - State endangered (Group I) B-9 Black hawk - State endangered (Group II) B-11 Bald eagle - Federal endangered/State endangered (Group II) B-13 Caracara - State endangered (Group I) B-17 Peregrine falcon - Federal endangered/State endangered (Group I) B-19 - Aplomado falcon - State endangered (Group I) 6 21 White-tailed ptarmigan - State endangered (Group I) B-23 Sharp-tailed grouse - State endangered (Group I) 6-25 Sage grouse - State endangered (Group I) 8-27 (Mexican) turkey - State endangered (Group II) B-29 Whooping crane - Federal endangered/State endangered (Group II) 8-31 (Interior) least tern .- State endangered (Group II) B-33 Buff-collared nightjar, or Ridgway's whip-poor-will - State endangered (Group II) B-35 Violet-crowned hummingbird - State endangered (Group II) B-39 White-eared hummingbird - State endangered (Group II) 6-40 Broad-billed hummingbird - State endangered (Group II) B-42 Coppery-tailed trogon - State endangered (Group I) B-44 Gila woodpecker - State endangered (Group II) 8-46 Red-headed woodpecker - State endangered (Group II) B-48 Thick-billed kingbird - State endangered (Group II) B-50 Sulphur-bellied flycatcher - State endangered (Group I) B-52 Buff-breasted flycatcher - State endangered (Group I) B-54 Beardless flycatcher - State endangered (Group II) 6-56 Bell's vireo - State endangered (Group II) 8-57 Varied bunting - State endangered (6roup II) B-59 Baird's sparrow - State endangered (Group II) B-61 Yellow-eyed junco - State endangered (Group II) B-63 McCown's longspur - State endangered (Group II) B-64

Literature Cited

REPTILES

(Texas) slider turtle - State endangered (Group II) C-1 (Western) spiny softshell turtle - State endangered (Group II) C-2 Smooth softshell turtle - State endangered (Group II) C-3 (Sanddune) sagebrush lizard - State endangered (Group II) C-4 Bunchgrass lizard - State endangered (Group II) C-5 Mountain skink - State endangered (Group II) C-6 Giant spotted whiptail lizard - State endangered (Group II) C-7 Dixon's whiptail lizard - State endangered (Group II) C-8a Gila monster - State endangered (Group I) C-9 i i

(Blotched) plain-bellied water snake - State endangered (Group II) C-12 Narrow-headed garter snake - State endangered (Group II) C-13 (Pecos) western ribbon snake - State endangered (Group II) C-14 (Sonora) coachwhIp - State endangered (Group 11) C-16 Trans-Pecos 'rat snake - State endangered (Group 11) C-17 Sonora mountain kingsnake - State endangered (Group II) C-18 (Mottled) rock rattlesnake - State endangered (Group II) C-23 (Arizona black) western rattlesnake - State endangered (Group 11) C-26 (New Mexican) ridge-nosed rattlesnake - Federal threatened/ C-27 State endangered (Group I)

AMPHIBIANS

Jemez Mountains salamander - State endangered (Group II) D-1 Sacramento mountain salamander - State endangered (Group II) D-3 (Eastern) barking frog - State endangered (Group II) D-4 Colorado river toad - State endangered (Group II) D-5 Western (boreal) toad - State endangered (Group II) D-6 (Blanchard's) cricket frog - State endangered (Group 11) D-7

Literature Cited D-9

FISHES

Blue sucker - State endangered (Group I) E-3 Gray redhorse - State endangered (Group I) E-5 Zuni mountain sucker - State endangered (Group II) E-7 Mexican tetra - State endangered (Group II) E-9 Roundtail chub,- - State endangered (Group II) E-15 Gila chub - State endangered (Group I) E-15 Chihuahua chub - State endangered (Group I) E-17 ("Canadian") speckled dace - State endangered (Group II) E-19 Spikedace - State endangered (Group 11) E-21 Arkansas river shiner - State endangered (Group I) E-23 Silverband shiner - State endangered (Group I) E-25 Bluntnose shiner - State endangered (Group I) E-27 Silvery minnow - State endangered (Group II) E-28a Suckermouth minnow - State endangered (Group II) E-29 Southern redbelly dace - State endangered (Group I) E-31 Colorado River squawfish - Federal endangered/State endangered (Group I) E-33 Loachminnow - State endangered (Group II) E-35 White Sands pupfish - State endangered (Group II) E-40 Brook stickleback - State endangered (Group II) E-44 Greenthroat darter - State endangered (Group II) E-46 Bigscale logperch - State endangered (Group II) E-48 Pecos gambusia - Federal endangered/State endangered (Group II) E-50 Gila topminnow - Federal endangered/State endangered (Group II) E-51 Gila trout - Federal endangered/State endangered (Group I) E-54

Literature Cited E-56

CRUSTACEAN

Socorro isopod - State endangered (Group I) F-1

Literature Cited E-58 INTRODUCTION

Mankind has become increasingly aware of the need for, and active in the pursuit of, the preservation of the Earth's biological diversity. Reasons for such preservation range from the sentimental to the practical, e.g. from perpetuating the species with which man has evolved to ensuring ourselves future resources--including from sources that we may not now yet recognize. Whatever our reasons, such preservation must now be pursued through systematic and applied efforts, for the i mapcts of those things that diminish diversity are too great to risk any lesser involvement.

Among the ways of achieving preservation of biological diversity is the identification and management of those species or populations that are most in danger of being lost from the spectrum of living things. Toward this end have been enacted various international, national, state, and local programs to aid endangered species, including the very important Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wildlife Fauna and the U.S. Endangered Species Act as amended in 1978.

In New Mexico, the mandate for preservation of endangered species was enacted on February 26, 1974, with the passage of the Wildlife Conservation Act (Secs. 17-:-37 through 1 7-2-46, NMSA 1978). This Act directed the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish to establish such appropriate programs, and for the first time in history. the State Legislature appropriated monies from the General Fund for wildlife management by the Department.

By September 1 974, the Department's Endangered Species Program was in full operation--staffed by four fulltime biologists and a secretary. On January 24, 1975, the first State list of endangered species was formally issued by the State Game Commission, as Regulation No. 563. Subsequent revisions of this listing occurred on March 7, 1975, December 5, 1975, May 21, 1976, February 10, 1978, and May 25, 1979. This handbook treats the list as revised on the last date, covering 93 species of animals that are considered endangered in New Mexico. These comprise 1 4 species of mammals, 30 birds, 18 reptiles, 6 amphibians, 24 fishes, and 1 crustacean. Of these, 2 mammals, 3 birds, 4 fishes, 1 reptile, and a crustacean are federally listed. The current listings are now under Regulation No. 599.

The Department recognizes the fact that listing of species as endangered is merely a preliminary step toward preservation of such elements of biological diversity. As authorized under the Wildlife Conservation Act, the role of the Endangered Spe- cies Program encompasses the broad spectrum of activities that are necessary to achieve this preservation. These range from surveys and research to habitat acquisi- tion, dissemination of information, and law enforcement. In recognition of the sound- ness of its program, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has qualified New Mexico as a cooperating state under the Endangered Species Act. The cooperative agreement was signed and approved in mid-1976.

State Definition of Endangered. Under the New Mexico Wildlife Conservation Act (1974), there are several points in which the definition of "endangered" differs from that of federal laws. In New Mexico, endangered species are defined as those "whose prospects of survival or recruitment within the State are in jeopardy or are likely within the foreseeable future to become so." The State's concept of endangerment is thus viewed with reference to populations within a geopolitical bounchlry (i.e. New Mexico), rather than in the federal sense as to populations within a significant portion or thoughout a species' range. This distinction means that many non-endemic species that are rare, local, peripheral, and/or declining in New Mexico are classified as endangered.

Our usage in a geopolitical sense is perhaps unfortunate, but any semantic difficulty should not be construed to mean that the concept as applied in New Mexico is invalid If one believes in the preservation of biological diversity, then what terms one uses should matter less than what goals one pursues. Furthermore, the Endangered Species Act itself recognizes the validity of defining subspecies and populations as "endangered", and a recent amendment to the Act accepts the concept of such state listings as not only valid, but worthy of federal recognition and funding as well.

Another variance in the state definition is the fact that concepts paralleling the federal "endangered" and "threatened" categories are lumped under the single definition of endangered. In order to narrow the state definition more appropriately, the Department uses two informal categories for listing under the Wildlife Conserva- tion Act, i.e.: iv

State endangered (Group I) - Species whose prospects of survival or recruitment in the State are in jeopardy.

State endangered (Group II) - Species whose prospects of survival or recruitment within the state may become in jeopardy in the foreseeable future.

In applying the concept of endangerment in New Mexico, the Department takes into account many factors, including biology, population size, extent of range, threats, population trends, and vulnerability. In most cases, those species placed in Group I are ones that have suffered notable declines in numbers and/or range, while Group II species are more stable but could notably decline at any time.

Other Provisions of the Wildlife Conservation Act. Besides defining endangered species and outlining management and related activities, the Act also provides the following:

Jurisdiction. Jurisdiction is extended to any non-domestic species or subspecies of vertebrate, mollusk, and crustacean that is resident in New Mexico.

Protection. It is illegal to take (harass, hunt, capture, or kill or attempt to do so) possess, transport, export, process, sell, or offer to sell any species or subspecies listed as endangered in New Mexico, to include parts, eggs, or offspring of such listed taxa. Removal, capture, or destruction is permitted only in emergency situations involving an immediate threat to human life or private property.

Penalties. Penalties. Persons violating the Act are subject to prosecution under one or both of the following categories.

A. In cases of illegal activities that could have been done under proper permits, the Act provides for fines of $50 to $300 and jail sentences up to 90 days, or both. An example of this activity might include taking of a listed species for scientific purposes by a person without a proper collecting permit.

B. In cases of illegal activities that cannot be justified even under permit, the Act provides for a set fine of $1,000.00 and a jail sentence 30 days to one year, or both. An example of this activity might include killing a bald eagle for its feathers, an act which is strictly prohibited.

Federal Compliance with State List. The Department is of the belief that the listing of species under Regulation 599 is officially binding on all federal agencies and lands, in the same sense as are other manifestations of State jurisdiction over resident wildlife in New Mexico. To the extent that any federal activity would constitute aviolation of the Wildlife Conservation Act (1974) or other State law, such activities as to harass, hunt, capture, or kill or attempt to do so, possess, or transport are prohibited. On the other hand, there is no provision under the State Act that parallels the "Critical Habitat" concept of the Endangered Species Act, i.e. in designating areas where listed species occur so as to prohibit federal agencies or funding from degrading the areas to the point that such species are negatively impacted.

The absence of a critical habitat clause in the State's Act is not regarded by the Department as constituting a severe problem in preservation of New Mexico's biological diversity. Critical habitat is, in fact, not even essential in protecting federal species, as long as an awareness can be conveyed to the effect that an area is or could be occupied by an endangered species. Conveyance of such information would seem, in fact, to establish an area as de facto critical habitat. This conveyance of information on areas of occurrence of State-listed taxa is thus regarded by the Department as an alternative to critical habitat. Furthermore, we believe that formal notification to federal agencies of such de facto critical habitat would be grounds for prosecution for any subsequent violations of State law, not to men- tion an abrogation of the spirit of cooperation between the State and federal agencies.

Background and Foundation. This handbook is a preliminary effort toward maximizing the dispersal of data to those whose activities most acutely impact on endangered wildlife and their habitats. Thus, we seek to provide information first and formost to land and water managers and to biologists. We recognize that others will have a need for the handbook as well, and copies are available at cost from the Department. We are also aware that errors of commission and omission attend any publication such as this, and we invite readers to point these out and any other deficiencies in the handbook.

For those desiring more detailed information or help, the Endangered Species Program biologists are readily available. In the case of distributional data, for each species the Program maintains a large scale map, on which are plotted all occurrences-- these being keyed to an accompanying narrative account. These maps are available during regular office hours in the Santa Fe Office, and in small numbers data sheets can be photocopied for users elsewhere. For this service inquiry by mail (Villagra Building, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 87503) or telephone (505-827-2438).

Plan of the Handbook. Each species is treated on one or both sides of a sheet of 81 x 11 inch paper. These are hole-punched for use in a looseleaf notebook, so that accounts can be deleted or replaced as needed. Each group of animals is afforded its own pagination prefix to ease the process of locating and altering accounts. These prefixes are A - mammals; B - birds; C - reptiles; D - amphibians; E - fishes; and F - invertebrates. New accounts will have script as well as numbers on their pages and should be inserted in alphabetical order after the appropriate non-script pages, e.g. pages A-3a and A-3b will go after page A-3 (and before A-4) or E-28 and E-28b after E-28 (and before E-29). Full lists of species in each group are included in the Table of Contents, which follows the above sequence and is in taxonomi,. order. Each species account follows a standard order, with common name, scientific name, and listing status given as the heading. Then follow these sections in standard orler: Distinguishing features (plus illustrations of fishes and invertebrates); Other descriptive details; Distribution (plus maps); Biology; Status; Conservation; and Remarks. The use of illustrations is predicated by the availability of such in other sources, these being readily available in field guides for all species except those mentioned above.

Maps are abbreviated versions of masters in the files of the Endangered Species Program (see above) and are meant to convey all records known to us for New Mexico. Symbols are used to convey recent (1960 and later) versus historic (pre-1960) data, i.e. circles ( C)) for recent and squares (0) for historic records. In addition, we feel that it is important to distinguish between verified (solid circles and squares) and unverified (open circles and squares) records, the former being based on specimens or photographs and the latter on sight records; less reliable records are ac- companied by a question mark.

Acknowledgement. The Department and the Program acknowledge the help and contribu- tions of many people in New Mexico and elsewhere in providing the material for production of this handbook. In particular, we thank curatorial staffs at all institu- tions from which we asked for or obtained data. We are also grateful to many re- searchers, landowners, and other people who in some way made this report possible. Finally, we thank Norma Ames for editorial assistance and Margaret Saiz for the typing of the handbook. The drawings of all fishes except the speckled dace were done by Sidney Smith; all other illustrations are by Endangered Species Program personnel. vi

STATE OF NEVI7 MEXOCO

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Arizona shrew (Sorex arizonae)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: Shrews are the only members of the Order lnsectivora in New Mexico. They are small animals that resemble mice in body shape and overall coloration. However, shrews are usually smaller and have longer, more pointed snouts, smaller eyes and almost totally inconspicuous ears. The seven species of shrews that occur in New Mexico can be positively distinguished from one another by differences in their dentition. The Arizona shrew can be separated from all the others by the following dental characteristics: 5 unicuspids in each maxillary tooth row; third unicuspid larger than fourth; no pigmented ridge running from apex of each upper unicuspid medially to the cingulum; medial tines always present on the first upper incisors (Diersing and Hoffmeister, 1977). It and the desert shrew (Notiosorex crawfordi) are the only species occurring in or near the Animas Mountains.

Other descriptive details: This species has short, dense, velvet-like fur which is pale gray in color. It is a relatively small shrew--external measurements of a specimen from the Animas Mountains are as follows: total length 98 mm, tail 39, hind foot 12, ear 11 (Museum of Southwestern Biology files, 1977).

Distribution: The range of this recently described species includes the Huachuca, Santa Rita and Chiricahua mountains of southeastern Arizona (Diersing and Hoffmeister, 1977) Southwestern Chihuahua (Caire et al., Southwestern Nat, 23;532-533, 1973) and adjacent New Mexico (Conway and Schmitt, J. Mamm., 59:631, 1978). New Mexico: Known from the Animas Mountains, Hidalgo Co., on the basis of one specimen found drowned in Turkey Spring in Indian Creek Canyon. ... REMM . . i"ONII illlv

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Biology: The habitat known to be occupied by this species in New Mexico is relatively mesic, the most common trees being douglas fir (Pseudotseuga menzesii), quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) and netleaf oak (Quercus reticulata). Shrews are well known for their voracious appetites--the amount of food eaten daily often exceeds their body weight. The diet consists mainly of insects but also includes spiders and probably any other small animal, vertebrate or invertebrate that they can overpower (Matthews, 1971). Shrews do not hibernate. Most of them are terrestrial--foraging in and under the forest litter with alternating periods of rest and activity throughout the day and night. Young are born in the summer and become sexually mature the following spring. Nothing has been published on the reproduction of the Arizona shrew, but the closely related Merriam's shrew (Sorex merriami) is known to produce from 5 to 7 young per litter (Armstrong and Jones, 1 971).

Status: This appears to be a very rare species, with only 10 specimens known from the three Arizona mountain ranges which may constitute its main area of occurrence. Its apparent rarity and extremely limited distribution in New Mexico make it highly vulnerable to any adverse habitat alteration. A-2

Conservation: Preservation of the habitat that this species occupies and strict limitations on scientific collecting are the most obvious measures to be taken to ensure its survival in New Mexico.

Remarks: This species was first described to science in 1977 (Diersing and Hoffmeister) based on specimens previously classified as wandering shrews (Sorex vagrans); actually it appears to be more closely related to Merriam's shrew (S. merriami) than S. vagrans. A-3

Southern yellow bat (Lasiurus e xanthinus)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: The yellow bat is one of four New Mexican species with fur on the dorsal surface of the interfemoral membrane. The other three are the red bat (L. borealis), the hoary bat (L. cinereus) and the silver-haired bat (Lasionycteris noctivagans). Lasiurus ega may be distinguished from all of these by its yellow color and by the absence of fur on the terminal two-thirds of the interfemoral membrane. The size is moderate, i.e. total length 4/ inches, forearm 1 3/4 inches.

Other descriptive details: External measurements are: head and body 61-65 mm, total length 109-115, and forearm 44-45.8 (Hall and Kelson, 1959). Overall coloration is yellowish-brown; ears are small and rounded; fur covers basal one-third of membrane connecting the hind legs.

Distribution: As a species occurs from South America to the southwestern United States; the subspecies xanthinus is found from Baja California and the southern Southwest through all of Mexico except Chihuahua and Durango. New Mexico: All records are from Guadalupe Canyon in the Peloncillo Mountains, Hidalgo County.

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Biology: The yellow bat is found in riparian woodland areas where solitary individuals roost in trees during the day and begin feeding less than one hour after sundown. This insectivorous species requires permanent water and has been cnught most successfully in mist nets set across pools of intermittent steams. Bothsexes have been found in New Mexico, and all females collected in the state have been pregnant with two embryos (Mumford and Zimmerman, 1963). Males have been collected as late as September in Guadalupe Canyon.

Status: This species is probably relatively secure throughout its range outside the United States. It has been recorded in New Mexico only during the summer of 1962 and fall of 1967; it may be regular in its limited range in the state, but this remains to be seen.

Conservation: Habitat protection and strict limitations on collecting are the most obvious measures to be taken to insure the security of this species in New Mexico.

Remarks: This species reaches its northern distributional limits in the southwestern United States. It is obviously beneficial as an insectivorous species. A-3a

Western mastiff bat (Eumops perotis californicus)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: The western (or greater) mastiff bat is one of four New Mexican species with a tall that extends conspicuously beyond the edge of the interfemoral membrane. The other three are the Brazilian free-tailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis), the pocketed free-tailed bat (T. femorosacca), and the big free-tailed bat (T. macrotis). Eumops perotis can be easily distinguished from the others by its much larger size (total length 7 inches; wingspan 21 inches) and by the absence of vertical grooves on the upper lips.

Other descriptive details: External measurements are: head and body approx- i mately 105 mm and forearm 73-80 (Hall and Kelson, 1959). The overall coloration is brownish gray; the ears are large, leathery, rounded, and joined at the base.

Distribution: The range of the species is northern Mexico, the adjacent U.S., and Cuba; the race E. p. californicus is confined mostly to Coahuila, Chihuahua, Sonora, extreme west Texas, southern Arizona and southern California. New Mexico: This species is included as a member of the state's fauna on the basis of one specimen, collected in Guadalupe Canyon, Hidalgo County (Rowlett, J. Mamm., 53:640, 1972). ---

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Biology: These bats roost in small colonies made up of both sexes, with females outnumbering males by about two to one (Howell. J. Mamm., 1:111-117, 1920). The roosts are typically fissures in cliffs, but man-made structures are used when they are available. Emerging from their roosts well after dark, these bats forage at great heights, feeding exclusivplv on small insects. Mastiff bats are not known to migrate or hibernate, but at the northern limits of their range they become torpid during cold spells in the winter. Breeding probably takes place in the early spring, and the reproductive season lasts for approximately 125 days. Usually a single young is born by early July; rarely, two young are produced (Krutzch, J. Mamm., 36:407-414, 1955).

Status: Though seemingly rare, this species is probably relatively secure throughout most of its range. Whether or not it is regular in occurrence in its limited range in New Mexico has yet to be determined.

Conservation: Habitat preservation, prevention of disturbance at roosting sites, and strict limitations on collecting should improve this species' chances of survival in New Mexico. A- 3b

Remarks: This is the largest bat in the United States, where it reaches its northern distributional limits in the Southwest. It is obviously beneficial as an insectivorous species. A-4 White-sided jackrabbit (Lepus callotis gaillardi)

State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: Of the other three species of hares occurring in New Mexico, only the black-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus californicus) has a range overlapping that of Lepus callotis. The white-sided jackrabbit has the stockier build of these two species and is more grizzled and 'Puffy in coloration. Though both species have dorsally black tails and are able to expose varying amounts of white fur (by erecting the hairs) on their sides and flanks, the white exposed by a sprinting white-sided jackrabbit is more extensive and strikingly visible. The ears of L. callotis are white posteriorly and black-tipped anteriorly, as opposed to white anteriorly and black-tipped posteriorly on L. californicus. Cottontails (Sylvilagus spp.) are much smaller (total length 12-15 inches, versus 18-22 inches) and have largely white tails.

Other descriptive details: External measurements: total length 450-536 mm, tail 59-80, hind foot 124-133, ear from notch 110-112 (Hall and Kelson, 1959). Colora- tion is light grizzled brown with white sides and flanks.

Distribution: As a species occurs in western Mexico from Jalisco northward on the western tableland to New Mexico; the subspecies gallardi ranges from extreme southwestern New Mexico through Chihuahua to the northern tip of Durango. New Mexico: This species is found in the United States only in the Animas and Playas Valleys of Hidalgo County.

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Biology: This is truly a desert grassland species. Though its range is shared with Lepus californicus, the two species occupy different habitats where their ranges overlap. In areas of pure grassland, L. callotis is found to the exclusion of L. californicus. In areas where grassland is invaded by shrubs and forbs, black- tailed outnumber white-sided jackrabbits proportional to the extent of invasion (Conway, 1976). Food consists primarily of nutgrass (Cyperus rotundus) and various species of grasses, including buffalo grass (Buchloe dactyloideT),-TOTosa grass (Hilaria mutica) and blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) (Bednarz, 1977). White-sided jackrabbits almost invariably occur in pairs during all seasons of the year. All three pairs known to have been collected in New Mexico consisted of one member of each sex (unpublished fieldnotes. Museum of Vertebrate Zoology files, 1932 and Bednarz, 1977). Little is known about the reproduction of the species, but it is likely that several litters are produced annually. From the sample of 10 pregnant females collected in the U. S. and Mexico, the average litter size has been computed at 2.2 young (Bednarz, 1977).

Status: As a species this hare is fairly widely distributed and probably relatively secure throughout most of its range. Since first discovered in New Mexico in 1892, gaillardi has generally been a rather elusive species, and it may be cyclic in numbers and subject to fluctuations in its range. Bailey (1915) did not find it in his survey, nor did Findley (pers. comm.) in his years of work in Hidalgo County. In November 1975, at least 33 were counted there (Conway, 1 976), and local ranchers suggest that numbers are at a recent high point. Bednarz (1977) estimated 340 A-5

L. callotis inhabited the Animas and Playas valleys during the summer of 1976.

Conservation: Habitat preservation and restoration through proper range management are obvious requirements if this species is to persist as a part of New Mexico's diverse mammalian fauna. Any loss of habitat in the form of grassland deterioration due to overgrazing could seriously threaten its continued survival in New Mexico.

Remarks: This species reaches its northern distributional limits in southwestern New Mexico, and its retention in the U. S. fauna depends on successful conservation there. A— 6

(Tularosa) black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicanus spp.)

State endangered (Group 11)

Distinguishing features: All of the species of ground squirrels in New Mexico that could conceivably be misidentified as prairie dogs are generally much smaller and all have some pattern of dorsal spots and/or stripes which prairie dogs lack. The two species of prairie dogs which occur in the state can be separated by the color of their tails. Gunnison's prairie dogs (C. gunnisoni) have white-tipped tails and black-tailed prairie dogs, as their name implies, have black-tipped tails. The features distinguishing the (Tularosa) subspecies from other black-tailed prairie dogs in New Mexico are its paler overall coloration, lesser skull depth and more western range (Hansen, 1977).

Other descriptive details: This is a relatively large, plump rodent with short, stubby legs, long claws and short, rounded ears. Overall coloration of the coarse pelage is light yellowish brown. Total length in the species 355-415 mm, tail 72-115, hind foot 57-67 (Hall and Kelson, 1959).

Distribution: The range of the black-tailed prairie dog extends from Montana and and North Dakota south to New Mexico and Texas and includes portions of ten western states and northern Chihuahua. New Mexico: The (Tularosa) subspecies is known only from the Tularosa Basin in Lincoln and Sierra counties (Hansen, 1977); it probably also occurs in Otero County (e.g. McGregor Range).

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Biology: Like all prairie dogs, this subspecies is colonial--excavating burrows in "towns" ranging in size from a few to many hundreds of acres. These animals are active only during daylight hours; they are herbivorous, apparently preferring various species of grasses over other available vegetation in their desert grassland habitat. The mating season is in January and February, and the 3 to 5 altricial young are born after a gestation period of approximately one month.

Status: This subspecies has been exterminated from most of its former range as a result of massive poisoning campaigns. Only two colonies are known to remain-- one in Lincoln and the other in Sierra counties in the Tularosa Basin of southcentral New Mexico.

Conservation: The protection of existing towns and possibly reintroductions into secure areas of suitable habitat should enhance the survival chances of this subspecies. A— 7

Remarks: Until recently all black-tailed prairie dogs west of the Pecos River have been rather arbitrarily assigned to the subspecies C.1. arizonensis (Hollister, 1916 and Hall and Kelson, 1959). In his study of the evolution of prairie dogs, Pizzimenti (1975) concludes that the species is monotypic. How- ever, Hansen (1977) was able to separate populations from Hidalgo County, New Mexico and Chihuahua, Mexico from all other black-tailed prairie dogs on the basis of differences in mastoid breadth. This subspecies, which he considers C.1. arizonensis, is now extinct in New Mexico and, in fact, probably survives only in Chihuahua. The population from the Tularosa Basin can be separated from all others on the basis of lighter pelage and lesser skull depth. It is being proposed as a new subspecies. A-8

Southern pocket gopher (Thomomys umbrinus emotus)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: Three major types or genera of pocket gophers occur in New Mexico; these can be distinguished from one another by the number of longitudinal grooves present on their upper incisors: Geomys two, Pappogeomys one, and Thomomys none. Besides the southern pocket gopher, the other species of Thomomys native to the state are the northern pocket gopher (T. talpoides) and Botta's pocket gopher Cr. bottae). The widespread bottae is the only one that occurs with or near umbrinus. Although bottae exhibits a great deal of variation in size and color, it is for the most part larger (total length 9 inches, versus 7 inches) and paler than umbrinus.

Other descriptive details: External measurements: head and body 132-272 mm, tail 43-100, hind foot 22-37 (Hall and Kelson, 1959). This is a medium-sized, compact rodent with relatively large head, short legs, short nearly hairless tail, external fur-lined check pouches, tiny ears, and long curved claws designed for digging. Overall coloration is dark brown, with a purplish hue down the middle of the back.

Distribution: This species is comprised of several subspecies scattered throughout Mexico and extending into southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona. New Mexico: Here, southern pocket gophers are found only in the Animas Mountains mostly above 7000 feet, but down to 5800 feet in some canyon bottoms (Hinesley and Thaeler, 1977).

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Biology: Pocket gophers are burrowing rodents which rarely come to the surface of the ground. Evidence of their presence is provided by mounds of earth pushed up from their burrows. The animals are strictly herbivorous, with the bulk of the diet consisting of the roots encountered during burrowing activities. Some food, transported in the external cheek pouches, is stored for later use in lateral extensions of the burrow system. These pocket gophers are quite unsociable--only when a female is caring for young will more than one individual be found in a single burrow system. The species is polygamous, and breeding may occur two or more times during the year. The gestation period is approximately 20 days, and litter size varies from 1 to 7.

Status: As a species this animal is widespread and common in Mexico, but the status of individual subspecies is not precisely known. In New Mexico, the subspecies emotus is thought to be rare in its restricted area of occupancy; the race was first described to science in 1933.

Conservation: Preservation of the habitat within the critical area occupied by this species and strict limitations on collecting will be required to ensure its survival in New Mexico.

Remarks: The southern pocket gopher reaches its northern distributional limits in southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona. Besides being the only represent- ative of the species in New Mexico, the Animas Mountains population is of a subspecies endemic to the state. A-9

Nelson's pocket mouse (Perognathus nelsoni canescens)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: Both pocket mice (Perognathus) and kangaroo rats (Dipodomys) have external fur-lined cheek pouches which distinguish them from other rats and mice. Pocket mice are generally quite a bit smaller than kangaroo rats and their hind legs are not as disproportionately long, Perognathus nelsoni is relatively large, has a "tufted" tail, and several stiff hairs in the rump region which are longer than regular guard hairs. This combination of characters will separate Nelson's pocket mouse from the other pocket mice which occupy the same general area.

Other descriptive details: External measurements: total length 182-193 mm, tail 104-117, hind foot 22-23 (Hall and Kelson, 1959). Pelage is brownish dorsally, white ventrally. Tail is longer than head and body and has longer hairs on the tip than at the base.

Distribution: As a species widespread through much of Mexico; the subspecies canescens is confined mostly to Coahuila, eastern Chihuahua and extreme west Texas. New Mexico: This species is included as a member of the state's fauna on the basis of one specimen collected four miles west of White City, Eddy County (Webb, 1954).

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Biology: This burrowing rodent inhabits desert grassland where it is active mainly at night. Food consists mostly of seeds which are transported in external cheek pouches and stored in chambers of the burrow system. Probably several litters of 3 to 6 young are produced annually.

Status: In Mexico this species is probably relatively secure. Whether or not it still survives in New Mexico is unknown.

Conservation: Preservation of the habitat that this species occupies and strict limitations on scientific collecting will be necessary to ensure its survival in New Mexico.

Remarks: This species reaches its northern distributional limits in west Texas and southeastern New Mexico. A-9a

(Arizona) Montane vole (Microtus montanus arizonensis)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: The combination of all the following external features will distinguish New Mexico's voles (genera Microtus, Clethrionomys, and Phenacomys) from most other small rodents: bluntly rounded muzzle, tiny ears (almost concealed by fur), tail rarely longer than one-half the combined head and body length, and short legs partially hidden in the body, which exaggerates their shortness. Adults of both Clethrionomys and Phenacomys have rooted cheekteeth, while all species of Microtus have cheekteeth which are not rooted. Of the five species of Microtus occurring in New Mexico, only the long-tailed vole (M. longicaudus), Mexican vole (M. mexicanus), and meadow vole (M. pennsylvanicus) are known to occupy the same general area as M. montanus arizonensis. The long- tailed vole can be distinguished from the montane vole by its longer tail, which usually equals or exceeds one-third its total length. The Mexican vole has a shorter tail than the montane vole, and it is lighter and browner in overall coloration--as opposed to dark grayish-brown in M. montanus, The meadow vole differs from the montane vole in being somewhat darker in color and having an accessory posterior loop in addition to the four normal dentine lakes on the second upper molar.

Other descriptive details: External measurements are: total length 140-192 mm, tail 31-69, and hind foot 18-25 (Hall and Kelson, 1959). Microtus montanus arizonensis is more reddish in color than other races of the species, and the incisive foramina lack the posterior constriction characteristic of the other subspecies (Anderson, Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 9:415-511, 1959).

Distribution: This species is widespread throughout the major mountain ranges of the western United States. Until recently the subspecies arizonensis was known only from the White Mountains and vicinity of eastern Arizona. New Mexico: Microtus montanus is represented by two subspecies in the state. M. m. fusus is fairly common in meadows of the San Juan and Jemez mountains. M. m. arizonensis is known only from a small relict population recently discovered at Centerfire Bog in Catron County.

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Biology: The montane vole requires mesic habitats, with a thick cover of grasses and sedges through which a network of tunnels or runways are constructed. Voles, unlike most other mice, are active during both day and night. Their diet consists mainly of grasses and sedges, but insects are occasionally taken. Individuals of this species are not known to hibernate in New Mexico, but their activity is greatly diminished during the winter months. Several litters averaging 4 to 6 young are produced annually. A— 9b

Status: This widespread species is common throughout most of its range. New Mexico's population of the subspecies arizonensis is very small, restricted, and definitely vulnerable to any adverse habitat alteration.

Conservation: Preservation of the habitat occupied by this subspecies and strict limitations on collecting will be necessary to ensure its survival in New Mexico.

Remarks: The populations of Microtus montanus arizonensis in eastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico represent the southernmost limit of the species' distribution. These disjunct populations have been isolated from the main range of the species for thousands of years. A-10

Gray wolf (Canis lupus)

Federal endangered/State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: The wolf is the largest wild member of the dog family (total length 51 feet). Size alone sets it apart from all species of foxes which occur in New Mexico none of which exceed 3i feet in total length. The coyote (Canis latrans) is closer in size (total length 4/ feet) but it has a more slender, pointed muzzle and runs with its tail held down, whereas the wolf holds its tail high when running.

Other descriptive details: This smallest American subspecies of C. lupus is usually relatively dark in overall coloration with buffy or tawny markings along the flanks and outer surfaces of the legs. External measurements of type specimen (adult male): total length 1570 mm, tail 410, hind foot 260 (Young and Goldman, 1944).

Distribution: As a species, historically widespread over most of North America. At present mostly confined to Canada, Alaska, Minnesota and Michigan with the subspecies baileyi barely surviving in Mexico. New Mexico: Occasional wanderers from Mexico cross the border into southern Hidalgo County .

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Biology: This effective predator hunts in packs which seldom exceed eight individuals but may number as high as twenty in some instances. Preferred prey species are usually large herbivores, i.e. deer, peccary, bighorn sheep and livestock. However, smaller prey such as lagomorphs and rodents are occasionally taken. A pack of wolves is a highly organized social unit and usually only the dominant female produces a litter which may or may not have been sired by the dominant male (Mech, 1970). Breeding season may be anytime from January to April and after a gestation period of 63 days an average of 6 altricial young are born (Mech 1974). All members of the pack assist in care and feeding of the pups which do not reach breeding age until they are twenty-two months old (Mech, 1970).

Status: As a species Canis lupus is endangered throughout all of its range in North America except some wilderness areas in Alaska. Historically, five subspecies of the gray wolf were common throughout New Mexico. Presently, only occasional wanders of C.1. baileyi cross into southern Hidalgo County from Mexico where the species continues to decline. The other four subspecies are all believed to be extinct.

Conservation: Protection from killing, trapping or harassment is necessary to preserve any remaining wolves in the state. Captive rearing and/or livetrapping and transplanting into areas of historic range may be possible in the future. How- ever, it will be necessary to provide restitution for livestock killed by wolves before ranchers will let them survive in "cattle country".

Remarks: This species has probably been more maligned in folklore than any other predator. Until the prejudice resulting from all this misinformation can be over- come, probably very little can be done to save this noble animal from extinction. A-11

Coatimundi (Nasua narica molaris)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This medium-sized (total length 46 inches) mammal resembles the related raccoon (Procyon lotor) and ringtail (Bassariscus astutus). Both of these species are grayer than the brownish coati and have bushier tails which are marked with more distinct alternating dark and light rings. The coati is further distinguished by its relatively long, upturned snout, and it often carries the tail in a vertical position.

Other descriptive details: The overall coloration is dark, grizzled brown; the tail which is as long as the head and body is marked with relatively indistinct alternating light and dark rings. The snout is whitish in color, and white spots are present above and below each eye. The ears are small, rounded, and whitish in color. Total length 850-1340 mm, tail 420-680, hind foot 95-122 (Hall and Kelson, 1959).

Distribution: The range of this species extends from Central America through most of Mexico and into southern Texas, southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona; the subspecies molaris is found from the southwestern United States through all but the central plateau of Mexico. New Mexico: Most records are from the Peloncillo Mountains in Hidalgo County, but there are also reports from as far north as the Gila Valley and Burro Mts. (Grant Co.) and San Francisco Valley (Catron Co.)--but some or all of these could be escaped or released captives.

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Biology: In New Mexico the coati inhabits canyons characterized by riparian vegetation such as sycamore and oaks. Coatimundis are usually found in groups, sometimes of ten or more individuals. These bands typically move slowly along, rooting in litter, crevices, and other places for food, both on the ground and at times in trees. They are primarily diurnal and quite omnivorous, eating fruits, nuts, roots, insects and eggs. The breeding season is during April and May, and after a gestation period of approximately two and one-half months, four to six young are born. Coatis utter squeaks, whistles, and other vocalizations, some of which sound birdlike.

Status: As a species this animal is fairly widely distributed and probably relatively secure throughout most of its range. In New Mexico, the status is not well-known, but the animal appears to be resident in the border areas and generally rare (Kaufmann et al., 1976).

Conservation: The main threat to this species appears to be indiscriminant killing (e.g. shooting, trapping, poisoning), and only authorized control activity should be carried out. Habitat protection is also a consideration in conservation efforts in behalf of the animal.

Remarks: This species reaches its northern distributional limits in the southwestern United States. Efforts to preserve it in New Mexico are well justified, as this is certainly a unique animal. A-12

Marten (Mertes americana Origenes)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This medium-sized mustelid (total length 26 inches) is similar in size and appearance to the mink (Mustela vison), but can be readily separated by its bushier tail and overall lighter coloration, particularly, in the throat and chest, which are buffy.

Other descriptive details: This species is weasel-like in shape, and it has long, dense golden-brown fur which is darker on the legs and tail. The tail is bushy and about one-half the length of the head and body. Total length 570-682 mm, tail 1 70-240, hind foot 79-90 (Hall and Kelson, 1959).

Distribution: The greatest portion of the species' range is in Alaska and Canada, with southern extensions into the Sierra Nevada, Rocky Mountains, and the northeastern United States. New Mexico: Known only from the San Juan and Sangre de Cristo mountains cf north-central New Mexico.

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Biology: Martens inhabit the spruce-fir and alpine forests of northern New Mexico. They are very capable predators, preying on species such as voles, red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus), pikes (Ochotona princeps), and snow- shoe hares (Lepus americanus). They also feed on carrion, and during certain times of the year, berries make up a significant portion of their diet. Past reports have described martens as highly arboreal and extremely intolerant of man's presence. However, more recent studies have indicated that they spend most of their time on the ground, and in some instances are attracted to areas of human activity (deVos and Guenther, 1952; Harger and Switzenberg, 1958). Females begin breeding at three years of age and produce one litter of 3 or 4 young in the spring. The gestation period is quite long (8i to 9 months), due to delayed implantation.

Status: Though widespread, marten populations have suffered declines in localized areas due to over-exploitation for furs and loss of habitat from lumbering operations. In New Mexico the species was probably never common, and the paucity of recent records indicates that numbers have declined to the point of extreme rarity.

Conservation: Habitat preservation and/or restoration and control of killing are obvious necessities. Transplanting live-trapped martens into areas of suitable habitat may be attempted if studies demonstrate the feasibility of such action.

Remarks: The presence of this valuable furbearer in New Mexico represents the southernmost distributional limit of the genus Mertes in the United States. A-13 Black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes)

Federal endangered/State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: The species most commonly confused with the black- footed ferret is the southwestern long-tailed weasel (Mustela frenata neomexicana). Both species have long, slender bodies, short legs, a dark "mask" across the eyes and forehead, and a black tip on the tail. However, the ferret (total l ength-24 inches) is nearly twice the size of the weasel (total length-14 inches), is pale and tawny rather than dark reddish brown, has a white rather than brown muzzle, and black instead of brown feet.

Other descriptive details: External measurements: males--total length 500-533 mm tail 114-127, hind foot 60-73. Pelage is palomino colored, with the exception of the blackish areas indicated above; the black on the legs is from the pelvis and shoulders down. The ears are small and rounded, and the tail is about one-third the length of the head and body.

Distribution: The historic and presumably the present range of Mustela nigripes stretches from southern Alberta and Saskatchewan through twelve western states including Arizona, New Mexico and Texas at its southern limit. New Mexico: From 1 903 to the present, black-footed ferrets have been reported from all but the southernmost part of the state, i.e. the area south of the Mogollon Plateau and east to the Pecos Valley. The most recent reliable sightings come from Valencia, McKinley, Los Alamos and Curry counties.

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Biology: The rarity, secretiveness and nocturnal nature of the black-footed ferret have made it extremely difficult to study, and very little is actually known about the species. Most observations of black-footed ferrets have been made in or around prairie dog towns. Consequently, it has been assumed that the ferret is almost totally dependent on this widespread rodent, preying on it as a preferred source of food and utilizing its burrows for shelter. Studies conducted in South Dakota have indicated that young black- footed ferrets are probably born in May or early June. Litters in that state are usually comprised of four or five young; these remain with their mother until late August or September, at which time the family group disbands and disperses to other areas (Henderson, Springer and Adrian, 1969; Hillman, 1968 and Fortenberry, 1972).

Status: Throughout its range this was probably never a very common species, and it has undoubtedly suffered significant declines as a result of widespread prairie dog control programs. A similar decline appears to have occurred in New Mexico, where most verified records are at least several decades old. Some fairly recent sightings, though unconfirmed, are from reliable sources and give us hope that the species still persists in the state.

Conservation: Before allowing prairie dog control in any area, intensive efforts should be directed toward determining whether or not black-footed ferrets are present. When ferrets are detected in areas where control is inevitable, they should be live-trapped and transplanted into secure areas of suitable habitat. The latter areas may also serve as transplant sites for black-footed ferrets raised in captivity. Trapping, shooting, and other forms of killing or harrassment are of course strictly illegal.

Remarks: In view of the fact that this species may be on the verge of extinction, all efforts to preserve and restore it in New Mexico (and elsewhere) are certainly justified. A-15

Mink (Mustela vison energumenos)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinquishimi features: This medium-sized (total length 25 inches) member of the we,r,o1 fdmily resembles the marten (Martes americana) to some extent, but is generally darker in color, has a less bushy tail and has the throat and chest dark rather than bufi. The mink is similar in coloration to the river otter (Lontra canadensis) but is much smaller (total length of latter 46 inches) and does not havc webbed feet.

Other ,'ascriptive details: External measurements of males: total length 491-720 mm, tail 158-194, hind foot 57-75 (Hall and Kelson, 1959). Overall coloration is dark brown, often with a white chin patch and small white spots on the belly. The ears are small and rounded, and the tail is about one-half the length of the head and body.

Distribution: The species is widespread throughout Canada and all but the southwestern part of the United States; the subspecies energumenos is found from British Columbia and Alberta southward to northern California, Nevada, Utah and New Mexico. New Mexico: Historic records are from the San Juan, Pecos, Canadian, and upper Rio Grande river drainages.

Biology: Through its wide range this species is found in a variety of habitats but seldom far from permanent water. It is an excellent swimmer and is capable of catching fish, which make up a significant part of its diet. Other foods include small mammals, birds, eggs, crayfish, and frogs. The breeding season is from January through March, and after a gestation period of one to 21 months a litter of four to ten young is born.

Status: This species is widespread and still common throughout much of its historic range. According to Bailey (1932), this species was fairly common in northern New Mexico during the early 1900's; now it is rare and seldom seen, indicating that the species has suffered a drastic decline in the state.

Conservation: The decline of the mink in New Mexico is largely unexplained, and at present we can do little more than protect those animals remaining in the state and preserve their critical areas of occupancy. When it can be determined to what extent such factors as habitat degradation, trapping, disease, inter- specific competition, etc. have affected the species, management practices can be instituted to encourage population increase.

Remarks: This peripheral species is a valuable furbearer and efforts to preserve it in New Mexico are certainly justified. A-16

River otter (Lutra canadensis sonora)

State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: The only New Mexican mammals that might conceivably be confused with this large mustelid (total length up to four feet) are the beaver (Castor canadensis) and the mink (Mustela vison). The otter has a much more streamlined body than the beaver, has all four feet webbed (only the hind feet of the beaver are webbed) and possess a fully furred, tapering tail completely unlike the flat, scaly tail of the beaver. The mink, which is similar in coloration and body form to the otter, is much smaller (i.e. 25 inches) and does not have webbed feet.

Other descriptive details: External measurements total length 889-1300 mm, tail 300-507, hind foot 100-146 (Hall and Kelson, 1959). Pelage is dark, chestnut brown above, paler underneath. The legs are short and the ears are small and rounded.

Distribution: Lutra canadensis is widespread throughout North America; the subspecies sonora is confined to portions of California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah and New Mexico. New Mexico: Historically, the river otter occurred in the upper Rio Grande, the Canadian and the Gila river drainages of the state; the only recent verified record is from the latter area in 1953.

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Biology: The river otter is a highly aquatic mammal, and streams and rivers serve as transportation systems and yield the food items upon which it depends. Fish make up.the greatest portion of the diet; other items include crayfish, frogs and large aquatic insects. Mating occurs in spring and early summer, and the gestation period, which includes a period of delayed implantation, lasts up to twelve months. A litter of from 1 to 5 (usually 4) altricial young is produced in early spring. The river otter is noted for its intelligence, curiosity and playful nature. In the past, it was condemned as a menace to trout fisheries, but recent studies have demonstrated that the bulk of its diet is made up of small nongame fish (Knudsen, 1957; Greer, 1956). By controlling "rough fish" the river otter has undoubtedly proved more beneficial than detrimental to the ecology of trout waters.

Status: The species, Lutra canadensis, is widespread and still common throughout much of its range. The status of the subspecies sonora is not known precisely, but it has most certainly suffered decline over most of its former range. In New Mexico, otters never appear to have been numerous in historic times, and it may be that the species has been extirpated in the state.

Conservation: Factors that may have caused the actual or near extirpation of the otter in New Mexico may be too far advanced to hope for the species' successful restoration or reintroduction; however, studies need to be initiated to determine if this is true. Among the negative factors have almost certainly been presecu- tion and habitat deterioration.

Remarks: This species deserves a place in the fauna of New Mexico where it reaches its southern distributional limit. A- 20

LITERATURE CITED

Mammals

Armstrong, D. and J. Jones, Jr. 1971. Sorex merriami. Mammalian Species, 2:1-2.

Bailey, V. 1932. Mammals of New Mexico. N. American Fauna. 53:1-412.

Bednarz, J. 1977. The white-sided jackrabbit in New Mexico: distribution, numbers and biology in the grasslands of Hidalgo County. Report to N. M. Department of Game and Fish. 33 pp. (typewritten).

Conway, M. 1976. A rare hare. New Mexico Wildlife, 21(2):21-23. de Vos, A. and S. Guenther. 1952. Preliminary live-trapping studies of marten. J. of Wildl. Mgmt. 19(2):207-214.

Diersing, V. and D. Hoffmeister. 1977. Revision of the shrews Sorex merriami and a description of a new species of the subgenus Sorex. J. Mamm. 58:321-333-

Findley, J., A. Harris, D. Wilson and C. Jones. 1975. The mammals of New Mexico. Univ. New Mexico Press. 360 PP.

Fortenberry, D. 1972. Characteristics of the black-footed ferret. U. S. Dept. of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. Resource Publ. 109. 8 pp.

Greer, K. 1956. A study of the otter's food habits along a segment of the Gallatin River. Job Completion Report. Project No. W-49-R-6, Montana. 5 pp.

Hall, E. and K. Kelson. 1959. The mammals of North America. New York: Ronald Press Co. 1083 pp.

Hansen, D. 1977. Taxonomic status of the prairie dog subspecies Cynomys l udovicianus ludovicianus and Cynomys ludovicianus arizonensis. Master's thesis, Eastern New Mexico University. 32 pp.

Harger, E. and D. Switzenberg. 1958. Returning the pine marten to Michigan. Michigan Dept. of Cons. Game Div. Rpt. No. 2199.

Henderson, R., P. Springer and R. Adrian. 1969. The black-footed ferret in South Dakota. S. D. Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks. Tech. Bull. No. 4. 37 pp.

Hillman, C. 1968. Field observations of black-footed ferrets in South Dakota. 33rd N. Amer. Wildl. Conf. 433-443.

Hinesley, L. and C. Thaeler, Jr. 1977. Karyotype and distribution of the southern pocket gopher (Thomomys umbrinus emotus). J. Mamm., 58:235-237.

Hollister, N. 1916. A systematic account of the prairie dogs. N. American Fauna 40:1-37.

Kaufmann, J., D. Lanning and S. Poole. 1976. Current status and distribution of the coati in the United States. J. Mamm., 57:621-637.

Knudsen, G. 1957. Preliminary otter investigations. Job Completion Report. Project No. W-79-R-2 (Phase E). Job No. 1-A. Wisconsin 51-69.

Matthews, L. 1971. The life of mammals. Volume II. Universe Books. New York. 440 pp. A— 21

Mech, L. 1970. The wolf: The ecology and behavior of an endangered species. Amer. Mus. of Nat. Hist. Press. Garden City, N.Y. 384 pp.

Mech, L. 1974. Canis lupus. Mammalian Species, 37:1-6.

Mumford, R. and D. Zimmerman. 1963. The southern yellow bat in New Mexico. J. Mamm., 44:417-418.

Pizzimenti, J. 1975. Evolution of the prairie dog Genus Cynomys. Occas. Papers Mus., Univ. Kansas 39:1-73.

Webb, O. 1954. Perognathus nelsoni canescens in New Mexico. J. Mamm., 35:453.

Young, S. and E. Goldman. 1 944. The wolves of North America. Washington, D.C. Amer. Wildl. Inst. 636 pp. B-1

Olivaceous cormorant (Phalacrocorax olivaceus)

State endangered (Group 11)

Distinguishing features: Cormorants are moderately large, dark, long-necked, short- legged waterbirds with hooked beaks, the latter feature separating them from most similar birds. The brownish or blackish coloration separates them from mergansers; and the short tail does from the rare-in-New Mexico frigate-birds (these have a long forked tail). Pelicans have long bills and notable throat pouches. Cormorants swim and dive readily, drying wings in spread-eagle posture outside the water; they also fly reapidly in level flight, forming lines or V's when in flocks. From similar double-crested cormorant (P. auritus), the olivaceous is usually difficult to distinguish, but the latter in breeding plumage has the throat pouch bordered with white. When seen together, the olivaceous is obviously smaller (length 24-28 inches; double- creA 30-36 inches; wingspan in the olivaceous about 3i feet, versus 4 feet or more in doublecrest). Principe (ms) reports that in the olivaceous, the center of the t hroat pouch is indented (versus extended in the doublecrest) and is never bright orange.

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Other descriptive details: The tail is short and stiff, and the wings are long; the feet are webbed, and the bill is moderately long and hooked. Adults are blackish, in breeding plumage with thin white line of feathers bordering throat patch and scattered white feathers on head and neck; the iris is greenish, bill and feet largely blackish, and the bare skin of face and throat pale orange or yellow. !matures and brown above and buff to light brown below; eye dark. Two subspecies may occur, the larger, more greenish or violaceous P.o. mexicanus from the Gulf of Mexico and the smaller, browner P.o. chanLho from the Gulf of California; significant measurements are (mexicanus versus chancho): culmen length 43-50 and 38-43 mm, tarsus length 52-56 and 48-50 mm (van Rossem, 1939).

Distribution: Occurs widely in tropical and adjacent temperate parts of the Americas, ranging northward to the Louisiana, Texas, and Sonora coasts and Southwest. New Mexic): First recorded in 1 854; first recorded breeding at Elephant Butte Lake (Narrows area) in 1972; this and one in Oklahoma are the northernmost colonies, that in New Mexico having some 700 miles north of nearest ones in Texas and Mexico. Away from Elephant Butte the species is also recorded occasionally in the Rio Grande Valley (north)toSocorro and south to Las Cruces), in the Gila Valley (Cliff area), and probably in thelowerPecos Valley (e.g. Bitter Lake N.W.R.) and the extreme southwest. It may be resident, although there are few winter records in the state.

Biology: These aquatic birds are generally found on larger bodies of water, such as reservoirs, where they prey on fish--probably main "rough" species in New Mexico. When flying they usually stay close to the water and are capable of swift flight. They nest near, or preferably over, water, in vegetation such as dead snags or trees. Their stick nests are host 2-4 eggs; the latter are chalky greenish white and average 57 x 34 mm. The young are hatched naked, but they soon acquire a covering of dark down feathers. Adults and young both are often quite noisy, issuing sounds that include croaks, grunts, braying, and whining.

Status: In general, this is a successful and adaptable species, judging from its wide distribution. In New Mexico, it has been regular in occurrence since 1972, but numbers are presently small--with maximum counts in 1975 of seven nests, which fledged 5 young (Hundertmark, 1975). Low numbers, plus limited availability of nesting sites, persecution as fish-eaters, and fluctuation in food supply combine to a potential threat to survival. Conservation: Habitat destruction is the main threat, and in particular this would apply to the stands of drowned trees and other growth that are used for nesting. The critical area of nesting occupancy in New Mexico is in the upper end of Elephant Butte Lake, in the stretch called the "Narrows". Disturbance and direct persecution are also threats to this species, as would be any activity that reduced the food supply, which may be largely the abundant, introduced gizzard shad (Dorosoma cepedianum), a species favored by the doublecrest (Mendall, 1936).

Remarks: This neotropical species reaches its northern breeding limits in New Mexico, where a single nesting population occurs; the preservation of the species in the area seems fully justified. B-5

Mississippi kite (Ictinia mississippiensis)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This rather small (length 1 4 inches; wingspan 3 feet), aerial, and extremely graceful raptor may be recognized by its long pointed wings, slightly forked tail, and variously whitish to black plumage. I mmatures resemble adults but are browner above and are heavily streaked below with brown.

Other descriptive details: In adults the back and wings are mainly dark gray, except the se nda , ies are tipped whitish; primaries, lores, and tail are blackish, • the former with some pale rufous; remaining plumage pale gray, palest on head; claws and bill black, iris red, feet yellowish. 'matures are variously brown and rufous above and on wings; head whitish with black streaks; underparts whitish with heavy reddish-brown streaks; primaries, lores, and tail blackish, latter with whitish bars. Wing 270.3-313.6 mm, tail 153.0-178.5 (Bailey, 1921).

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Distribution: Breeds in the southeastern U.S. and westward through the southern Great Plains, locally to the Southwest; winters from Florida and Texas into Central America. New Mexico: Summers locally in the central and southern Rio Grande Val- ley, lower Pecos Valley, and at Portales. Migrants occur in the eastern plains north to Clayton; vagrant in the San Juan Valley and in the southwest west of the It Cool* liam..kco Volley; Glla Volley; Cloverdale).

Biology: This exquisite bird is an aerial species to an extreme degree, spending most of its waking hours, even feeding, on the wing. The primary food is insects, especially cicadas and grasshoppers. In areas such as the Texas Panhandle, groups of kites may be seen, but in New Mexico pairs or families are the largest con- centrations normally observed. These kites build stick nests well up in trees, and the clutch is 2-3 whitish eggs; these average 42 x 32 mm (Reed, 1965). Var- ied habitats are chosen, but in New Mexico lowland riparian woodlands and planted groves are the major ones.

Status: Overall, the species appears to be flourishing in the Southern Plains, but farther east populations have shown marked declines in the past. In New Mexico there is a vague record of specimens taken in 1851 (Bailey, 1928), but acceptable reports are largely since the mid-1950's in the state. In the last two decades the species has expanded its range and bred in several such areas, but numbers still remain low and may have fallen in the state.

Conservation: Preservation of riparian woodland and suitable planted groves for nesting seems basic to the survival of this species in New Mexico. In addition, protection from disturbance is needed; unfortunately, shooting and other persecution still takes a toll.

Remarks: Along with the small Arizona population, that of New Mexico represents the western limits of this extremely handsome and graceful little raptor, and every effort should be made to protect and preserve it here. B-9

Gray hawk (Buteo nitidus maximus)

State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: This rather small (length 16-18 inches, wingspan 3 feet) raptor can be distinguished in the adult plumage by its gray upperparts, white rump, throat, and undertail coverts, whitish underparts barred with gray, and black tail banded with white. The adult goshawk (Accipiter aentilis) resembles the gray hawk, but it has a longer tail, a blackish cap, a pale eyeline, gray rump, and the tail banded gray and white. Immature gray hawks are dark brown above (mottled with buff or rufous) and are buffy streaked with brown below; the tail has dark bands and a pale tip. They resemble the young of other buteos (e.g. Swainson's hawk, B. swainsoni)

Other descriptive details: Adults have the wing quills black tipped with white, and the wing linings white. The iris is brown, the cere and feet yellow, and the bill blackish. Wing 250-272 mm in males and 275-289 in females, tail 151-187 and 175-195 (Oberholser, 1974).

Distribution: The species occurs from the Southwest through South America to Paraguay and Argentina; the subspecies maximus occurs from southwestern U.S. southward in Mexico to Nayarit, San Luis Potosi, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas (Oberholser, 1 974). New Mexico: Reported in the Gila and Mimbres valleys and once at San Simon Cienaga, Hidalgo Co.

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Biology: In the Southwest this species is typically associated with fairly dense growths of trees, usually in lowland riparian sites. There it feeds on a variety of prey, including lizards in large part. The flight is swift and dashing when hunting, but the species also soars at times and may sit quietly on a concealed perch. The nest is comprised of sticks and is placed in a tree. The clutch is 2-3 whitish eggs, sometimes with faint reddish dots; these average 51 x 41 mm (Oberholser, 1 974). Var- ious whistled notes are given by these birds, including a loud, plaintive peeee-eer call.

Status: In tropical America the status of this species is poorly known, but no drastic declines are apparent. In the Southwest, however, there has been a definite decrease in range and numbers in both Texas (Oberholser, 1974) and in Arizona (Phillips et. al, 1 964). In New Mexico this species appears to be at most a rare summer resident, and it may be that most records are of vagrants. For many years the species was known there only on the basis of two sets of eggs collected at Ft. Bayard, Grant Co., in April 1876; however, these were reidentified as the eggs of Cooper's hawk (Acci iter cooperii)--by Hubbard (1975)--but see Zimmerman (1976). In 1953, a report (rel iabÎ T was obtained of an adult and a young bird in the Gila Valley (Ligon, 1961), and in subsequent years a few other birds have been encountered in the southwest. B-10

Conservation: Habitat destruction is perhaps the major problem confronting the species in the U.S., although shooting and disturbance of nests are also detrimental factors. All eyries should begiven strict protection, and all possible riparian woodland should be preserved for this and other species.

Remarks: Every effort should be made to perpetuate this hawk in the Southwest, where the species reaches its northern periphery. B-11

Black hawk (Buteogallus anthracinus anthracinus)

State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing details: In keeping with the name, this medium-sized raptor (length 20-23 inches; wing span 4 feet) is mainly black, and as such it is distinguished from most other birds of prey. It differs from the zone-tailed hawk (Buteo albonotatus) in its much broader wings (with pale bases to the primaries) and in its tail pattern, i.e. black with a white tip base and single broad white band (versus several narrow bands in albonotatus that are whitish below and pale gray above). Melanistic buteos of other species usually have tails different from Buteogallus, as does the bare-headed turkey vulture (Cathartes aura). The immature black hawk resembles that of such species as the Swainson's hawic—Iliuteo swainsoni), but the wings are very broad.

Other descriptive details: Adults have the bill black, iris dark brown, and the cere and legs yellow. Wing 380-405 mm (both sexes), tail 192-228 in males and 203-244 in females (Brown and Amadon, 1968). I mmature are blackish-brown above, with rusty or yellowish-brown markings; the underwings and underparts are yellowish- brown, streaked especially on the body with blackish (barred on the thighs); the tail and wings are light brown, variously barred with blackish (Bailey, 1928).

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Distribution: Southwestern U.S. to Peru and Paraguay; in the U.S. summers from south Texas to central-western Arizona; the subspecies anthracinus is wide-ranging northward. New Mexico: Summers primarily in the Gila, San Francisco, and Mimbres drainages at 4500 to 5500 (rarely 7000) feet; also has occurred sparingly in the Rio Grande Valley, and bred near Albuquerque in 1971-72 (Hundertmark, 1974). No verified records exist to the east or north of the above areas. Biology: In the neotropics this species occupies a wide array of habitats, including areas where it subsists largely on land crabs. In the Southwest it is characteristically found in cottonwood and other woodlands along permanent lowland streams. There it takes a variety of prey, including invertebrates such as insects and vertebrates such as fish, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and even birds; in food habits it is harmless as far as man's chief interests are concerned. In the spring the species is quite vocal in its courtship activities, and on the wing this is this is truly an impressive bird. The bulky nest is constructed of sticks and typically placed high in a cottonwood; the clutch is generally two eggs, which are white, with irregular brown blotches concentrated at the larger end. Eggs average 57 x 46 mm (Reed, 1965).

Status: South of the U.S. this species is locally common for a raptor, and even north of the border it occurs in moderate numbers in some areas. This species is a generally uncommon summer resident (March to October, rarely November) in New Mexico, being most numerous on the Gila River where several pairs are known to nest. No serious decline has been definitely documented in the state, but without doubt the bird has decreased as habitat has been lost.

Conservation: In New Mexico, the preservation of its riparian habitat and protection from persecution are prime considerations in perpetuating this species. In particular, the preservation or restoration of cottonwoods on the Gila, Mimbres, and San Francisco rivers would benefit this hawk, which is a bird that appears in no way to conflict with man. Wanton shooting of adults, young, and nests is also a problem, and enforcement of the state's raptor protection law is essential.

Remarks: This interesting and spectacular neotropical raptor reaches its northern limits in the Southwest, and everything should be done to preserve it as a member of our fauna. B-1 3

Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)

Federal endangered/State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: Adults of this huge (length 30 to 43 inches; wingspan 7 to 8 feet), dark eagle areeasily recognized by their white heads and tails. !matures resemble golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), but generally they have pale areas on underwing lining, breast and/or abdomen; these areas are all dark in the golden eagle. Young bald eagles also show the more slender wings, larger bill, and bare legs (feathered in goldens) of their species, and the dark areas on the pale tail feathers tend to be longitudinal mottling or diffuse tipping, versus transverse barring in adult golden eagles and a sharply defined tipping in immatures. Golden eagles have the nape light brown ("golden") in all plumages.

Other descriptive details: Adults have the iris, cere, bill, and legs yellow; the claws are black. I mmatures are grayish black with various whitish mottling; iris brown, cere and bill grayish to black. The southern race is distinguished from

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the northern (H.1. alascensis) on the basis of smaller size (Brown and Amadon, 190), i.e. adult male wing 515-545 mm and tail 232-264 (versus 570-612 and 290-322 in northern); females 548-588 mm and 247-286 (605-685 and 300-365). Actually, the two races intergrade broadly, and the line of demarcation between breeding populations is arbitrarily defined (A.O.U., 1957).

Distribution: As a species breeds from Alaska to Newfoundland and southward to Baja, Lalitornia, the Southwest, lexas, and Florida; winters southward to northern Mexico. The northern race is said to breed southward from northern California, southern Utah, northern Texas, southern Illinois, and Virginia (A.O.U., 1957). This demarcation places southwestern breeding birds in the southern race, although spec- i mens to show this are largely lacking. In winter, influxes of eagles occur in the area south of the above line, and presumably these are birds of the northern race migrating southward. New Mexico: Few nests have been found in the state, these including two on the upper Gila River, Catron Co., some time before 1928, perhaps in 1913 or 1920 (Bailey, 1928). A nest was also reported near the present Navajo Res- ervoir, San Juan Co., and a previously used eyrie was found near Beaverhead, Catron Co. in about 1962 (T. Smylie, pers. comm.). Ogren (1962:13) states that the species formerly nested on the Canadian River in the area of the Mora-Harding county line, but he gave no substantiating details. Recent summer records in the Sangre de Cristo Mts. area suggest the possibility of eagles breeding there. In winter and migration the species is relatively widespread and even locally common in the state, especially along major northern and western streams and reservoirs, e.g. San Juan River and Navajo Lake; El Vado and Heron lakes (Rio Arriba Co.); Pecos River south to Santa Rosa (Guadalupe Co.); McAllister Lake (San Miguel Co.) north to Colorado line; Canadian River east to Conchas Lake (San Miguel Co.); and the upper San Francisco and Gila drainages (Catron and Grand cos.).

Biology: This is preeminently a water-oriented eagle, feeding on fish that it captures or scavenges and to a lesser extent on waterbirds and mammals of various kinds. In New Mexico, the food habits have not been studied, but breeding birds probably fed largely on such fish as suckers. The nests found in the state have been on rock pinnacles, cliffs, or trees near water. Elsewhere, the nests are mainly in trees, which sometimes topple as the hugh structures are added to through the years. Typically the clutch is of 2 eggs (average 70 x 53 mm); they are unmarked whitish (Reed, 1965). This is truly a magnificent bird, whether perched or wheeling in flight; the calls are various loud cackling or whistled notes.

Status: South of Canada the bald eagle has declined drastically in range and numbers in recent decades, primarily because the ingestion of hydrocarbon pesticide residues in prey has caused thinning of the eggshells and consequent failures in reproduction. Northern populations appear to be in better condition, but in such areas as the eastern U.S. coast there have been severe decreases in breeding eagle numbers. Bald eagles are no longer known to nest in New Mexico, but the breeding population may always have been small in historic times. What may have caused the apparent extirpation of this population remains unknown; however, the possibility exists that stream degradation and other factors caused the food supply to decline to a point it could no longer support breeding birds. Persecution may have been a problem as well (e.g. shooting, disturbance at the nest), but such factors as pesticides would not seem to be involved. On the other hand, winter and migrant populations seem to have notably increased, apparently the result of reservoir construction and expansion of "rough" fish populations. In the winter of 1978-79, an estimated 200 to 300 eagles are thought to have been present in the state.

Conservation: Control of pesticide use and of persecution, making sufficient food available, and preservation of habitat are essential problems to be solved if this species is to persist, especially south of Canada. In New Mexico (and Arizona) riparian areas that have or might sustain breeding eagles deserve the strictest protection, and the quality of the habitat should be preserved to allow food fishes to populate to the point of sustaining adults and their offspring. Suppression of disturbance is also needed, and both occupied and historic eyries should be considered as critical habitat.

Remarks: This is among the largest raptors in North America, to which continent it is endemic. Every effort should be made to perpetuate and preserve the species and restoration of breeding populations should be of highest priority. B-17

Caracara (Polyborus cheriway auduboni)

State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: In flight, this moderately large (length 20-25 inches, wingspan 4 feet), blackish raptor is recognizable by the whitish throat and basal areas of the primaries and tail (this dark-tipped). The flight is rather stiff-winged or "wooden". When seen closer, the black crest and red skin of the face help identify it.

Other descriptive details: The whitish areas of the throat, wing, tail, and undertail coverts are all variously barred with blackish. The bill is bluish gray, the iris reddish, legs yellow, and the claws black. Wing 370-418 mm in males and 373-408 in females; tail (both sexes) 223-254 (Brown and Amadon, 1968). !matures are similar, but the body plumage is brownish with paler streaking.

Distribution: The species occurs from the Southwest, Texas, and Florida to Peru, Guianas, and Cuba; the race auduboni occurs over most of North American range. New Mexico: There are only five reports, including an amazing record of a family near Belen, Valencia Co., in the summer of 1953; one of the immature birds was sec- ured by James Peckum (Ligon, 1961). Other records are of single birds in Dona Ana Co. in 1856 and 1914, Luna Co. in 1969, and Grant Co. in 1975 (Hubbard, 1978).

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Biology: This opportunistic bird has more the habits of a vulture than a hawk, as it takes carrion and insects perhaps as often as it captures and kills vertebrate prey. It is known to take disabled or young mammals and birds on occasion, and its diet also includes eggs, fish, turtles, lizards, snakes, and vegetable matter. The nest is a large stick structure in a tree or shrub, in which are laid 2-4 eggs; these are white to light reddish brown, heavily spotted with darker, and they average 64 x 46 mm (Reed, 1965). The name of the bird apparently comes for the call, which is a hoarse cackle given as the head is thrown back. In Arizona and Texas the species inhabits open desert scrub or savanna areas.

Status: The species and race auduboni are locally common in the tropics, but in general the numbers and range have declined in the U.S. Judging from the few records, this species would be regarded as only a vagrant to New Mexico, except for the fact that it apparently bred in the state in 1953. Even so, it must be regarded as irregular at best, and it is most apt to occur in the southernmost part of the state--in or near the Rio Grande Valley. B-18

Conservation: Within reason, this species seems to tolerate mankind, and short of severe destruction of its habitat and determined persecution, it would seem able to survive in much of its range. However, in the inland Southwest it would seem to require strict protection from any kind of disturbance, and even then it may only be a temporary or intermittent visitor to the area.

Remarks: This interesting species deserves protection in its peripheral areas of occurrence. B-19

Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum)

Federal endangered/State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: A moderate-sized (length 15 to 20 inches, wingspan 40 to 45 inches) falcon, variously gray above in the adult, with whitish underparts (variably washed with rufous), blackish crown, black ventral barring/ spotting on the posterior two-thirds, and a generally heavy black malar stripe I mmoturc., ore dark brown dln)ve with buff to light brown feathel edges; ventrally they are buffy, streaked with blackish or dark brown. The latter differ from prairie falcons (F. mexicanus) in being darker and having axillars ("armpit") no darker than other wing feathers; adults and immatures are much larger than merlins (F. columbarius), and the latter species lacks the moustache.

Other descriptive details: The tail in adults is dark gray with several lighter bars and a whitish tip; wing quills blackish with whitish spots; underwings spotted or barred with whitish; cere, eye-ring, and feet yellow, bill mainly blue- black, iris dark brown. Immatures have browner tail and wings than adult; cere, eye-ring, and feet bluish gray. Adults: wing 290-355 mm in males and 356-372 in females (Brown and Amadon, 1968).

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Distribution: Species breeds (or bred) through much of North America, southernmost South America, Eurasia (including southeast Asia), Australia, and Africa. The subspecies anatum occurs in most of North America, except north Pacific Coast and northern tundra, wintering southward to Chile. New Mexico: Breeds very locally in mountainous areas, and in migration and winter it occurs essentially statewide.

Biology: In New Mexico the peregrine falcon breds on cliffs that are typically high, relatively near water (for bathing), and overlooking large expanses or "gulfs" of air in which these swift, aerial predators can forage. Food items range from swallows to ducks, geese, and herons; in New Mexico jays, woodpeckers, and band-tailed pigeons (Columba fasciata) are among the commonly-taken prey species. Apparently in our area some adults winter near the eyrie sites, and it may be that immatures and migrants from farther north largely account for birds seen over non-breeding areas such as river valleys. Eyries are typically on ledges or in potholes, with the 3-4 eggs laid on the bare substrate. The eggs are creamy white, with moderate to very heavy reddish and chestnut speckles and splotches; average egg measurements are 52 x 39 mm (Reed, 1965). Large young have been found in nests in the state in June and July, which indicates that breeding begins by April. Incubating birds are generally silent and unobtrusive, but when the young are older or fledged, the former may boldly react to intruders including calling sharply with monosyllabic bursts, e.g. kak-kak-kak. Flight speeds average about 50-60 mph, but in a dive speeds up to 275 mph have been recorded (Brown and Amadon, 1968).

Status: Populations of the species in North America and Europe have declined drastically since the 1940's, but at least in Britain a recent upswing has been recorded. In New Mexico, few eyries have been systematically studied, so trends in the breeding population are difficult to gauge. Some eyries have been abandoned, and it may be that overall the species has declined somewhat in the state. At present, fewer than a score of active eyries are thought to be present in New Mexico, but the peregrine has probably been relatively rare in New Mexico for the last century or more. There hasalmost certainly been a decline in birds from farther north that winter in or migrate through the state.

Conservation: Pesticides associated with declines of peregrines in other parts of North America have not been used on a large scale in New Mexico, at least in those areas were the birds nest. However, New Mexico birds that migrate into areas where chemical use is high, or which prey on birds that themselves perform such migrations (e.g. ducks), are no doubt subject to the adverse effects of this contamination. Habitat destruction, shooting, collecting, and falconry have also made inroads on our population, and all of the activities need to be controlled, if the species is to remain in our fauna. In particular, eyries and their environs need full protection from any activity that might disturb the falcons, and every effort should be expended to afford this protection.

Remarks: This falcon is one of the most impressive raptors in the world, and preservation of the species as part of the state's fauna is highly desirable, especially in view of the massive declines that have occurred elsewhere. B-21

Aplomado falcon (Falco femoralis septentrionalis)

State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: This slender, long-tailed falcon is moderate-sized (length 1 5-18 inches, wingspan about 3 feet) and is distinct in pattern and coloration. It has dark gray upperparts, black or gray and white banded tail, white to buff "trim" (breast, forehead, eyeling, nape, and throat), and rufous posterior underparts; and the malar lines ("moustache"), flanks, and belly are blackish. The wing lining are all dark. lmmatures are browner above, may have the dark of the belly more restricted, and may have dark streaking on the breast. The combination of the black and white tail, dark wing lingings, moustache, and the light post-oculer streak on the head are distinctive.

Other descriptive details: Cere, eye-ring, and feet yellow; bill and claws blackish; eye dark brown. Wing 248-267 in males and 272-302 in females (Brown and Amadon, 1968).

Distribution: Occurs from southwestern U.S. through mainly eastern and southern Mexico to Argentina and Chile; the race septentrionalis occurs in U.S. and Middle America. New Mexico: Recorded in the southern lowlands, mainly in the Deming Plains to Animas region and in the Jornada del Muerto; casual in the southeast. Most records in the warmer months, but a few winter records have also been reported.

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Biology: The species has been little observed by recent workers in the U.S., but past records indicate that in New Mexico it has been typically associated with yucca grasslands and adjacent shrubby habitats at lower elevations. The bird is reported to be a rapid and graceful flyer, but it also spea-S- much time perched--including on the ground. The food is vertebrates and arthropods, these animals being taken in flight or on the ground. The nest is placed in a tree or shrub, and 2-4 white eggs are laid; these average 44.4 x 35.5 mm in size (Brown and Amadon, 1968). The few nests known from New Mexico were in areas of yucca grassland.

Status: This species appears to have been rather numerous and widespread in its New Mexico range in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. At least a dozen specimens are known from that period, as well as various sight records. In the last several decades the bird has become quite rare in the state (as well as elsewhere in the U.S.), with perhaps one reliable recorded every 5 years since the 1940's. No obvious causes have been identified to account for the decline, which has been drastic indeed.

Conservation: Strict protection of all birds of this species is needed (particularly at nests) and from shooting or otherwise removal of these falcons from the wild. In general, seemingly suitable habitat remains extensive and apparently not much changed from the time in which the species was more common in our ares.

Remarks: This handsome raptor is an interesting part of our fauna and is a neotropical species occurring here at its northern limits. It deserves our full efforts in its behalf. B-23

White-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus altipetens)

State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: This small, short-tailed grouse (length 10 inches) is distinguished from any similar bird by the presence of extensive white on the tail, belly, legs, and wings. In winter, the plumage is all white (claws, bill, l egs blackish); legs feathered to claws.

Other descriptive details: In summer, the non-white plumage areas (see above) are pale cinnamon-rufous with white and blackish mottling, spots, and bars. In autumn the plumage is similar, but the ground color is vermiculated and finely dotted with brmnish-black--especially on the posterior upperparts. The male has red comb over eye, but this is only conspicuous during breeding season. Wing 181.0-189.7 mm, tail 1 09.6-120.4 (Bailey, 1921). Downy young are various shades of brown, and the tail is gray until birds are half-grown. Iris dark brown or blackish.

Distribution: Species confined to North America (other American ptarmigan also occur in Eurasia), ranging from Alaska and the Yukon to New Mexico; the subspecies altipetens occurs in the Rockies north to Montana. New Mexico: Resident in the Sangre de Cristo Mts., i.e. (* marks most recent areas of occurrence) *Costilla, *Latir, *Wheeler, Truchas, *Santa Fe Baldy, *Tesuque, Lake, and Pecos Baldy peaks and Gold Hill. ... - . .. 7

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Biology: These grouse are typically birds of alpine tundra and timberline habitats, where their white plumage conceals them in winter snow and their brown-and-white plumage does so in other seasons and sites. The degree to which ptarmigan depend on concealment is legendary, and few birds are more difficult to detect in their chosen habitats. The propensity for studied movements and a capacity to remain immobile for long periods enhance concealment. These ptarmigan feed largely on buds, leaves, and other vegetal matter, with insects taken when available. Dwarf willow (Sal ix) seems to be a staple in the diet, but many other plants are consumed. The ground nest is a depression in the vegetation, in which the 8 to 15 eggs are laid; the latter are dull creamy to reddish, with light to heavy brown markings (Bailey, 1928), averaging 43 x 29 mm (Reed, 1965). The young are precocial (able to run and feed themselves soon after hatching), as are galliform birds in general; broods have been reported in New Mexico in May-July. Males have a strutting courtship in spring, during which time they give a cackling crow; otherwise ptarmigan are generally silent, clucking when disturbed or flushed.

Status: Over many parts of the range the species is locally common, and it is hunted in such states as Colorado. Ptarmigan in New Mexico are formerly reported to have occurred in groups of 20 or more, but since the turn of the century the species has become quite rare. At most only small groups have been reported in recent years, and these only on a few peaks in the highest mountain areas. B-24

Conservation: Although unproved, the most obvious corollary with the decline of this species in New Mexico has been the extensive grazing of tundra by livestock, especially sheep. It is logical that if sheep overly use the food resources, e.g. dwarf willow, the ptarmigan populations must suffer. In addition, livestock and herders may well have directly impacted on the birds by destruction of nests, young, and adults, the latter being taken for food. Protection of habitat and of grouse against direct persecution are essential to preserve the species; transplants (L. 1. altipetens only) may well be needed to augment the sparse remains in the state.

Remarks: The occurrence of ptarmigan in New Mexico marks their southern distribution limits, and our efforts should be expended to preserve the species there. B-25

Sharp-tailed grouse (Pedioecetes phasianellus columbianus)

State endangered (Group 1)

Distinguishing features: Differs from other drab-colored grouse in having dark, relatively pointed inner tail feathers and conspicuous white outer feathers; size moderate (length 15 to 19 Inches). Female pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) resembles this grouse, but it lacks white in the tail,

Other descriptive details: Upperparts buffy grayish or grayish buff, transversely barred with black; wings similar, but spotted with white and primaries blackish rather than brown; black and white lines on face, head with short erectile crest: chin and throat buff, remaining underparts white; V-shaped brown markings on sides and breast and to lesser degree on lower throat; feathered legs grayish; toes and bill gray to olive, iris light brown. Male has inflatable pinkish air sacs on the sides of the neck. Wing 216.7-229.5 mm, tail 1 02-140.2 (Bailey, 1921). I mmature yellowish brown above with irregular black patches and white streaks, wings with white spots; white below, except breast, flanks, and sides pale yellow-brown with small black spots and white streaks. Downy young yellowish brown with suggestion of a crest (Bailey, 1928).

Distribution: Species resident from Alaska eastward to Hudson Bay and the Great Lakes and thence southward to northeastern California and northern New Mexico; columbianus is the Rocky Mountain race. New Mexico: Known in historic times only from northern Colfax Co., where recorded at 8000 to 9000 feet on mesas east of Raton. The species may no longer persist in the state, in spite of reintroductions in the above areas (Ligon, 1961). ,

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Biology: This is a grouse of shrublands and similar habitats, and in New Mexico it occurred in rimrock and adjacent areas in which oak, cherry, rose, and conifers dominated. Nearby grain fields were used at times (Ligon, 1961), and these may have been important for feeding--especially in winter. The ground nest is a hollow in grasses or similar growth. The eggs are creamy-buff to olive brown, lightly spotted with reddish brown; clutches are of 11 to 14 eggs (Bailey, 1928), and the eggs average 43 x 32 mm (Reed, 1965). As with certain other grouse, this species mates on leks, where males display to the attracted females. The "dance" of males involves a hunched forward posture with tail elevated, the wings drooped and spread, and the air sacs inflated; low cooing accompanies the above, as males wheel about on rapidly shuffling feet.

Status: Overall locally common, but has declined in many areas; apparently extirpated in California, but locally elsewhere has expanded its range in historic times. In New Mexico, J.S. Ligon found these birds reasonably common in 1926, with 75 seen in two days in November. Only a small remnant persisted as of 15 years ago (Ligon, 1961), and the present numbers, if any, are unknown. In March 1952, some 21 birds from North Dakota were released by the Department of Game and Fish in Colfax County (N.M.G.F. B-26

fiies). In prehistoric times grouse appears to have been more widely distributed, as its remains have been found in several archaeological sites.

Conservation: Habitat protection and/or restoration are essential, and without a better understanding of requirements, this may be difficult. No further transplants should be made without habitat study.

Remarks: This species is certainly deserving of efforts to perpetuate It in New Mexico, where it is at its southern distributional limits. B-27

Sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus)

State endangered (Group 1)

Distinguishing leatures: The long pointed Lail and black belly will distinguish this from all other of our grouse. Both sexes are larger than any of our other grouse (males: length 26-30 inches, weight 41 to 8 lbs.; females 21-23 inches), and only the turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) is larger among our native gallinaceous birds.

Other descriptive features: Males are gray mottled with whitish above and on the legs, sides, and undertail region; the throat, chin, and face are black with a white V extending from the ear region to the mid-throat; the underwing coverts, breast and adjacent abdomen are white; the tail and wing quills are blackish, and there are wing black feathers on the sides of the breast; the bill, iris, and claws are blackish, and the eye comb and breast sacs are yellow or orangish. Fe- males are gray mottled with whitish, except the throat and lower breast are more extensively white and the belly is brownish black. Wing 282- 323 Inc in males and 248-279 mm in females, tails 297-332 and 188-213 (Johnsgard, 1973). Young birds resemble the female, but they are buffier and have the belly with more white.

Distribution: Species resident from British Columbia and Saskatchewan to northern New Mexico. New Mexico: Known natively from the sagebrush (Artemsia tridentata) regions around Tres Piedras and Tierra Amarilla (Bailey, 1928), but persists now only in the former area. In 1933 and 1936 birds from Wyoming were transplanted into the former area, near Taos, and at Lake Burford on the Jicarilla Apache Res- ervation (Ligon, 1961). Additional releases were made in the general area in 1 949 and 1958 (Merrill, 1967), and at Navajo Lake in 1969 (N.M.G.F. files). (Note: release records are not shown on the maps).

Biology: This is the characteristic grouse of extensive areas of the Great Basin and northward and eastward. There it feeds on sagebrush leaves, forbs, grasses, and insects; in the intestinal biota are organisms that allow it to break down and use the vegetation of Artemsia, which is of greater nutritive value than such plants as alfalfa (Pough, 1949). Sage grouse often occur in bands, and in the breeding season the males perform elaborate "dances" on leks where females come for mating purposes. The male display involves strutting with tail erect and fanned, breast expanded, and the air sacs rapidly protruded in and out; all of this occurs ac- companied by low-pitched bubbling sounds. The ground nest is a hollow, typically under saqebursh, in which 7-17 eggs are laid; these are grayish or greenish drab, lightly to heavily dotted are spotted with reddish brown. These average 55 x 38 mm (Reed, 1965). The precocial young eat mainly insects, especially grasshoppers. B-28

StatJs: :his species is still locally common in parts of its range, and it is hunted in several states. As for New Mexico, the species is apparently extirpated from the Chama Valley, and transplanted birds also appear to have died out on the Jicarilla Reservation and at Navajo Lake; a few birds persist in the Tres Piedras- Taos region, but the numbers are thought to be declining. The bird is said to have been common in the latter area at least to 1908 (Bailey, 1928), but by 1912 it was gone from the Chama area (Ligon, 1961).

Conservation: Sagebrush habitat for this species appears to be quite extensive in New Mexico, but its quality may be inferior, e.g. lacking in proper forbs. Prior to any additional future transplants--which seem among the most promising management tools--study of habitat parameters should be undertaken. The upper Rio Grande and Chama valleys would seem logical areas for eventual restoration of the species.

Remarks: Efforts to restore populations in northern New Mexico could assure the • continued existence of this grouse at the historic southern limits of the species. B-29

(Mexican) turkey (Meleagris gallopavo mexicana)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This form resembles the wild-type barnyard turkey, including in its whitish tail tips (these are buff to light brown in merriami); it is best separated from domestic birds by behavior (i.e. wild, able to fly well, etc.) and general occurrence away from houses and farms. These are huge birds (males; length 45-50 inches, weight 12-40 lbs.; females smaller) with small, essentially bare heath,. They are easily distinguished from any other bird when seen well, and the gobble of the male and the put-put call are also distinctive.

Other descriptive details: The male is dark brown to blackish with bronzy green and reddish iridescence (underparts duller, especially posteriorly); the feathers of the lower back, and rump, and tail coverts are broadly tipped with buffy white and the ' tail is brown with light tip and many narrow blackish bands. The colors of the head neck, and wattles are bluish, violet, white, and red; and there is a bristly "beard" on the breast. Females are similar to males, but they are duller and lack wattles and the beard.

Distribution: As a species, this bird is native to the eastern U.S., the Southwest, and northern and central Mexico; the race mexicana occurs from extreme southwestern New Mexico to northern Jalisco and perhaps Hidalgo. New Mexico: Mexicana occurs in the U.S. exclusively in the Peloncillo and in the Animas mountains of this state.

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Biology: Mexicana probably does not differ materially in its biology from merriami, inhabiting wooded country that supplies it with mast, insects, and other food. In New Mexico mexicana is known only from mountains where live-oak and pine-oak woodlands predominate, and it is likely that acorns are a major food. Wild turkeys typically occur in small groups, walking loosely together while foraging; they roost in taller trees at night. In spring, the males perform their strutting-gobbling courtship ritual, and shortly afterwards the hens solitarily seek suitable nesting areas. The nests are placed on the ground, typically at the upper side of the base of a tree on a north slope in merriami (Ligon, 1961). The nest itself is a scantily lined depression, into which 9-12 eggs are laid; these are creamy white heavily speckled with brown. When not being incubated, the eggs are partially covered by the female with vegetal matter. Several females may consolidate their young, which are able to run soon after hatching and to fly within several days. In merriami, birds mature sexually and breed in their second year according to Ligon (1961).

Status: Undoubtedly mexicana has declined in Mexico in historic time, but populational figures are not available. Marshall (1957) found the species only once in the Sierra Madre Occidental in 1951-53 where Leopold (1949) contended that it was previously numerous. In New Mexico, small numbers of turkeys are reported to inhabit B-30 southwestern Hidalgo Co., where a female mexicana was taken near Cloverdale in May 1 957 (Mus. Vert. Zoology 135247). Presumably these all pertain to this race, although merriami was introduced in the area in the past (Ligon, 1961).

Conservation: Protection of habitat and of the birds against killing and excessive disturbance are essential to the preservation of this race in the U.S. Forest fires and poaching may be the greatest threats, although undue clearing or lumbering, overgrazing, loss or lack of water, and/or introduction of merriami or domestic turkeys would also be detrimental. The Peloncillo and Animas mts. are critical habitat areas.

Remarks: This race of turkey reaches its northern limits in extreme southwestern New Mexico, and it deserves our full efforts to maintain it as a member of our fauna. B-31

Whooping crane (Grus americana)

Federal endangered/State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: Adults, with their white plumage, black wingtips, long neck and legs, and red forehead are unmistakable when seen well. Other white birds with black wing tips have short legs, i.e. white pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos) and snow goose (Chen caerulescens); or notably more black in the wings (plus in the tail), i.e. wood stork (Mycteria americana); or have longer bills, i.e. white ibis (Eudocimus albus). Young whoopers resemble adults, but the plumage is washed with varying amounts of rust or brown, and the forehead is fe3thered.

Other descriptive details: Size huge (length 50-54 inches and wingspan 6-7 feet). Adults have the iris and bills yellowish and the legs black; immatures similar in soft part colors, but duller. B-32

Distribution: Formerly rather widespread in North America, but through historic times has declined to the point that at present it breeds only in Wood Buffalo Natl. Park, N.W.T.; from there it migrates through the Great Plains to winter on the Texas coast at Arkansas N.W.R. In 1975 and subsequent years, an experimental population has been produced at Gray Lake N.W.R., Idaho, by transferring whooper eggs to be fostered by sandhill cranes (G. canadensis). As of the winter of 1977- 78, 8 or 9 birds from this experiment were known to survive. New Mexico: All of the young birds from the Grays Lake flock migrate to New Mexico in the autumn, and most winter there in the central Rio Grande Valley (a few apparently continue through to Mexico). Previously, the only records of this species in the state were from Dona Ana Co. in March and October in the mid-1850's (Henry, 1855); a possible record near Clayton on October 1965 cannot be verified and is unlikely.

Biology: At the time this species was first encountered by European man it ranged widely, both geographically and ecologically, on the continent. Even the last two known breeding populations demonstrated this, one being found in the muskegs of northwest Canada (migrating to winter on the Gulf Coast), and the other being resident in the coastal marshes of Louisiana, where now extirpated. From this it would appear that the species was adaptable (in terms of the natural environment), ex- ploiting a wide range of conditions. Perhaps the Grays Lake experiment will be a step toward restoration of the species to some of its former ecological and geo- graphic range. Whoopers build their nests of grasses, etc. on the ground or mats of vegetation, where they lay 1-3 eggs; these are brownish-olive, spotted and blotched with reddish brown. Normally only one chick survives to flying stage, and sexual maturity is attained in 3-4 years. Adults pair for life and return to their old territories in subsequent years.

Status: From Thomas Nuttall's account in 1811, migrant whoopers by the thousands reportedly funneled down the Mississippi Valley (Bailey, 1928); a century later these legions were gone. At times in the last 35 years or so, the total populaton dipped to about two dozen birds, but the wild population now has risen to 60 or 70 birds in North America. It appears that in New Mexico the whooper was never common, and it was not reported in the state again for over a century after the report of Henn/ (1855). Now, of course, we await the results of the experimental program began in 1975.

Conservation: The causes for the drastic decline of this species are probably many, but habitat destruction, disturbance, and persecution were surely the main ones. Mankind has obviously attempted to reverse some of these factors in order to restore the species, but the commitment cannot flag lest extinction again loom.

Remarks: This truly noble endemic America crane deserves our strongest commitment to its survival. B-33

(Interior) least tern (Sterna albifrons athalassos)

State endangered (Group 11)

Distinguishing features: This is small (length 8i-91 inches), aerial waterbird with long pointed wings and a shallowly forked, white tail. The adult is largely white, with grayish wings (blackish outer primaries) and a black cap (forehead white); the bill is typically yellow with blackish tip. Other terns are larger, with reddish or blackish bills and more deeply forked or darker tails. I mmatures resemble the adult, but the wings are darker, the blackish on the head is confined to nape, and the bill is darker.

Other descriptive details: The iris is brown and the feet yellowish in adults. Wing 1 66-176 mm in males and 161-169 in females, tail 70.5-92.5 and 67.5-83 (Oberholser, 1 974).

Distribution: The species is widely distributed over the earth; the race athalassos breeds in the Great Plains and upper Mississippi Valley, wintering from the Gulf of Mexico southward. New Mexico: Summers at Bitter Lake N.W.R., Chaves Co.; occasional in migration in Eddy County and to be expected in Lea and adjacent counties (casual in Socorro County).

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Biology: This colonial species is characterized by its light, swift, and graceful flight, and the bird spends much of its time on the wing. Although typically associated with water, this tern seldom swims, preferring to snatch fish, crustaceans, and insect food from the surface. It nests on the ground, typically on a sand bar, beach, or playa. There it makes a shallow scrape, in which the 1-4 eggs are laid; these are variously buff with irregular dark splotchings and dots, and they average 31 x 23.5 mm (Oberholser, 1974). The calls are various kittering notes, including a sharp kit; a harsh zree-eek or zeek is also given (Peterson, 1961).

Status: As oceanic beaches especially have degraded, the range and numbers of this tern have declined, and the Pacific Coast race (S.a. browni) is regarded by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as endangered. The inland race has also declined and may become a candidate for endangered or threatened listing. In New Mexico this tern was first recorded in 1950, and since then it has been present essentially annually. Populational trends over the period have been quite variable, but seldom have more than a score of birds been present in a season. In recent years especially, reproduction may not have been successful, although there have been some young produced from time to time. B-34

Conservation: Provision of proper habitat is essential, this involving level, un- vegetated ground near water and relative freedom from terrestrial predators. Such areas as sandbars and spits are used in rivers and coastally, but in New Mexico alkali flats are accepted. Improvements could be considered to make more and better habitat available. Bitter Lake N.W.R. Is a critical area of occupancy for the species in New Mexico.

Remarks. This species nests very locally in the Southern Plains-Southwest region, and every effort should be made to preserve this as a nesting bird in the area, especially in view of this subspecies possibly having declined over much of its range. B-35

Buff-collared nightjar, or Ridgway's whip-poor-will (Caprimulgus ridgwayi)

State endangered (Group 11)

Distinguishing features: This brownish night bird is best told by voice, which is a staccato series of notes that accelerate and rise in pitch. Davis (in Peterson and Chalif, 1973) renders the song as cuk-cuk-cuk-cuk-cuk-cuk-cuk-cukacheea and Edwards (1972) as cu-cu-cu-cu-cu-cu-whee-o. While the song is distinctive, to the uninitiated, the vocalizations of elf owls (Micrathene whitneyi), Cassin's kingbirds (Tyrannus vociferans), and other species could be mistaken for that of this nightjar. The plumage resembles that of the whip-poor-will (C. vociferus), except that the former is paler and has a buffy collar around the nape. Poor-will (Phalaenoptilus nuttallii) has small white tail corners, while these are large in male ridgwayi and absent or buffy in females; nighthawks (Chordeiles spp.) have white or buffy bar across primaries (note: juveniles of nightjar species may be very different from adults and could be a problem to identify). Length 81 to 9 inches; wings and tail moderately long

Other descriptive details: As in other nightjars, the bill is very small, but the gape is very large. At night the rather large eyes reflect reddish when caught in a light beam. The mottled browns and buffs of the plumage blend remarkably with the ground litter on which the bird may rest by day.

Distribution: Extreme southwestern U.S. to Honduras and Guatemala. New Mexico: Occurs only in Guadalupe Canyon in extreme southwetern Hidalgo Co. (and adjacent Cochise Co., Arizona). Only three substantiated records exist for the area, i.e. single specimens collected in 1958 in New Mexico (Kansas Univ.) and 1960 in Arizona (U.S. National Mus.), plus a bird recorded in Arizona in 1976.

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Biology: Not well known even in Mexico, but Edwards (1972) reports it in "thickets particularly in open country with many scattered shrubs and trees, or in rather open pine or pine-oak woodland with patches of dense undergrowth, often in rocky places." Dense thickets and rockiness are also evident in the area of occurrence in New Mexico, as well as in Sonora, according to Johnston and Hardy (1959). They found in June that birds called for about 40 minutes after dusk and beforedawm,beginning in the evening from roost sites. Foraging was generally done silently and near the ground, with birds moving over hilly and level areas and perching mainly in vegetation. Nesting is on the ground, where presumably two lightly marked eggs are laid.

Status: Edwards (1972) refers to the species as "rare to moderately common; irregular" in Mexico. When first discovered in New Mexico in June 1958, at least two males and quite possibly females were present in Guadalupe Canyon (Johnston and Hardy, 1959). Levy (1962) found only one bird in the Arizona portion of the canyon in three nights of searching in mid-May 1960, while only one bird was found there in July 1976 (W. Baltosser). Other published records seem to be lacking, but at least one bird was heard in June 1959 in the New Mexico part of the canyon (J.P. Hubbard, ms.). B-36

Conservation: The apparent irregularity of this bird's occurrence status in the U.S. may be due to this being an area of suboptimal habitat and the recency of the species' invasion of the area. Habitat preservation (e.g. reduction of grazing and prevention of fires and of clearing) would seem necessary to conserve it here, and further study of the birds themselves is also needed. Guadalupe Canyon is the critical area of occupancy in the U.S.

Remarks: This subtropical nightjar is at its northern limits in the above area, and every effort should be considered to perpetuate it as a member of our fauna. B-39

Violet-crowned hummingbird (Amazilia violiceps ellioti)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This species is distinguished from other hummers by the combination of violet crown (greener in females and immatures), clear white underparts, and a dark-tipped red bill. It is 3/ to 41 inches long.

Other descriptive details: Except for crown, the upperparts are bronzy brown; the tail is similar but greener. The short legs are blackish and the iris dark brown. I mmatures have buffy edges to the dorsal plumage.

Distribution: The species occurs from the southwestern U.S. through western Mexico to Chiapas; north of the border the major area of occurrence is southeastern Arizona (vagrant to west Texas), but it is local even there. The subspecies ellioti occurs in the Southwest and southward in Mexico to Colima and Hidalgo. New Mexico: Found only in Guadalupe Canyon, Hidalgo Co., where it is a summer resident.

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Biology: The range of habitats used by this species in Mexico is quite varied, but in the U.S. it is found mainly in woodlands with sycamores, mesquite, and associated plants. The species is pugnacious, and it feeds on nectar and small insects. The nests found in Guadalupe Canyon have been in sycamores and whitish in appearance with a few green lichens attached (Zimmerman and Levy, 1960); the clutch is of 2 white eggs.

Status: This is one of the common hummers of western Mexico, but in the Southwest it is at best uncommon. In New Mexico, the species was first discovered in Guadalupe Canyon in July 1950 (Ligon, 1961), where it appears to have been regularly present since then. Maximum counts there indicate only a few pairs of birds occur in the area.

Conservation: Habitat preservation is critical to this species in Guadalupe Canyon, and consequently the perpetuation of riparian woodland there is necessary. Collect- ing (and other forms of killing) should be banned to preserve the meagre numbers.

Remarks: This neotropical species reaches its northern limits in southeastern Arizona and adjacent New Mexico, and every effort should be made to preserve this peripheral population. B-40

White-eared hummingbird (Hylocharis leucotis)

State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: A medium-sized (3i inches) hummingbird with a reddish, black-typed bill and prominent white "ear" (post-ocular line) in adults of both sexes. The male is largely greenish, with a violet crown and throat area, and it is confusable only with males of the Rivoli (Eugenes fulgens) and broad-billed (Cynanthus latirostris) hummingbirds. Both of these have only small light "ear" patches, the former also being very large and the latter notably fork-tailed (they also differ in other aspects, and a good view should eliminate any confusion). Female white-eared hummingbirds resemble those of several other species (e.g. broadbill), hut the flanks and sides of the throat are scaled or spotted with green--this continuing on to the breast to a lesser degree.

Other descriptive details: Adults have the iris dark brown and feet blackish. The tail is squared or slightly rounded, all dark (green inner and blackish outer feathers) in the male, and with narrow white tips in the female. Immatures resemble females, but their plumage is washed or tipped with buff.

Distribution: Resident from the mountains of northern Mexico to Nicargua, occurring in small numbers and very locally in summer in the border region of the Southwest. New Mexico: Occurs in Bear, Indian, and probably other canyons in the Animas Mountains, Hidalgo Co., where recorded in 1973 and 1976. The regularity of occurrence in the state needs further study, as does the question of whether the species breeds.

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Biology: This species typically occurs in montane habitats in Mexico, and in the U.S. it has been found in similar types--including pine forest and in oak and pine- oak woodland and adjacent riparian sites. In behavior this species does not differ materially from many other hummers, as it is pugnacious, feeds on flowers and on insects, and so on. However, it has an interesting behavioral feature, in that males "sing" from perches for extended periods of time. The "song" is actually a series of single tink notes, delivered as the male surveys his domain. The nest is comprised of plant down and cobwebs, with lichens and other material attached to it. The eggs are white and number two, as in other hummers.

Status: No declines have been reported in the major range of the species, although habitat destruction may well have reduced overall numbers. In New Mexico, this species Has only recently been found, but it may have been overlooked in the past-- particularly as the range in which it occurs is infrequently visited and has not been studied to an extreme degree. The species appears to be limited to mesic canyons and the adjacent slopes, a habitat type which is very restricted in the Animas 14 Mountains. The maximum count to date was individuals in July 1976. B:41

Conservation: Preservation of habitat is the major consideration, and protection of canyons from developments such as mining, road-building, fires, grazing, or lumbering would be the major ways of promoting the species. Collecting should also be discouraged, as the population is probably very small.

Remarks: This species reaches its northeasternmost limits in southwestern New Mexico, and it deserves protection as a peripheral species. B -42

Broad-billed hymmingbird (Cynanthus latirostris)

State endangered (Group 11)

Distinguishing features: The slightly forked-tail male is distinctive with its essentially all-green plumage and black-tipped red bill; the undertail coverts are whitish and there is a bluish suffusion on the chin and throat. Females are distinguished by their red bill and brownish-gray underparts (see white-eared hummingbird). Length 3i to 4 inches.

Other descriptive details: The male has blackish tail and wing quills and a small white line behind the eye. The female has greenish upperparts, crown, and central tail feathers, blackish wing quills and outer tail feathers (latter white tipped), and white undertail coverts and area behind the eye. The feet are black; iris dark brown.

Distribution: Southwestern U.S. through Mexico to Chiapas; in U.S. the main range is in southeastern Arizona. New Mexico: Summers regularly only in Guadalupe Canyon, Hidalgo Co; there are also sight records near Los Alamos in June 1974, Las Vegas in 1 967, and at Bandelier Natl. Mon.

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Biology: This species occurs in a variety of habitats south of the border, but in the Southwest it is primarily found in riparian woodlands composed of sycamores, hackberries, mesquites, and associated species. There this hummer feeds on nectar and small insects. The vegetal cup nest is placed fairly high above the ground and is typically "ragged" looking, by virtue of adhering bits of bark and leaves (Peterson, 1961). The clutch is of two white eggs.

Status: The species is common in parts of Mexico and locally so in summer in southeastern Arizona. In New Mexico, it was first recorded in Guadalupe Canyon by E. A. Mearns, who collected one there in August 1893 (U.S. Nat. Museum). It was subsequently found there in the 1950's, where termed "common" by D. A. Zimmerman in the summer of 1959 (Ligon, 1961). Exact censuses seem not to have been made, so actual numbers remain to be determined.

Conservation: Habitat protection, i.e. of riparian woodland, is essential, and Guadalupe Canyon is a critical area of occurrence for this species in New Mexico.

Remarks: This neotropical species is at its northern limits in southeastern Arizona and adjacent New Mexico, and efforts to maintain this peripheral population are fully justified. B-44

Coppery-tailed trogon (Trogon elegans canescens)

State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: Unmistakable: the male has the upperparts, head, and breast iridescent green, the latter separated by white from the red posterior underparts; the female has these green and red areas brown and pink, respectively. This fluffy, long-tailed bird is clearly a refugee from the tropics, and it is only a vagrant in New Mexico. It may also be detected by its call, a hoarse coa-coa. Length 11-12 inches.

Other descriptive details: The male has the outer tail feather stippled with black and white, with white tips and black bases; the inner ones are greenish to copper- colored, tipped with black. The face, throat, flanks, and wing quills are blackish, and the flanks are washed with pink. The secondaries (and coverts) are finely mottled with white; the eye-ring and the small feet are orange, the thick bill is yellowish, and the iris is dark brown. The female has a white "ear" mark and whitish on abdomen, while the outer tail feathers are white barred blackish and tipped with white. Wing 123-136 mm in males and 1 23-134 in females, tail 155-175 and 168-184, and tarsus 1 4.5- 15.5 in race ambiguus (Oberholser, 1 974).

Distribution: The species occurs from Southwest into Costa Rica, summering locally in southeastern Arizona; the race canescens occurs in the Southwest and northwestern Mexico. New Mexico: Known from one specimen taken in Guadalupe Canyon, Hidalgo Co., in June 1957 (Peabody Mus., Yale Univ.); there are also sight records in the Animas Mountains in the 1960's (C. Hanson), 1978 (S. Dobrott ), and perhaps earlier (Ligon, 1961).

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Biology: Trogons are typically lethargic birds, given to long periods of quiet sitting--punctuated with occasional aerial forays to capture insects and other small prey and to pluck fruits. When sitting, typically in the shade and/or dense growth, they are difficult to see, in spite of their striking coloration. The flight is swift and direct, and were it not for their frequent calling, trogons would often escape notice. The coppery-tailed trogon occurs from arid shrubland up into pine-oak woodland, but in southeast Arizona, the only place of regular occurrence in the U.S., it is largely confined to sycamore woodlands in mountain canyons. There it nests in holes in trees, laying 3-4 white eggs; these average 28 x 22 mm (Reed, 1965).

Status: The species is often common in Mexico, but in Arizona it is very local and uncommon, with records centered in the Chiricahua, Santa Rita, and Huachuca mountains (Phillips et al., 1 964). In New Mexico, it is probably only a vagrant, as it is known only from one definite record. B-45

Conservation: Should an population of trogons be discovered in New Mexico, their habitat should be afforded protection. Disturbance, especially around nests, should be minimized, as even when unintentional (e,g. bird watchers), it can cause breeding attempts to be unsuccessful. Collecting or other killing should be prohibited.

Remarks: This is the sole member of the pantropical family Trogonidae known in New Mexico, where it is rare and local; every effort should be made to maintain this bird at this northern periphery of its range. B-46

Gila woodpecker (Melancrpes uropygialis uropygialis)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This moderate-sized (length 8-91 inches) species may be distinguished from other woodpeckers by its barred black-and-white upperparts, white patches at the bases of the primaries, and a head that is plain light brown in the female and that has a red crown in the male. The loud ank-ank-ank and other call notes are also diagnostic.

Other descriptive detailes: The underparts are light brown (as head), except the belly is pale yellow and crissum barred black-white. The wings (as well as back) are black-and-white barred, rump and tail having more white. The iris is brownish orange, the bill blackish, and the legs greenish. Wing 127.5-135.2 mm, tail k39,2- 99.4 mm (Bailey, 1921).

Distribution: The species ranges from southwestern U.S. through western Mexico to Aguascalientes and Jalisco; the subspecies uropygialis occurs in Arizona, New Mexico, and Sonora. New Mexico: Resident in the Gila Valley (north to Mogollon Creek, Grant Co.) and its immediate tributaries, plus Guadalupe Canyon, Hidalgo Co. Vagrant in the Animas Valley, March 1968 (John Weske Coll.), Silver City (Ligon, 1961), and in late 1978 near Glenwood, near Rodeo (R. Scholes), and at Cloverdale.

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Biology: Elsewhere this species occurs in a wide variety of lowland and middle elevation habitats, ranging from sahuaro cactus stands to open forest; however, in New Mexico it is confined to lower elevation woodlands, especially cottonwoods, along stream courses. In its limited range in the state this is typically a conspicuous bird, as much by its aggressive behavior and loud calling as by its appearance. It feeds on insects and fruits, and at times it flycatches. The nest is a hole excavated in a tree, typically in a cottonwood limb fairly high above the ground. There a clutch of 3-5 white eggs is laid; these average 25.5 x 19 mm (Reed, 1 965).

Status: Generally common as a species over much of its range, including in parts of Arizona. In New Mexico, this species was not recorded in the Gila Valley until the beginning of the 20th century, a fact which has led to speculation that the bird is a recent invader of that area (Phillips, 1968). Be that as it may, the species had attained its present range in that valley by 1908, and it was termed "common" at Redrcck in September of that year (Bailey, 1928). Since then, there appears to have been some decline in the species' numbers in the area, at least along the Gila around Cliff. At present, the bird might better be regarded as uncommon to fairly common, except that it is rare at its northern limits. B-47

Conservation: Habitat destruction, particularly in the form of clearing of cottonwoods, is a major consideration, and the preservation and restoration of riparian woodlands are essential for the survival of this species in New Mexico. In addition, it appears that a threat is growing with the expanded breeding population of starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) in the state. These introduced birds are competitors for nest holes constructed by the woodpecker, and if the latter is unsuccessful in coping, it will certainly decline in numbers. Guadalupe Canyon and the lower Gila Valley are critical areas of occupancy for it in New Mexico.

Remarks: This essentially subtropical species is at northern and eastern limits in New Mexico, and every effort is needed to preserve it here. B-48

Red-heaHed woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus caurinus)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishimg Matures: Although various woodpeckers unofficially go by name "red-headed", the present species is truly deserving of the name. Its dl red head and the striking blocks of black and white plumage are distinctive. I mmaturis rescmblc adulis, but the head and other dark areas are brownish, and they have dark mottlings on the breast, upperparts, and wings. The size is moderate for a woodpecker, at 81- to 9-i inches. The queeah call is distinctive, once learned by an observer.

Othcr descriptive details: Adults are essentially white below and black above, with the rump and large patches in the wings white; the head and neck are crimson. ii ne iris is reddish, bill and legs variously bluish gray. Wing 135.1-145.3 mm, tail 91.8-95.6 (Bailey, 1921).

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Distribution: The species occurs from southernmost Canada to northern and eastern New Mexico and the Gulf Coast; caurinus is the western form. New Mexico: Summers from the Texas line westward very locally to the San Juan Valley (regular?), the central Rio Grande Valley (south to Albuquerque area), and the lower Pecos Valley (south to Roswell and irregularly Carlsbad). Stragglers have occurred west to the Gila Valley. Most New Mexico birds probably winter in Texas, although a few birds have been recorded in our state at that season.

Biology: Eastward this species occurs in a variety of wooded habitats, although open oak and other mast-producing woodlands are among the most characteristic haunts there. In New Mexico the species is strictly associated with lower elevation rijarian woodlands and planted groves of trees. The species is often conspicuous, as it is noisy, flycatches, and frequents edge habitats, where it is more easily seen. The nest is a hole excavated in a tree, occasionally a utility pole, where 4-6 white eggs are deposited; the eggs average 25.5 x 19 mm (Reed, 1 965). In New Mexico the food must be largely insects, as little in the way of mast production is associated with its chosen habitats. In this area the species is probably less nomadic than in the east, where it seems to wander in search of food

Status: The species appears to have declined in the eastern part of its range, and judging from the meagre data this would appear also to be true of caurinus. Bailey (1928) summarized the status of this species in New Mexico, and the indication seemed to be that some decline had begun in our area by the mid-1920's. In recent years the species seems to be less frequent in occurrence in the state, although it has been discovered in the San Juan Valley where previously unknown. Overall, the range is rather extensive in the state, but the numbers are quite l ow.

Conservation: The usual features of habitat destruction and persecution have undoubtedly caused some decline in this species, but an additional problem is competition for nest holes with the introduced starling (Sturnus vulgar's). The latter is an aggressive and persistent competitor, and it consistently takes over holes from these and other woodpeckers after they are constructed; it cannot ex- cavate such holes itself to any appreciable extent. Competition is made especially severe by the fact that both the red-headed woodpecker and starling favor open, lower elevation woodlands (these are often near fields where the latter feed). Un- fortunately, it is impractical to control starlings for the benefit of woodpeckers, so the latter must promote their own survival in this regard.

Remark,,: This species reaches western and southern breeding limits in New Mexico, and efforts to preserve it there are well worth undertaking. B-50

Thick-billed kingbird (Tyrannus crassirostris pompalis)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This rather large (length 7 inches) flycatcher is similar to the Cassin's (T. vociferans) and western (T. verticalis) kingbirds with their grayish upperparts and breasts and yellow posterior underparts; it may be distinguished by its darker and browner upperparts, paler under parts, and the all-dark tail (v..ciferans has a pale tip and verticalis a white border on the tail). The typical call is a strident "pitcheery", differing from the high thin twitterings of verticalis and the lowe "chibeer" of vociferans. Large flycatchers such as Wied's (M, iarchus tyrannulus) and ash-throated (M. cinerascens) have much rufous in the plumage, especially in the wings and tail.

Other descriptive details: The blackish flycatcher bill (i.e. flattened and broad) is notably heavy, especially compared to that of verticalis, and the top of the head is dark (Lhere is a concealed yellow-orange crown patch). The bill and feet are blackish, and the iris is dark brown.

Distribution: The species ranges from the Southwest through western Mexico to Guatemala; pompalis occurs in the Southwest and southward in Mexico to Colima. New Mexico: Summers in the southwest, where found only in Guadalupe Canyon, Hidalgo Co.; there it was first discovered by Johnston and Hardy (1959) in June 1958. Vagrants have been seen near Antelope Wells, Hidalgo Co., in June 1976 and May 1977.

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Biology: This species is characteristic of thorn "forests" and adjacent habitats in western Mexico, and it enters New Mexico along the Rio Yaqui drainage. In our state it is confined to sycamore/cottonwood riparian woodland, seemingly preferring the former for nesting. The nest is a frail cup of twigs and grasses, placed high above the ground (Zimmerman, 1960); the eggs are presumably whitish with dark brown spotting, and the clutch is probably 3-5 eggs. In behavior this is a typical kingbird, perching conspicuously in the higher parts of trees and sallying out to capture insects on the wing. It is noisy and bickering, and it responds to predatory birds as fiercely as vociferans and verticalis, with which it shares Guadalupe Canyon.

Status: The speciesappears to be reasonably common in Mexico, but at the periphery of its range it is local and rare or uncommon. In New Mexico, it is a more-or-less regular summer resident in Guadalupe Canyon; numbers there seem to fluctuate from year to year, and in some years the species may be absent from the State (the numbers are higher on the Arizona side). B-51

Conservation: Habitat protection and a ban on collecting (or other killing) are essential to conservation of the species in the state. Human disturbance is probably negligible as a factor, as the birds nest and perch high above the ground. Guadalupe Canyon is the critical area of occupancy in New Mexico.

Remarks: This species is at its northern periphery in Guadalupe Canyon (and Sonoita Creek), and every measure should be taken to keep this neotropical kingbird as a member of our avifauna. B-52

Sulphur-bellied flycatcher (Myiodynastes luteiventris swarthi)

State endangered (Group 1)

Distinguishing features: This rather large (length 6 3/4 inches) flycatcher is easily identified by its blackish mask, the bold blackish streaking on the pale yellowish anterior underparts, and olive or brownish upperparts, The frequent call is a characteristic squeakingnote--whee zeet!; this recalls the noises made by the rubber squeeze toys of children.

Other descriptive details: The flattened, broad bill is relatively heavy and blackish; there are white areas bordering the black mask and on the throat, and the crown has a concealed yellow patch. The tail is largely rufous, with dusky on the central feathers; the wings are largely dusky, with pale edgings and pale yellow underwing linings. The young resemble adults, but they are buffier above. The iris, bill, and feet are blackish. Wing 108-117 mm, tail 84-92--sexes similar (Bailey, 1921).

Distribution: The species occurs from the Southwest through Costa Rica, being most common in the U.S. in Arizona, where locally numerous in summer in the southeastern mountains. The race swarthi occurs in the Southwest and in Mexico southward to Colima. New Mexico: There are three records in Guadalupe Canyon, Hidalgo Co., in 1962, 1968 and 1971, and another bird was seen near Cliff, Grant Co., in June 1976. The reports of the species by E. P. Rockhill in 1915 in the upper Gila and lower Mimbres valleys (Bailey, 1928) are vague and unlikely. _ , uum

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Biology.: South of the United States this species occupies a wide range of habitats, but in the Southwest it is closely associated with woodlands in mountain canyons (5,000 to 7,500 feet elevations). There it is a denizen especially of sycamore stands, generally remaining within the canopy. Were it not so noisy and quarrelsome, it would be difficult to detect, as its plumage allows it to melt into the dappled light and vegetation. The food is largely insects, which are seized in flight. This species seems less prone than many dther flycatchers to return to its former perch after a foray, so that its movements are more difficult to follow. The nest site is typically a hole in a sycamore branch or trunk, and the nest is generally comprised of a large collection of vegetal matter. The eggs are creamy buff, profusely blotched with purple and reddish brown, especially 6t the larger end (Bailey, 1 928); the clutch is typically 4, and the eggs average 27 x 19 mm (Reed, 1965).

Status: While common in many areas south of the U.S., this species is local and the numbers small in the Southwest. In New Mexico, it is apparently only a vagrant, ' although breeding populations exist just to the west in the Chiricahua Mts. of Arizona and to the south in Cajon Bonito in Sonora. It is possible that breeding populations could exist in New Mexico. e-9. i n the Peloncillo or Animas Mts. of Hidalgo Co., but so far there is no evidence of this. B-53

Conservation: Habitat protection is essential to conserve breeding populations, prevention of disturbance and prohibition of collecting (or other killing) are also necessary measures.

Remarks: This is another neotropical species that reaches its northern limits in the Southwest, and therefore it deserves strict protection. Although apparently only a vagrant to New Mexico, its protection as endangered there is in keeping with the fact that the total U.S. population is small and deserves full preservation efforts. B-54

Buff-breasted flycatcher (Empidonax fulvlfrons pygmaeus)

State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: This is a small (length 41-5 inches) flat-billed bird with light brownish-gray upperparts, buffy underparts, and two whitish wingbars and an eyering. Say's phoebe (Sayornis saya) is much larger and lacks wingbars; juvenile western flycatchers (E. difficilis) may have buffy on the underparts, but dorsally they are darker than fulvifrons and typically have greenish

Other descriptive details: Besides the above color and pattern details, the wings and tail are moderately dark brown, and in the latter a white edge exists along the outer web of the outer tail feather. The bill is dark brown or blackish above and pale yellowish below; the legs and feet are blackish or dark brown. Plumage is paler in spring and especially summer, due to wear and fading; in late summer molts in fresh, darker plumage. Wing 56.1-62.5 mm, tail 49.7-54.6 (Bailey, 1921). Juveniles resemble adults, but the wing bars are buffier and upperparts browner.

Distribution: Ranges from southern Southwest though Mexico to El Salvador; the subspecies pygmaeus occurs in the Southwest and Chihuahua. New Mexico: At least formerly a summer resident in the southwest, with specimen records from 17 April to 1 6 August (29 March to 12 September in Arizona--Phillips et al, 1 964). No reliable record since 1928, but prior to that found in Valencia Co. at El Morro (1873--including fledglings in July), Catron Co. near Aragon (1915) and Reserve area (1926-27, 1 929), Grant Co. near Silver City (1876, 1885) and at Hachita (1886). There are a few recent sight records from the southwest, but these are rather tentative.

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Biology: This is a common flycatcher in suitable areas in Mexico and farther south. typically frequenting lower levels in temperature forest and woodlands. The major food appears to be flying insects, which are expertly captured on the wing. The species is little known in New Mexico, where sites of past collections indicate that ponderosa pine, with such additional elements as pinyons, junipers, and oaks, were typically present in the habitat. The nest is small, deep, and compact cup of vegetal matter and spider webs (Bailey, 1928). The song is a series of phrases that can be rendered "witchy chew", delivered with surprising volume.

Status: In gener-I, this bird appears to be flourishing in Mexico, but in the South- west it h,-Js declined drastically, e.g. since 1920 in Arizona (Phillips et. al, 1964). In New Me, co, he species has not been verified in the state in 57 years. Prior to that, a total of at least 20 specimen were accumulated in a 55-year period, with most froil Cation (6) and Grant (10) counties.

C)nseivotion: Factors responsible for the decline of this species in New Mexico and Arizot J remain unclear, but fire-protection and the resultant increase in understory in pine and pine-oak woodlands may be involved (Phillips et al., 1 964; Phillips, 1968). In theory, the resultant density would have been unacceptable as a habitat aspect for the species. However, some areas of former occurrence remain relatively open, and the above would not appear to be the complete explanation for decline (Hubbard, 1972). At the present time, the dearth of data on the requirements of this species hampers rec- ommendations, but if population of birds are located, studies and habitat protection should be undertaken immediately.

Remarks: This species deserves protection in our area, where it is at its northern limits. - 5Ç

Beardless flycatcher (CamEtostoma imberbe ridgwayi)

State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: This tiny (3i inches) bird is more likely to be mistaken for a verdin (Auriparus flaviceps), vireo, or a kinglet than a flycatcher, as it gleans its insect food rather than hawking it. In general, its greenish-gray (paler below) coloration, with a whitish throat and two buffy wing bars distinguish it from the above. The thin, complaining calls--e,g, a descending peeyeer, peeyeer, peeyeer--aredistinctive once learned.

Other descriptive details: The wing and tail are brownish, the former with light edgings on the inner feathers. The bill, feet, and iris brownish to blackish. Wing 52.0-58.1 mm. tail 45.4-51.5 (Bailey, 1921).

Distribution: The species occurs from the southwestern U.S. south through Mexico to Costa Rica, summering--occasional in winter--in the U.S. mainly in southeastern Arizona; ridgwayi occurs in the Southwest and southward to Nayarit and Michoacan. New Mexico: Summers in Guadalupe Canyon, southwesternmost Hidalgo Co., where first recorded on June 1962; may have been present earlier, as first recorded in the Arizona portion of the canyon in 1 947 (Phillips et al., 1 964. A breeding record to the north in Clanton Canyon, Hidalgo Co., on May 1963 is in error and was withdrawn by the observer (Hubbard, 1 970).

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Biology: As indicated above, this is largely a "gleaner" of insects, although at times flying prey is taken. In the Southwest the species typically occurs at lower elevations in dense stands of mesquite and associated growth, typically in stream courses. It is easily overlooked, except when calling. It builds a globular nest, with the entrance on the side; the 2-3 eggs are white with dark speckles.

Status: As a species it is often relatively common south of the U.S., but it is generally rare or uncommon north of the border. In New Mexico, only a pair or two have been found per year, although in the Arizona portion of Guadalupe Canyon the species may be more numerous. Numbers appear to fluctuate to some degree, ahd in some years the species may not be present at all in New Mexico.

Conservation: This species is probably most vulnerable to loss of habitat through clearing or other destruction of dense mesquite and associated growth. Guadalupe Canyon is a critical area for the beardless flycatcher in New Mexico. Needless to say, collecting (or other killing) should be banned, at least in this oarticular canyon.

Remarks: This neotropical species reaches its northern limits in southeastern Arizona and adjacent New Mexico, where it deserves conservation as a peripheral species. B-57

Bell's vireo (Vireo bellii)

State endangered (Group 11)

Distinguishing features: This small (length 4 inches) insectivorous songbird resembles other vireos, warblers, and kinglets, and when singing can best be identified by voice. The song is a rather harsh, squeaky: zheedle zheedle zheedle zhoo? (pause) zheedle zheedle zheedle zhee1; it has been likened to someone asking a question (zhoo?) and moments later answering (zhee!) it himself (Peterson, 1961). The bird is identifiable as a vireo by its somewhat thickened bill and rather heavy - l egs (warblers and kinglets have these more slender). From other vireos it is sep arable by its pale coloration, faint eye-ring ("spectacles") and double wingbars.

Other descriptive details: The upperparts are brownish ray, and the underparts whitish, with sides washed with greenish yellow in fresh plumage. The iris is dark brown, and the bill and legs are bluish gray. Wing 53.5-513.6 mm, tail 51.8-56.1 (Bailey, 1921). . 1

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Distribution: The species breeds from southern California, the Southwest and the central Great Plains and adjacent Midwest south to northern Mexico; the race arizonae occurs in parts of the Southwest and Sonora, medius to the east. New Mexico: The race arizonae breeds in the lower Gila Valley and in Guadalupe Canyon, Hidalgo Co. (occasional elsewhere, e.g. lower San Francisco Valley); medius occupies the lower Rio Grande and lower Pecos Valley.

Biology: In New Mexico this species characteristically occurs in dense shrubland or woodland along lowland stream courses, with willows, mesquite, and seepwillows being characteristic plant species. These vireos feed on insects, moving slowly about for the most part, gleaning food from branches and leaves. The bird itself is inconspicuous, but the song draws attention to its presence. The nest is a cup of grass and other plant parts, slung between twigs or small stems not far above the ground. The 3-5 eggs are white speckled with brown; those average 18 x 13 mm (Reed, 1965). This is generally the only vireo breeding in those lowland stream- sides, although other species occur there in migration; and gray vireos (V. vicinior) may breed on nearby slopes.

Status: This species has declined locally in its range (e.g. parts of Arizona-- Phillips et al., 1964), but in general its range and numbers are probably remaining relatively stable. In New Mexico, there were few early records of this species in the state, but whether this indicates the bird was overlooked or has expanded its range is open to question. At present, the species summers only locally in the state, and numbers are too poorly known to gauge populational trends.

Conservation: Habitat preservation is a major item, and without question significant losses of riparian and associated vegetation are detrimental to this species. In addition, there is a strong case for negative impacts having occurred as the result of nest parasitism by the brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater) (e.g. Phillips et al., 1 964). Cowbirds lay their eggs in the nests of vireos and other small birds, and the latter then hatch and rear these parasites. The latter typically exspells eggs or young of the host, with the result that only cowbirds may be raised by the adult vireos. Cowbirds are often common in the habitats frequented by Bell's vireos, so that the latter are exposed to potentially severe impacts in such areas. Cowbird numbers have apparently greatly expanded in historic time, which is an unfortunate fact that some vireo population must cope with. B-59

Varied bunting (Passerina versicolor)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: Adult males appear all dark at a distance, but when seen in good light this small (41 inch) finch is distinctive. Characteristic is the plum-colored (purple) plumage, with the red nape and eye-ring and bluish rump, crown, and face. Females are dull brownish bird (paler below), and except for the absence of the wing bars, they closely resemble female lazuli buntings (P. amoena); female indigo buntings (P. cyanea) are also very similar to versicolor, but they tend to have diffuse breast streaks.

Other descriptive details: In the hand the conical bill of versicolor is more inflated than that of either amoena or cyanea; the bill is brown above and paler below in females and blackish with a pale base in males. Wing 64.5-69 mm in male and 62-66 in female versicolor, tail 53-57 and 49.5-55 (Oberholser, 1974).

Distribution: The species ranges from the Southwest (summer only) southward through Mexico to Guatemala; in the U.S. it is most regular in southeastern Arizona (race dickeyae) and in southwestern Texas (race versicolor). New Mexico: Occurs in two widley separated areas, i.e. the race versicolor in Carlsbad Caverns Natl. Park and presumably dickeyae in Guadalupe Canyon, Hidalgo Co.

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Biology: Buntings of the genus Passerina are characteristic of shrublands, second growth, and similar habitats, and in New Mexico versicolor seems to prefer dense stands of mesquite and associated growth in canyon bottoms. There the males set up territories, which they proclaim by frequent singing. The song is a clear, spritely effort resembling those of cyanea and amoena. The unobtrusive females build a vegetal, cup-shaped nest low in a shrub or other plant, where the 3-4 eggs (averaging 19 x 14 mm) are laid; these are pale bluish white (Reed, 1965). When alarmed both sexes utter sharp, metallic chip notes, and the birds may approach an observer closely around a nest or fledglings. The species feeds on seeds and insects, the latter also being the food for nestlings. B-60

Status: The species is relatively common in the drier lowlands south of the U.S. and locally so in Texas; in Arizona it Is local and generally uncommon. In New Mexico, the race versicolor was first recorded in Carlsbad Caverns National Park in July 1930, and it still persists there in small numbers. Presumed dickeyae is known to occur in small numbers in Guadalupe Canyon. where first recorded In 1961; maximum counts involve only .a few pairs, and in some years the species may be absent from the area.

Conservation: Habitat preservation is seemingly the most important consideration, and dense growths of mesquite and associated plants should be retained in all known areas of occurrence. Critical areas are Guadalupe Canyon in Hidalgo County and canyons in Carlsbad Caverns Natl. Park. Collecting (and other killing) should be banned for the most part.

Remarks: This neotropical species reaches northern limits in southern New Mexico, and every effort should be made to preserve it there. B-61

Baird's sparrow (Ammodramus bairdii)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: Views of this small (4i to 51 inches), short-tailed grassland finch are apt to be few and fleeting, as it flushes from the grass only to flutter a short distance and drop down to concealment again. When a good view is obtained it can be distinguished by the buffy-orange ground color on the streaked face and crown. Savannah sparrows (S. sandwichensis) have the ground color of this area whitish or grayish, and a yellowish area may be visible in front of the eye; thc: rare Le Conte's sparrow (A. l econtei) resembles bairdii, but its crown stripe is whitish, not orange; adult grasshopper sparrow (A. savannarum) lacks streaking on the breast, and all ages have light brown ground color on the head. Less similar to bairdii are vesper sparrows (Pooecetes gramineus), with their rusty wrists ("shoulders'') and tails that are longer and with much more white on the outer feathers. Other sparrows are less often found in grassland and differ in one or more plumage, proportion, or other characters. ..„...... , .-/ NI tiri.J14 T A I RIO 7 AR RIBA

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Other descriptive details: The upperparts are light brown, variously spotted with blackish and edged with buffy; head ochraceous, streaked with blackish on crown and around cheeks. The underparts are white to pale buff, with the breast and sides variously streaked with black. The wings and tail are dark brown, variously edged with white to buffy or reddish brown. Bill and legs are pale flesh color; the iris is dark brown. Wing 66.3-72.9 mm, tail 48.4-53.6 (Bailey, 1921). Young (which migrate to New Mexico) are similar to adults, but ochre of head paler and streaking throughout duskier, less blackish.

Distribution: Breeds from Prairie Provinces southward to North Dakota and adjacent states; migrates through Great Plains and Southwest to winter in Texas, Arizona, and adjacent Mexico. New Mexico: Formerly migrated (almost exclusively autumn) almost statewide (unrecorded only in the extreme northwest) and from the lowlands to 12,000 feet elevation. Occurrences recently have been extremely local and only in the eastern plains and southwest. The only reliable winter record is of a specimen obtained at Roswell in January 1929; recent records at Clayton, Santa Fe, Carlsbad, etc. have not been substantiated (Hubbard, 1970). Biology: As indicated above, this is a retiring ground sparrow of grasslands, although in recent years there are reports of its use of such habitats as alfalfa fields as well. Migrants in New Mexico were found in habitats ranging from desert grasslands in the south, to prairies in the northeast, and mountain meadows in the San Juan and Sangre de Cristo mountains. Migrants arrive as early as the first week of August; this fact and the occurrence of birds in juvenile plumage led to the unfounded speculation that the bird might breed in the state. By November most appear to have moved farther south, and in spring the species has been seldom detected in the state. The food consists of seeds and insects, and among the former grasses may be the most important item.

Status: The species seems to have declined throughout its range, and in the South- west it is now rarely reported. In New Mexico, the species still occurs very locally and in small numbers, where verified only in the Animas Valley (Hidalgo Co.) and in the Dry Cimarron Valley (Union Co.).

Conservation: Reasons for the decline are probably related to the effects of drought, agriculture, and grazing on the shrubby shortgrass plains where the species breeds; similar effects may have occurred in migration and winter habitats as well. If habitat degredation has caused this species to decline, obviously this trend needs to be reversed to restore the species. B-63

Yellow-eyed junco (Junco phaeonotus palliatus)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This is a moderately sized (length 51 to 61 inches), pale gray finch with a rusty triangle on the back and white abdomen and outer tail feathers. It closely resembles the gray-headed junco (Junco caniceps), but the iris is yellow rather than dark (phaeonotus also has a pale yellowish lower mandible, is more rusty above (extends on to proximal wing feathers) and walks rather than hops.

Other descriptive details: Wing 74.2-83.1 mm, tail 62.7-76.8 (Bailey, 1921). Young resemble adults but are browner and have dark streaking ventrally.

Distribution: The species occurs from southwestern United States to Guatemala; the subspecies pall iatus is resident in northern Mexico and Southwest. New Mexico: Palliatgs is known with regularity only from the Animas Mts. in Hidalgo Co. where first recorded in 1908. A vagrant was taken in the nearby Big Hatchet Mts. in May 1892 and there are occasional but unsubstantiated reports farther north (e.g. Pinos Altos Mts.).

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Biology: The habits of this species are fairly well-known in Arizona (e.g. Marshall, 1957), and the findings probably apply to New Mexico as well. The bird is a rather numerous resident of forests and adjacent pine-oak woodland, and in winter some birds may move downslope or rarely to adjacent highlands (e.g. Big Hatchets). Feeding is largely terrestrial, but shrubs and trees are used for such purposes as singing and shelter. Food is largely seeds, with insects being fed to the young; birds scratch ground to uncover seeds. The ground nest is a grass cup lined with smaller fibres or hair; the eggs are greenish-white with fine reddish brown speckling, concentrated at the larger end. The clutch size is 3 to 4 eggs, the latter averaging 1 5 x 15 mm (Reed, 1965). Alarm call is a smacking note. (twittering notes given when flushed); the song is more complicated and varied than the simple trills of most other juncos (J.c. dorsalis also has a relatively complicated song).

Status: Often common south of the U.S. and localls, so in southeastern Arizona. In New Mexico, no accurate figures have been obtained, but the species was termed "common" on Animas Peak in July 1908 (Bailey, 1928). Subsequent workers there have reported the species to be relatively numerous but largely confined to coniferous forests--which are limited in extent.

Conservation: In view of the limited numbers and range of the N.M. population, this species could be threatened by habitat destruction, e.g. fires, disease, or lumbering in coniferous forests of the Animas Mts. As much as possible these activities should be controlled or prevented. In addition, scientific collecting should be minimal, and marked disturbances should be avoided in the breeding season, i.e. April-August. The Animas Mts. are the critical area of occupancy in N.M.

Remarks: This southern species reaches its northeastern limits in the Animas Mts. of Hidalgo Co., N.M. B-64

McCown's longspur (Calcarius mccownii)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: I n winter, female, and immature plumages this terrestrial finch is very difficult to distinguish from the chestnut-collared longspur (C. ornatus), which occurs with and is more common than mccownii. When on the ground, mccownii shows some rufous in the wrist ("shoulder") area, and this is perhaps the most reliable plumage character; mccownii also appears somewhat larger and heavier-billed than ornatus. I n flight, mccownii is paler than and shows somewhat more white in the tail than ornatus, but this is quite relative. Perhaps most useful are vocal differences, with mccownii giving a chink note that appears to be absent in ornatus: The Lapland longspur (C. l apponicus) is redder above than mccownii, and both it and Smith's l ongspur—TC. pictus) have much less white in the tail. Breeding-plumaged mccownii are distinctive, especially males with their pale gray underparts and head and the black crown, malar streak, and chest patch. ------— °NMI r 7/ ww,•-4 Nava)." Rtes. Calms. Zralt Made TAOS C O FAX U N I C RIO ARRI8A • foiquiat .

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Other descriptive details: Winter, immature, and female plumages are light brown or buff above with dark brown streaking; the wings are brown with light edgings and bars. The underparts are whitish below, with buff to light brown on the breast and sided; the outer tail feathers are white, variously tipped with black, the central tail feathers are brownish to blackish). The breeding male is described above; in winter this plumage is obscured by buff or brown tipping on the feathers.

Distribution: Breeds from the Prairie P ,ovinces southward in shortgrass prairie to northeastern Colorado and southwestern Nebraska; winters from eastern Colorado and Kansas to northern Sonora, Durango, and southern Texas. New Mexico: Winters in the east and south, most recent records being in the southern half of the state.

Biology: McCown's longspurs are prairie birds of the highest degree, with a pref- erence for the shortgrass type that is common in New Mexico. In the latter area they occur with chestnut-collared longspurs, at least at watering areas (e.g. stock ponds)--where they also mix with other species, including horned larks (Eremophila alpestris). When feeding, these longspurs virtually disappear in the grasslands, as their plumage blends well and their behavior helps toward concealment. Mccownii and and ornatus have similar flight notes--a soft tri-rip, but as indicated above mccownii has a distinctive note as well. Neither species seems to sing in New Mexico. Long- spurs feed on seeds and insects, and grass seeds may well be especially important items in the diet.

Status: Overall this species seems to have declined, both on its breeding and wintering grounds; the decrease seems to have occurred since the early part of the century. In New Mexico, the species was formerly a numerous winter resident; however, since the early 1900's the numbers have declined drastically. Reliable records obtained over the last two decades show continued occurrences in the southwest and southeast; the Animas Valley, the Nutt area, and parts of the Llano Estacado (and southward) appear to be the most regular areas of occupancy. Netting operations in November 1975 showed a ratio of 1 mccownii to 25 ornatus in the Animas Valley.

Conservation: Declines in the numbers of this species may be traceable in part to habitat losses on breeding grounds, these arising from drought, agriculture, and grazing. Loss of habitat on the wintering grounds has no doubt contributed to the decline; grazing in particular may be a problem, as it probably is a major factor in reducing the production of grass seeds. If this trend could be reversed (e.g. overgrazing), the species might benefit and increase in numbers.

Remarks: The Southwest region, including New Mexico, is the major wintering grounds of this longspur, and therefore the area may be considered of utmost importance for the species' survival. B-66

LITERATURE CITED

Birds

A.O.U. 1957. Check-list of North American birds. 5th ed. American Ornith. Union.

Bailey, F. M. 1921. Handbook of birds of the western United States. Revised ed. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston.

Bailey, F. M. 1928. Birds of New Mexico. New Mexico Department of Game and Fish, Santa Fe.

Brown, L. and D. Amadon. 1968. Eagles, hawks, and falcons of the world. McGraw- Hill Book Co., New York.

Davis, L. I. 1 972. A field guide to the birds of Mexico and Central America. Univ. Texas Press, Austin.

Edwards, E. P. 1972. A field guide to the birds of Mexico. Published by the author, Sweet Briar, Va.

Greenway, J. C., Jr. 1967. Extinct and vanishing birds of the world. Dover Publ., New York.

Henry, T. C. 1855. Notes derived from observations made on the birds of New Mexico durine the years 1 853 and 1854. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 7:306-317.

Henry, T. C. 1859. Catalogue of the birds of New Mexico, as compiled from notes and observations made while in that territory, during a residence of six years. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 11:104-109.

Hubbard, J. P. 1970. Chcck-list of the birds of New Mexico. New Mexico Ornith. Soc. Publ. 3.

Hubbard, J.P. 1972. Notes on Arizona birds. Nemouria 5.

Hubb;,rd,- J.P. 1 974. The status of the gray hawk in New Mexico. Auk 91:163-166.

Hubbard, J.P. 1976. Further update of the New Mexico bird-list. New Mex. Orn. Soc. Bull. 4:7-8.

Hubbzird, J.P. 1 978. Revised check-list of the birds of New Mexico. New Mexico Ornith. Soc. Pub. 6.

Huidcrtmark, C. A. 1974.. Breeding range extentions of certain airds in New Mexico. Wilson Bull. 86:298-300.

Hundertmark; C.F. 1975. Breeding birds of Elephant Butte Marsh, 1975 survey • report. Unpublished me. (from study contracted by New Mexico Dept. of Game and Fish, Endangered S x.ies Program).

John-,gard, P. 1973. Grouse and quails of North America. Univ. Nebraska, Lincoln.

Johnsion, R. F. and J. W. Hardy. 1959. The Ridgway whip-poor-will and its associated avifauna in southwestern New Mexico. 'Condor 61:206-209.

Leopold, A. 1948. The wild turkeys of Mexico. Trans. 13th North Amer. Wildlife Conference. 393-400.

Levy, S. H. 1962. The Ridgway whip-poor-wili in Arizona. Condor 64:161-162.

Ligon, J. S. 1961. New Mexico birds and where to find them. Univ. New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.

Marshall, J. T. 1957. birds of the pine-oak woodland in southern Arizona and adjacent Mexico. Pacific Coast Avifauna No. 32.

Mendall. 1936. The home-life and economic si:atus of the double-crested cormorant,' Phalacrocorax auritus auritus (Lesson). Univ. Maine Studies, Sec. Ser., No. 38. B-67

Merrill, G. W. 1967. Grouse in New Mexico wildlife management. New Mexico Dept. of Game and Fish, Santa Fe. pp. 111-113.

Phillips, A. R. 1968. The instability of the distribution of land birds in the Southwest, in Collected papers in honor of Lyndon Lane Hargrave (ed. A. H. Schroeder). Papers Archaeological Soc. New Mexico, No. 1:129-162.

Phillips, A. R., J. Marshall, and G. Monson. 1964. Birds of Arizona. Univ. Arizona Press, Tucson.

Pough, R. H. 1949. Audubon bird guide. Doubleday and Co., Garden City, N.Y.

Pough, R. H. 1 957. Audubon western bird guide. Doubleday and Co., Garden City, N.Y.

Reed, C. A. 1 965. North American birds eggs. Revised ed. Dover Publications, New York.

Standiford. 1965. Birds of Carlsbad Caverns National Park, New Mexico, and adjacent Guadalupe Mountains. Mimeographed by Natl. Park Service, 13 pp.

Van Rossem, A. J. 1939. A northwestern race of the Mexican cormorant. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 52:9-10.

Willis, E. O. 1 963. Is the zone-tailed hawk a mimmic of the turkey vulture? Condor 65:313-317.

Zimmerman, D. A. 1960. Thick-billed kingbird nesting in New Mexico. Auk:77:92-94.

Zimmerman, D. A. 1976. On the status of Bueto nit idus in New Mexico. Auk:93:650-655.

Zimmerman, D. A. and S. H. Levy. 1960. Violet-crowned hummingbird nesting in Arizona and New Mexico. Auk:77:470-471. C-1 (Texas)slider turtle (Chrysemys concinna texana)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This is a typical hard-shelled water turtle with a moderately domes shell, not as flat as that of the painted turtle, (Chrysemys picta belli) which it resembles. The carapace of adults is 9 to 16 Inches long, and that of hatchlings is 1 to 1 3/4 Inches. Coloration and patters are variable, but in general consist of whorls of brown or black on the carapace, together with yellow streaks on the head. All markings are more vivid in the young, tending to fade greatly with age. The closely related pond slider (Chrysemys scripta) has somewhat similar markings but it has vertical streaking on the second and third costal shields (counting from the front) rather than a maze of light and dark lines on these shields as in the Texas slider.

Other descriptive details: The rear margin of the carapace is conspicuously saw- toothed (smooth in painted turtle). The pond slider also has the rear margin of the carapace saw-toothed but the pattern on the second and third costal shields distinguish these two species (see preceding section). The shape of the lower jaw provides an additional difference between the Texas slider and the pond slider: in the Texas slider the lower jaw (as viewed from the front) appears flattened on the bottom, whereas in the pond slider it appears rounded (Conant, 1975).

Distribution: The species, which includes several subspecies, ranges from Virginia and Florida westward to Kansas, New Mexico, and Mexico; the subspecies texana occurs in Texas, southeastern New Mexico, and northeastern Mexico. New Mexico: The subspecies is known only from the lower Pecos Valley and from some tributary waters of the lower Pecos (Black River and Blue Springs) (Degenhardt and Christiansen, 1974).

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Biology: This is primarily a river turtle, but is sometimes also found in ditches, earthen stock tanks, ponds, and large springs. It is highly aquatic and ordinarily does not venture far from water. It prefers quiet water with mud bottom and abundant aquatic vegetation. It feeds on snails, tadpoles, fish, crayfish, and aquatic plants. Sliders are fond of basking but true to their name they immediately slide into the water if alarmed.

Status: The subspecies texana probably is abundant over much of its range; in New Mexico it it peripheral and apparently uncommon.

Conservation: Wanton killing of all turtles should be discouraged. Fishermen should be educated to release unharmed any turtles they may happen to hook.

Remarks: This species reaches its western limits in southeastern New Mexico. C-2

(Western)spiny softshell turtle (Trionyx spiniferus hartwegi)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This is a flat turtle with a flexible, leathery shell. Adults of moderate size (length of carapace In adult males 5 to 7 1/4 Inches, adult females 7 to 18 inches, hatchlings of both sexes 1 1/2 to 1 3/4 inches). Coloration of upperparts of adult males olive-gray to yellowish-brown, with dark, eye-like spots; upperparts of adult females with brown or olive-brown blotches of irregular size and shape; upperparts of young of both sexes pale yellowish-brown •with conspicuous dark spots of circular markings. The limbs are flat and paddle- like, with clawed toes.

Other descriptive details: In males, the entire upper surface of the carapace has a sandpapery texture, and there are small spine-like or wart-like protuberances anteriorly. The carapace of females is smooth except for spine-like or wart-like protuberances anteriorly and sometimes elsewhere. The feet of both sexes are strongly streaked and spotted. The snout is long and flexible, with the nostrils opening at the end. The tip of the snout is square-cut, and the nostril consequently can not be seen in side view. A median ridge extends into each nostril from the septum. (The smooth softshell, Trionyx muticus, differs in all the characteristics listed in this section except that it too has a long flexible snout).

Distribution: The species is widely distributed from western New York to northern Florida, from Minnesota to the Gulf Coast, and westward to Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico. Isolated populations also occur in Montana, and in the far Southwest in the drainages of the Gila and Colorado rivers. Several subspecies are recognized, two of which, hartwegi and emoryi, occur in New Mexico. The subspecies emoryi, which is not considered endangered in New Mexico, has a fairly extensive range in the Pecos, Rio Grande, Gila and Colorado drainages. The subspecies hartwegi occupies a large range in the Prairie and Great Plains states, westward to Montana and Colorado, but it barely gets into New Mexico. New Mexico: Known only from the Canadian and Dry Cimarron drainages (Degenhardt and Christensen, 1974; Webb, 1 973b).

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Biology: The biology of the western spiny softshell is essentially like that of the midland smooth softshell, to the account of which the reader is referred.

Status: The subspecies hartwegi is abundant over much of its extensive range;' in New Mexico it is peripheral and of uncertain but probably low population density.

Conservation: Probably the most important thing which can be done at present to conserve this turtle in the state is to educate fishermen to release unharmed any softshel led turtles they may happen to hook in the waters of northeastern New Mexico.

Remarks: This subspecies reaches its Southwestern limit in northeastern New Mexico. C-3

Smooth softshell turtle (Trionyx muticus muticus)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This is a flat turtle with flexible, leathery shell. Adults of moderate size (length of carapace in adult males 5 to 7 inches, adult females 7 to 14 inches, hatchlings of both sexes 1 1/4 to 1 3/4 inches), Colora- tion of upperparts of adult males and young of both sexes is olive-gray or brown, with dashes and dots of darker color; upperparts of adult females mottled with shades of olive, brown, or gray. The limbs are flat and paddle-like, with clawed toes.

Other descriptive details: The upperparts are smooth. The feet are almost unmarked. The snout is long and flexible, with the nostrils opening at the end. The tip of the snout is wedge-shaped, and the nostril can be seen in side view. The nostrils are round, with no ridges extending into them from the septum. (The spiny softshell, Trionyx spiniferus, differs in all the characteristics listed in this section except that it too has a long, flexible snout).

Distribution: The species is widely distributed in the drainages of the Mississippi, Ohio, and Missouri rivers, eastward to Pennsylvania, southward to the Gulf Coast, northward to Minnesota and North Dakota, and westward to New Mexico. The subspecies muticus occupies most of this large range. New Mexico: Known only from the Canadian River drainage in the northeastern part of the state (Degenhardt and Christiansen, 1974; Webb, 1 973a).

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Biology: This is a highly aquatic turtle, primarily restricted to rivers, especial- l y in the West, but also occurs in impoundments, for example Conchas Reservoir. These turtles may bask on land near water, into which they retreat rapidly if alarmed. They are surprisingly agile on land and they swim with ease and speed. In shallow water softshells often lie buried in mud or sand with only eyes and snout exposed, and occasionally extend the long neck to the surface for air. They feed on insects, earthworms, crayfish, snails, tadpoles, frogs, fish, and sometimes aquatic plants. The eggs are laid during the period May-July, number from 10 to about 30, and are buried in sand near water. The young usually emerge in summer or fall, but hatching may be delayed until the following spring. Softshell turtles are active and pugnacious reptiles, capable of inflicting severe bites if carelessly handled. Despite their long necks they can completely retract their heads.

Status: The subspecies muticus is abundant over much of its extensive range; in New Mexico it is peripheral and of uncertain but probably low population density.

Conservation: Probably the most important thing which can be done at present to conserve this turtle in the state is to educate fishermen to release unharmed any softshelled turtles they may happen to hook in the waters of northeastern New Mexico.

Remarks: This species reaches its western limit in northeastern New Mexico. Conant (1975) uses midland smooth softshell as the common name of this turtle, C-4

(Sanddune) sagebrush lizard (Sceloporus graciosus arenicolous)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This is a small (total length of adults, including tail, 4 1 /2 to 6 inches), rough-scaled lizard. Coloration of upperparts is pale brown with a rather faint grayish-brown stripe on each side from the upper edge of the ear opening to the base of the tail; males have a large, bright blue patch on each side of the belly, bordered toward the midline by deep blue or black, and the throat may be flecked with blue; females have no blue on the throat and the blue belly patches are faint or absent; rest of underparts white, cream, or yellowish in both sexes.

Other descriptive details: The dorsal scales are keeled, pointed, and overlapping; scales on the rear of the thighs are granular (keeled in our other species of Sceloporus). The tail is longer than the body; measurements of the type specimen, an adult male, were as follows: snout-vent length, 58 millimeters, tail length, 93 millimeters (Degenhardt and Jones, 1972).

Distribution: This species has a very extensive range in western United States; the subspecies arenicolous, however, is restricted to active sand dune areas in portions of southeastern New Mexico and southwestern Texas, and is isolated from the nearest portion of the range of the most widely distributed subspecies, graciosus, which extends into northwestern New Mexico, by about 300 miles. New Mexico: Known only from the Mescalero Sands of eastern Chaves and extreme northeastern Eddy counties; _ distribution spotty (Degenhardt and Jones, 1972). •

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_ ---- - Biology: These lizards apparently never venture far from active sand dunes, at least some of which support thin stands of dwarfed vegetation, including shinnery oak, sand sagebrush, and yucca. The animals are wary and difficult to observe. When alarmed they dash for the shelter of vegetation, and when they stop, even if more or less exposed, they seem suddenly to disappear, so well does their coloration match the sandy background. If closely pursued they may burrow under leaf litter or into the sand. Their food consists of ants, ant pupae, crickets, grasshoppers, beetles, beetle larvae, spiders, and ticks. In breeding habits the sand dune lizard is egg-laying. Five eggs appear to make up the normal clutch. The eggs are deposited in the sand and hatch in midsummer or late summer. Females apparently reach sexual maturity the following spring or summer.

Status: The species is abundant over much of its extensive range. However, the subspecies arenicolous probably is in a precarious situation because of its very limited range, spotty distribution, and dependence on active sand dunes. These dunes may be in a phase of stabilization at the present time (Degenhardt and Jones, 1972), and if this process went on to completion the sand dune lizard might become extinct.

Conservation: Legal protection against wanton killing and unnecessary collecting, plus studies to obtain a better understanding of the habitat requirements of this recently described subspecies, are probably about all that can be done at present to conserve the sand dune lizard.

Remarks: The species reaches its extreme southeastern limits as isolated populations of the subspecies arenicolous in southeastern New Mexico and southwestern Texas. The common name of this subspecies is sanddune lizard (Conant, 1975). C-5

Bunchgrass lizard (Sceloporus scalaris)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This is a small (total length of adults, including tail, 3 1/2 to 5 inches), rough-scaled lizard. In males the coloration of the upperparts is light brown or tan, with an orange dorsolateral stripe on each side. Faint dorsal crescents may or may not be present, there is a dark blotch at the base of each foreleg, dnd a blue patch on each side of the belly. In females the ground color of the upperparts is darker brown than in males, the dorsolateral stripes are either white or orange, and there are several series of conspicuous brown crescents, partially edged with black. Females have the dark blotches at the base of the forelegs, but blue belly patches are reduced or absent.

Other descriptive details: The dorsal scales are keeled, pointed, and overlapping. lateral scale rows parallel the dorsal rows (lateral rows are oblique in our other species of Sceloporus). The femoral pores are separated at the midline of the body by only 1 or 2 scales (3 or more in our other species of the genus). The tail is somewhat longer than the head-body.

Distribution: This is a Mexican species which ranges northward from the state of Puebla, principally in the Sierra Madre Occidental, to southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona. New Mexico: The species seems to be restricted to extreme southern Hidalgo County (known only from the southernmost Peloncillo Mountains, although reported,without apparent substantiation in the Animas Mountains as well (Stebbins, 1966).

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Biology: The bunch grass lizard is primarily a mountain form, usually found above 5,000 feet elevation and up to perhaps 10,000 feet. It occurs in various types of vegetation, but an essential feature of the habitat appears to be openings in which bunch grasses grow rather thickly. This lizard is a secretive and wary animal. At the slightest hint of danger it takes refuge in clumps of bunch grass in which it is very hard to find and capture. It is most active during the period of summer rains. The normal foods are spiders and insects. Among the latter have been identified beetles, ants, true bugs, and the larvae of butterflies and moths. Not much is known concerning the breeding habits of this lizard, but it is presumed on the analogy with closely related species to give birth to living young. Number of young probably varies from about 9 to 12 according to present information (Stebbins, 1 954).

Status: In its main Mexican range this species presumably is at least fairly secure at present, but overgrazing by domestic livestock might change this status for the worse; in New Mexico the bunch grass lizard is peripheral and of uncertain but probably low population density, and overgrazing could very well eliminate it from the state.

Conservation: Prevention of overgrazing by domestic livestock in the specialized grassland habitat occupied by the bunch grass lizard appears to be by far the most i mportant conservation measure for this species.

Remarks: This is another good example of a Mexican species which reaches its northern limits in southwestern New Mexico and the adjacent portion of Arizona. C-6

Mountain skink (Eumeces callicephalus)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This is a small (total length of adults, including tail, about 5 to 7 inches, newly hatched young about I inch), short-legged lizard. The tail is normally longer than the head-body length. The scales of the back, sides, and belly are smooth, shiny, overlapping, and rounded in outline. Coloration of upperparts is olive or tan, with a pale dorsolateral stripe on each side from above the eye rearward on the trunk, often to the base of the tail; a broad, dark-brown band extends from eye to groin below the pale dorsolateral stripe on each side; the tail is often bluish.

Other distinguishing details: A whitish or pale orange Y-shaped mark, with prongs forward, is sometimes present on top of the head and neck. The pale dorsolateral stripes are confined on the trunk to the fourth scale row, counting from the midline of the back.

Distribution: This species is widely distributed in western Mexico as far south as Queretaro, and extends northward to southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona. New Mexico: Known only from Guadalupe Canyon in extreme southwestern Hidalgo County (Stebbins, 1966).

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;Biology: In New Mexico this is a mountain species which inhabits rocky areas of the oak-pine zone, although in Mexico it ranges from the mountains to iiear sea- level in coastal plain areas. These lizards are extremely wary and appear to spend most of their lives under rocks, fallen vegetation, and the like. They are very agile. They eat insects and spiders, and when foraging for food the forked tongue is protruded in snake-like fashion. Little seems to be known of their breeding habits except that they are egg-laying.

Status: The species is widely distributed and probably quite secure in its main Mexican range; in New Mexico it is very peripheral and of uncertain but probably l ow population density.

Conservation: Legal protection against wanton killing and unnecessary collecting probably is about all that can be done at present to conserve the mountain skink in New Mexico.

Remarks: This species reaches its extreme northeastern limits in New Mexico. C-7

Giant spotted whiptail lizard (Cnemidophorus burti stictogrammus)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This is a large (total length of adults, including tail, 10 to 16 inches), long-snouted, long-tailed lizard. The tail is at least twice as long as the head-body length. The dorsal scales on the body are very small and granular; ventral body scales are large and smoothly joined; encircling rows of scales on he tail are keeled, in marked contrast to the body scalation. Colora- tion of adull , reddish on head, neck, and sometimes on back, with conspicuous pale spots on body and hind legs; newly hatched young and juveniles have 6 or 7 light- colored, longitudinal stripes on the back, but these are faint or absent in lane adults tail orange in small young (blue in many other species of the genus).

Other descriptive details: The genus Cnemidophorus, numerous kinds of which occur in New Mexico, is distinctive and easily recognized, but the species are often difficult to identify. Large, heavily spotted adults of this species, and perhaps newly hatched young with their orange tails, should pose no serious problems of identification, but striped individuals of intermediate age might be confused with other species. The only certain way is to count scales, and magnification is necessary. If there are 100 or more dorsal granules in a transverse row at midbody, it is this species.

Distribution: The species,whichincludes 3 subspecies, ranges from the Gulf of California in Sonora into northwestern Chihuahua, southwestern New Mexico, and southern Arizona; the subspecies stictogrammus occupies most of this range. New Mexico: Known only from extreme southwestern Hidalgo County (Stebbins, 1966).

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Biology: This is New Mexico's largest whiptail lizard, but it is "giant" in only a very relative sense, and then only in the case of large adults. Like all members of the genus, the giant spotted whiptail is alert, quick-moving, and is active only during the day. Whiptails of all species characteristically move with a jerky gait and rapidly turn the head from side to side. The slender, forked tongue is flicked out in snake-like fashion. Giant spotted whiptails are wary, even for this wary genus, and usually quickly disappear into thick vegetation or down a hole if pursued. Preferred habitat consists of dense, shrubby vegetation in mountain canyons or other rocky, places, although sometimes the lizards are found in sandy arroyos or other sandy areas. The food consists of spiders, scorpions, and insects. Some of the food items are dug out of the ground, where they apparently are detected by scent. The species is egg-laying. Probably the eggs average about 5 in number, and are laid mainly in June and July. C-8

Status: The subspecies stictogrammus may be fairly secure in much of its main range in Sonora and Arizona; in New Mexico it is very peripheral and of uncertain but probably low population density.

Conservation: Legal protection against wanton killing and unnecessary collecting, plus protection of dense, shrubby vegetation in the areas of occupancy are probably about all that can be done at present to conserve the giant spotted whiptail in New Mexico.

Remarks: The species reaches its northeastern limits in New Mexico. C-8a

Dixon's whiptail lizard (Cnemidophorus dixoni)

State endangered (Group U)

Distinguishing features: This is a medium-sized (total length of adults, including tail, 9 to 12 inchj77—long-snouted, long-tailed lizard. The tail is two or more times the length of the head and body, the latter being slender and elongate. The dorsal scales on the body are very small and granular, while the ventral body scales are large and smoothly joined. The encircling rows of scales on the tail are keeled, in marked contrast to the body scalation. The upperparts of adults have alternating light and dark lines, the latter being a series of squares (rarely bars). Similar species of whiptails have the dark lines mainly or completely merged, either in a straight or alternating pattern. The number of granular scales around the midbody in dixoni is 94 to 108, which is more than any similar species except the western whiptail (c. tigris)--which is usually pale and mottled.

Other descriptive details: Many whiptail lizard species are difficult to distinguish from each other, as they tend to differ in small details. The problem is heightened by the great diversity of species, some of which--including C. dixoni--are all-female, asexually reproducing "clones". However, the above characteristics should distingulsh dixoni from its relatives, most notably the checkered whiptail (C. tesselatus). Dixoni differs from the western whiptail (C. tigris) in having enlarged mesotychials and moderate to enlarged postantebrachials. Besides the above description, adults of dixoni are white below often with black anterior margins to the scutes and sometimes with black spots on the throat. The heads and tails are typically unpatterned light brown or paler, but the limbs are marked with dark barring or squares; the rump regions is rather orange- brown. Young dixoni resemble the adults, but presumably the tail is blue.

Distribution: The species, which includes two types (i.e. A and B) that are distinguish- able by pattern, is known only from Presidio County, Texas (types A and B) and from Hidalgo County, New Mexico (type B). New Mexico: Known only from the Antelope Pass area, between Rodeo and Animas.

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Biology: This recently discovered species is known largely from the accounts of Scudday (J. Herpetology, 7:363-371, 1973), who described it. It may be of hybrid origin, perhaps involving the same parental types postulated for C. tesselatus, i.e. C. tigris and the rusty-romped whiptail (C. septemvittatus). The Antelope Pass population was identified as C. tesselatus F by Zweifel (American Mus. Novitates No. 2253, 1 965), but at this point it is uncertain if tesselatus and dixoni actually occur together in New Mexico. In Texas, dixoni B occurs mainly in deteriorated desert C-8b

grassland at elevations of 3000 to 5000 feet. C. tesselatus and three other species of Cnemidophorus also occur in the same areas with dixoni there.

In habits, Dixon's whiptail probably does not differ materially from other species of the genus. These animals are alert, alternating between quiet movements, motionless pauses, and rapid dashes, as they move along the ground. All manner of arthropods are taken as prey, typically consisting of ground insects and spiders. Reproduction is by egg-laying, this involving only a few eggs laid in the hotter months of the year.

Status: The status of this species in Texas is probably good, although the range even there is limited. In New Mexico, the population appears to be small and very restricted.

Conservation: The major protection needed for this species in New Mexico may be against over-collecting, which could have severely reduced numbers in the state. Dr. James Dixon reports (N.M.G.F. No. 519-66-11, Preliminary Contract Report, 1978) that he was unable to find any examp:es of the species in Antelope Pass in 1978, and he was informed by a local resident that heavy collecting had occurred at the site in the recent past.

RemArks: The New Mexico population is the westernmost and an apparently disjunct seg- menL of this species, which is another interesting evolutionary product of the genus Cnemidophorus. C-9

Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum suspectum)

State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: This is a large (total length of adults, Including tail, 1 6 to 22 inches, newly hatched young about 6 inches), heavily built, short-legged, blunt-snouted lizard. Scales of upperparts are closely set and bead-like; scales of underparts are flat and quadrangular. The blunt, swollen tail is about one- third to one-half the head-body length. Coloration of upperparts of body In adults is blackish and pinkish (less often yellowish), with a blotchy, irregular pattern: coloration of belly similar, but more subdued; tail irregularly ringed with the two colors; top of head mainly pinkish (or yellowish); underside of head, sides of face, and feet mainly black to blackish-brown; coloration of young similar, but both body and tail irregularly ringed, this ringed pattern gradually changing to the adult blotchy pattern.

Other descriptive details: There are conspicuous loose folds of skin on the neck. The toes, which are strongly clawed, are rather short, and the fourth to- (counting outwards) is nearly the same length as the third toe (fourth toe much longer than third toe in most New Mexico lizards).

Distribution: The species ranges from southwestern Utah, southern Nevada, and southeastern California across about the southern half of Arizona into southwestern New Mexico, and southward through most of Sonora into Sinaloa; the subspecies suspectus occupies most of this overall range, while another subspecies, cinctum, occupies the portion of the range in northwestern Arizona, and in California, Nevada, and Utah (Bogert and Martin del Campo, 1956; Bradley and Deacon, 1966). New Mexico: Occurs in portions of Hidalgo, Grant, Dona Ana, and probably Luna and Catron counties ( H. Campbell. New Mexico Wildlife 21(4): 25-30, 1978). • T 0 • ...

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Biology: This is the state's largest lizard, but it is a "monster" only by com- parison with our other lizard species, and by subjective judgement on the part of humans. In New Mexico Gila monsters seem to prefer the foothills of desert mountains and the adjacent outwash slopes, especially in canyons or arroyos where water is at least periodically present. They also favor irrigated farmlands ad- joining this type of habitat. Suitable cover includes large boulders and thick brush, as well as mammal holes and rock crevices. Gila monsters are sometimes found abroad during the day in cool or rainy weather, but during the warmer months they forage chiefly at dusk and at night. In dim light their peculiar coloration is remarkably concealing. The diet consists of young rodents, nestling rabbits, 'izards, and the eggs of birds and reptiles. The breeding habits are poorly under- stood. Mating apparently takes place in the spring, but copulating pairs have rarely if ever been reported in the wild. Mating probably occurs at night. The species is known to be egg-laying. The normal clutch of eggs appears to be 4 to /, with an average of about 5. It is not known where the eggs are laid in the wild. Iddicotions are that incubation time is in the range of about 117-130 days rather than the 28-30 days once reported. Virtually all of what is known of the Gila monster's breeding habits has been learned from observation on captives (Bogert and Martin del Campo, 1956; Shaw, 1968). The Gila monster is of unusual biological and general interest because it is one of the only 2 known species of poisonous lizards among the world's 3,000 or so species (the other is a close relative in C-10

Mexico). The venon glands are located in the lower jaw, unlike the poisonous snakes, which have the glands in the upper jaw. Grooved teeth in both lower and upper jaws conduct the venom, which is worked in by chewing. Its action is primarily that of a nerve poison, and its main function seems to be defensive rather than, as in the poisonous snakes for securing food. Gila monsters must be considered dangerously poisonous but the chance of anyone who does not deliberately handle the animals being bitten in negligible. However, it is unwise to stand or reach close to a Gila monster as they are surprisingly quick and agile.

St..tus: The species seems to be fairly abundant over much of its rather extensive range, especially in Sonora and southern Arizona; in New Mexico it is peripheral and uncommon to rare in most areas of occupancy, and populations appear to have declined in recent years.

Conservation: Because the Gila monster has legal protection in other states it occurs, and Mexican export permits are now hard to obtain, New Mexico's Gila monster population has been exploited by commercial and private collectors as the animal brings a good price in the pet trade and is otherwise desirable as a specimen. Legal status has now been extended to the species in New Mexico. Stringent restric- tions on commercialization,unnecessary collecting, and wanton killing, plus efforts to educate the public to an appreciation of the animal, are probably the main things which can be done at present to conserve our population.

Remarks: The Gila monster reaches its eastern limits in New Mexico. It almost certainly does not occur east of the Rio Grande, and probably does not go that far east. Stebbins (1966) uses reticulate gila monster as the common name of this subspecies. C-12

(Blotched) Plain-bellied water snake (Natrix erythrogaster tran3versa)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This is a small to large (total length of adults 18 to 67 inches, new-born young 9 to 12 inches), rather heavy bodied snake. Colora- tion of upperparts is olive, gray, or brown, with a pattern consisting of a row of dark-brown, black-edged blotches along the middle of the back, and a row of smaller alternating blotches on each side; underparts mostly plain yellow, sometimes faintly spotted, and may show some orange or reddish, especially on the tail.

Other descriptive details: Dorsal scales are strongly keeled, giving the body a rough appearance; large scale covering vent divided in midline (garter snakes, various species of which are also "water snakes", nearly always have this scale undivided).

Distribution: This species, in its various subspecies, ranges widely in southern and southcentral United States from the East Coast to New Mexico, and southward into northeastern Mexico; the subspecies transverse occurs in Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Texas, and Mexico. New Mexico: Known in New Mexico only in the lower Pecos Valley Area, but possibly also occurs in the extreme northeastern part of the state along the Dry Cimmarron River (Conant, 1975).

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Biology: This is a highly aquatic snake, although in wet weather it may wander some distance from water. It is usually found in or near streams, lakes, or ponds. It often hides under rocks or other objects during the day and becomes active at night. These snakes swim and dive with great ease. They are pugnacious and easily aroused. They are non-venomous, but when handled they bite very effectively, and also usually void the foul-smelling contents of the anal scent glands. They feed on fish, crayfish, frogs, tadpoles, and waterdogs (tiger salamander larvae). The species is live-bearing. The young are born from late August to October, and may number up to 15 in a litter.

Status: The subspecies transverse is abundant in parts of its extensive range; in New Mexico it is very peripheral and apparently rare.

Conservation: Legal protection against wanton killing and unnecessary collecting, plus efforts to discourage the killing of all "water snakes" in areas where the blotched water snake is known or suspected to occur probably are about all that can be done at present to conserve the species in New Mexico.

Remarks: The species reaches its western limits in southeastern New Mexico. Occa- sional popular reports of "water moccasins" and perhaps of "copperheads" along the lower Pecos River in New Mexico probably refer to this snake. Actually, neither the water moccasin (correctly called cottonmouth), Agkistrodon piscivorus, nor the copperhead, A. controtrix, are known to occur in the state. Conant (1975) uses blotched water snake for the common name of this subspecies. C-13

Narrow-headed garter snake (Thamnophis rufipunctatus)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This is a small to moderate-sized (total length of adults 20 to 34 inches), rather long-headed, blunt-snouted snake. Coloration of upperparts Is olive or brown, with numerous, often conspicuous dark brown spots (vestiges of stripes may be visible on neck and sometimes on lower sides, but no well-developed stripes as in most garter snake species); underparts brownish gray, often with two longitudinal rows of black, wedge-shaped marks.

Other descriptive details: Dorsal scales are keeled, 21 rows at midbody (counting diagonally across from the ends of the strap-like belly scales); scales of upper lip are 8 on each side (do not count the scale at tip of snout); the large scale covering the vent usually is single rather than divided as in the true water snakes (genus Natrix).

Distribution: The species occurs from central Arizona to southwestern New Mexico, and southward in Mexico to Durango. The range in the United States apparently is isolated from the main range in Mexico. New Mexico: Known to occur in streams and rivers of Catron, Grant and northern Hidalgo counties.

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Biology: This is a highly aquatic garter snake which seems to be restricted to mountainous or adjacent areas. It inhabits clear, cool, rocky streams, and occurs from the pinyon-juniper zone up into the zone of yellow pines. Although it may be found basking, when disturbed it almost invariably slides into the water and dives to the bottom where it hides. When handled this species like all garter snakes, may void the ill-smelling contents of the anal scent glands, but it said to be not prone to bite. The narrow-headed garter snake feeds on fish, tadpoles, frogs, toads, waterdogs (tiger salamander larvae), and adult tiger salamanders. It is live-bearing.

Status: The species does not appear to be abundant in the United States. It is probably much more common in its large Mexican range; in New Mexico it is peripheral and of uncertain but probably low population density.

Conservation: Efforts to preserve the rocky, clear, cool mountain streams and pools favored by this snake, plus legal protection against wanton killing and unnecessary collecting probably are about all that can be done at present to conserve the species in New Mexico.

Remarks: The narrow-headed garter snake is intermediate in some ways between the typical garter snakes, many kinds of which are markedly aquatic and the true water snakes (Natrix), but herpetological opinion favors the idea that it is correctly classified among the garter snakes. C-14

(Pecos) western ribbon snake (ThannophiS proximus diabolicus)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features; This is a small to moderate-sized (adults 18 to 51 inches total length, new-born young 6 to 10 inches), extremely slender, long- ii I I ,,nake. The tail is very long In proportion (one-fourth to one-third of th( total length of the snake). Coloration of upperparts is olive-grey t o olive- brown, with an orange stripe down the middle of the back and a light stripe on each side confined to the third and fourth scale rows anteriorly (count upward from the ends of the strap-like belly scales), and there is a narrow dark stripe on the lower sides. The scales of the upper lip are pale and unmarked, contrast- ing strongly with the dark coloration of the head (this is an important point in identification).

Other descriptive details: The dorsal scales are keeled, giving the body a moderately rough appearance.

Distribution: The various subspecies of the ribbon snake occupy a wide range in central United States from Michigan southward to the Gulf Coast, westward to Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas, thence southward into eastern Mexico; the subspecies diabolicus occurs in southeastern Colorado, western Oklahoma, western Texas, eastern New Mexico, and northeastern Mexico. New Mexico: Occurs in the lower Pecos Valley, the extreme northeastern part of the state, and possibly in other parts of eastern New Mexico (Conant, 1975). C-15

Biology: This is a very alert and active snake which frequents the vegetation bordering ponds, streams, and marshes. It climbs and swims with ease, and if frightened sometimes is first seen when it drops into the water from overhanging vegetation (Stebbins, 1966). It feeds on fish, frogs, earthworms, and insects. The species is live-bearing,

Status: The subspecies diabolicus is abundant over much of its fairly extensive range; in New Mexico it is peripheral and of uncertain but probably low population density.

Conservation: Efforts to preserve streamside vegetation in known areas of occupancy, plus legal protection against wanton killing and unnecessary collecting probably are about all that can be done at present to conserve the Pecos ribbon snake in New Mexico.

Remarks: The curious subspecific name diabolicus is said to derive from the contrastingly pale upper lip which causes a fanciful resemblance to a grinning death's-head. This somewhat sinister connotation hardly seems appropriate for such an elegant and harmless creature. Conant (1975) uses arid land ribbon snake as the common name for this subspecies. C-16

(Sonora) coachwhip (Masticophis flagellum cingulum)

State endangered (Group II)

, Or Jin.goishin9 fe,21ures: This is a large (total length of adults 48-60, or- casionally up to 80 or more inches), slender, long-tailed, large-eyed, broad-headed snake. Color pattern of upper parts is very variable, often consisting of a series of broad, reddish brown bands separated by narrower, paired light bands, but sometimes the upperparts are uniformly reddish brown to black (Wilson, 1970, 1973).

Other descriptive details: Dorsal scales are smooth (unkeeled), and in 17 rows at midbody; there is a conspicuous light band at the back of the head (Stebbins, 1966).

Distribution: The species in its various subspecies ranges very widely across approximately the southern half of the United States from coast to coast, and far southward in Mexico; the range of the subspecies cingulum includes most of Sonora except the Gran Desierto, the northern portion of Sinaloa, and extends in the United States into south-central Arizona (Wilson, 1970, 1973). New Mexico: The subspecies cingulum has been thought to occur in the Guadalupe Canyon area of extreme southwestern Hidalgo County but recent taxonomic and distributional re- searches by Wilson (1970, 1973) now cast doubt on its occurrence there; however, there is a bare possibility that intergrades of cingulum with other subspecies (testaceus, piceus, and lineatulus) may do so. ” .

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Biology: Relatively little information is available on the Sonora coachwhip, but its biology probably is very similar to that of other, better-known subspecies of this wide-ranging species. Coachwhips are active,aggressivesnakes, most often abroad during the day even in desert areas. They feed on small mammal,,, birds, bird eggs, lizards, snakes, insects, and carrion. Living prey is seized with great rapidity and swallowed immediately without constriction. The snakes are not hesi- tant to enter holes and burrows of other animals, they crawl rapidly on the surface of the ground, and climb easily into shrubs and trees. When pursued they are apt to disappear promptly down a hole, climb into a tree or large shrub, or dodge among vegetation with great agility. If cornered they may strike viciously and are capable of inflicting painful bites although they are not venomous. When held by the neck they thrash vigorously from side to side. In breeding habits the species is eg-laying.

Status: Too little appears to be known about the subspecies cirqulum to hazard an opinion as to its status anywhere in its known range; as noted in a preceding section, it may not occur in New Mexico.

Conservation: Efforts to discourage wanton destruction of whipsnakes of all sorts within the possible New Mexico range of this subspecies is about all that can be done to conserve it in the state if it does occur here.

Remarks: The Sonora coachwhip should not be confused with another species of the same genus, the similarly named Sonora whipsnake (Masticophis bilineatus), which is known to occur peripherally in southwestern Hidalgo County. C-17

Trans-Pecos rat snake (Elaphe subocularis)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This is a medium to large (total length of adults 36 to 66 inches, newly hatched young 11 inches), slender, broad-headed, large-eyed snake. Coloration of the ppperparts is yellowish or tan, on which is superimposed a series of large dark-brown or black H-shaped markings. The lateral arms of the H's sometimes join to form lengthwise stripes, especially on the neck. There is no pattern on the head and throat.

Other descriptive details: The dorsal scales, weakly keeled along the middle of the back are in 31 to 35 rows at midbody, counting diagonally across the body between the ends of the strap-like belly scales. There is a row of small scales (suboculars) between the eye and the upper labials on each side. The anal scale is divided.

Distribution: This species is essentially a snake of the Chihuahuan Desert. It occurs from Durango and Nuevo Leon in Mexico northward through Trans-Pecos Texas into southern New Mexico. New Mexico: Known to occur in the southern portion of the state in the Guadalupe and Organ mountains (Wright and Wright, 1957), and at least as far north as Carrizozo (Jameson, 1957). Known also from Eddy County.

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biology: The Trans-Pecos rat snake prefers arid and semiarid environments, and often is associated with rocky areas supporting shrubby vegetation. These snakes climb readily. The species is principally nocturnal, most individuals being encountered from about sunset to 10 p.m. or so. Adults feed mainly on rodents, birds, and bats, but lizards are important food items of the young. Prey is killed by constriction. Rat snakes are egg-laying.

Status: The species is said to be locally common in some parts of its range (Conant, T ) T in New Mexico it is rather peripheral and of uncertain but probably low population density.

Conservation: Live specimens of this species currently bring high prices in the pet trade and consequently are eagerly sought by commercial collectors. Legal prohibition of this activity probably is about all that can be done at present to conserve the species in New Mexico.

Remarks: This species reaches its northern limits in New Mexico. It is often called the H-snake because of its markings. C-18

Sonora mountain kingsnake (Lampropeltis pyromelan9 RyrOMelana)

State endangered (Group 11)

Distinguishing features: This is a small to moderate-sized (total length of adults 18 to 41 inches), colorful, shiny, smooth-scaled, flatheaded, moderately slender snake. The upperparts are banded with red, black, and white; underparts similar, but not all of the bands extend completely across the belly. The head is moderately distinct from the neck.

Other descriptive details: The red bands are at least partially bordered with black although the black bands may narrow to vanishing on the lower sides, thus bringing red and white together in that area (red entirely bordered by yellow or white in coral snake, Micruroides euryxanthus); the red bands may not split the black bands entirely across the back (in coral snake all bands completely encircle the body); the snout is pale yellow, white, or black flecked with lighter color (snout of coral snake is solid black.

Distribution: The species, which includes at least three subspecies, is distributed in a disjunct fashion from northern Utah and east-central Nevada southward through much of Arizona into southwestern New Mexico, thence southward in Mexico to northeastern Sonora and western Chihuahua; the subspecies pyromelana occupies the Arizona, New Mexico, and Mexico portions of this range. New Mexico: Known to occur in portions of Hidalgo, Grant, and Catron counties. Also known froma Dona Ana County specimen collected in 1 934.

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Biology: This is a mountain form, usually concealed under rocks, logs, or other objects on the ground. It ranges in the mountains from chaparral and pinyon- juniper woodland upward into pine-fir forest. The food consists of lizards and probably snakes and small mammals. Not much is known of the breeding habits except that the species is egg-laying.

Status: Too little is known about this seldom encountered snake for any general- izations as to overall status, but probably its secretive habits make it falciy secure over much of its range; in New Mexico it is peripheral and apparently uncommon to rare.

Conservation: Legal protection against wanton killing and unncecessary collecting probably are about all that can be done at present to conserve the Arizona mountain kingsnake in New Mexico.

Remarks: This snake is easily mistaken for the venomous coral snake, with which it shares part of its range and has similar habits, unless careful attention is given to differences of color pattern. The most obvious of these differences are compared above. Stebbins (1966) uses Arizona mountain kingsnake as the common name of this subspecies. C-23

(Mottled)rock rattlesnake (Crotalus lepidus lepidus)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This is a small snake (total length of adults 18 to 24 i nches, new-born young 7 to 8 inches) of typical rattlesnake appearance -- broad head, slender neck, heavy body, short tail, and strongly keeled scales. Colora- tion of upperparts is variable (pale gray, Lluish gray, greenish gray, tan, brown, or pinkish); there are distinct, narrow, black or dark brown primary crossbands, widely and regularly spaced, somewhat irregular in outline, and bordered with lighter color; a varying amount of Hark mottling between the primary crossbands gives an overall du ,ky appearance ard 3ometimes forms fainter secondary crossbands between the primary ones.

Other descriptive details: A dark stripe extends from the eye to the angle of the mouth. Paired, tubular, erectile fangs, covered by a fleshy sheath when folded down, are located in the front part of the upper jaw. This is a very venomous snake.

Distribution: The species, which consists of two subspecies, is rather widely distributed from southeastern Arizona across southern New Mexico into southwestern Texas, thence southward in Mexico; the subspecies l epidus occurs in souteast- ern New Mexico, southwestern Texas, and as far south as Jalisco in Mexico. New Mexico: Known only from the extreme southeastern part of the state (southern part of the Guadalupe Mountains in Eddy and possibly Otero counties). _

Biology: This snake is primarily a mountain dweller, but sometimes occurs in bordering lowlands. It especially favors rocky areas where it lives among boulders and rock fragments, which usually have abundant hiding places under and between them. Probably these little rattlers are more often heard than seen as they may rattle vigorously while securely hidden among jumbled rocks. Sometimes they prowl or bask on the surface within easy reach of cover. The food consists of lizards, small snakes, and small mammals. Broods of young may vary from 2 to 8, and are born in summer or early fall. Like all rattlesnakes, the young are born alive rather than hatched from externally deposited eggs.

Status: The subspecies lepidus probably is fairly secure and abundant in its rather large Texas and Mexican range; in New Mexico the subspecies is very peripheral and of unknown but probably low population density.

Conservation: Legal protect:on against wanton killing and unnecessary collecting probably are about all that can be done at present to conserve the mottled rock rattlesnake in New Mexico.

Remarks: Another subspecies (klauberi), the banded rock rattlesnake, not considered endangered at this time, occurs in southwestern and southcentral New Mexico. It may intercrage with the mottled subspecies in a possible area of contact. The banded rock rattler is similar to the mottled rock rattler but locks extensive mottling or secondary crossbands between the widely separated primary bands although there may be some spotting in the interspaces (Stebbins, 1966). C-26

(Arizona blqck) western rattlesnake (Crota1u5 ViridIS cerberus)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This is a medium-sized snake (total length of adults about 36 to 42 inches) of typical rattlesnake appearance--broad head, slender neck, heavy body, short tail, and strongly keeled scales. The color and pattern are variable, but the upper parts are usually quite dark (olive, brown, dark gray, or black); in all but the solidly black individuals there are large, closely spaced, dark brown or black blotches on the back and sides (other rattlesnakes are generally paler and/or differently patterned).

Other descriptive details: Paired, tubular, erectile fangs, covered by a fleshy sheath when folded down, are located in the front part of the upper jaw. This is a very venomous snake.

Distribution: The species, which consists of several subspecies, is widely distributed in western North America from the Great Plains to the Pacific Coast, and from southern Canada to northern Mexico; the subspecies cerberus occurs only in Arizona and New Mexico. New Mexico: Known to occur along part of the west-central border with Arizona in the Mogollon Mountains and vicinity (Klauber, 1972) WO.

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Biology: Little information is available on the food, breeding habits, and othe- aspects of the biology of this snake, although as in all rattlers the young are born alive rather than hatched from externally deposited eggs. The subspecies apparently is restricted to mountainous or very rough country.

Status: The subspecies cerberus is said to be moderately common in Arizona, which includes nearly all of its known range and hence most of its population; in New Mexico the subspecies is peripheral and apparently rare.

Conservation: Legal protection against wanton killing and unnecessary collecting probably are about all that can be done at present to conserve the Arizona black rattlesnake in New Mexico.

Remarks: This is a subspecies of the same species to which the well-known prali rattlesnake (sub,pecies viridis) also belongs. Because the subspecies cerberus is so variable in color and pattern sole pale individuals might be mistaken for prairie rattlers, which are widely distributed and common in New Mexico. C-27

(New Mexican)ridge-nosed rattlesnake (Crotalus willardi obscurus)

Federal threatened/State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: This is a small snake (total length of adults 15 to 24 inches, new-born young, about 7 inches) of typical rattlesnake appearance--broad head, slender neck, heavy body, short tail, and strongly keeled scales. Basic coloration of uoperparts of New Mexico specimens is gray with a slightly brownish cast; whitish crossbars, edged with brownish, merge into the basic coloration on the sides (Bogert and Degenhardt, 1961).

Other descriptive details: The contour of the snout is outlined by a distinctly angular ridge, hence the common name. Paired, tubular, erectile fangs, covered by a fleshy sheath when folded down, are located in the front part of the upper jaw. This is a very venomous snake.

Distribution: The species, which includes four described subspecies, is primarily a Mexican snake; various subspecies range from the states of Durango and Zacatecas in Mexico northward into southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico: the subspecies obscurus, as now defined, occupies a limited range in Mexico and extends peripherally into New Mexico (Harris and Simmons 1976). New Mexico: Known only from a few of the higher portions of the Animas Mountains of southern Hidalgo County; the New Mexico population is totally isolated from all others of the species (Bogert and Degenhardt 1961).

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Biology: All known subspecies of the ridge-nosed rattlesnake are primarily mountain dwellers, being found at elevations of about 5,600 to 9,000 feet. These snakes favor canyon bottoms and adjacent slopes in the oak-pine association, where they may be found crawling or resting in open or shaded areas, or concealed under rocks or fallen logs. Ecologically, the habitat of this rattlesnake in New Mexico may aptly be compared to a rather small island, except that the island is surrounded by arid and semiarid land rather than by water. Young ridge-nosed rattlers feed mainly on the smaller lizards but adults eat small mammals, such as mice, in addition to lizards. As in all rattlers, the venom is used primarily for securing food, and only secondarily for defense, but it is a potent weapon. Although the species must be considered dangerously poisonous, the chance of anyone who does not deliberately handle the snakes being bitten is remote. In accordance with the invari- ble rule among rattlesnakes, the eggs of the ridge-nosed develop full-term within the female's body so that the young are born rather than hatched from externally deposited eggs. Birth usually occurs in late summer or early fall. Brood size may vary from 2 to 6. At birth each snakeling is usually still enclosed in a membran- ous sac which it soon ruptures and crawls forth fully armed and ready to fend for itself. No parental care is provided.

Status: Populations of the subspecies obscurus in its rather small Mexican ranee in the Sierra de San Luis of northwestern Chihuahua probably are fairly secure for the present; the New Mexico portion of the population is extremely peripheral and seems to be critically small (Degenhardt, 1972).

Conservation: In New Mexico this rare snake and its restricted habitat have within recent years been severely threatened by the activities of commercial collectors as C— 28

the animal brings a high price in the pet trade. Unrestricted private collecting has probably also had an adverse effect on the snake and its habitat. The known habitat of the ridge-nosed rattler in New Mexico is entirely on private lands, and the present landowners are genuinely interested in protecting both the snake and its habitat. Prevailing good cooperation among the landowners, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish and research- ers connected with the University of New Mexico have within recent years greatly brightened the prospects for survival of the ridge-nosed rattler in the state, especially now that the species has complete legal protection under state law and regulation. Besides the stringent legal protection now afforded the ridge-nosed rattler by the Department of Game and Fish, the landowners have closed the Animas Mountains to all unauthorized entry, and a comprehensive life history study of the snake is being conducted by UNM biologists under a contract with the Fish and Wildlife Service. D— 1

Jemez Mountain salamander (Plethodon neomexicanus)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This is a small (total length of males about 4 1/2 inches, females somewhat larger), slim, smooth-skinned creature of lizard- like shape. The tail makes up almost half the total length. Front and hind limbs are present but are small in proportion to body and tail. General adult coloration of upperparts is brownish with fine, brassy stippling; underparts sooty, somewhat lighter on throat and tail (young similarly colored, but with a faint gray or brassy longitudinal stripe on back).

Other descriptive details: There are distinct transverse grooves on the body and tail, those on the body usually 19 on each side (rarely 18 or 20) between front and hind legs, counting one each in axilla and groin. A thin furrow (nasolabial groove) extends from each nostril to the edge of the upper lip.

Distribution: The species is known only from a few localities in the Jemez Mountains of New Mexico (Stebbins and Pliemer, 1950).

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Biology: This is a very secretive salamander which spends most of its life underground, hidden beneath rocks, or under or within rotting logs. It normally surfaces only at night, and then only during the period of summer rains. It frequents l ocations in the heads of moist canyons or moss-covered talus slopes, especially those with a north exposure. Old, stabilized talus slopes with a good covering of damp soil and plant debris are favored. The species has been found only above 8,000 feet or so in mixed forests of fir, spruce, aspen, and maple. Although Jemez Mountains salamanders are not aquatic, they must remain moist at all times. Dessication is quickly fatal because, like all members of the family Plethodontidae they have no lungs. They obtain oxygen directly through the skin, which is very thin and must be moist for respiration to occur. The normal food consists of various kinds of insects and other small invertebrates found in the soil, under rocks, under bark, and within rotting logs. Much remains to be learned of the breeding habits, although the species is presumed to be egg-laying. No clutches of eggs have been reported, but it seems likely that the eggs may be placed underground in crevices among rocks where their discovery would be difficult. Average clutch size has been estimated at about 8 eggs, based on counts of ovarian follicles. Probably the larval period is passed within the egg and the young emerge fully formed, as this seems to be the general rule among plethodontid salamanders. Not much is known as to natural enemies of the species, but probably the ring-necked snake (Diadophis punctatus) and garter snakes (Thamnophis spp.) are of chief importance. Whether they actually exert a limiting effect on the salamander population is uncertain (Regan, 1967; Williams, 1972a, 1972b, 1973).

Status: This species seems to be fairly numerous in several restricted localities within its small range. Probably other still-undiscovered local populations exist in the Jemez Mountains. D-2

Conservation: Logging, overgrazing and trampling by domestic livestock, excessive human disturbance, and severe forest fires may pose serious potential threats to the survival of the Jemez Mountains salamander. Efforts to minimize damage to the habitat from these causes would be of value in conserving the species.

Remarks: The Jemez Mountians salamander offers a good example of endemism in a species. D-3

Sacramento mountain salamander (Aneides hardy')

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This is a small (total length of adults 3 to 4 inches), slim, smooth-skinned creature of lizard-like shape. The tail makes up noticeably less than half the total length. Front and hind limbs are present but are small in proportion to body and tail. General adult coloration of upperparts is light brown to dark brown, with some greenish gray to bronze mottling; underparts mainly light brown, but throat cream and tail slaty (young similarly colored but a brownish or bronzy longitudinal stripe may be present on the back, and the throat is whitish).

Other descriptive details: There are distinct transverse grooves on the body and tail, those on the body numbering 1 4 or 15 between the front and hind legs, counting one each in axilla and groin. A thin furrow (nasolabial groove) extends from each nostril to the edge of the upper lip. The head is somewhat triangular in outline, especially in males. The front teeth project beyond the lips when the mouth is closed and can be felt with the finger.

Distribution: The species is known only from a number of localities in the cacramento, White, and Capitan mountains of New Mexico (Findley, 1959; Schad, et 1959; Taylor, 1 941).

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Biology: Except for possible differences in breeding habits the biology of this species is similar to that of the Jemez Mountains salamander. The Sacramento Mountain salamander is definitely known to be egg-laying. Brooding females with eggs have been found in hollow logs during summer. Not enough data is available to determine the average number of eggs per clutch. One clutch on which details were published consisted of 3 eggs found inside a hollow Douglas fir log. Each egg had 2 gelatinous envelopes and each was suspended by a stalk from the roof of the chamber. The 3 stalks were twisted together and anchored to a common base. The eggs were found in August, at which time they were in an advanced stage of development. The entire larval period is evidently passed Within the egg (Johnston and Schad, 1959; Stebbins, 1 954; Wake, 1965).

Status: This species seems to be fairly numerous in several restricted localities within its comparatively small range. Other still-undiscovered populations may exist in the mountains of southeastern New Mexico.

Conservation: The species seems fairly secure at present, probably somewhat more so than its relative the Jemez Mountains salamander because it has a wider (known) range than the latter, being found in at least three mountain ranges rather than only one. However, protection of the specialized habitat from the same potentially adverse factors listed for the Jemez Mountains salamander would be of value in conserving the species.

Remarks: The Sacramento Mountain salamander offers another example of endemism in a species. D-4 (Eastern) oarking frog (Hylactophryne augusti latrans)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This rather small (snout-to-vent length of males 2 1/2 to 3 inches, females somewhat larger) frog has dry, smooth (wartless) skin. The eardrum is smooth and transparent. There is a transverse fold of skin across the back of the head, and, in uninflated individuals, a circular fold of skin on the belly. Coloration of adults is tan to greenish, sometimes with pinkish or reddish brown tones; young have a conspicuous, light colored band across the back which fades rapidly with age.

Other descriptive details: The toes are slender, unwebbed, and have prominent tubercles underneath. The forearm often appears unduly large for size of body. The gait is peculiar as the animal walks, rather than hops, with the heels and hindquarters noticeably elevated.

Distribution: The species is widely distributed in Mexico, but ranges northward into Texas and the southern portions of Arizona and New Mexico; the subspecies latrans occurs from central Texas to southeastern New Mexico. New Mexico: Occurs in the vicinity of Bottomless Lakes State Park, northwest of Carlsbad (Koster, 1 946), and near White's City--where reported in 1977 by John Goodwin (pers comm.) and recorded on tape in 1978.

Biology: This is a terrestrial form which is partial to limestone regions. It is very secretive, hiding by day in rock fissures, caves, abandoned mines, and under rocks. Apparently it comes out mainly at night, and then sparingly. Areas inhabited may range from arid hills upward into low forests of juniper and oak. Activity increases during and immediately after rains, but the creature does not require permanent water. Breeding occurs during rainy periods in spring and summer. About 50 eggs may be laid in a single season by one female. The eggs, which may be guarded by the male, are laid in damp places under rocks, or in fissures, caves, and the like. There is abundant yolk in these unpigmented eggs. The entire larval period is spent within the egg capsule, from which the young emerge as tiny, fully formed frogs. The voice of the male resembles the bark of a small dog, especially when heard from a distance, and the call is usually repeated at regular intervals of 2 or 3 seconds. Females may utter a loud screech when grasped in the hand or caught by a snake or other predator, but otherwise they are voiceless. Both sexes puff themselves up with air when seized--apparently an automatic defense against being swallowed by snakes (Conant, 1975; Wright & Wright, 1 949, Zweifel, 1967).

Status: The overall range of the subspecies latrans is comparatively small, and its occurrence within that range is spotty. In New Mexico the subspecies appears to be rare and of very localized occurrence.

Conservation: Probably about all that can be done at present to conserve the barking frog in New Mexico is to discourage unnecessary collecting and excessive disturbance of the habitats of any known populations.

Remarks: This frog is a member of a large tropical family which reaches its northern limit in our area. D-5

Colorado river toad (Bufo alvarius)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This is the largest western toad (snout-to-vent length of adults 3 to 6' inches). Coloration of upperparts is dark brown, olive, brownish green, or grayish; underparts light colored and usually unmarked, The skin of the upperparts is rather smooth (for a toad), but scattered warts and small tubercles are present. The warts are somewhat light colored (set in black areas in juveniles) and some of them are likely to be pale orange or rusty.

Other descriptive details: There are one or more conspicuous whitish warts near the angle of the jaw on each side, and several conspicuously large (but not whitish)warts on the hind legs. Cranial crests are prominent and rather sharply angular. The kidney-shaped parotoid glands are quite long and the eardrums are conspicuous.

Distribution: The species occupies a large range from southeastern California eastward across southern Arizona to southwestern New Mexico and southward to Colima. New Mexico: Known only from extreme southwestern Hidalgo County northward to the vicinity of Rodeo, Animas and Antelope Wells.

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Biology: This toad inhabits arid and semiarid environments from lowlands characterized by mesquite and creosotebush upward into mountain canyons characterized by oak, sycamore, and walnut. Ordinarily found only near permanent water, but sometimes encountered at temporary pools or even several miles from known water sources. The species in nocturnal. Rainfall stimulates activity. The breeding season appears to correspond with the period of spring and summer rains. The voice of the breeding male is quite low in pitch, and has been likened to the sound of a distant ferryboat whistle (Stebbins, 1966). Heard closer, it is a low-pitched trill. Eggs are laid in long, jelly-coated strings, and may number several thousand per string. These egg strings are deposited in ponds or slow, shallow streams, where they hatch into tadpoles which later transform into toads. Immersion in water is absolutely necessary for this sequence of events to occur. As with all toads, the secretion of the parotoid glands and other skin glands are more or less toxic but it does not cause warts. There probably is no danger to humans in handling these toads but it is advisable to wash one's hands afterwards before getting them near eyes or mouth. However, dogs have been known to become temporarily paralyzed and in at least one reported case killed, oy mouth- ing a Colorado River toad (Stebbins, 1966).

Status: The species is abundant over much of its extensive range; in New Mexico it is very peripheral and of uncertain but probably low population density.

Conservation: Probably about all that can be done at present to conserve the Colorado River toad in New Mexico is to discourage unnecessary collecting and excessive disturbance of the localized habitat where the species occurs. •

Remarks: This species reaches its eastern limits in southwestern New Mexico. D-6 Western (boreal) toad (Bufo boreas boreas)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This is a fairly large (snout-to-vent length of adults 2 1/2 to 5 inches), very warty toad, the warts often being tinged with rusty and usually located within dark blotches. General coloration of upperparts is greenish, grayish, or dusky, with dark spotting; underparts lighter, with considerable dark spotting. The parotoid glands are oval and a little larger than the upper eyelids.

Other descriptive details: The combination of a white or cream dorsal stripe extending down the middle of the back nearly from snout to vent and lack of cranial crests distinguishes this species from Woodhouse's toad (Bufo woodhousei), which has a similar dorsal stripe but has prominent cranial crests.

Distribution: The species occupies a vast range which extends from southeastern Alaska to northern Baja California, and from central Alberta to southern Nevada, southern Utah, and northern New Mexico; the subspecies boreas occupies all but the far southwestern portion of this great range. New Mexico: Known only from three localities in the San Juan Mountains, these being Lagunitas, Trout Lakes, and Canjilon Lakes (Campbell and Degenhardt. 1971; K. Jones, 1 973, unpublished report N.M.G.F. contract No. 519-66-8). -

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; Trip aaNcr i Biology: Taking the range as a whole, this species occupies a considerable variety of habitats, including springs and streams in deserts and semiarid grasslands, upward into woodland and high mountain meadows. In New Mexico, however, it appears to be exclusively a high-mountain form. Everywhere the species seems to be restricted to the vicinities of rivers, creeks, ponds, lakes, and reservoirs. For breeding the boreal toad is totally dependent on standing or running water, as that is where the eggs are deposited and the tadpoles live until they transform. Mating takes place in the water, and the eggs are extruded there in jelly covered strings. Some authorities have claimed that the male has no mating call but others (see Wright and Wright, 1 949), dispute this and assert that the male does have a mating call which, though not loud, resembles the peeping of a baby chick. Breeding occurs from January to July, the time depending chiefly on latitude and altitude, northern and montane populations breeding later than those which occupy more southern areas at low elevation. Boreal toads are active at night in warm, low-lying localities in the southern parts of their range, but are diurnal at high elevations and high latitudes. They seek cover in rodent holes and the like, or may themselves burrow in loose soil. When moving around on land they tend to walk rather than hop.

Status: The subspecies boreas is abundant over much of its extensive range; in New Mexico it is very peripheral and of uncertain but probably low population density.

Conservation: Legal protection against wanton killing, use as bait by fishermen at the high mountain lakes where the species is known to occur, and unnecessary collecting, plus protection of the restricted habitat from damage by livestock and humans, and from severe forest fires are the chief conservation measures for the boreal toad in New Mexico.

Remarks: This species reaches the extreme southeastern limit of its range in New Mexico. Stebbins (1966) uses boreal toad as the common name of this subspecies. D-7

(Blanchard) cricket frog (Acris crepitans bianchardi)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This is a small (snout-to-vent length of males 1/2 to 1 1/2 inches, females somewhat larger), slim-waisted, moderately warty frog. General coloration of upperparts is gray to light brown, with dark markings; underparts light colored, often with some dark spotting (throat of male with yellowish wash).

Other descriptive details: Dark markings present on back, rear of thigh, and nearly always on top of head, the latter as a triangle with the apex pointed backwards. A whitish bar is present from the eye to the base of the foreleg.

Distribution: The species is largely confined to the eastern United States, but ranges westward and southward; the subspecies blanchardi occurs from Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee westward to northeastern Colorado, southeastern New Mexico, western Texas, and northeastern Mexico. New Mexico: Known only in the lower Pecos Valley (Conant, 1975).

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Biology: This little frog is primarily land-dwelling, but enters water to breed and sometimes if frightened, may either dive to the bottom and hide or leap wildly into the water and immediately leap back on land again. In these wild leaps, it sometimes skitters over the open water, apparently supported only by the surface film. For its size it is a prodigious jumper, covering 3 or 4 feet at a single jump and rising 2 or 3 feet off the ground. In the West, this frog is found in lowlands below about 4,000 feet elevation. The usual habitat is the grassy border of ponds, slow streams, and the like, as well as in marshy meadows. Some- times groups of the frogs are found together in such places and if disturbed may l eap with wild confusion in all directions. In New Mexico, breeding occurs in spring and summer, probably mostly from April to July. Breeding typically takes place in permanent shallow water containing abundant plant life, but sometimes temporary pools are also utilized for the purpose. The numerous eggs are deposited singly or in small groups in shallow water on the bottom or attached to plants. I ndividual frogs may produce more than 300 eggs in a single season. The larval state is passed entirely in the water, where the tadpoles transform into frogs. The breeding call of the male is very distinctive, and may be heard night and day during the breeding season. It sounds something like "gick, gick, gick", repeated over and over and speeding up in rate toward the end of the call. The sound may be approximated by striking two stones together, and the frogs may sometimes be induced to call by this method, thus revealing their location (Stebbins, 1966). D-8

Status: The subspecies blanchardi is abundant over much of its extensive range; in New Mexico it is peripheral and of uncertain but probably low population density.

Conservation: Probably about all that can be done at present to conserve Blanchard's cricket frog in New Mexico is to discourage excessive disturbance of the habitats where it lives.

Remarks: This species reaches its western limits in southeastern New Mexico. D-9 LITERATURE CITED

Herptiles

Bogert, C. M., and W. G. Degenhardt. 1961. An addition to the fauna of the United States, the Chihuahua ridge-nosed rattlesnake in New Mexico. American Mus. Novitates, No. 2064, 15 pp.

Bogert, C. M., and Raf .1 Martin del Campo. 1 956. The Gila monster and its allies; The re'ationships, habits, and behavior of the lizards of the Family Helodermatidae. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 109(1): 1-238.

Bradley, W. G., and J. E. Deacon. 1 966. Distribution of the Gila monster in the northern Mojave Desert. Copeia, 1966(2):365-366.

Brown, B. C. 1950. An annotated check list of the reptiles and amphibians of Texas. Baylor Univ. Press, Waco, Texas. 259 pp.

Campbell, J. B., and W. G. Degenhardt. 1 971. Bufo boreas boreas in New Mexico. Southwestern Naturalist, 16(2):209-220.

Cole, C. J. 1975. Karyotype and systematic status of the sand dune lizard (Sceloporus graciosus arenicolous) of the American Southwest. Herpetologica, 31(3):288-293.

Conant, R. 1975. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians of eastern and central North America. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston (Sponsored by National Audubon Society and National Wildlife Federation. 429 pp.

Degenhardt, W. G. 1972. The ridge-nosed rattlesnake: An Endangered Species. Symposium on Rare and Endangered Wildlife of the Southwestern United States, pp. 104-113. New Mexico Dept. of Game and Fish.

Degenhardt, W. G. and J. L. Christiansen. 1 974. Distribution and habitats of turtles in New Mexico. Southwestern Naturalist, 1 9(1):21 445.

Degenhardt, W. G., and K. L. Jones. 1972. A new Sceloporus graciosus, from New Mexico and Texas 28(3):212-217.

Dixon, J. R., and P. A. Medica. 1 965. Noteworthy records of reptiles from New Mexico. Herpetologica, 21(I):72-75.

Findley, J. S. 1959. A new station for the Sacramento Mountain salamander in New Mexico. Southwestern Naturalist, 4(3):155-156.

Fouquette, M. J., Jr. 1970. Bufo alvarius. In Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles, 93.1-93.4 under Order Salientia. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles.

Gehlback, F. R. 1958. A first record for Trimorphodon lambda in New Mexico. Copeia, 1958, No. 3, p. 222.

Gehlback, F. R. 1971. Lyre snakes of the Trimorphodon biscutatus complex: A taxonomic resume. Herpetologica, 27(2):200-211.

Harris, A. H. 1959. Second record of the Arizona lyre snake in New Mexico. Southwestern Naturalist, 4(1):42-43.

Harris, H. D., Jr., and R. S. Simmons. 1 976. The paleogeography and evolution of Crotalus willardi, with a formal description of a new subspecies from New Mexico, United States. Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society, 12(1):1-22.

Jameson, D. L. 1957. Extension of the range of the Davis Mountain rat snake. Herpetologica, 13(1):89.

Johnston, R. F., and G. A. Achad. 1 959. Natural history of the salamander, Aneides hardii. Univ. of Kansas Pub., Mus. of Natural History, Vol. 10, No. 8, pp. 573-585.

Klauber, L. M. 1 972. Rattlesnakes: Their habits, life histories, and influence on mankind. (2 volumes). Published for the Zoological Society of San Diego by the Univ. of Calif. Press, Berkeley at Los Angeles. 1533 pp. (First Ed. pub. in 1956). D- [0

Koster, W. J. 1946. The robber frog in New Mexico. Copeia, 1946, No. 3, p. 173.

Koster, W. J. 1951. The distribution of the Gila monster in New Mexico. Herpetologica, 7(3):97-101.

Regan, D. P. 1967. Aspects of the life history and distribution of the Jemez Mountains salamander, Plethodon neomexicanus. M. S. thesis, Univ. of New Mexico. 38 PP-

Roze, J. A. 1974. Micruroides, M. euryxanthus. In Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles, 16-3.1-163.4 under Suborder Serpentes. Society for the Stu:'/ of Amphibians and Reptiles.

Russell, F. E. 1967. Bites by the Sonoran Coral snake, Micruroides euryxanthus. Toxicon, 5:39-42.

Schad, G. A., R. H. Stewart, and F. A. Harrington. 1959. Geographical distribution and variation of the Sacramento Mountains salamander, Aneides hardii. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 37(3):299-303.

Shaw, C. E. 1950. The Gila monster in New Mexico. Herpetologica, 6(2):37-39.

Shaw, C. E. 1 968. Reproduction of the Gila monster (Heloderma stispectum) at the San Diego Zoo. Zoologische Garten, 35(1/2):1-6 (This is a German publication, but the paper is in English).

Stebbins, R. C. 1954. Amphibians and reptiles of western North America. McGraw-Hill, New York. 528 pp.

Stebbins, R. C. 1966. A field guide to western amphibians and reptiles. Houghton- Mifflin Co., Boston. XVI 279 PP.

Stebbins, R. C., and W. J. Riemer. 1950. A new species of plethodontid salamander from the Jemez Mountains of New Mexico. Copeia, 1950(2):73-80.

Taylor, E. H. 1941. A new plethodontid salamander from New Mexico. Proceedings Biological Society, Washington, 54:77-79.

Various Authors. 1963. et seg. Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles. Published 1963-1970 by the American Society of Ichthyologist and Herpetologists, and from 1971, et seg., by the Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles.

Vitt, L. J., and A. C. Hulse. 1973. Observations of feeding habits and tail display of the Sonoran coral snake, Micruroides euryxanthus. Herpetologica, 29(4):302-304.

Wake, D. B. 1965. Aneides hardii. In Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles, 17.1-17.2 under Order Caudata. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles.

Webb, R. G. 1973a. Trionyx muticus. In Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles, 139.1-139.2 under Order Testudianes. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles.

Webb. R. G. 1973b. Trionyx spiniferus. In Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles, 140.1-140.4 under Order Testudines.

Williams, S. R. 1972a. Reproduction and ecology of the Jemez Mountains salamander, Plethodon neomexicanus. M. S. thesis, Univ. of New Mexico. 97 pp.

Williams, S. R. 1972b. The Jemez Mountains salamander, Plethodon neomexicanus. Symposium on Rare and Endangered Wildlife of the Southwestern U. S. pp. 118-127. New Mexico Dept. of Game and Fish, Santa Fe.

Williams, S. R. 1973. Plethodon neomexicanus. In Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles, 131.1-131.2 under Order Caudata. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles.

Williamson, M. A. 1972. Heloderma suspectum. Symposium on Rare and Endangered Wildlife of the Southwestern U.S., pp. 114--17. New Mexico Dept. of Game and Fish, Santa Fe.

Wilson, L. D. 1970. The coachwhip snake, Masticophis flagellum (Shaw): Taxonomy and distribution. Tulane Studies in Zoology Botany, 16(2):31-99. D-11

Wilson, L. D. 1 973. Masticophis flagellum. In Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles, 145.1-145.4 under Suborder Serpentes. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles.

Wright, A. H., and A. A. Wright. 1949. Handbook of frogs and toads of the United States and Canada. Comstock Publishing Assoc. (A Div. of Cornell Univ. Press), Ithaca, New York. 640 PP.

Wright, A. H. and A. A. Wright. 1957. Handbook of snakes of the United States and Canada. (2 volumes). Comstock Publishing Assoc. (A Div. of Cornell Univ. Press.), Ithaca, New York. 1106 pp.

Zweifel, R. G. 1967. Eleutherodactylus augusti. In Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles, 41.1-41.4 under Order Sal ientia. E - 3

Blue sucker (Cycleptus elongatus)

State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: The blue sucker is a fairly large fish (adults may attain a weight of several pounds and reach a length of over 2 feet). It can be told from all other New Mexico fishes by the combination of a long dorsal fin and papillose (soft protuberances) lips (Koster, 1957). Its small elongate head (with the eyes in the back pert of the head) which is abruptly more slender than the elongated body gives the species a distinctive body shape unlike other fishes in New Mexico.

Other descriptive details: The dorsal fin has more than 30 soft rays; the lips are thick with 5 or 6 rows of well developed papillae. The scales are smaller than those possessed by other suckers with long dorsal fins havirg between 53- 51 along the lateral line. The cclor is slaty oc bluish gray and the fish is somewhat derker above than below. Breeding adults are bluish black and the young are more silvery gray (Koster, 1957).

Distribution: The species is found in large rivers from southern Minnesota and Wisconsin to Tennessee and Mexico (Eddy, 1969). New Mexico: The species is known only from the lower Pecos drainage in New Mexico.

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Biology: It has been taken from a variety of habitats in New Mexico from swift riffles to lentic areas in the lower Pecos drainage. They spawn in the spring and reportedly move to lower reaches of large rivers while spawning in Iowa (Harlan and Speaker, 1951). There are no records of this species from lakes E-4 in Iowa. It feeds upon insects, their larvae, crustaceans and algae.

Status: This species is probably fairly secure as it enjoys a widespread distribution. In New Mexico, it is described as a rare species (Koster, 1957). Based upon recent surveys to locate the blue sucker, its current status appears to be reduced and somewhat restricted in areas of former occupancy.

Conservation: The depletion of water supplies, and other forms of habitat decay common in the lower Pecos River drainage have probably caused significant losses in population size.

Remarks: Retention of this interesting form of fish in New Mexico certainly justifies efforts to protect areas of previous occupancy. E-5

Gray redhorse (Moxostoma congestum)

State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: This fish, which attains lengths of about 15 inches, can be relatively easily separated from the other suckers in New Mexico. The blackish streaks on the membrane between the rays of the short dorsal fin are characteristic on adults. It may be distinguished from the white sucker (Catostomus commersoni) and those suckers of the genus Pantosteus by its larger scales and plicate lips (Koster, 1957).

Ventral view of mouth

Other descriptive features: The halves of the lower lips meet at an acute angle with a deep median groove and are plicate but broken into papillae (soft, rounded protuberances) in the corners (above) (Eddy, 1969). About 45 scales occur along the lateral line of the moderately robust and somewhat compressed body. Coloration is grayish or yellowish brown to olivaceous above turning to silvery to whitish be- 1957). 7 low. Lower fins sometimes have a reddish tinge (Koster,

Distribution: The Rio Grande drainage in Texas, Mew Mexico, and the Mexican states of Durango and Chihuahua, and in Tamaulipas (Rio Soto la Marina). New Mexico: Koster (1957) reported the species from the lower Pecos River and adjacent waters. Recent surveys have shown the species fairly well established only in the lower Pecos drainage below McMillan Res.

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Biology: This species is thought to feed largely upon insects and small mollusks, and unlike most suckers, they probably feed upon relatively little vegetation. Spawning occurs in the spring i n riffle areas,where the young remain. Adults typically dwell in pools (Koster, 1957).

Status: This species is listed as rather common (Knapp, 1953) in streams of Texas, but is rare in northern parts of that state. In New Mexico, Koster (1957) described the species as not common enough to be of much importance to New Mexico anglers. Today it is found to be locally abundant in the Black River and lower Pecos River, where the species is apparently restricted.

Conservation: Alteration of habitats by channelization, overgrazing, water diversions and municipal waste pollution along with previous "rough-fish" eradication programs have contributed to the decline of this species distribution.

Remarks: Efforts to maintain existing populations and reestablish this species into areas of former occupancy would be justified. E-7

Zuni mountain sucker (Pantosteus discobolus yarrowi)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: The presence of a sub-terminal mouth and thick fleshy lips will distinguish this fish as a sucker. The lower lip, which is separated from the upper lip by a distinct notch, will distinguish this species from suckers of the genus Catostomus. This subspecies agrees with other populations of P. discobolus in numbers of vertebrae (40-42) and dorsal rays (modally 9), width of lower jaw (usually less than 5% of standard length), shape, and pigmentation; however, in numbers of gill rakers it agrees with P. plebius, i.e. 26-38 on the external row and 34-52 (usually 38) on the internal row of the first arch. Smith (1966) considers yarrowi to be of hybrid origin between discobolus and plebius.

Other descriptive details: P. d. yarrowi usually has more than 50 pre-dorsal scales (47-70). The color is dark olive to brown dorsally, with off white to yellowish below. The breeding males have yellow or orange on lower parts and more-or-less reddish along the sides (Koster, 1957). The caudal interradial membranes are darkly pigmented (relative to other Pantosteus sp.).

Distribution: The species P. discobolus is mainly distributed in the Colorado River drainage above the Grand Canyon (Eddy, 1969), while P. d. yarrowi is confined to the Little Colorado River drainage. New Mexico: P. d. yarrowi only occurs in the Zuni River drainage. Results of a survey conducted in the upper Zuni River watershed in 1975 by Jensen et al. (in letter dated 10 July 1975) revealed that the species was restricted to Nutria Creek, Radosevich Creek and the Rio Pescado (see below for areas of trial reestablishment). In a later survey conducted by Hatch et al. in 1977, the species was found in Nutria Creek, Radosevich Creek, Rio Pescado, and Dean Creek (the latter a very small population).

ALINUL.0 BERNALILL VALENCIA E-8

Biology: The life history of this species in its New Mexico habitat is not well known. It inhabits a variety of sizes of streams and rivers. The streams presently occupied in the Zuni Mountains are small in size (4-10) feet in width) and are typically quite shallow except where pools from 2-3 feet (sometimes deeper) occur. Some of the streams occupied are subject to intermittency of flows during period of drought. Mountain suckers are generally similar in habits and habitat requirements and the following is described for P. clarki which is probably similar for yarrowi. They tend to live more in rapids where they feed upon algae scraped from stones by use of their cartilage sheathed jaws. They were observed feeding belly up on the underside of small boulders in Nutria Creek during July. Fry were also seen during June and July in Nutria Creek.

Status: The populations in portions of Nutria and Radosevich Creeks appear to be well established with those in the Rio Pescado and Dean Creek not as well established.

Conservation: The primary reason for the endangerment of this species is due to an eradication program to rid this area of suckers. Fortunately, there was sufficient survival in Nutria Creek to repopulate a portion of the stream. A population was also established in Radosovich Creek by a local rancher of the same name in a successful effort to save the species during the eradication process. Habitat deterioration in the lower portion of the Zuni River drainage particularly along the Rio Pescado has also contributed to the decline of the species. The potential of severe flash floods could also conceivably wash existing populations from these areas, and wild fires result in the ashing of the habitat making it uninhabitable. A logging operation and fire in the headwaters of Nutria Creek appear to be responsible for the disappearance of yarrowi in this area. The presence of the Rio Grande killifish (Fundulus zebrinus) has apparently been a factor in the absence of little if any survival of young-of-the-year suckers in the Rio Pescado. An attempt to establish the species in Cebolla Creek on 22 July 1975 failed because the stream went dry later that summer.

Remarks: Efforts to preserve this interesting form of native sucker to areas of former occupancy are well warranted and should be pursued. E-9

Mexican tetra (Astyanax mexicanus)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This 3-4 inch long fish is distinguished by its laterally compressed body with a characteristic small adipose fin. Another fish that could be confused with this species is the gizzard shad (Dorosoma cepedianum) which is easily separated by its lack of an adipose fin, a dark round spot on the side just back of the head and the sharp ridge on the belly.

Other descriptive details: The color is silvery with a conspicuous black lateral band that expands near the caudal base then narrows to extend onto the caudal fin (Minckley, 1973). A count of 35-40 scales along the lateral line will separate the Mexican tetra from other New Mexico fishes having an adipose fin (Koster, 1957).

Distribution: The native range of this species is the Rio Grande in Texas, Mexico, and New Mexico (Eddy, 1969). It has also been introduced elsewhere in the southwest (Eddy, 1969 and Minckley, 1973). New Mexico: Koster (1957) reports the species from the middle to lower Pecos River and lower Rio Grande. Sublette (1975) found the species restricted to Blue Spring and the Delaware River in Eddy County during a recent survey of the Pecos drainage. E-10

Biology: This species was found in the main streams in the Pecos River and Rio Grande by Koster (1957) and in small streams and a spring by Sublette (1975). Minckley (1973) states where abundant it occurs in almost any kind of habitat congregating in schools below swift waters, eddies and pools. They are very voracious, active fish feeding upon small animals (Koster, 1957) and reported to feed upon newly hatched cichlids in Mexico (Minckley, 1973) and attacks other small-sized fish and even nibbles upon human swimmers. They spawn in the summer (Koster, 1957).

Status: In areas of unaltered habitat, the species is probably fairly secure. In New Mexico, its range in the Pecos drainage has become greatly restricted (see above).

Conservation: Habitat degredation resulting from over grazing, siltation, channelization and water diversions are probable reasons for the decline of this species. The severe winters of the 1960's may have also reduced the range of this species in New Mexico (Sublette, 1975). Tentative plans to reintroduce this species in Geyser Spring, Eddy County and near Blue Hole, Guadalupe County are being considered.

Remarks: As this is the only species of this family found in the United States, and the fact that New Mexico marks the northern most natural occurrence of this species, it is vital to retain and re-establish populations in as much native range as possible. E-15

Roundtail chubs Gila robusta grahami State endangered (Group II) Gila robusta robusta State endangered (Group II)

Gila chub Gila intermedia State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: These two species are treated together here because they are nearly identical in morphological and morphometric features (intermedia is considered by some to be a subspecies of Gila robusta) and because they all face similar problems. The distinguishing features for this group are discussed in the account for Gila nigrescens.

Distribution: The G. robusta group is found in the Colorado River drainage, with G. r. grahami in the lower basin and Little Colorado River and G. r. robusta in the upper drainage (Minckley, 1973). G. intermedia is endemic to the Gila River drainage. New Mexico: G. r. grahami is reported from the upper Gila River basin by LaBounty and Minckley (1972). Paul Turner (pers. comm.) has collected grahami near the middle box area of the Gila River, in Turkey Creek, and in the vicinity of the middle and east forks of the Gila River. The distribution of G. r. grahami in the west fork of the Gila River and the San Francisco River is very restricted, and the species may be extirpated in the latter area. In New Mexico, G. r. robusta is known only from the San Juan drainage in San Juan County and the Navajo River (part of the San Juan drainage) in Rio Arriba County. In New Mexico, G. intermedia is known only from San Simon Cienega.

(see map on next page).

Biology: The subspecies of the G. robusta complex in New Mexico inhabit the larger tributaries and main streams within their respective ranges. They are found most commonly in the deeper pools of these waters. G. intermedia requires pools and is generally in small streams and springs. It can live successfully in larger water like the San Carlos River, Arizona (Minckley, 1973). The feeding habits for G. robusta grahami are not known in New Mexico, but in Arizona's Aravaipa Creek the larger individuals feed upon the smaller fishes of that stream and the young feed extensively upon algae and aquatic insects (Minckley, 1973). For G. robusta robusta, foods consist of aquatic terrestrial insects, filamentous algae, and when large, other fishes (Minckley, 1973). Foods for G. intermedia consist principally of insects (aquatic and terrestrial) and filamentous algae. Breeding for all three forms of Gila discussed here can normally be contained within the time from early spring to late summer.

Status: Although exceedingly abundant up to the 1 940's and 1950's, all three forms of Gila have become reduced in abundance and restricted throughout much of their former range. G. intermedia has probably been eliminated from New Mexico, but possibilities for restoration appear good.

Conservation: Possible reasons for the decline in abundance and distribution of Gila are competition with smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieui) or the predation by this species upon young grahami. This situation existed in Arizona in the Black River and Upper Salt River (Minckley and LaBounty, 1972; unpublished data). Con- struction of dams that could inundate existing habitat and result in coldwater dis- charges also pose threats to this species. Also, dewatering of habitats has probably eliminated G. intermedia from New Mexico. E-16

Remarks: Wise habitat management and careful consideration prior to release of exotic fishes into the Gila River are a must to insure retention of these species in their New Mexico habitat.

• •• 70 00.1. E-17

Chihuahua chub (Gila nigrescens)

State endangered (Group I)

Distinguished features: This fish averages 5-6 inches in length and may reach nearly 12 inches. Other than being the only Gila native to the Mimbres River, this species can best be distinguished from others of the genus by the number of scales in the lateral line, i.e. 67-78. G. intermedia has 80, G. r. robusta 80 (usually 83-91), and G. pandora 51-67; only G. r. grahami (75-85) overlaps significantly with nigrescens, but the latter averages fewer scales in the lateral line.

Other descriptive details: The origin of the dorsal fin is behind that of the pelvic fin (as is typical in Gila), and the dorsal fin ray count is usually 9. Coloration is dusky brown above and whitish below. During the breeding season an orange-red color is developed around the mouth and lower fins and, on more colorful individuals, on to the fins and lower sides of the head and body. The absence of barbels will distinguish G. nigrescens from introduced longfin dace (Agosia chrysogaster), which is native to the Colorado drainage. Post- larval nigrescens can be distinguished from similar appearing forms by the pres-...rce of a spot above the lateral line, immediately proceeding the caudal fin (in Agosia the spot is also located before the caudal fin but is located on the lateral line).

Distribution: Outside the United States the species occurs only in the Guzman basin of Chihuahua, Mexico. New Mexico: In the United States the species is known only from the Mimbres River. This species was found in only one locality i n the Mimbres River during a survey in 1975 (Rogers, 1975) and in two locations approximately 3/4 miles apart in 1977 and 1978.

Er,nnwitutteAm S I R R A VIUTII OP MMOWIM E-18

Biology: This chub has been found by recent workers only in the deeper pools with undercut banks in the middle stretch of the Mimbres River. This habitat type provides both escape cover and a suitable foraging situation. Chubs are rather trout-like in much of their foraging, taking insects on the surface as well as aquatic invertebrates and perhaps some fish and vegetation. Oldtimers on the Mimbres angled for the species, which along with the roundtail chub (G. robusta), was locally known as "Gila trout" (Clark Hubbs, pers. comm.). It is also quite likely that the ancient Mimbres Indians took Chihuahua chubs as food, as their pottery dipicts fishes that resemble the genus. In fact, it would appear that the Mimbres River once supported a notably larger variety of species, including perhaps catfish (Ictalurus) and even gars (Lepisosteus)-- judging from pottery motifs. This would have been seven or more centuries ago, when the river was a more notable stream and sooner after the time at which it had been connected to the Guzman Basin and the Rio Grande drainage in Mexico. By the later 19th century, only three native species were found in the Mimbres, these being the chub, the "Mimbres" sucker (Pantosteus plebius), and the beautiful shiner (Notropis formosus)--the latter now extirpated there. Chihuahua chubs spawn in the Mimbres in late April and May, although there is little evidence of successful reproduction in recent years.

Status: That more and better habitat existed in the past is apparent from the testimony of local residents (Clark Hubbs, pers. comm.) and from the accounts of Antisell (1857). The latter described the terminus of the river in the 1850's as being a series of pools or lagoons, surrounded by willow (Salix spp.) thickets; for 4 to 6 miles above this point the river is said to have been up to 21 feet deep and to have flowed at21 miles per hour in summer. Now the terminus is usually dry, and ordinarily at high water the river averages 13 feet wide and less than a foot in depth. Diversions have reduced the quantity of water in the river, while uneven flows, flooding, and loss of vegetative cover have combined to eliminate the conditions described by Antisell (op. cit.) to a drastic degree. In addition, the introduction of exotic species such as trout (Salmo spp.) and longfin dace have probably led to detrimental predation and competition to the chub. However, these factors may be minor compared to the loss of habitat. In the period 1975-1979, fewer than 50 chubs were known to persist in the river.

Conservation: The species was originally described from the Mimbres River, but it was thought to have been extirpated there (Koster, 1957). However, Rogers (1975) rediscovered it there in 1975, and the small population has persisted essentifllyintact until recently. In late 1978 and early 1979, heavy runoff in the river displaced many of the larger fish and damaged the little remaining habitat. These problems, and the subsequent reclamation efforts on the river, led to the decision to place 10 chubs at Dexter National Fish Hatchery in March 1979. It is hoped that this stock will preserve the gene pool and provide fish for future transplants into the Mimbres. Measures needed to restore this species include maintenance and expansion of suitable habitat, prohibition of bait-taking in the river, and perhaps elimination or reduction in exotics.

Remarks. The Chihuahua chub exists in the U. S. only in New Mexico, and every effort should be made to preserve this as a member of our fauna. E-19

('Canadian') speckled dace (Hybopsis aestivalis tetranemus)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This dace, confined to the Canadian drainage in New Mexico, is nearly identical to the Pecos River form, but may be distinguished by two sets of barbels (totaling to four barbels) (the Pecos form has only one barbel on each side). The dark speckles, which are scattered over the body, will serve to distinguish this dace from the flathead chub, which it resembles in the size of its scales and in the shape of its pectoral fins (bluntly pointed); and the continuing nature of the groove that separates the upper lip from the snout will distinguish the speckled dace from the longnose dace, which it resembles in having the snout projecting far beyond the mouth (Koster, 1957). There are usually 8 anal rays and the belly is usually naked. There are fewer than 40 scales along the lateral line.

Other descriptive details: This dace is usually slender, but it becomes strongly spindle-shaped with a narrow candal peduncle in large adults.

Distribution: H. aestivalis is moderately common in the main rivers and canals east of the Continental Divide. However, H. a. tetranemus is not as well represented. Koster (1957) reported the species above and below Ute Reservoir in limited numbers. Today, the subspecies seems to be restricted below Ute Reservoi in New Mexico. The subspecies is also found in the Arkansas River Drainage of Oklahoma, Arkansas and Kansas.

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Biology: Although the biology for H. a. tetraremJs is not well known, it is thought to be similar to the Pecos form (H. aestivalis). It is thought to inhabit the main channels usually over a bottom of shifting sand and silt. It spawns in the summer. E-20

Status: Recent surveys in New Mexico have indicated that the species is very rare and is confined to that area below Ute Reservoir.

Conservation: Water depletion and altered water quality has been largely responsible for the demise of this species.

Remarks: Attempts to rehabilitate former habitat and maintain existing habitat would be certainly justified to restore this species to historic habitats. E-21

Spikedace (Meda fulgida)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: Spikedace are small (2-3 inches in length) slender fish easily identified by the presence of a grooved, non-serrated first dorsal spine into which a second spine fits. The body appears naked except for a few anterior scaies along the lateral line.

Other descriptive details: There are 7 dorsal fin rays and usually 9 anal fin rays. The mouth is witkout barbles. The sides are silvery with black specks on the upper sides, particularly noticeable pre-dorsally. The back is olive-gray to brownish, usually with prominent mottling on the upper sides and the belly is white. Breeding males are golden or brassy, especially on the head and at the base of the fins (Minckley, 1973).

Distribution: This species is endemic to the Gila River basin. Presently, it is known in Arizona only in the Verde River system, Aravapai Creek and the Salt River Canyon. New Mexico: Koster (1957) reported it from the Gila and San Francisco rivers. However, recent surveys have shown the species to be present only in the Gila River, in the East, Middle, and West forks and downstream in the Middre Box (McKirdy and Duff, 1970; Paul Turner, pers. comm.; Anderson, 1978).

'41111Mly

L : : --- N.,

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- 7-7. •

NON MEXICO

Biology: Minckley (1973) describes the preferred habitat as moving water of less than a meter in depth during most of the year, and fish concentrate in eddies and flowing areas below riffles. Young occur in backwater areas over silt and sand bottoms, adjacent to swift pools. Meda is an opportunistic feeder, consuming terrestrial and aquatic insects, emerging insects and the fry of other fish (Minckley, 1973). The spawning season extends from mid-March into May (Anderson, 1 978) and young appear in April and May and attain sexual maturity during their E-22 second summer (about 40 mm for both sexes) (Barber, Williams and Minckley, 1970). Few if any individuals live through their fourth summer (Minckley, 1973).

Status: The species is far less abundant and widespread now than formerly in the Gila River, but may presently be absent within the historical range in the San Francisco River (Anderson, 1978).

Conservation: Competition with introduced fish species has apparently resulted in the decline of this species. This is particularly true in Arizona where the ubiquitous red shiner (Notropis lutrensis) has resulted in the displacement of the species in large areas of its former range (Minckley and Deacon, 1968). Until safeguards are sufficient to prevent red shiners (and other exotic species) from invading spikedace habitat. the future of the species is not secure.

Remarks: As an endemic species to the Gila basin, the present stronghold of occupied habitat (the Gila River) should be properly maintained. E-23

Arkansas River shiner (Notropis girardi)

State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: This is a small (large adults less than 3 inches, most individuals between 1 -2 inches) fish that is similar to the sand shiner (Notropis stramineus) but can be distinguished by its weak dorsal stripe (particularly anterior to dorsal fin) that is not widened anterior to the dorsal fin (pers. comm. with James E. Sublette) (below), and it lacks the dark spots at the base of the dorsal fin (Koster, 1957).

NOTROPIS GIRARDI

-t•R,

Notropis girardi Nptropis straqineus

Other descriptive details: There are 8 anal fin rays (7 in stramineus), diameter of eye about 2/3 as long as mouth (eye about equal to mouth length in stramineus), coloration is paler than stramineus and has a smaller anal fin (Koster, 1957). There are fewer than 40 lateral line scales. Similar in color (silvery olive to yellowish above and whitish below), shape of body and size and arrangement of fins andscalesasstramineus but the above will distinguish girardi.

Distribution: This species is found in the Arkansas River drainage in Arkansas, Oklahoma and Texas (Eddy, 1969). New Mexico: In New Mexico the species is confined to the Canadian River and its larger tributaries (Koster, 1957). Sublette (1975) found the species only in the Canadian and its primary tributaries below Ute Dam near Logan.

.. . -. .

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NCV: AlEXICO 1 E-24

Biology: Spawning occurs during the summer (Koster, 1957). The eggs develop as they are swept downstream in the current.

Status: Due to apparent range constriction, the species has been confined to the Canadian River drainage below Ute Lake. The species was previously reported in the headwaters of Ute Creek and Conchas River well above Ute Lake (Sublette, 1975).

Conservation: Habitat decay resulting from excessive grazing, water depletion and other types of man-caused alterations may have contributed to the reduced distribution of this species. The usage as a bait species may also be a factor in reducing the abundance of this species, particularly in areas readily accessible to bait dealers.

Remarks: Protection of this species from use as bait and protection of its habitat are justified measures to insure the survival of this species in New Mexico. E-25

Silverband shiner (Notropis cf. shumardi)

State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: This small-sized shiner (generally less than 2 inches l ong) is similar to the bluntnose shiner (Notropis sinus) of the Rio Grande from which it can be distinguished by simus relatively smaller eyes, narrower caudal peduncle and its range (Koster, 1 -§Tf)T The least depth of the caudal peduncle is about equal to the interorbital distance and this same measurement will extend from the tip of the mouth to about the middle of the pupil. The eye is about 3/4 the length ot the snout. The body is silvery with a diffuse lateral band (Koster, 1957).

Other descriptive details: The peritoneum is silvery, nuptial tubercles are minute and coloration is dominated by a silvery lateral stripe (Gilbert and Bailey, 1962). The mouth is terminal (Knapp, 1953).

Distribution: The center of distribution is the Missouri and Mississippi Valley from the Missouri River in central South Dakota and the Mississippi River from Illinois to Louisiana. Also, it is found in the Ohio River system and several rivers in Texas (Gilbert and Bailey, 1962). Knapp (1953) reports N. brazosensis = N. shumardi in the Pecos River of Texas. New Mexico: This form is known only from the Pecos River (Koster, 1957 and Sublette, 1975).

•

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Biology: Virtually nothing is known of the habits and ecology of shumardi, other than that it is restricted to large rivers. As it has microscopic nuptial tubercles it probably lacks a highly specialized spawning behavior (Gilbert and Bailey, 1962). It spawns in the summer and schools in the main channels of the Pecos River (Koster, 1957).

Status: The species is probably fairly secure in areas of large volumes of flow. It has a restricted distribution in Texas as a result of reduced flow (Gilbert and Bailey, 1962). In New Mexico, Sublette (1975) found only two spec- i mens in Chaves County, however, during a 1977 survey, 172 specimens were found in one area below McMillan Dam in the Pecos River in Eddy County.

Conservation: Reduced flows of the Pecos River have undoubtedly contributed to the demise of this species in New Mexico.

Remarks: As it is somewhat inconceivable that large volumes of flow will ever be existent for very long periods of time in the Pecos River, every effort to rehabilitate former habitat and retard further habitat deterioration should be made. Treatment of this New Mexico population of shiner as being close to (cf.) shumardi is provisional, and it may prove to be a separate subspecies of that (or some other species or even a distinct species in its own right. At any rate, its center of abundance is Major Johnson Springs, Eddy Co., New Mexico. E-27

Bluntnose shiner (Notropis simus)

State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: This moderately large-sized (adults reach lengths of up to 3 1/2 inches) fish is similar to the plains minnow (Hybognathus nuchalis) but lacks its sharp edge on the lower jaw; the Rio Grande chub (Gila pandora) but has larger scales; and the flathcad chub (Hybopsis gracilis) but lacks a barbel at the angle of the mouth (Koster, 1957). It more closely resembles the Rio Grande shiner (Notropis jemezanus) and Texas shiner (N. amabilis), the latter being in the Pecos drainage in Texas, and can be separated from the former by its smaller eye, less terminal mouth and a more blunt-shaped nose tapering less smoothly than N. jemezanus (Koster, 1957).

NOTROPIS SIMUS

Notropis jemezanus _Notropft simus

Other descriptive details: Its eye diameter is about half the snout length. The fairly large mouth is overhung by a bluntly rounded snout. The caudal peduncle is moderately slender.

Distribution: It is reported from the Rio Grande drainage system of Texas (Knapp, 1 953). New Mexico: Found in the Rio Grande and possibly also the Pecos River in New Mexico.

(see map on next page).

Biology: Koster (1957) reported the species in the main channel of the Rio Grande River, often below obstructions.

Status: The last I.,,own specimen of this species was collected near Pena Blanca, New Mexico by a biology class conducted by Royal Suttcus in 1 964. Subsequent surveys, notably one of the Rio Conchas and the Big Bend area in 1977, have failed to find this species. In New Mexico, the species is probably extirpated throughout its New Mexico range though apparently once common enough to be used as a bait fish (Koster, 1957). If the species still exists, it is expected to occur in that area of the main Rio Grande between Otowi bridge and Cochiti Lake. Not reported from the Pecos River by Sublette (1975) during a survey of the Pecos River.

Conservation: Water depletion resulting from water diversions and water storage has completely dried up former collection localities and associated habitats of this species. This along with channelization, siltation and altered water quality has probably contributed significantly to the demise of this species.

Remarks: Attempts to rehabilitate this species' former habitat would be certainly justified to restore this Rio Grande basin shiner to the New Mexico fish fauna. This species is a candidate for endangered status at the federal level. E - 28 E-28a

Silvery minnow (Hybognathus nuchalis)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: The silvery minnow is normally 3.5 inches long in New Mexico, although Koster (1957) reports specimens up to 6 inches in length; it is streamlined with a small head, small subterminal mouth, and general silvery to olive coloration (in part, Miller & Robison, 1973). The mouth is horizontal, with an overhung fleshy, snout and thin lips. The lower jaw tapers to a sharp edge and possess a small knob just inside the tip (Koster, 1957; Miller and Robson 1973). The genus can be distinguished from the similar appearing Hybopsis by the lack of barbels. This species can be positively separated from the nearly identical plains minnow (Hybognathus placitus) only by examining the basioccipital bores. In nuchalis the posterior process of the bas , occipital is broad, whereas in placitus it is pointed (Miller and Robisor. 1973)

Other descriptive details: The eye diameter is about 25 to 28.5% of the head length. There are 8 rays in the dorsal, anal, and pelvic fins, and there are usually 36-38 scales in the lateral line. The gut is long and coiled, and the peritoneum is black (Miller and Robison, 1973).

Distribution: This species is native to the drainages from Minnesota and Ohio south to New Mexico, Texas, and Alabama. New Mexico: Historically, the species occurred throughout the Pecos and Rio Grande drainages. Today the most extensive population exists in the mainstream Rio Grande above Cochiti Reservoir, although an occasional individual is found in the lower Pecos drainage in the vicinity of the Black River (see map on next page).

Biology: The silvery minnow occupies the quiet water in pools and backwaters of large streams and rivers, often occurring in schools (Koster, 1957). The species seems to feed mainly on diatoms, algae, and other plant materials that form a layer over the soft bottoms with which it is associated (Miller and Robison, 1973). Spawning occurs in the spring and summer, probably over soft bottoms (Miller and Robison op. cit.).

Status: This is a common species in the central Mississippi drainage, where it is secure throughout much of its range; however, even there it may at least l ocally be threatened by hybridization with the plains minnow. In New Mexico, the silvery minnow's range as a pure species (or subspecies) has declined drastically, as the result of hybridization with the plains minnow (used as bait fish) introduced from farther north and east. The only area in which plains minnows or hybrids are not dominant is in the Rio Grande above Cochiti Lake, and that population could be threatened by baitfish releases in the future.

Conservation: Prevention of interdrainage transfer of plains minnow will be necessary to ensure the survival of the silver minnow in New Mexico. E-28B

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Suckermouth minnow (Phenacobius mirabilis)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: A small (3-4 inches in total length) fish that is sometimes mistaken for the white sucker (Catostomus commersoni). It is distinguished from the white sucker because it lacks the reflexed, papillose and cleft lower lip common to them (Koster, 1957). It can be distinguished from other minnows by the thick lower lip that forms a posterior fleshy lobe on each side which is partially separated from the madible by a groove and by the more forward position of the dorsal fin (Buchanan, 1973, Knapp, 1953 and Harlan and Speaker, 1951).

Other descriptive details: There are 7-8 dorsal rays, 7 anal rays and an inferior mouth. Color is a silvery olive above and whitish below (Koster, 1957) with a dorsal stripe that ends in an elongated dark spot at the base of the caudal fin. Breeding males become tuberculate and yellowish-olive (Baxter and Simon, 1970).

Distribution: This species is found in the western Mississippi drainage (Colorado and South Dakota), and in Louisiana and Texas to western Ohio (Eddy, 1969). New Mexico: Koster (1957) reports suckermouth minnows from the Arkansas drainage in New Mexico. Sublette (1975) also found the species in the Arkansas drainage near Sabinosa and from the Pecos River west of Fort Sumner, the latter a new range extension of the species into the Pecos drainage.

' H ARDING _40SQUERO

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Biology: This fish inhabits small to moderate sized, clear water streams, with sand or gravel bottom, preferring riffle areas. It is primarily a feeder of small bottom dwelling invertebrates (Baxter and Simon, 1970). Spawning habitats are not well known, but it spawns during the spring in New Mexico.

Status: It is probably secure throughout major portions of its range. In New Mexico, the species has become restricted to far fewer areas within its range even though Sublette (1975) found the species in the Pecos drainage. P. mirabilis was described as scarce (Koster, 1957) and is undoubtedly in a precarious situation at present.

Conservation: Construction of water diversions and other types of habitat degredation such as over-grazing that results in siltation may have contributed to the apparent decline in distribution of this species.

Remarks: As this species is at its southwestern limits and due to its rarity in New Mexico, efforts to perpetuate it are well justified. E-31

Southern redbelly dace (Phoxinus erythrogaster)

State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: This small sized (adults 2-3 inches in length) fish is easily distinguished by the presence of two dark lateral bands on each side, the primary dark band extends from the snout, through the eye nearly to the spot at the base of the caudal fin. The secondary band extends from the upper angle of the gill opening to the tail (Koster, 1957).

Other descriptive details: The lateral line is incomplete. The mouth does not reach the eye and is nearly terminal. During most of the year the color is olive brown above, creamy between the bands and silvery white below. During the spawning season, the males develop a golden color between the bands and scarlet on the belly (Koster, 1957).

Distribution: This species is found from southern Minnesota to Pennsylvania and south to northern Alabama, Arkansas and Oklahoma (Eddy, 1969). New Mexico: It was found in a few tributaries of the Canadian River by Koster (1957). Sublette (1975) found the species in only one locality within Coyote Creek, Mora County during a 1975 survey of the Canadian drainage.

, -

.. ..,_....,...... - .„,..„_._ - •,-. :.../ .- :. \- ■ -- ' . I [F .. _ ---, . - : I . . 1 _ I. .. 'U _ - —___

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Biology: It inhabits permanent streams with clearwater that aren't subject to frequent flooding. It is mainly a herbivorious fish feeding largely on algae and some insects. It spawns by scattering its eggs over gravel during the spring and early summer (Koster, 1957).

Status: It is probably fairly secure as a species due to its widespread range. New Mexico: It is described as a rare species in New Mexico by Koster (1957). Its status has apparently become even more rare and restricted in range based upon a recent survey of the Canadian drainage. Previous collections indicated that it was locally abundant in both Mora and Coyote Creek, Mora County (Sublette, 1975). E-32

Conservation: Habitat degredation resulting from overgrazing which increases siltation, water diversions and other types of man-made alterations that alter water conditions have probably contributed to the demise of this fish. Com- petition with introduced fishes may also pose a threat to this species.

Remarks: As this species is at its western limits in New Mexico, efforts to perpetuate this species existence are well justified. E-33

Colorado River squawfish (Ptychocheilus lucius)

Federal endangered/State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: This piscivorous fish is the largest native species of the minnow family, having attained unverified lengths of 6 feet and weights in excess of 80 pounds. However, more recent records reveal that most specimens are between 2-3 feet in length and weigh from 4-15 pounds (Sigler and Miller, 1963). The elongate body and its long flattened cone-shaped head, large terminal mouth (the gape of which extends nearly to the posterior margin of the eye) and the presence of a dark wedge-shaped caudal spot on the young will separate this species from the round-tail chub (Gila robusta) (Sigler and Miller, 1963).

Other descriptive details: P. l ucius has large fins, deeply forked caudal fin, 9 dorsal and anal fin rays, and small scales which are sometimes missing or deeply embedded on the breast and belly. Color olivaceous above, sides somewhat yellowish and belly whitish, particularly anteriorly (Minckley, 1973). The large mouth and longer head distinguish this species from G. robusta.

Distribution: Historically inhabited the main river channels of the Colorado River drainage from Mexico to Wyoming. New Mexico: In 1957, Koster discussed reports of this species in the San Juan basin, but the first specimens (2) were obtained from the San Juan River in 1959 near Rosa, Rio Arriba County (Koster, 1960). Subsequent specimens (4) were collected in the vicinity of Navajo Dam (Olsen, 1962). Other reports have all been from the San Juan River upstream from Bloomfield, but none is confirmed. In 1978, C. Minckley captured one at Aneth, Utah, not far downstream in the San Juan from New Mexico. The species is unknown from the Gila basin of New Mexico although it may have historically occurred there (LaBounty and Minckley, 1972). It was also collected from the Salt River in 1937 (Miller, 1961; in Minckley, 1 973)--not an unlikely distance for this fish to move into the upper Gila Basin.

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NEW MEXICO ,....s-:=.....-..•.4 .... E-34

Biology: This species is characterized as a "big river" fish occurring in turbid, strong flowing waters three or more feet in depth (Siegler and Miller, 1963). Koster (1960) and Vanicek and Krammer (1969) found Colorado River squawfish in pools, eddies and runs over various bottom types. Historically, this fish moved upstream in "runs" before the spawning period which coincides with receding water levels and increased water temperatures. This along with their large size is presumably why they have been called salmon in parts of their range. Although actual spawning sites or behavior have not been observed (Hinckley, 1973) P lucius may spawn in pools and riffles as do the other three species of squawfish in North America. In the Green River, the diet consists of crustaceans and aquatic dipteran larvae when the fish were shorter than 50 mm total length. Increasing numbers of aquatic insects plus terrestrial insects compose the diet of individuals between 50-100 mm in total length with fish becoming increasingly important when their total length is from 100-200 mm. The diet of Colorado River Squawfish in excess of 200 mm in total length is comprised almost entirely of fish. This species is also a fairly long-lived fish.

Status: Virtually extirpated as a self-sustaining species in the lower Colorado basin below Glen Canyon Dam and present only locally in the upper basin (e.g. Green and Yampa rivers). New Mexico: Unconfirmed in the state in more than a decade, in spite of intensive surveys in the San Juan drainage in the middle and late 1970's. This and other data point to a severe decline if not extirpation of the species in the state.

Conservation: The alteration of virtually the entire Colorado River basin for water development projects has drastically changed the flow patterns, temperature, turbidity and fish species composition within the area preferred by this highly specialized species. Dams form physical and biological barriers preventing migrations for reproductive purposes. Nursery areas have been eliminated because of altered flow regimes. The drastic declines in abundance and distribution of Gila robusta and other prey species have also resulted from the degradation of the system causing even more stress for the species.

Remarks: This interesting and largest of minnow species is deserving of any efforts directed toward its reestablishment and propagation in New Mexico. E-35

Loachminnow (Tiaroga cobitus)

State endangered (Group 11)

Distinguishing features: The l oachminnow is a small (adults 2 to 2 1/2 inches length) fish that can be distinguished from the speckled dace (Rhinichthys osculus) which occurs in the same area by the absence of a barbel, eyes that are directed upward and the absence or near absence of scales on the back and breast (Koster, 1957).

Other descriptive details: There are 8 small dorsal fin-rays and 7 anal fin-rays. There are more than 60 scales in the lateral line. Body coloration is olivaceous, mottled with blackish above and a dirty white below. Dirty white spots are present before and behind the base of the dorsal fin as well as on the upper and l ower sides of the caudal peduncle. Breeding males have red to red-orange markings on the bases of fins, adjacent body and on the mouth and head. Females show some yellowing of fins and lower body when in reproductive condition (Minckley, 1973).

Distribution: Minckley (1973) reports this endemic species of the Gila drainage from the Gila basin in Arizona. New Mexico: The species inhabits the Gila basin of New Mexico (Koster, 1957). Paul Turner, N.M.S.U. Fisheries Department, (pers. comm., 1976) has found the species in the San Francisco River and in the Gila River from the lower box region into lower areas of the East, Middle and West forks of the Gila River and in the San Francisco River (including Tularosa Creek).

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Biology: This is a highly specialized fish essentially restricted to gravelly riffles in streams of the Gila basin. It is most often taken in beds of E-36 filamentaus algae associated with shallow riffle areas. Spawning occurs in late winter and early spring and possibly occurs in mats of algae. Each female produces 250-1200 ova and few live to spawn in their fourth year. They are opportunistic feeding upon riffle-inhabiting insect larvae, principally simuliids, dipterans and mayflies. Speckled dace are closely associated with loachminnows. The heavier than water loachminnow remains on the bottom supporting itself with its pectoral fins to inspect floating debris while the speckled dace typically occupies mid-water habitats (Minckley, 1973).

Status: The species is becoming greatly reduced in numbers and distribution in Arizona. In New Mexico, it appears to be reasonably secure in numberous areas of the Gila basin (pers. comm., Paul Turner, 1976; N.M.S.U. Fisheries Department) with good numbers from the East Fork of the Gila.

Conservation: Deterioration of its special habitat and the introduction of red shiners (Notropis lutrensis) and other introduced fish species (which has resulted in adverse competitive interactions for loachminnows) have been attributed to the decline of this species in Arizona (Minckley , 1973). Although reasonably secure in New Mexico, the presence of exotic fish species and possibilities of further introductions (from bait of fishermen) along with habitat alteration pose threats to this species. Habitat protection and prohibition of red shiners for bait purposes in the Gila drainage can hopefully retard displacement of the species.

Remarks: As an endemic to the Gila Basin, this species is a valuable segment of New Mexico's icthyofauna deserving adequate protection.

E-40

White Sands pupfish (Cyprinodon tularosa)

State endangered (Group 11)

Distinguishing features: As this is the only native fish and the only Cyprinodon known from the Tularosa basin it is not easily confused with any other species of fish in its native habitat. Its nearest relative in New Mexico is the Pecos pupfish (Cyprinodon sp.) of the Pecos River drainage. C. tularosa is easily distinguished by having the breast and abdomen fully scaled or (in Salt Creek) almost so, whereas in the Pecos pupfish, this region is completely or largely naked (Miller and Echelle, 1975).

Other descriptive details: This fish is small: sizes for males range from 26.5- 41.0 mm standard length, mean = 32.3 mm; size for females range from 23.5 to 42.0 mm standard length, mean = 33.0 mm. There are 9-10 dorsal rays, and 9-10 anal rays. Breeding males are characterized by orange pectoral and pelvic fins; the caudal fin is pale greenish yellow with a black terminal band; the color on the sides is grayish blue. Vertical bars are absent on larger adults, but many retain irregular bars on the posterior half of the body (especially smaller males) and the upper parts and back are deep metalic blue. Breeding females have pale yellow pectoral and pelvic fins (other fins are colorless to watery-white), the sides are whitish to silvery, and the vertical bars on the sides are usually continuous almost to ventral profile but sometimes are broken forming ventrolateral blotches particularly on the caudal peduncles. There is also a dusky to intense black spot near the posterior base of the dorsal fin (Miller and Echelle, 1975).

Distribution: This endemic species of New Mexico's Tularosa basin is known only from Malpais Spring, springs southeast of Malpais Spring, Salt Creek, an introduced population about 2 miles south of Alamogordo and Mound Spring.

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Biology: This is a fish of shallow, calm, highly mineralized, springs with sand and gravel bottoms. Associated with the springs are dense growths of salt grass and sedges. These fish can apparently tolerate extremes in water fluctuations. Pupfish travel in schools and feed upon bottom mud or on vegetation. Females deposit their eggs over male guarded, bottom areas or vegetation during the summer (Koster, 1957).

Status: This fish is abundant in its limited habitat and at the present is reasonably secure. Severe drought poses the most immediate threat to the species. This could be worsened by any habitat alteration as a result of overgrazing, road construction or other forms of disturbance. The natural habitat of the species should be stringently protected from water depletion, introduction of exotic fishes and any form of physical or chemical disturbance.

Remarks: As the Tularosa basin is the only place in the world where this species occurs, it should be the recipient of sound habitat management to insure its survival. E-44

Brook stickleback (Culaea inconstans)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: Brook sticklebacks are from 2-4 inches in length and can be distinguished from other New Mexico fishes by the series of 5-6 isolated spines along its back (Koster, 1957), Their skin is smooth and scaleless (Harlan and Speaker, 1951).

Other descriptive details: The body is slender and quite narrow. Pelvic fins are reduced to a single spine supported by one or two soft rays. When handled, they invariably hold their dorsal spines downward leaving only the tips visable making the isolated spines difficult to see (Morris, Morris and Loitt, 1972). The 5-6 spines in the dorsal fin are followed by 9-10 rays in the soft dorsal fin (Harlan and Speaker, 1951). The color is more-or-less barred with dark green to olive on the back and sides and light green or white below (Koster, 1957).

Distribution: This is a widespread species occurring in western Canada, Montana to Maine and south to Kansas, Illinois, Indiana and Ohio (Eddy, 1969). New Mexico: The species is reported by Koster (1957) to occur only in the Vermejo Park area of northeastern New Mexico. Merrick Lake and its tributaries are localities of previous occurrence of this species. The species was also collected from Stubblefield Lake in 1959 (Harrison, 1960).

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Biology: Culaea prefers clear, cool waters in the upper reaches of streams and ponds. Frequented streams are usually rocky with low, grassy banks and, ponds frequented are with rank growths of aquatic vegetation (Harlan and Speaker, 1951). The males pugnaceously guard the "muff-shaped" nest that they construct from aquatic vegetation stuck together by a secretion from the kidney while the relatively few (75-100) eggs laid by the female are hatched and their young leave (Koster, 1957, Harlan and Speaker, 1951, Morris, Morris and Loitt, 1972). They feed largely upon insects and crustaceans although frequently upon fish fry (Harlan and Speaker, 1951).

Status: The species is probably secure due to its wide spread range and habitat. In New Mexico, Koster (1957) states that they are probably extinct and waters known to harbor them yielded none during a search for them. Sampling in Stubblefield Lake failed to yield any stickleback (Harrison, 1960). The species was not found in Stubblefield arroyo, Stubblefield Lake or the Vermejo River during recent survey work by Sublette (1975) and Hatch and Hubbard in 1977.

Conservation: Poisoning programs may have eliminated those populations referred to by Koster (1957). This may also be true for those reported from Stubblefield Lake by Harrison (1960). Development of areas adjacent to historical habitat and other activities (i.e. overgrazing, water diversions and drastic alteration of habitat) could easily render remaining habitat useless for possible re-introduction of this species.

Remarks: The restoration of this unique species into former ranges is well justified. E-46

Greenthroat darter (Etheostoma lepidum)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: The greenthroat darter is a small sized (2-2 1/2 inches in length) fish which resembles a young perch (Perca sp.) but differs in having a more robust body and larger pectoral fins with a square or slightly rounded caudal fin. This is also the only spiny-rayed fish with a scaled body and un- notched tail (Koster, 1957). It can be distinguished from the bigscale logperch (Percina macrolepida) by having the midline of the belly with ordinary scales whereas P. macrolepida has a row of enlarged and spiny scales on the midline of the belly.

Other descriptive details: Olivaceous to brown with dark more-or-less vertical bars and blotches on the sides. During the breeding season the males become more intensely barred and exhibit green, orange and other bright colors (Koster, 1957).

Distribution: This species is found from Oklahoma south through central Texas (Eddy, 1969). Knapp (1953) found the species in the Guadalupe River system south into the Rio Grande and its tributaries. New Mexico: Koster (1957) reports the species from the southeastern portion of the state in the Pecos River and its tributaries. Presently, it is known only from Blue Springs and the Pecos River, Eddy County, and the Rio Penasco and Bitter Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, Chaves County.

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Biology: This species is particularly abundant in streams among aquatic weeds in its habitat where it seeks shelter and food, It is also found in heavily vegetated sinkholes and springs in the Bitter Lakes National Wildlife Refuge. Darters are E-47

spring spawners depositing their eggs in the sandy bottoms or on stones and adjacent crevices. Darters are typically bottom dwellers (having lost their air bladder during their evolution); they dart out in rapid dashes to feed upon small crustaceans, aquatic insects and algae (Everhart and Seaman, 1971).

Status: I n areas of remaining suitable habitat its status is probably reasonably secure throughout its range. I n New Mexico, this species apparently has never been common (Hubbs and Echelle,1972, pers. comm. with Koster). The Pecos River and tributary populations have become extremely restricted.

Conservation: Channel straightening, brush removal, irrigation diversions, dams, pollution and cattle feeding adjacent to its habitat have probably been contribut- i ng factors causing declines in distribution of this species (Hubbs and Echelle, 1 972).

Remarks: Areas presently occupied by this darter should be preserved in their natural states as much as possible. Areas of former occupancy should be restored to a state suitable for this species to inhabit areas of its most western distributional limits. E-48

Bigscale logperch (Percina macrolepida)

State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This species is about 4-5 inches in length though it may reach lengths up to 8 inches (Koster, 1957). It can be distinguished from the yellow perch (Perca flavescens) by its more slender, longer body which is more circular in cross-section and the presence of 15 or more (usually about 20) dark vertical bars on the sides, and the presence of a black spot at the base of the caudal fin (Koster, 1957). It can be distinguished from the Pecos darter (Etheostoma lepidum) by having a row of enlarged and spiny scales on the midline of the belly (scales sometimes shed leaving a naked strip). The midline of the Etheostoma belly has ordinary scales, but may be naked anteriorly. The presence of divided dorsal fins will separate this species from the Rio Grande killifish (Fundulus z. zebrinus) and the Plains killifish (Fundulus z. kansae).

Other descriptive details: The overall color is yellowish brown with ventral black bars.

Distribution: This species occurs in the Edwards Plateau of West Texas. New Mexico: Koster (1957) found the species near Carlsbad in the Pecos River and in 1976 Dr. Manuel Molles (UNM) and Mike Hatch (NMGF) found the species near Santa Rosa. Sublette (1975) has located new populations in and below Lake Sumner, De Baca County.

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Biology: This species inhabits small lakes in some areas and is also found in the Pecos River over a bottom composed of interspersed rock silt. Unlike most darters, this species can swim gracefully when off the bottom which it sometimes leaves in pursuit of food which consists of insects, crustaceans and other small animals (Koster, 1957). This species is also the largest of the darters.

Status: This species is probably fairly secure in areas of its range where its habitat hasn't been drastically altered. In New Mexico it apparently has become greatly restricted in its range and possibly the lower Pecos River populations have been eliminated. The populations found below Lake Sumner appear to be well established, but these are subject to erratic fluctuation in numbers (the exact cause is unknown).

Conservation: Municipal waste pollutants, channelization and creation of water diversions are probably the main factors leading to the demise of this species in areas of former occupancy. Siltation has probably been a contributing detrimental factor.

Remarks: Reversal of the above reasons for habitat decay would certainly be justified to enable this species to re-occupy parts of its presently unoccupied former range. E-50

Pecos gambusia (Gambusia nobilis)

Federal endangered/State endangered Group II)

Distinguishing features: This small-sized (females attain the maximum length of 2 1/2 inches and males less than 1 1/4 inches) fish has a dark lateral stripe (which fades when taken from the water) which is broad pre-dorsally. Dark dorsal and caudal fins, a darkly pigmented dorsal side of the head and normally a dark spot in each nostril will help separate nobilis from the similar appearing mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis).

Male

Other descriptive details: G. nobilis is a much more robust fish than G. affinis. The least depth of the caudaT—peduncle is approximately 2/3 of the head length for larger sized specimens (Knapp, 1953). The back is usually darker and more arched than affinis. The anal fin on female nobilis is surrounded by a black border (Hobbs, 1929) whereas this black pigment is restricted to the anus in affinis and doesn't surround the anal fin.

Distribution: Historically, G. nobilis has been restricted to the Pecos River drainage basin of Texas and New Mexico, particularly the springs and tributaries. New Mexico: Presently, the species is limited to seven isolated populations on the Bitter Lakes National Wildlife Refuge northeast of Roswell and a two mile portion of Blue Spring which is located approximately five Miles east of White's City (Bednarz, 1975). •

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Biology: Bednarz (19/5) found five populations of G. nobilis utilizing non- springfed sinkholes and three populations utilizing springfed sinkholes at Bitter Lake National Wildlife Refuge. Here nobilis primarily used submerged cliffs and a variety of aquatic vegetation (Chara, Batophora, Ruppia maritima, and Potamogeton pectinatus) for cover. The population at Blue Springs inhabits any shallow area with aquatic vegetation for cover. The females give birth to live young and based on 20 gravid females, Bednarz (1975) found between 8-62 embryos per female, the larger number from larger-sized females. G. nobilis E-50a

(Bednarz, 1975) is a carnivorous surface feeder which apparently will prey upon any type of surface and mid-water insects and larvae of adequate size (e.g. Hemiptora and Diptera).

Status: G. nobilis is restricted to Leon Creek, Pecos County, Texas, Phonton, Cave and San Solomon Springs, Reeves and Jeff Davis Counties, Texas and possibly a source in Crockett County, Texas (Echelle and Miller, 1974; Hubbs and Echelle, 1 972, and Texas organization for Endangered Species, 1972). Here nobilis is faced with hybridization and competition with exotic fish and habitat degradation. New Mexico: Bednarz (1975) estimated a population of 915,000 nobilis in New Mexico (880,000 at Blue Spring and 33,500 at Bitter Lakes). This estimate is almost certainly drastically lower than what formerly occurred.

Conservation: The introduction of G. affinis is probably the major factor in the decline of nobilis due to the species competitive inferiority in all but the most stable (e.g. springs) environments (Bednarz, 1975). The elimination of suitable aquatic habitats resulting from irrigation, channel ization, and irrigation diversions and the introduction of exotic fish species are also contributing factors to the decline of nobilis. The Environmental Protection Agency in cooperation with the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish is presently utilizing G. nobilis in the vector control program near Carlsbad. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service at Dexter, New Mexico is also raising G. nobilis.

Remarks: The potential of the Pecos gambusia for mosquito control alone justify efforts to perpetuate this species.

E-51

Gila topminnow (Poeciliopsis occidental is occidental is)

Federal endangered/State endangered (Group II)

Distinguishing features: This is a small-sized (length 2 1/2 inches) fish similar in size and appearance to Gambusia affinis but differs in having the origin of the dorsal fin before instead of behind the front of the anal fin. It can be distinguished from other killifish by a lack of barring (Koster, 1957).

Other descriptive details: Males (rarely greater than 25 mm standard length) are smaller than females (50 mm or more, usually 30-45 mm standard length). Breeding males are black with some golden coloration along the midline of the predorsal area. In non-breeding condition, the coloration is tan-to-olivaceous above and often white on the belly. The scales on the dorsum are darkly outlined (Minckley, 1973).

Distribution: The Gila topminnow was historically distributed throughout the Gila River basin except in high mountain streams. Presently, it is confined to the Monkey Spring system, Santa Cruz County,a series of small springs on the San Carlos Indian Reservation, Graham County, a number of restocked locations and three other natural localities in Arizona (Minckley, 1973). New Mexico: The species is probably extirpated from the San Francisco River where Koster (1957) reported it. In a survey of the San Francisco River in 1977, Paul Turner (NMSU) failed to locate this species in New Mexico.

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Biology: The species concentrates in shallows where aquatic debris and vegetation is present. Adults congregate in areas of moderate current, below riffles and along the margins of flowing streams in accumulated algal mats (Minckley, 1973). E-52

Minckley (1973) describes the food of Poeciliopsis spp. as bottom debris, vege- t able matter and amphipod crustaceans. I f mosquito larvae are available they will utilize this source also. As in Gambusia, P. occidental is gives birth to live young. The number of young varies with the fluctuating habitat conditions and size of the adults. Under natural conditions, it appears unlikely that few topminnows live more than a year (Minckley, 1973).

Status: Several habitats inhabited by the Gila topminnow are receiving protection and the species is being (Sport Fishing Institute, 1 973; Johnson and Kobetich, 1 970) propagated for stocking purposes for mosquito control in Arizona. I n New Mexico, the species remains, as far as known, to be extirpated from its former New Mexico range. The species is being propagated at Dexter National Fish Hatchery i n New Mexico.

Conservation: The major reason for the demise of the Gila topminnow i s the introduction of G. affinis which, in numerous instances, has caused a rapid decline in population siz-e--71inckley, 1973). This fact along with man-made alterations of the Frisco Hot Springs resulting in the loss of spring and shallow streamcide habitats has contributed to the demise of the species in New Mexico.

Remarks: This species has been replaced by G. affinis but given an opportunity, the species could possibly be successfully reintroduced into its former habitat. E-54

Gila trout (Salmo gilae)

Federal endangered/State endangered (Group 1)

Distinguishing features: The following diagnosis of S. gila.e_ i s based on a compos- i te of descriptions by David (pers. comm., 1977), Miller (1950), Behnke (1973 and personal data) and Beamish and Miller (1977). This colorful salmonid is readily identified by its irridescent gold sides, blending to a darker shade of cooper on the opercles. Spots are small and profuse, sometimes approaching densities of 30 per cm2. Spots are generally confined to the area above the lateral line and extend onto the head and dorsal and caudal fins. The spots are irregularly shaped on the sides and increase in size as they progress dorsally. Those on the dorsal surface may be as large as the pupil of the eye and exhibit a more rounded shape. A few scattered spots are sometimes present on the anal fin and the adipose fin is typically large and well spotted. Dorsal, pelvic and anal fins have a white to yellowish tip which may extend along the leading edge of the pelvics in some specimens. A faint, salmon-pink lateral band is present on adults, particularly during the spawn- i ng season when the normally white belly may be streaked with yellow or orange. A yellow "cutthroat" mark is present on most mature specimens. Parr marks are retained throughout maturity although they may appear faint on the largest specimens. Basibranchial teeth are known from specimens from Spruce Creek (tributary to the San Francisco River) and Oak Creek (extinct population from the Verde River syster'

Other distinguishing features: The species has a diploid chromosome complement of 2n=56 consisting of 49 metacentric and submetacentric chromosomes, 7 acrocen- tric or telocentric chromosomes, and 105 arms (Beamish and Miller, 1977).

Distribution: S. gilae apparently once occurred in the Verde and Agua Fria drainages, Arizona and also in the upper Gila drainage in New Mexico. The apparent historical occurrence of S. gilae in Eagle Creek, Arizona and unique characteristics of Gila trout from Spruce Creek suggest that S. gilae may have also been indigenous to some tributaries of the San Francisco River. Behnke and Zarn (1976) also cite the occurrence of trout similar to S. gilae from the Rio Yaqui of Mexico, a con- tiguous basin with the Gila River system. At present, the Gila trout persists in New Mexico in Iron, McKenna, and Spruce creeks in the Gila Wilderness and in Main Diamond and South Diamond creeks in the Black Range Primitive Area. Transplanted populations occur in McKnight Creek (Mimbres Drainage) and Sheep Corral (Gila Drain- age) Creek on the Gila National Forest. Variously hybridized populations occur on that forest in Black, Langstroth, upper Mogollon, White, and Sycamore creeks.

(see map on next paye). E-55

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Biology: Gila trout inhabit cool, clear running mountain streams that are typically narrow in width (5-10 ft.) and shallow in depth (1-1/2 ft. and less in running portions of 2-3 ft.; rarely deeper pooled areas). The importance of pools to this species cannot be over-emphasized as they are confined to them when, during prolonged periods of drought, flow between pools is sometimes non-existent, particularly during May and June, the normal dry period. Many of the streams are well-shaped by the presence of Willows, Arizona alders and other riparian tree species. Aquatic insects, particularly caddis flies, mayflies, true flies and beetles make a major portion of their diet. Regan (1966) found the number of eggs produced from females held in hatcheries averaged about 150. Spawning appears to occur during spring and early summer in New Mexico.

Status: Bickle (1972) estimated the population of Gila trout at 6,200 in Main Diamond, South Diamond, McKenna, and Spruce creeks. Mello and Turner (in prep.) estimated variously 6750 to 7450 fish to be present in these streams and in Iron Creek. About 500 fish were transplanted into McKnight and Sheep Corral creeks 1970-1971 (Bickle, 1972), with 800-1000 present in the former and 35 in the latter in 1976 (Mello and Turner, in prep.).

Conservation: The decline of the Gila trout is the result of habitat degradation and the introduction of exotic salmonids. Hybridization with rainbow trout (S. gairnderi)--and to a lesser extent with cutthroats (S. clarki) and competition with brown trout (S. trutta) are the most serious consequences of exotic introductions. Negative habitat impacts include overgrazing, fires, lumbering, and mining.

Remarks: This endemic southwestern trout is among the more distinctive North American forms, and it deserves our full efforts to restore it to a secure place in the ecosystem. E-56

Literature cited

Fish

Anderson, R. M. 1978. The Distribution and Aspects of the Life History of Meda fulqida in New Mexico. M.S. thesis, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, N.M. 62 pp.

Antisell, Thomas. 1857. Geological Report. In: Pacific Railroad Expl. and Surv., 7(2): 1-204, pls. 1-14, 2 maps.

Bailey, R. M. 1970. A list of common and scientific names of fishes from the United States and Canada. 3rd ed. American Fisheries Society, Washington, D. C., 150 pp.

Barber, W. E., D. C. Williams and W. C. Minckley. 1 970. Biology of the Gila spikedace, Meda fulgida in Arizona. Copeia, 1970:9-18.

Baxter, T. T. and J. R. Simon. 1 970. Wyoming Fishes. Wyoming Game and Fish Department, Bull. 4:168 pp.

Beamish, R. J., and R. R. Miller. 1977. Cytotaxonomic study of Gila trout, Salmo gilae. J. Fish, Res. Board Can. 34:1041-1045.

Bednarz, J. 1975. A study of the Pecos Gambusia. Unpubl. report to Endangered Species Program, New Mexico Dept. of Game and Fish. 30 pp.

Behnke, R. J. 1 970. Rare and Endangered Species Report: New Information on Gila trout, Salmo gilae, Report Colorado Coop. Fish Unit, Colorado State Uni- versity, Fort Collins. 12 pp. Mimeo.

Behnke, R. J. 1 973. Gila trout, Salmo gilae. Endangered Species Report, prepared for U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region II, Albuquerque, New Mexico 5 pp. Mimeo.

Behnke, R. J. 1974. Endangered Species Report, Gambusia nobilis, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado. (unpublished Xeroxed paper).

Behnke, R. J. and M. Zarn. 1 976. Biology and Management of Threatened and Endan- gered Western trouts. U.S.D.A. Forest Service General Tech. Rept. Rm-23 Rocky Mt. Forest and Range Exp. Stn., Fort Collins. 45 pp.

Buchanan, T. M. 1973. Key to the fishes of Arkansas. Arkansas Game and Fish Commission, 68 pp; 198 figs.

Bickle, T. S. 1 972. Gila tropt Management Plan. U. S. Forest Service Admin. Rep., Gila National Forest, Silver City, N.M. 22 pp. Mimeo.

Cope, E. D. and Yarrow, H. C. 1875. Report upon the Collections of Fishes made in portions of Nevada, Utah, California, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona, during the years 1871, 1872, 1873, and 1874, Geog. Surv. W of 100th Mend. (Wheeler Survey), v, pp. 635-703.

David, R. E. 1 976. Taxonomic Analysis of Gila and Gila x rainbow trout in South- western New Mexico. M.S. thesis, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, N.M. 36 pp.

Echelle, A. A. and R. R. Miller. 1974. Rediscovery and redescription of the Leons Springs pupfish, (Cyprinodon bovinus), from Pecos County, Texas. South- western Nat. 19(2):179-190.

Eddy, Samuel. 1969. The Freshwater Fishes, Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa. 253 pp.

Everhart, W. H. and W. R. Seaman. 1 971. Fishes of Colorado. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division. 75 PP.

Gilbert, C. R. and R. M. Bailey. 1 962. Synomy, characters, and distribution of the American Cyprinid fish Notropis shumardi. Copeia, 1962 No. 4: 807-819.

Harlan, J. R. and E. B. Speaker. 1 951. Iowa Fish and Fishing, State Conservation Commission. 273 pp. E-57

Harrison, J. S. 1 960. Periodic Survey of Maxwell Lakes. D-J Project F-22-R-1, Work Plan 2 Job No. 1-1, New Mexico Dept. of Game and Fish, Santa Fe, New Mexico.

Holden, P. B. and C. B. Stalnaker. 1 970. Systematic studies of the cyprinid genus Gila, in the upper Colorado River basin. Copeia (3):409-429.

Hubbs, C. L. 1929. Studies of the fishes of the order Cyprinodontes. VIII Gambusia gaigei, a new species from the Rio Grande. Univ. of Michigan Ocas, Pap. Mus. Zool, No. 198. 11 pp.

Hubbs, C. and A. A. Echelle. 1 972. Endangered nongame fishes of the upper Rio Grande basin. In: Symposium on Rare and Endangered Wildlife of the Southwestern United States. New Mexico Department of Game and Fish, Santa Fe: 147-167; figs. 1-2.

Hubbs, Clark and V. G. Springer. 1 957. A revision of the Gambusia nobilis species group, with descriptions of three new species, and notes on their variation, ecology, and evolution. Texas J. Sci. 9:279-327.

Johnson, J. E. and G. Kobetich. 1970. A new locality for the Gila topminnow, (Poeciliopsis occidentalis). Southwestern Nat. 14(3):368.

Jordan, D. S. 1891. Report of explorations in Colorado and Utah during the summer of 1889, with an account of the fishes found in each of the river basins examined. U. S. Fish Comm. Bull. 9:1-40.

Knapp, F. T. 1953. Fishes found in the freshwaters of Texas. Regland Studio and Litho Printing Co. Brunswick, Georgia. 1 66 pp.

Koster, W. J. 1 957. Guide to the fishes of New Mexico. Univ. of New Mexico Press, 116 pp., illus.

Koster, W. J. 1 960. Ptychocheilus lucius (Cyprinidae) in the San Juan River, New Mexico. Southwest Nat. 5(3):174-175.

LaBounty, J. F. and W. L. Minckley. 1 972. Native fishes of the upper Gila River System, New Mexico. In: Symposium on Rare and Endangered Wildlife of the southwestern United States. New Mexico Dept. of Game and Fish, Santa Fe: 134-146.

McKirdy, H. J. and D. A. Duff. 1 970. Rare and Endangered fish and wildlife of the southwest. USDA. Forest Service Report.

Mello, K. and P. R. Turner. In preparation.

Miller, R. J. and H. W. Robison. 1 973, The Fishes of Oklahoma, Univ. Okla. Press. 1-246. '

Miller, R. R. 1950. Notes on the cutthroat and rainbow trouts with the description of a new species from the Gila River, New Mexico. Occ. Papers Univ. Mich. Museum. Zool. No. 529.

Miller, R. R. 1961. Man and the changing fish fauna of the American Southwest. Pap. Michigan Acad. Sci. 46:365-404.

Miller, R. R. and A. A. Echelle. 1 975. Cyprinodon tularosa, a new Cyprinodontid fish from the Tularosa Basin, New Mexico. Southwestern Naturalist.

Minckley, W. L. and J. E. Deacon. 1968. Southwestern fishes and the enigma of "Endangered Species". Science, 158:1424-1432.

Minckley, W. L. 1 973. Fishes of Arizona. Sims Printing Company, Inc. Phoenix, Ariz. 293 pp.

Morris, J. L., Morris and L. Loitt. 1972. The Fishes of Nebraska. Nebraska Game and Parks Commission. 98 pp.

Olson, H. F. 1962. A pre-impoundment Study of Navajo Reservoir, New Mexico. Unpubl. job completion report, Federal Aid Project F-22-R-3. 29 pp.

Regan, D. 1966. Ecology of the Gila trout in Main Diamond Creek in New Mexico. Tech. Paper 5, Bur. Sport fisheries and Wildlife. U. S. Fish and Wild- life Service. 24 pp. E-58

Rinne, J. N. 1976. Cyprinid fishes of the genus Gila from the lower Colorado River Basin. Wasmann J. of Biology 34:65-107.

Rogers, B. D. 1 975. Fish distribution in the Mimbres River, New Mexico. Unpubl. report to Endangered Species Program, New Mexico Dept. Game and Fish.

Seethaler, Karl. 1978. Life History and Ecology of the Colorado River squawfish (Ptychocheilus lucius) in the Upper Colorado River Basin. M.S. thesis, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, 156 pp.

Sigler, W. F. and R. R. Miller. 1 963. Fishes of Utah. Utah Dept. of Fish and Game: 203 pp.

Sport Fishing Institute. 1 973. No longer Endangered. SFI Bull 24136.

Sublette, J. E. 1975. A survey of the Fishes of the Pecos, Canadian and Arkansas drainage in New Mexico. Unpubl. report to Endangered Species Program, New Mexico Dept. Game & Fish.

Texas Organization for Endangered Species. 1972. Rare, Endangered and Peripheral Fishes, Amphibians, and Reptiles of Texas. 5 pp.

Trevino-Robinson, D. 1959. The lchthyofauna of the Lower Rio Grande Texas and Mexico. Copeia 1959 (3): 253-256, fig. 1.

Van icek, C. D. and R. H. Dramer. 1969. Life History of the Colorado River Squawfish Ptychocheilus lucius, and the Colorado chub, Gila robusta, in the Green River in Dinosaur National Monument, 1964-1966, Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 98(2): 193-208.

Olson, H. F. 1962. Statewide rough fish control-rehabilitation of the San Juan River. Job. Compl: Rep., Fed. Aid Proj. F-19-D-4, New Mexico Dept. of Game and Fish, Albuquerque. 6 pp.

Parish, R. B. 1975. Status of rare native fish in New Mexico. Fed. Aid Proj. F-22-R-16, Job No. 1-3. New Mexico Dept. Game and Fish, Santa Fe. 41 pp.

LITERATURE CITED

Crustaceans

Hatch, Michael D. 1 977. The Socorro Isopod, a proposal for endangerea listing, unpublished report, New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. 5 PP.

Richardson, H. 1898. Description of a new crustacean of the genus Spheroma from a warm spring in New Mexico: U.S. National Museum, Proc., v. 20, no. 1128, p. 465-466.

Shuster, Stephen M. 1977. The Socorro lsopod, Unpublisheo report, New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. 25 pp.

Shuster, Stephen M. 1978. Thermosphaoroma thermophilum, General Biology and Relocation, Unpublished report, New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. 23 pp.

Stanley, F. 1 950. Socorro - the oasis: World Press Inc., Denver, Colorado. F-1

Socorro isopod (Thermosphaeroma thermophilum)

State endangered (Group I)

Distinguishing features: This small (length: males 4-13 mm, females 5-10.5 mm) crustacean resembles its terrestrial relatives in body form and appendage number, i.e. in being flattened with 7 pairs of legs there are also two pairs of antennae on the head, plus 2 pair or oarlike extensions (uropods) on the last segment . The species differs from other "pillbugs" or "sowbugs" in being strickly aquatic, and the color is gray-brown or tan--variously mottled--rather than bluish-gray. Occurrence in Sedillo (or Evergreen) Spring, Socorro Co., is also a feature in proper identification. This animal is in the phylum Arthropoda and the family Sphaeromatidae.

Other distinguishing features: The following is quoted from Richardson (1898). "Head nearly three times as broad as long, with its anterior margin widely rounded. Eyes round and post-laterally situated. The first pair of antennae, with a flagellum of eight articles, extends to the middle of the first thoracic segment. The second pair of antennae reach the posterior margin of the first thoracic segment; the flagellum contains eleven articles. The thoracic segments are all similar with the exception of the first, which extends laterally around the head, almost touching the peduncle of the first pair of antennae with its anterior angle. The epimeral parts are continuous with the segments with no indication of a separa- tion from them. The abdomen is formed of two distinct segments, the first of which is partly covered by the last thoracic segment, the second is sub-triangular, rounded posteriorly. The internal lamella of the uropods is moderately broad, well rounded, and extends to the posterior edge of the last abdominal segment. The external lamella is half as long and half as broad as the internal one, and is more pointed at its extremity. The body is oblong-ovate with almost parallel sides. Its surface is entirely smooth. The grayish-brown color of the body is everywhere marked with small black spots and lines, which run together, forming a broad, black hand in the center of each one of the thoracic segments. All the exposed edges of the body are tinged with a bright orange".

Distribution: This species is confined to New Mexico where it occurs 'only in Sedillo Spring, which may be the type locality referred to by Richardson (1898) as being "a few miles west of Socorro, New Mexico .... in a warm spring". The actual place of occurrence at Sedillo Spring is within the confines of the plumb- ing system of an abandoned bathhouse, the "Evergreen" (Stanley, 1950). It is possible that the species once ranged more widely in the area. Related species occur in Te_xas (Big Bend) and in Mexico.

(see map on next page) F-2

leplvant Butte Res. R R A

Biology: The species normally occupies thermal waters which range in temperature from 88-degrees to 91-degrees F. The species is found predominately in lentic environments but lotic environments also serve the species, but to a lesser degree. This isopod is restricted to two small pools (I0-26cm in depth) and two runs beneath the pools of thermal water (90-92°F) originating from Sedillo Springs. The water temperature and chemistry remain fairly stable at Sedillo Springs. The primary food source is algae which covers most surfaces of their occupied habitat. Detritis is also a source of nourishment. T. thermophilum has also proven to be cannibalistic, a behavior not often documented in isopods except in serolids. This behavior results in feeding clusters during which wounded or otherwise not entirely intact (sometimes uninjured) individuals are consumed by numerous aggres- siveindividuals. There is also recent evidence that T. thermopfillum is predatory. Two instances have been recorded when the isopod attacked small dragonfly nymphs and consumed them in a similar fashion to the feeding clusters when preying upon injured individuals of the same species. It appears that if dragonfly nymphs (Libellula) can survive the predaceous attacks of T. thermophilum, they may in turn prey upon them. Although there is no evidence as yet of parasites or disease in the Socorro isopod, their occurrence seems probable. This species is primarily nocturnal, staying in shadows of pools during the day. The period of most intense activity appears to begin toward late afternoon and peaks about an hour or so before sunset. T. thermophilum has the standard reproductive anatomy of most isopods. The estimated time to maturity of the embyro is 100-200 days and it appears that the females may be able to produce more than one brood. The males exhibit a sequestra- t on of females for reproduction purposes issuing higher reproductive success (see Hatch, 1977, and Shuster, 1977, 1978 for more information.

Status: This species numbers only about 2500 individuals in its extremely limited habitat.

Conservation: The habitat of this species has been drastically altered by municipal and private water developments. The original habitat has been entirely destroyed because the flow of the springs has been capped or piped to other areas. The future of this species appears rather dismal and will not improve substancially until steps are undertaken to protect existing habitat and hopefully expand its range by recreat- ing habitat in much of its former range.

Remarks: This unique species of freshwater isopod is deserving of any attempts to ensure its future status, as it is not found outside of its restricted New Mexico range. This species is a candidate for endangered status at the federal level. -*