AAH CASS

Learning from the Other Australian and Chinese Perspectives on Philosophy

Editor John Makeham

PAPERS FROM SYMPOSIA HELD IN 2014 AND 2015, CO-SPONSORED BY THE AUSTRALIAN ACADEMY OF THE HUMANITIES AND THE CHINESE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES © Australian Academy of the Humanities 2016 3 Liversidge Street Acton ACT 2601 Ph: (+612) 6125 9860 Fax: (+612) 6125 9142

ISBN 978-0-909897-75-8 (electronic)

Suggested citation: Australian Academy of the Humanities (2016) Learning from the Other: Australian and Chinese Perspectives on Philosophy, ed. by John Makeham. Papers from symposia held in 2014 and 2015, co-sponsored by the Australian Academy of the Humanities and the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (Canberra: Australian Academy of the Humanities). AAH CASS

Learning from the Other Australian and Chinese Perspectives on Philosophy

Editor John Makeham

PAPERS FROM SYMPOSIA HELD IN 2014 AND 2015, CO-SPONSORED BY THE AUSTRALIAN ACADEMY OF THE HUMANITIES AND THE CHINESE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

Contributors Shirley Chan ⏴ Alan Hájek ⏴ Wang Keping Norva Y. S. Lo ⏴ John Makeham ⏴ Freya Mathews Wang Qi ⏴ Koji Tanaka ⏴ Zhang Zhiqiang

AAH CASS

Contents

Contributors vii

1 Introduction JOHN MAKEHAM

9 In Praise of Philosophy ALAN HÁJEK

15 Do the Deepest Roots of a Future Ecological Civilization Lie in Chinese Soil? FREYA MATHEWS

27 Kierkegaard’s Christian Philosophy and Its Enlightenment WANG QI 王齐

35 The Confucian Virtue of Ren in Social Relationships WANG KEPING 王柯平

51 Human Chauvinism and Divine Reason (大人类主义及神聖的理性) NORVA Y. S. LO 勞若詩

59 Ways of Doing Cross-Cultural Philosophy KOJI TANAKA

67 Modernisation and “Integrated Buddhism”: The Buddhist Reforms of Ouyang Jingwu and Taixu ZHANG ZHIQIANG 張志強

81 From Cosmology to Humanity: A Perspective from the Recovered Bamboo Manuscripts in China SHIRLEY CHAN 陳慧

91 Efficient Governance through Synthetic Transformation WANG KEPING 王柯平

Learning from the Other: Australian and Chinese Perspectives on Philosophy v

AAH CASS

Contributors

Shirley Chan 陳慧 is Associate Professor and Head of Chinese Studies, Department of International Studies and a member of the Macquarie University Ancient Cultures Research Centre. She did her PhD on Confucianism at the University of Sydney. Her research focuses on traditional Chinese culture, Chinese philosophy, Chinese textual studies and intellectual history, and the excavated Chu bamboo manuscripts dated to the fourth century BCE.

Alan Hájek faha is Professor of Philosophy, Research School of Social Sciences, The Australian National University. His initial training was in mathematics and statistics. He received a BSc (Hons) from The University of Melbourne in 1982, winning the Dwight Prize for Statistics. He received an MA in Philosophy from the University of Western Ontario in 1986. He gained his PhD in Philosophy from Princeton University in 1993, and was awarded the Porter Ogden Jacobus fellowship. In 1992 he joined the faculty at the California Institute of Technology, and he became Associate Professor of Philosophy in 1995. Since 2005 he has been Professor of Philosophy at the Research School of Social Sciences, Australian National University, and since 2013 the Head of the School of Philosophy. He works mainly in the philosophical foundations of probability, formal epistemology, decision theory, philosophy of science, metaphilosophy, philosophical logic, and philosophy of religion.

Norva Yeuk Sze Lo 勞若詩 frsa is Senior Lecturer in Philosophy, Department of Politics and Philosophy, La Trobe University. She researches in the areas of moral philosophy, David Hume, environmental philosophy, and also teaches logic and critical thinking. She publishes in the name of “Y. S. Lo”. Some recent publications include Understanding Environmental Philosophy (Acumen, 2010), and chapters in

Learning from the Other: Australian and Chinese Perspectives on Philosophy vii viii contributors the University of Oxford (2000), a visiting professor at the School of Philosophical ofPhilosophical atSchool the professor (2000),avisiting ofOxford University the Foreign Studies University. Formerly at St. Anne’s fellow was a visiting he College in Philosophy, at Beijing Academy (CASS), Chinese Professor and ofSocial Sciences Wang Keping Japanese and philosophy. philosophy Chinese oflanguage, philosophy, Buddhist philosophy classical oflogic, philosophy and The Australian Sciences, history National onlogic, University.focuses research His Koji Tanaka Victoria. innorthern reserve biodiversity manages she aprivate activities In to Anthropocene. research ofthe her addition context inthe rewilding and ethics wildlife and religion; and ecology ofmodernity; metaphysics ofthe critique and panpsychism global society; may adapted be ofcontemporary to context the perspectives these how and on“sustainability” Chinese) perspectives and (Australian indigenous philosophy. civilization; areinecological Her interests special current Novella (2005), the Source ofthe Merri (editor) (1996), philosophy. the inEnglishinclude His main publications ancient and Comparativeand Poetics. areinaesthetics His main academicinterests Foreign for Studies Vice 2007),and Chairman Society (since ofChinese Literary Culture Center and Philosophy ofAthens Olympic for of the University the under member anhonorary (IAA), ofAesthetics Large International ofthe Association at Deputy the Currently is Universal he (ISUD). International for Dialogue Society of at The Sydney, Inquiry University Historical ofthe and and Vice-President and and to Ethics Hume onMotivation andVirtue The Classic of the Dao: A InvestigationNew Thinking Hellenic Ideas University. include Her books Freya Mathews Philosophy philosophy. Confucian modern series He editor monograph ofthe is and thought onpre-modern of influence Sinitic inthe Buddhist years, recent more in thought inConfucian and, interest He hasaparticular periods. ofall philosophy La Trobe ofChinese University. intellectual history inthe He interests has research John Makeham inthe Ethics” “Environmental The Handbook ofGlobalEthics (2016). She is the author of over seventy articles in the area of ecological areaofecological inthe articles ofoverseventy author the (2016).She is Without notWorth Life is Animals Living (Routledge, 2010), (Routledge, (2009); (Brill). is Lecturer in the School ofPhilosophy, School in the ofSocial School Lecturer is Research (2016), 王柯平 For Love ofMatter: AContemporary Panpsychism Spirit ofChinese PoeticsSpirit faha faha Reading theReading Dao: AThematic Inquiry (2003), is Adjunct Professor of Environmental Philosophy at La ofEnvironmental Trobe Philosophy Professor Adjunct is is Chair China ofthe is Centre Director and Studies at Research Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences is a Professorial Research Fellow Research aProfessorial Institute is inthe of Perspectives onHuman Suffering The EcologicalThe Self Reinhabiting Reality: Towards Reality: Reinhabiting ofCulture aRecovery Stanford Encyclopedia ofPhilosophy. (Palgrave 2009), Macmillan, (Acumen, 2013). She is also the co-author of co-author the also 2013).She is (Acumen, (2008); (1998). His main publications in Chinese inChinese (1998).His main publications (2016) and (2016)and (1991), Ethos ofChinese Culture Ecology andDemocracy Ecology Rediscovery ofSino- Rediscovery (2011); Ardea: APhilosophical (Springer 2012), (Springer The RoutledgeThe Companion (2003), Chinese Way of Modern ChineseModern (2007); and (2007);and Journey to Journey

contributors ix ), and Republic (2005); Philosophiske 唯识学 . His research. His focuses mainly on Plato’s Poetics in the in the Poetics Plato’s Laws (2015); (2015); Laws is a Professorial Research Fellow in the Institute of in the is Institute a Professorial Research Fellow (2007), among others. (2007), among History of Chinese Philosophy History of Chinese 张志强

is a Professorial Research Fellow in the Institute of Philosophy, of Philosophy, in the is Institute a Professorial Research Fellow 王齐 Plato’s Moral Poetics in the Poetics Moral Plato’s directly from Danish. Aesthetics in Traveling Aesthetics Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives Buddhism. Zhang Zhiqiang received an MA Sciences. of Social in 1993 and a Chinese He Academy Philosophy, is of the Editorial also He Chair in 1997 in philosophy University. PhD from Peking Board of the journal & Qing academic history, Consciousness-onlythe Ming Theory ( of Medieval Philosophy, as well as Philosophy of Religion. Philosophy, has published She of Medieval two books and 20 papers, more than and since been 2013 has responsible for a 10-volume works and a translation of Kierkegaard’s anthology of Kierkegaard’s Smuler Literature (1990) and an MALiterature in Aesthetics (1993) from University Northwestern Philosophy School of the from Chinese the Graduate in Western and PhD in Xi’an, Kierkegaard at Fellow Sciences of Social Postdoctoral was (1996). She Academy University during recruited was Copenhagen She 1999–2001. at Research Center of Philosophy in 1996, and become CASS Research at by the Institute Professor in studies, Existentialism, academic interests main are Kierkegaard 2012. Her History include and Qi Wang Sciences.of Social holdsChinese She and Academy in Chinese Language a BA

AAH CASS

Introduction

John Makeham LA TROBE UNIVERSITY

earning from the Other: Australian and Chinese Perspectives on Philosophy Lconsists of a selection of nine papers drawn from two symposia on philosophy co-sponsored by the Australian Academy of the Humanities (AAH) and the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS). From 18–20 June 2014, Professor Alan Hájek FAHA and I led a delegation of Australian philosophers to Beijing to participate in a symposium on “Philosophy and Contemporary Society” hosted by the Institute of Philosophy, CASS. Nine papers were presented at the Beijing symposium:

• Professor Zhang Zhiqiang, CASS, “A Study on New Directions in Research on Chinese Philosophy” (in Chinese)

• Professor John Makeham faha, The Australian National University, “New Views on Traditional Chinese Philosophy: The Case of Zhu Xi”

• Professor Wang Keping, CASS, “Efficient Governance via Synthetic Transformation”

• Professor Zou Guangwen, Tsinghua University, “The Vision of Hope for ‘Cultural China’” (in Chinese)

• Associate Professor Karen Lai, The University of New South Wales, “Comparative Epistemology: Knowledge, Learning and Knowing How to Proceed”

• Professor Wang Qi, CASS, “Kierkegaard’s Christian Philosophy and Its Enlightenment”

• Professor Alan Hájek faha, The Australian National University, “A Philosopher’s Apology”

Learning from the Other: Australian and Chinese Perspectives on Philosophy 1 2 introduction  john makeham • • • • • • • • • • AAP Conference: five at the another and Five weremade atsymposium the presentations philosophy. ofChinese traditions the drawn outside from perspectives from philosophy inChinese topics or(2)discuss traditions; philosophical Chinese drawn from paradigms employing orby philosophers of Chinese perspective the from areaofphilosophy aparticular from topics that (1)discuss either papers presenting by Australian Perspectives”. Chinese and inPhilosophy: of“New Directions theme the addressed Conference. Both events Fellows attendeesAAP ofthe other and AAH with to interact opportunity the with on6July. University at Macquarie CASS delegates provided AAP stream The atthe conference (AAP) ofPhilosophy astreamat Australasian the by Association followed on4 at The Australian July,(ANU) symposium National philosophy University 3–7 July to visit Fellow, Senior and Research General Institute ofPhilosophy, CASS, leda Director- XieDikun, Professor inBeijing, 2014symposium Following successful the • a Classical Point Chinese ofView” Tanaka, Koji Dr The Australian from National “Psychologism University, Humanity: Newly the from aPerspective Texts Recovered in China” ShirleyChan, University, Macquarie Professor to Associate “From Cosmology Life” inConfucian Action Appropriate The Right Thing: Lai, CASS, “Doing Karyn Professor Associate Relationships” Wang of Professor Virtue Confucian CASS, “The Keping, Anthropocene” the for “Philosophy FreyaProfessor Mathews Wu”and Chen of Xia,Dao Professor CASS, “A The Co-existence View ofEcology: Daoist Xi’s“Zhu ofEvil” to Problem Solution the Origin ofthe John MakehamProfessor Transformation ofModern Buddhism” (inChinese) CASS, “Ouyang Zhang Zhiqiang, Professor Jingwu’s Taixu’s and the for Schemes (in Chinese) Philosophy” Chinese CASS, XieDikun, Situation, Current “The and Problems Professor before Tasks “Human Foundation the and Chauvinism ofMorality” Lo, La Trobe Norva Dr University, “Global Justice: of The Ethical Borders Nationalism” (in Chinese) YangProfessor Tongjin, CASS,

Australia by five scholars from the from the (CASS),from Institute Australiascholars of five by Philosophy

2015. The CASS delegates participated in two programmes: a two programmes: in The CASS delegatesparticipated Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences faha faha

, The , The Australian National University, , La Trobe University,

Participants were invited to address this theme theme this wereinvited to address Participants

Ren inSocial one-day one-day

four-day introduction  john makeham 3 centuries BC). rd –3 th also speaks of directly the matter to *** Zhuangzi 1 have grown this large? Moreover you and I are both of us things. What’s the point and I are both you grown of us things. What’s this Moreover have large? a worthless die—how to about man do You, of this—things things? condemning knowyou I’m a worthlesstree?” journey. They bring it on themselves—thetearing pullingjourney. and of the common with the all same other way things. Andmob. it’s for me, I’ve been trying “As time be of no use, a long to and I almost though died, I’ve finally got it. This had been of If I is of someme. great to use use, would I ever with those useful The cherry trees? the the orange, apple, citron, the the pear, rest of those fructiferous trees and shrubs—as soon as their fruit is ripe, they are torn apart and subject abuse. Their to big limbs are broken off, their little limbs around. Their utility are yanked makes life miserable for them, and so them, but are off in mid- cut gave Heaven finish getyears to out the they don’t After Carpenterhad returnedShi to him in a home,appeared the tree oak After dream and said, “What comparing are you me with? Are comparing you me Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives the environmental challenges posedthe environmental by the Anthropocene, given philosophy that is product of the very“a consciousness arguably that civilization enabled subjugate to she prosecutes More specifically, the in the firstand hence nature unbalance place”. case philosophy because that modern are heirs forms the tradition to of Western The thrust of theseMathew’s concluding Freya sentences anticipates the substance of which questions whetherpaper, philosophy is in fact an appropriate or useful tool for “Make boats out of it and they’d sink; make coffins and they’d rot in nomake time; sink; coffins and they’d boats make out of it and“Make they’d nothing it can be not a timber tree—there’s vessels It’s once…. at break and they’d how it gotto old!” be that That’s used for. the writings of the early Daoist philosopher, Zhuangzi (4 The following story in the eponymous a good The life. story have how to about a carpenteris about tree, a huge dreaming decided he had not cut down to because no it was good for which, earlier in the day, making timber: his experiences the speaking Chinese philosophers to and Canberra the Beijing at symposia, he notes struck being by how much more concern of a the notion of “living isa good Chinese philosophy. life” to notThe idea that allvalues are practical finds particularly strong resonances in practical whatsoever, it would still secondHis value line be of defence valuable. is to philosophy that demonstrate does, in fact, considerable practical Having have value. a persuasivemade case for how philosophy can not only instruct us about, but also the good life, heinstantiate, suggests for philosophers that working in the Anglo- American tradition, there is room for more reflectionmakes our liveson what worth living, it becomes such that the common ground for all philosophers. Recalling Against theAgainst background of increasing the humanities threats to more generally, developsin the paper opening Alan Hájek a spirited two-pronged defence of first His line of defence to showphilosophy. that even if is philosophy were of no 4 introduction  john makeham constructing subject from the merely acted-upon, constructed object”. constructed She argues acted-upon, merely the from subject constructing ofan“active, separation world- the by characterized is tradition inthis endemic of philosophy-as- “Confucian normativity is defined by living one’sliving by defined is effect…. “Confucianto maximum roles normativity family ethical model. anexemplary providing as ethics role Confucian however, see they Qi, Contra Wang Rosemont. Henry and Ames Roger “Confucian by work pragmatists” the recent in support finds ethics in ofroles Confucian claimcentrality the This about society. Chinese intraditional individuality replaced that roles minister, be son”—she father, minister be be the argues father the son the and king, be individual.” the king the to Citing Confucius—“Let attributed remark aparadigmatic for little space culture—Confucianism—leaves Chinese oftraditional main expression the Kierkegaard’s “because onindividualism, emphasis philosophy, his especially other,the Wang however, is Qi’sfrom that benefit culture could Chinese conviction below.to introduced be More immediately from oflearning to relevant theme the inZhang Zhiqiang’s paper, described human the world” for Buddhism” or“Buddhism of“humanistic vision meaning.” with the spiritual here parallels areinteresting There to finite ofhow ofthe being make problem life daily the gain a essential on the monastery. Instead, Kierkegaard to turns man’s concentrating life, worldly concrete, Church, the nor alone hideinthe let theories, onphilosophical depend can neither the with much concerned spirit.” Christian the by Wang that Kierkegaard’s argues very is philosophy Christian guided oraphilosophy aidto reason, anindispensable as revelation Christian regards “a as that human philosophy of a“Christian theology”, describes whichshe one than rather ofhuman “philosophy” ofatype judgedto expressions be appropriately Wang Qi’s that Kierkegaard’s argues paper aremore writings pseudonymous “Christiantheology”, and “Christianphilosophy” between Based distinction onthe conditions. altered planetary radically inlightof revised that be must onassumptions too rests although Daoism tradition, Western China’s suggests, she muchfrom canlearn connection, philosophy Daoist and teachings. of body texts wayas a as much In this meaning areflective life as of wisdom”. ancient need its to recover will way inthis In it itself orderto reconfigure of trope the around “ecological itself to reconfigure itneeds to relevance retain its that philosophy inorderfor argues Mathews of adaptation accommodation. and tradition evolved long highly by with its and offered China, resources methodological to look the strong her is avail. recommendation dilemma, this Confronted with to be ofno environmental will for degradation remedies theorizing”, theoretical of act itinevery re-inscribes phenomenologically and dualism that underwrites itself Moreover, natural ofthe “theory environment. itis but at expense the because to hashuman been advantage great ofmodernity hallmark the that is industrialization innately be It instrumentalist.” unaccommodating. be The will will intheory rooted ensures…that oftheorizing agency process into very is built the that dualism “The have well ofenvironmental ledto era crisis. ourown may outlook dualist very this dualism that philosophy-as- that has systematically inflected inflected that hassystematically thought”,Western of butthat legacy the theoria theoria Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences , they are thus inherently hamstrung. The dualist outlook outlook dualist The hamstrung. inherently arethus , they Lebenswelt is not only responsible for the “mind/body the ormind/matter for responsible only not is . “To one world, inthis life ameaningful live introduction  john makeham 5

ren 2 This, of course, does notgame, to a zero as sum amountboth 3 (humaneness, benevolence), Wang Keping clearly understands this (humaneness, benevolence), Wang passage cited above. Human chauvinism is Human passage the view cited above. members that of 仁

ren could be utilized serve to socio-political purposes, “provided they can be Zhuangzi ren Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives of “God” withof “God” “Reason”) Norva finds that to be particularly in her Lo, paper, concerns chauvinism human about also echo the sentimentsproblematic. Lo’s of the intrinsic far speciesthe greater human and have moral rights value members than of consultative settlement of civil disputes and the like”. pseudonymous writings Qi seeks as a endorse to As Kierkegaard’s noted Wang above, kind of Christian philosophy because she sees philosophy human them evidencing “a it is precisely Yet regards Christianthat revelation as an indispensable reason.” aid to the notion replacement of God-like reason (bequeathed by the Enlightenment’s Wang maintains that the and ethical religious that maintains dimensions of the Confucian virtue Wang of transformed creatively the individual into pursuit of life, of the meaning and into political systems and legal with an emphasis on human the modern form of China’s relationships, group dynamics, social ideals, unity in affection and rationality, its capacity facilitate the reconciliation to relationships; of human as a source of social compassion; and as perfection. a moral of human ideal As in his other paper in draws theoretical inspiration from post-this publication (introduced below), Wang Marxist notion philosopher the of “transformational (adapting creation” Li Zehou’s “cultural-psychological of the Chinese formation” people suit current to conditions). and human relationshipsand human in a Confucian sense. Whereas the former are based on a social contract, are based codes behind the latter which are legal laws, or enacted affectionon human Thebehind are which conventions. focuscultural of paperthe is an examination of the social and moral implications of the Confucian virtue of (humaneness; benevolence) with particular reference the following to three aspects: experience of social relationships, the and at same time foster self-consciousness of personal cultivation sense in an ethical for of adjusting social the sake relationships to a positive extent”. and healthy develops a hisCharacterizing paper as a contribution Wang social to philosophy, general distinction between he terms social what relationships in a modern sense virtue of virtue be inseparable to from the social praxis of person person to relationships. More subscribinggenerally, the view to “individual that beings human depend on social relationships he for maintains the distinctive appearance of any capacities”, human willbeing human come “each properlythat his into or her own simply the through an ‘individual,’ as contrasted with her ‘mother’?”an ‘individual,’ the same time,At interest in Chinese philosophy as a resource for virtue ethics continues be strong. to role ethics and virtue ethics can be fruitfully employed of ethics in the study and its expression in the his Chinese context. cultural Confucian paper on the cardinal In Lived family roles—mothering, brothering, granddaughtering—are themselves normative that, standards informed as they are by existential embodiment, are much abstract notions Unlike clearer and moral more concrete principles”. putative than such as “individual”—which they identify as the locus of moral analysis in Western theorizing—theyethical ask, “What is known a person about she when is we are told 6 introduction  john makeham to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of reasoning and argumentation. argumentation. and ofreasoning understanding comprehensive amore to achieve Western inorder oflogic, conceptions contemporary critically to them examine use ofIndia traditions Western China and logic to and study various the oflogic tradition literature”. Tanaka’s inthe trained logicians for call to arallying amounts paper Western that dominates contemporary oflogic conception challenge formal the wecan then alternative conception, Based things. onthis dissimilar from similar study onthe way ofthe based inwhich wediscriminate reason good as counts ofwhat to “develop analternative conception possible that itis argues he tradition, issues.” Chinese the from Drawing philosophical oncontemporary perspective new a for ofinspiration sources as texts wecaninstead logic treat Eastern about logic, what Western with know logicians philosophers Eastern by expressed ideas the Chinese thoughtgenerally. more Chinese modern and philosophy 1930splayed inChinese the inshaping role currents akey Yogācāra late the from 1890sto leading thought intellectuals by Chinese Buddhist of century, so revival the too twentieth ofthe two decades first inthe philosophy of Chinese discipline academic ofthe development onthe influence a formative exercised inlogic resources native Chinese Just onrecovering astrong as emphasis philosophy”. Western ofcontemporary part as materials non- to how and use philosophy to how docross-cultural study ofshowing a case as serve will about logic dialogue ofcross-cultural “My examination possibility ofthe The God-based argument, which has it roots in Abrahamic and Judeo-Christian in Abrahamic and whichitroots has Judeo-Christian argument, The God-based argument. Reason-based the and argument, God-based arethe They chauvinism. human for ofarguments types Her two examines paper onEarth. species other the Bun’yū Yogācāra Japanese the lay Nanjō between scholar Buddhist thought friendship was the oflogic lack development ofthe entail the TanakaKoji not does that paper logic lack the ofaformal in his argues still remains. as such writings in classical logic toidentify day ofthe intellectuals to efforts make significant In Chinese charge that the China turn, spurred oflogic lackeddiscourse. atradition philosophical genuine for prerequisite the and system, oforderand hallmark the Western by standardsset ofthe as logic identified short philosophy.scholars These far that and itfell oflogic; that itwas lacked devoid systemization; philosophy late inthe mounted that Japanese by Meiji Chinese scholars period criticisms the to areaction part significant in ago.was development This a little overacentury began academic discipline amodern as In China, philosophy ofChinese creation the ofhuman nature”. intobeing constitutingpart a oranalysed defined be canReason neither intoexistence, oranalysed defined be cannot God that as “just concludes Lo ofarguments, sets both of intricacies the Afterrehearsing species. other humans the overall privileges than God, less no to ideathat the amounts reason, argument The Reason-based species. other, loved, over less human authority justifies God’s confirms only not image“the this ofGod” for humans, but love special also humans made areuniquely in that because thesis the by characterized teachings, is Xunzi 南條文雄 and and (1894–1927) and the Chinese lay Chinese Yang the (1894–1927) and scholar Buddhist Wenhui Mozi —yet to this day this perception about the lack of logic lack about the oflogic —yet day to perception this this Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences tout court 4 Crucial to the late-Qing revival of interest in ofinterest revival to late-Qing the Crucial . He proposes that “rather. He than comparing proposes introduction  john makeham 7 歐 ) and 法相

(1890–1947). (“philosophy”) has faxiang 太虛 remains very remains much 哲學

zhexue zhexue ), instead proposing), instead his own, based 判教 ), associating the former with an inclusive Zhang examines the role played by examines two Zhang key the role played 5 唯識 panjiao weishi (1837–1911). Between 1891 and 1896, Nanjō sent a Yang a large number of a large sent a Yang Between(1837–1911). 1891 and 1896, Nanjō (1871–1943) (disciple of Yang Wenhui) and cleric Taixu and cleric Taixu Wenhui) (1871–1943) (disciple of Yang Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives tell us early about Chinese understandings of the how the cosmic direct order has implications for realm, particularly the human politics, to in relation religion and on the formative periodethics. she argues of circa Focusing 300 BC, the bamboo that philosophy has undergone a revolution, the publication due to of a rich body of texts principallyexcavated from the third and dating second centuries before the Era. Some of theseCommon counterparts; transmitted texts have do not. many paper provides an overview some of what of theseShirley Chan’s texts reveal about early Chinese cosmological thinking—the impulse human comprehend to the features and principles of the cosmos. focuses She a number of these on what texts It is sometimesIt Chinese glibly remarked—oftenall in jest—that half only philosophy The chapters istwo final in this political publication—one philosophy. concerned with and the other ancient with China indeed studies modern in China—are Over the past fourpolitical decades our understanding philosophy. of early Chinese non-sectarianism with and a more the explicit latter soteriological orientation. Taixu, by contrast, align sought his to vision of Budddhist modernism with modern scientific trends, and presented his views under the rubric and of “Buddhism for life”, human also was defender a staunch of the Taixu “Buddhismlater for world”. the human traditions and schools Buddhism. of Sinitic enlightenment” that had developed in China, on the grounds developed had that enlightenment” it is in China, that founded on the notion sentient that beings inherently are already and enlightened, hence is only faith-based and not true also Buddhism. rejected He Indian traditional taxonomies Chinese Buddhistamong schools ( on an idiosyncratic distinction between dharma characteristics ( nothing-but-consciousness ( Both transform sought to a much more explicit Buddhism having into engagement with the social promote the original a return sought to to world. Ouyang teachings highly critical was Buddhism”—and of Buddhism—what he termed “genuine of East the traditions which spread to (and of Buddhism developed had that in China Asia particular, more generally). he opposed was In the doctrine to of “inherent an intellectual trajectoryan intellectual does that neatly and align content not with always is what Indeed, known academy. as “philosophy” in the Western categorya contested today. in China figuresBuddhist in this modernism practitionerJingwulay movement: Ouyang 陽竟無 processes of cognition and the nature of reality. The legacy of this Yogācāra revival processes The legacy of this of cognition of reality. and the nature a decisivealso played the role course in shaping Chinese of also Buddhist (and modernism.Confucian) paper is a specialist Zhiqiang’s modern in study Zhang Chinese history. intellectual a good illustrationIt is of how the scope and focus of 楊文會 works Within ceased long had in China. transmitted being that important Yogācāra Learning as from a rival the the New touted to being was a few short years, Yogācāra boasting not systematized only organized, and concepts, thought West, but also a superior establish means to epistemological verification based on its accounts of the 8 introduction  john makeham 4 3 5 an overriding concern that pervades the texts: the attempt to define the essential essential attempt the to the texts: define the that pervades concern an overriding attention been appreciated.to field than traditionally particular has Chan draws intellectual dynamic and fluid, amuchmore reveal hybrid discussion under texts 2 1 inChina meetings the Australia and successful. wereso International Coordinator Academy, ofthe to that ensure scenes the behind hasdone Finally, that hard Meredith the work Dr all to Iwouldlike acknowledge Wilson, ofconstitutional ofamature democracy”.development kind pathto onthe further measure atransitional as utilized and deployed canbe a mixture “of kind”, acontrollable authoritarianism moderate that “such envisioning with kind” Wanghumane governance. “of ahealthy democracy modern combining advocates ideal the of “Chinese haspursued pragmatism” that historically to argue Li Zehou, theorist, post-Marxist by articulated as reason He ofpragmatic notion onthe draws inWang’s discussed (a valuepaper). concept Confucian the by ofhumaneness first social management toenhance informed thatthe has capacity governance efficient of amode to and establish reforms, political to need the continue for passionately Wang publication, inthis paper second inhis campaign, argues Keping corruption Chinafor today. XiJinping’s ofPresident anti- background sustained Against the of heart at the lies governance ofefficient concern same Wang This vision Keping’s order. anideal socio-political for conditions University Press, 2012). Press, University Twentieth-Century in China Academic Discipline of 2014). Press, Chinese Philosophy Consciousness: YogācāraConsciousness: China Modern in ofYogācāra, revival Madhyamaka. Chinese along with modern the On see Routledge, 2015). Companion to Virtue Ethics York:(New Van Routledge,2013);Bryan Norden, HongKong: Kong 2011),p. Press, University 19. Earlyin China: Anthology An 2003), pp. 60–61. Yogācāra is one of the two most influential philosophical systems of systems Yogācāra Indian Buddhism, influentialphilosophical most two ofthe one is example, See for See, for example, my example, IdentitySee, the for essay, Indigenous and Inner Grammars Logic, “Epilogue: Roger T. Ames and Henry Rosemount, Jr., Rosemount, “Were T.Roger Henry and Virtuous?”, Confucians Early the Ames in WatsonBurton (trans.), Zhongguo zhexue Zhongguo Virtue EthicsandConfucianism , Cambridge University Press, 2007. See also the essays in essays the 2007.See, Cambridge also Press, University ”, in Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences Learning to Emulate theLearning Wise: of Philosophyas an Chinese TheGenesis Zhuangzi: Basic WritingsZhuangzi: Basic , ed. by Lorraine L. Besser and Michael Slote (London: Michael and Slote (London: Besser L. Lorraine , ed.by , ed. by Chris Fraser, Dan Robins, and Timothy O’Leary (Hong Fraser, Chris , ed.by Timothy and Dan Robins, O’Leary , ed. by John, ed.by Makeham York: (New University Oxford , ed. by John, ed.by Makeham (Hong Chinese Kong: , ed. by Stephen, ed.by C. Angle and Michael Slote (New York: (New Press, Columbia University Virtue Ethics and Consequentialism in Early in Virtue EthicsandConsequentialism ¶ Transforming The Routledge Ethics AAH CASS

In Praise of Philosophy

Alan Hájek THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

t was an honour to participate in the AAH–CASS philosophy workshops in 2014 Iand 2015, in Beijing and in Canberra. They were opportunities to explore common ground between our academies. I assume that it is common ground between us that philosophy should be valued and supported. However, at least in Australia, the humanities have been increasingly under threat, and philosophy has not been spared the budget cuts that have beleaguered various disciplines that do not offer obvious scientific or technological benefits. And so I want to defend the value of philosophy in these anti-philosophical times.

My defence has two main parts:

1. Even if philosophy were of no practical value whatsoever, it would still be valuable; not all values are practical.

2. In any case, philosophy has considerable practical value.

I take it that these points, too, will be common ground among the participants of our workshops. In that case, I hope they will join me in spreading the word!

1. Ignoring its Practical Benefits, Philosophy is Intrinsically Valuable

G. H. Hardy’s A Mathematician’s Apology is a poignant apologia of a formerly great mathematician, who was painfully aware that his own powers had waned, and who wanted to defend the value of pure mathematics, his life’s work. He wrote:

I have never done anything “useful”. No discovery of mine has made, or is likely to make, directly or indirectly, for good or ill, the least difference to the amenity of the world. I have helped to train other mathematicians, but mathematicians of the same kind as myself, and their work has been, so far

Learning from the Other: Australian and Chinese Perspectives on Philosophy 9 10 in praise of philosophy  alan hÁjek is chance?”, “What is a property?”, “What is causation?” If we do our job well, our If causation?” well, wedoourjob is chance?”,is aproperty?”, is “What “What “What asks a philosopher to form, black holes what causes asks or acosmologist compound, ofsome chemical aboutproperties the asks or achemist oftime, period atom that chance about the agiven decays insome asks aphysicist So whereas some platitudes are actually true, especially here inmy here town ofCanberra. adopted especially true, areactually platitudes some It’s although foundations, with concerned is ofaplatitude something that philosophy better us. muchthe for so spirits, kindred as cosmologists and may puremathematicians count ifwephilosophers And ornot. practical knowledge, sake, seeks own and their for knowledge”.) ideas explores advanced civilization An “treeof of the were intimately related. was regarded “trunk” the as Philosophy science and at philosophy that (Indeed, time to muchas as scientists. philosophers inhuman history. awatershed as So, too, whichweoweto Enlightenment, the civilisation their recognize werightly and Greeks, ancient the of wisdom”—to valued. be should Indeed, such as a itis and ofourintellectual quite tradition, generally.achievements part is Philosophy humility, intellectual and physical, We on. literary, musical, so and value artistic, also patience, empathy,creativity, courage, steadfastness, prudence, selflessness, But we valueto about humans. muchmore We villages. qualities: value various water cleandrinking bringing and bridges yes, building and advances, technological We many humanpractical—inventions, ofthem achievements, value various language, mind, so on. the and wrong, and right causation, decision, rational knowledge, natureabout freedom, the ofjustice, ourhumanity, indeed and ofourintellectual curiosity, It to part care themselves. is Similarly,our intellectual curiosity. in philosophy’s ends be should preoccupations of worthy things nature and universe, ofthe origin about the us itteaches because important is Cosmology inthemselves. rather, areends ends; they tomeans practical claim canhardly to be ofscience Moreover, ofthis. parts convincing various even Plato, by ifyou any need orHume,read masterpieces orNietzsche, orLewis muchofphilosophy— Hardy beauty. itinits found alone wouldjustify beauty And ofpure mathematics, case the justification. In for their benefits to look practical not should disciplines other to various Closer home, inspades. ofphilosophy are true things These insight. cases insome and inspiration, entertainment, pleasure, aesthetic provide endeavours these things, other Among upshots. practical such that outrun arebenefits there my carefully—for Ihave games. and words chosen sports, ballet, literature, music, ofart, most to thatendeavours upshots: have seem practical such no human other regard. Consider alone inthis various hardly Pure is mathematics water to avillage. cleandrinking bring payoff. real-world no Fermat’sbridge, or helped never a anyone Theorem build Last seemingly matter theory, which has number rarefied included subject his example, of benefits He to practical the gave recourse no himself mathematics it is trivial anyhow. trivial itis mathematics value outside standards, the and ofmy nil; practical mathematical is life my Judged as own. at any all by rate useless Ihave as as to them it, helped Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences 1 fundamental part. We part. name—“love oweits applied mathematics; for for mathematics; 2

 in praise of philosophy alan hÁjek 11 ”s. It is It ”s.

questions. This descriptive questions, where they typically address Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives Many good philosophersMany are like decathletes, intellectual knowing a fair bit of mathematics, science, and social science, writing with skills. better-than-average And every serious discipline has its of philosophical share problems. There is thus decision whereas decision But theory. theory codify attempts to norms and evaluates actions meet them that not, or physics just codifies and unifiesregularities without or sanction.approval Decision theory exhorts expected of maximizing the ideal utility andtheory, criticizes us when we fall short physics But never ideal. that of tells an electron is it it is that that irrational, badly nor tell a galaxy behaved. prescriptive distinction is blurred often by the and near-homophony of the words “idealization” sometimes Indeed, the words as when chemists get conflated, speak of the “ideal”. maximally about virtuous suggesting a law gases, when really it is law”, gas “ideal Physics, for example, is its up to neck in idealization, and so is gas-law. an idealized be. If my slogan sounds slogan my like If it trivializesbe. we should remember it may that philosophy, easy explicit make be no to easy how our commitment feat. thinks Nobody it’s that certainto basic facts positive about integers, addition and exponentiation implicitly Theorem. Last commit Fermat’s us to Another significant role for philosophy vis-à-vis other disciplines to addressis fundamental enough (as are physics (as fundamental enough and arguably chemistry), and perhaps they do not raise problems of a distinctive kind enough does (as biology) merit to sustained philosophical attention. Of be course, a philosopher need to don’t our implicit you make commitments to explicit. and they remind a worthy us do it too, what enterprise Mathematicians it can somewhat contingent which disciplines fill get to in the blank.Philosophy of physics been a respectablehas long Philosophy field. of biology is rather more recent, but it is currently thriving. Philosophy of chemistry is still but it is a nascent at stage, showing a lot of cosmology, of promise. Philosophy of meteorology, of geology, sciences”and of other “special arrive to are yet they are not on the scene. Perhaps useful of other role as watchdog disciplines: questioning their presuppositions, policing their hasty inferences, clarifying teases concepts. out their murky It consequences unwelcome and often unintended of those presuppositions, provides tools those for evaluating inferences, and offers frameworks for understanding better those concepts. This is especially evidentvarious in the “philosophy of “Making our implicit commitments explicit”. These our implicit“Making include the commitmentscommitments of explicit”. common sense, the familiar folk, to almost which inevitably infiltrate the sciences someto extent, and even more so the social sciences. Theyalso include the commitments of scientific and To be sure, social-scientific theories themselves. them explicit, made revisehaving to want we may them. And philosophy a plays answers these to philosophical questions will accord with such applications canonical of these concepts in the sciences. said,the That boundaries between philosophy and other disciplines are somewhat permeable. Where, for is instance, the borderline between philosophical logic? and mathematical of philosophy I find can interesting be characterized that Much by the slogan: 12 in praise of philosophy  alan hÁjek scrutiny of the disciplines’ foundational issues. disciplines’ ofthe scrutiny rigorous inreturn canoffer teeth their to into, sink philosophers the and philosophers for material canoffer disciplines other the cross-fertilization: for much opportunity influenced artificial intelligence and robotics. and intelligence artificial influenced in has work their turn and scientists, computer hasinfluenced oncausation research artificial intelligence; influenced has inontology work science; computer influenced linguistics. on has made a quantification impression lasting also. ineconomics central become Lewis’s of“common notion knowledge”, ofconvention, has analysis to central his fields. other to oftenexported are invented techniques and Concepts philosophers by policy. public butalso economics, Spain. that weretaken atemplate as ofZapatero’s onrepublicanism constitution ideas the for Marx’smore recently, and influence, enduring philosophy—witness political Pettit’s ofcomputing. akind as a computer ofthinking and brain, the that is mind the theory identity the ways—for instance, through invarious psychology and science oncognitive impacted intelligence. a touchstoneMore generally, ofartificial ofmind has philosophy the butwhichwentonto become ofintelligence, notion ofthe analysis aphilosophical as Consider the computing. ofmodern foundation the form ofa“computable notion ofthe function”, analysis butwhich wentontophilosophical uptake. ofa Consider notion the canhave ideas practical direct more philosophical sometimes And does. mathematics as pure much that have benefits, practical disciplines other underpins Philosophy of mind. cast their for analytic Company, philosophers often They employ well. this know as such and management firms consulting & McKinsey Microsoft, and Google as of all with thinking, rigorous and It well. them trains clear teaches Philosophy smarts. wide-reaching with rounders, all- to need cognitive be they then areintellectual decathletes, If philosophers For philosophy’s acknowledge should opponents its even 2. Philosophy’s Benefits Practical philosophy’s opponents. But too that far tomuch valuesarepractical. wouldbe valuable; all concede not wereofno ifphilosophy So even psychology. and tofoundations economics gave new theory decision and Ramsey’s inprobability of arithmetic. explorations Gödel’s to same foundations the the did theorems theory; incompleteness of set of independently Philosophy, moreover, 5 And think of how decision theory has informed not only mathematics and and mathematics only not hasinformed theory decision think ofhow And their practical upshots. Russell’s foundations upshots. the shook paradox practical nurtures Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences other disciplines, which we should value whichweshould disciplines, other Turing machine practical its 6 His analysis of counterfactuals and of adverbs of ofadverbs and ofcounterfactuals His analysis practical benefits. Major corporations such benefits. corporations Major practical value whatsoever, it would still be be value itwouldstill whatsoever, 3 and through the picture of the mind as as mind ofthe through and picture the , which began life as part ofa part as , whichbegan life 4 Think of the real-world impact of impact real-world Thinkofthe Turing test practical 7 Logics of vagueness have ofvagueness Logics benefits. benefits. , which began life , whichbegan life  in praise of philosophy alan hÁjek 13

8 ; still less when the the good There life. part of philosophy . This usedto be a primary how to live a good life live a good how to 9 were integrity and selflessness), and the pursuit of wisdomturn in further thoseinculcated virtues. of Thephilosophy study those elevated who pursued widely was understoodit. good and linked. It being Knowing were intimately the pointthat of philosophy become to was good rather simply than collect to or produce knowledge. Philosophy, understood as the love of wisdom,Philosophy, seen was as a vocation, like the priesthood. required significant moral It virtues(foremost these among Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives and reflection. Speaking to the Chineseand reflection.to theSpeaking philosophers Canberra and at the Beijing workshops, struck I was by how much more of a concern the notion of “living a it should be the concern But of all of us; this, isgood Chinese too, philosophy. life” to should be common ground. Here, I think that Anglo-American I think that Here, philosophy has partly its off the ball. eye taken While those much of what I applaud of us working tradition there is in that do, room for more reflectionmakes our lives on what worth living. And our incentive structures conduciveare not the pursuit to always of truth—for example, there is pressure at the publish often expenseto of careful prolifically andargumentation rapidly, even courage. Much as it takes courage to stand by one’s moral convictions in the face by one’s stand to courage as it takes Much even courage. philosophical convictions in the by one’s stand courage to take it may of adversity, face adversity—and of intellectual give to them up when one realises the truth that then,lies can both elsewhere. instruct Philosophy, the good us life regarding and be it. instantiate to itself a way It isn’t just that philosophy isn’t just that equip one with may It a useful skill set will that aid one in that, than I am lifethe pursuit could to do that. manual More of the good A user’s life. philosophy idea that be an integral may Plato’s to drawn is something beautiful the about earnest pursuit of truth. Doing it well requires often various virtues—steadfastness, human prudence, creativity, and patience, humility, concern and of philosophers. Briggle write of a time before the Frodeman Indeed, creation of various disciplines in the century: nineteenth appropriated them, they may no longer evenappropriated no longer be them, called they may worldreal has benefited But their rootsfrom them. in philosophy allbe genuine may the same. And when all is practical said and done, the there ultimate remains question that philosophy promises answer: to extreme weather events, is imaginemore a practical to and hard so on. upshot. It be sure, philosophy operates often at such a level one should that fundamental To timetake for philosophicalnotmay expectIt practical see to immediate payoffs. purchase gain outsideideas to philosophy and in other disciplines, break and then to and effectfreeBy the of the academy time world. the real other disciplines have More recently, philosophers done important recently, have work on the “wisdomMore the of crowds”—the seemingly remarkable fact by pooling that the people, opinions of many we typically get more accurate predictions those than of individuals experts). (even This harnessed be phenomenonmay predictions better make variousto of important real-world events—disease outbreaks, presidential elections, terrorist attacks, 14 in praise of philosophy  alan hÁjek vindication. wehave ultimate promise, its onthis delivers to that extent philosophy And 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 way/?_r=0> Available at: Collective Wisdom”, David Lewis, David Lewis, Pettit,Philip American ofthe program ofthe Behavior”, and part Putnam, readas “Brains originally Hilary J. J.C. Brain “Sensationsand Processes”, Smart, is a plan Canberra so-called uninitiated. the for joke The this explain I should G. Hardy, H. (New York: (New Thomas Y. 1975). Crowell, 10

¶ A Mathematician’s Apology Republicanism: A Theory of ATheory FreedomRepublicanism: andGovernment Counterfactuals Convention Formal ofNatural Semantics Language Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1969). Press, University Harvard (Cambridge MA: A Materialist Theory of the Theory A Materialist Mind (Oxford: Clarendon (Oxford: 1998). Press, http://www.math.ualberta.ca/mss/ (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1973);“Adverbs Press, University Harvard (Cambridge MA: Readings in Philosophy in Readings ofPsychology (University of Alberta Mathematical Sciences Society: Mathematical Society: Sciences ofAlberta (University Philosophical Review Journal ofPhilosophyJournal British Journal ofPsychology Journal British (London: Routledge,1968). (London: , ed. by Edward L. Keenan L. Edward , ed.by Journal ofPhilosophyJournal >. (Oxford: Clarendon(Oxford: 68(1959),141–156; , Volume Ned 1,ed.by (forthcoming). The Language of The Language The Stone 47(1956), (2016). 63(1966), AAH CASS

Do the Deepest Roots of a Future Ecological Civilization Lie in Chinese Soil?

Freya Mathews LA TROBE UNIVERSITY

I. Can Philosophy Help Us to Negotiate the Anthropocene?

ivilization is the product of a happy geological accident—a ten to twelve Cthousand year period of climate stability, known as the Holocene. With climate stability came seasonality and predictable weather, where these conditions made it possible to grow crops, store food and hence accumulate wealth. Agriculture provided the material basis for the sedentary societies that gradually evolved the stratified, literate, artisanal, administratively centralised forms of social organisation known as civilization.1 It was climate stability that also provided the conditions for the urbanism and eventually the industrialism of such societies, since stability enabled people to establish large, permanent built environments without fear of flooding or destruction of infrastructure by the elements. Climatic fluctuations in this period, leading to extended droughts or freezes, often resulted in the collapse of local instances of civilization.2

Prior to the advent of agriculture, when people lived in small, nomadic, hunter- gatherer societies, in dangerous and uncertain environmental conditions, they were dependent on the contingent affordances of nature. Without technical means of transforming the world to suit their own purposes, they had no alternative but to accommodate and adapt to the natural environment. With the onset of the Holocene and the new conditions of climate stability that allowed for the emergence of agriculture and hence for the birth of civilization, however, humans began to develop the technical means for transforming nature. This transition was inevitably accompanied by a psychological re-orientation to reality—a change of mindset. Whereas pre-civilizational peoples had been psychologically oriented to “the given”, cultivating accommodation, attunement and adaptation to the world as they found it in all its actuality and particularity, civilizational societies were built on the discovery

Learning from the Other: Australian and Chinese Perspectives on Philosophy 15 16 do the deepest roots of a future ecological civilization lie in chinese soil?  freya mathews began to cultivate a new mindset of abstraction from the merely present and and present merely the from ofabstraction began to mindset cultivate anew accordingly societies some human convenience. stage At ofcivilization, acertain immutable. was not that The given naturalbe the could altered orderofthings suit to activity can, however, also be seen indirectly—historically and functionally—as a functionally—as and indirectly—historically seen be however, can, also activity philosophical such initself, end epistemic (and civilizing) arevered indeed as ofreality. representations schematic and Culturally abstract enshrined construct able to presocratics—were the philosophers—notably With aidofreason, the wereavailable, paving way the emerged, oflogic philosophy. reason for rudiments up. the opened Once logic, as ofwhat to came known be rules the with in accordance to manipulation hence and delineation amenable to sharper categories and concepts of horizon new awhole environments, human-designed built, fixed, nature with replaced people as words, insignificance. other In instrumental unambiguously and discrete genuinely chairs—were and houses as ofobjects—such identities the inwhich context orartefactual abuilt created themselves around they civilization, nature, to from however, transition in the life-worlds to their disentangle started notapply. did logic, of principles as of thought”,Aristotle by codified first “laws In so-called the relation to categories, such intertwined. ecologically densely and inextricably werestill things ofall identities inwhichthe alife-world negotiating for essential were relational and categories adaptive. Diffuse was not of concepts, definition sharp orthe precision, conceptual depended, onwhichthey environments ecological fully still the that characterised identity and ofexistence relational modes and Forcontext-dependent attuned to diffuse, the hunter gatherer societies, type. logical same ofthe categories thatterms exclude other in defined be must itself human-ness then human, be ornot be either must individual that aparticular accepted ifitis oflogic: mayin turn application the by honed be concepts while concepts, defined onwell applicability its for middle—depends law the case, ofexcluded this logic—in In words, other ofconsideration. context the to according human as may counts vary individual aparticular ornot Whether true. may human be either ornot not is individual astatementthen that as aparticular such dependent, to context be understood thing is ofaparticular thatsuch identity the apply. donot fashion, contradiction, For inadiffuse conceived is ifidentity example, non- and ofexcluded middle those as such laws ofthought, presumed basic concepts, amenable to “laws the proved increasingly ofthought”. delineated Without clearly concepts defined sharply while defined, sharply more to become enabled concepts laws ofthe ofabstraction observation ofawarenessinto came view: level recursive new, Awhole aregoverned. processes highly cognitive whichsuch by coherence and ofcomposition rules the achieved: is whichabstraction by processes cognitive of the nature inthe aninterest came to us describe, enables whichconceptualisation things concrete onthe focus to original the inaddition right own intheir onconcepts focus right. own intheir entities abstract as categories and on concepts focus to detail areflexive inexhaustible ofits concreteness inthe world onthe focus involved and fromapre-reflexive ashift ofliteracy, reflexivity productive emphasised inits turn but also literacy by course aidedof way emerging actual. This ofthinking, to contingently alternatives the ofconceptual construction the for allowing particular, Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences 3 With this new new With this 4 As people As people  do the deepest roots of a future ecological civilization lie in chinese soil? freya mathews 17 7 of civilization. was It praxis —might thus be seen as a product of the reflexive 5 : Contrasting Modes of Thought Strategia This newEarth-shaping impact on the “includesplanet altering 6 versus Theoria Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives nominally the of wisdom, goal shared their approaches were very different. (I shall return the question philosophy below to why did not a foothold as strong gain in as it did in ancient despiteancient Greece China the fact civilization that in China civilization antedated long in Greece.) consider more in a little detail the phenomenology of this new method of thinking. The earliestWest origins were of course of Greece. philosophy in ancient in the Philosophy emerged as a distinctive grasp the tradition in the 6th century To BCE. distinctive phenomenology of this tradition compare I would like it with to a wisdom tradition prevailed Although that the at same time these in China. two traditions question I wish explore to in the present paper. II. pursue order to thisIn question, let us the origins return to of philosophy and to change. Philosophy, as the study of the ultimate existential as of the the ultimate questions study facing Philosophy, change. to humankind, must surely address if possible, and help, such a change, navigate to humanity as it. a product through But of the very consciousness arguably that enabled civilization in the first and hence subjugate nature unbalance it to place, is uncertain whether philosophy is in fact an appropriate or useful tool for this task. This is the shaping force.” shaping biogeochemical cycles nitrogen, (carbon, phosphorus, modifying etc), terrestrial cycles river changing water through flows,land-use and driving changes, etc, extinction rates since which are unprecedented the dinosaurs.” the AnthropoceneIn then, context the of civilization environmental is likely the severity of extreme weather events, catastrophic droughts, floods to leading hasand storms. recently The new era of anthropogenic upheaval environmental been the labelled Anthropocene. this to new According idea, Earth the has “exited current geological a new and epoch, epoch, entered old Holocene, the 12,000 year the Anthropocene” species in which “the human is now Earth- the dominant climatic stability and a powerful of the Holocene tool for the further development mind-set,of that a further development would in due course that see the wholesale by civilization.subjugation of nature the 21st centuryIn stability climate will, it seems, be assured. no longer seemsAnthropogenic set change disrupt to climate and weather patterns increase Philosophy—which emerged in the so-called era, when Axial 800–200 BCE, civilization reached maturity had faculty of to lifelife accompanied under the that the way shift from a hunter-gatherer conditions of civilization, an offshoot of the distinctive in this sense both a definitive expressionthe of civilizational mind-set by the enabled prelude, a necessaryprelude, a condition, and for transformation the manipulation of reality. By performing logical operations on abstract representations, philosophers were construct to able new blueprints thereby a new motivating and enabling for reality, ethos of substitution, imposition and control in place of the old ethos adaptation of to nature. 18 do the deepest roots of a future ecological civilization lie in chinese soil?  freya mathews through the lens of an abstract map or model then, the theorist is engaging is with theorist the map then, ormodel through lensofanabstract the indirectly In reality grasping intellect. own theatre ofhis the within scrutinised and theorist’s arethe assembled creation, own “external”the constructs theoretical world, changes. Unlike cognition ofhis inrelation to object the theorist’sthe position own constructs, conceptual and realm inner ofcategories abstract, timeless, toworld this in itself. anend is oftruth grasping the and truth, to grasp is theorist’s the from perspective, goal ofthought, The away, timeless. about is things truth butthe moment, by moment pass and change. not arise Things does world about the truth changes, butthe world reality,about ofreality, eternal: the aspect fact truth is in The some permanent. is or It judged to be ofreality.aspect some is then schema orrepresent to reflect Such arepresentational accurately considered that may is aschema produce eventually theorist the evidence, and ofinference principles abstract with inaccordance categories these combining By manipulating and right. own intheir treated (ideal) himas entities by categories reifiedcategories— to these cognition ofhis object the as itself world the from focus his he shifts categories. process, In the abstract into them well-defined sharpens abstraction, further by and, thinking ofhis mesh psycho-cognitive the from concepts out thought. picks He of abstractive form engagesparticular ina theorist The and hand, one what called might be between contrast sage upafurther Chinese opens to thatI wouldlike suggest Jullien’s the and Greek the philosopher between contrast initself. end anepistemic Greeks, ofthe thinking the like becoming, rather than from agency inextricable sage ofthe explicitly thinking remained The advantage). best orothers’ to his thatharnessed situations be could inparticular work sage at aimed sought architect who could not be included in his own abstract schema was, I am suggesting, was, Iamsuggesting, schema abstract own inhis included be not could who architect This contents. its amongst included be not could he schema, ofthe architect the As world. the from removed subconsciously became philosopher ancient intellect—the to say, is theatreofthe through inner lensof theory—which the world the via the ofperceiving In detail. inalittle more point process the this explain me Let passive object. or construct as inrelation to experienced aworld subject oractive author as himself to see subconsciously tends theorist the oftheorising, phenomenology scrutinised with reality.rarely relationship ofthis his As aresult inflects subliminally status model ofthe orauthor architect his as itself, world with model theoretical conflates routinely Since he creation. own his last inthe analysis, that is, something Contrasting the figure of the ancient Greek philosopher with that of the ancient with that ancient ofthe philosopher ancient Greek ofthe Contrasting figure the have to Fixated Become onTruth?”. Philosophers Francois Jullien, philosopher, “Did French and by was anarticle sinologist comparison this for My point starting world, the sage set outto sage the set world, outto set sage,Chinese Jullien outthat philosopher the where pointed truth 10 But in allowing his attention to become thus deflected from the from the attention deflected thus to Buthis “external” become inallowing (that is, an abstract schema that accurately represented reality), the the reality), represented that accurately schema anabstract (that is, true congruence strategy . , on the other., onthe Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences (that is, he sought to identify tendencies or dispositions at ordispositions tendencies to sought he identify (that is, adapt or accommodate 9 himself to it. Where the philosopher philosopher the Where to it. himself explain theory , on the , onthe the the 8

 do the deepest roots of a future ecological civilization lie in chinese soil? freya mathews 19 , strategia , “moving, active”. , “moving, active”. ajirah . It was, in other was, words, via. It , “multitude, army, expedition” army, , “multitude, , a looking at, looked at; thing object , which abstracts from the empirical stratos theoria , the introjective act of specular knowing, for mind, the and human hence ideal theoria object theoria , spectacle. “Strategy”, spectacle. is derived from the Greek thea , and the world as abstract construct, viewed from within the that has systematically inflected Western thought. This dualism has systematically that is inflected , by contrast, focuses not on abstract schemas an inner remove at from subject , cognition in the service remains of agency. , “to lead, guide,, “to drive, carry offSanskrit ”, from dualism , spectator; and strategist agein strategia Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives enacting an inner subject/object bifurcation with reality and engaging as a passive construct of his own devising, the strategist immersed remains in a fluxing field of concrete particulars and pressures are registered that not as part of an abstract totality collective or individual agency. Cognition iscollective required for such coordination, or individual but this agency. is not the kind of cognition in involved agency of the representation a more subject detached of the attain world. in order to In consciousness,Strategic in other words, is inherently nondualist. Rather than The word, “theory” derivesGreek, from the theoros from or or command “office art of a general”, and light of this, strategy beIn understood may as concerned with the coordination of of thought in the abstract key, but rather but sets mindfulness in theof thought abstract key, exercises or practices which sensitivitycultivate and responsiveness.Chinese This sages is why typically received their in martial training and other Daoist arts rather in discursive than inquiry. understanding the contrastIn between theory etymology and strategy, is helpful. a theory of reality respond the about in order to nature strategically this to field of influences: he can directly pressures feel environmental increasing and decreasing does he address now that. Nor thisas field heas a respondscompleted now this way, totality; it extends just as far as the of his range own and, sensitivity, as he moves train the to strategic faculty, around, this is range changing. Accordingly, constantly rulesone does for the not articulation reason, teach which is say, to and organisation reality influences field of actual, outer but on the immediate and concrete particulars in which he is immersed. examines these He concretely and corporeally in order discernHisto interest is not field abstract how that in is impacting on hisagency. architectonics but rather in his situation and how own the influences immediate at in it are tangibly impinging on him in the presentplay does moment. not need He relationship withrelationship reality encouraged by the dualist outlook will accordingly be one of presumption: the world is perceived as a mere object for the theorist use to as he sees fit. The This separationof active, world-constructing subject from the merely acted-upon, constructed object, presumably was the origin of the famous mind/body or mind/ matter a function of the subject-object bifurcation inevitably that accompanies the act of theorising will itself. It implicitly outlookattributes block that any subjectivity, purpose mentality, or presence The mode the of world large. to at agency, the original intellect, the was original thetheatre of subject’s the subtle in duplication involved the worldthat first became a mere inert and completely devoid and untouchable presence of real or agency of its own. 20 do the deepest roots of a future ecological civilization lie in chinese soil?  freya mathews influence on the agency of the embedded, nondual self. nondual embedded, ofthe onthe influence agency or immediate oftheir butinterms impact subject, the from remove at anepistemic intensively explored by deconstructionists, notably Jacques notably Derrida. deconstructionists, by explored intensively was oppositions ofWestern roots binary of role The thought. orbinary dualist the In late the 20 environment. human tothroughout world—to the great advantage natural the cost butat deadly that hasspreadindustrialisation excellence par ofcivilization form instrumentalist of offshoot the modernity,to Science, philosophy, birth the Western given has West. ofthe history inthe what indeed may is observed be Such instrumentalism innately be It instrumentalist. unaccommodating. be will will in theory I have ensures, rooted that suggested, agency oftheorising process into very built the efficacy. outto undreamed-of turned entrain agency is that However,the dualism of calculatedform This schema. abstract to a once-removed reference by action its premeditating that itbutrather ofasubject within ofimmersion apoint from reality sage. ancient ofthe It engagedagency ofaself longer was no innegotiating agency the the strategic from different of agency,form scale. This intheory, very rooted was onanunprecedented agency its to was empowered exercise science—humanity to as us known ofknowledge body oftheorisation—the form comprehensive and later, many centuries gave to detailed accurate, amore rise, contemplative purposes for philosophy Forby inaugurated ofreality objectification theoretic the when to era environmental whichhasledinourown crisis. ofphilosophy orientation to bequeathed West the outlook dualist It the arguably is theoretic the by nature. In China way called this is the way of all discovers reflectively, strategist aidoftheory, the also without though discovering In beings. all for experientially selected be naturally will that afield. such strategy negotiating is the strategically it Hence for any work being will afieldofenvironmental negotiating forces spontaneously and anagent himas for responsively what beings: works ofall natural modality that discovers he also process, By onthis reflecting experimentation. discovers thus strategist The in one’s one’s to environment further goals. one’s tailoring already at as play butrather energies the using and others to theirs ends upofone’s giving the as of simply to not ends the indeference understood ends own to sage, Chinese of the points province the then, Strategy existence. own her increase and toto preserve continue fit most be will energy own her calculated inways goals best to her conserve achieves who as she inasmuch one’sself-evident is to impose seeking This them. upon will rather than conativities, and influences surrounding with possible as consistent as is Thatto say, them. iswaybest to such afield the makeone’snegotiating of ends own to adapt to generally ofothers—is orconativities wills cross-cutting the includes field this isimmersed—where wayone inwhich afieldofinfluences ofnegotiating thatbest the discovers quickly strategist the experimentation Through strategic th century it was philosophy itself that hunted down—and critiqued — that critiqued hunted down—and itself itwas philosophy century Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences wu wei wu wei Dao for himself via a process of strategic ofstrategic aprocess via himself for , the way of least resistance, which can be whichcanbe way, the resistance, ofleast . wu wei for himself, then, the the then, himself, for 11 wu wei The influence influence The is the the is  do the deepest roots of a future ecological civilization lie in chinese soil? freya mathews 21 , Daodejing suggests . Even . Even Dao wu wei It was expected was that It enabled a robust enabled 13 Dao As a principle, 14 century, its embrace century, of modern forms th It was this was dualism, philosophers It environmental pointed out, 12 , a principle inherited from its pre-civilizational past. Thiswas a principle that Alternative FoundationsAlternative for Civilization: China and the West Dao Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives well as Daoism itself, an open distinctively create yet to Chinese outlook. The continuityChinese of civilization with its indigenous roots is evident in the in the early historyprominent shamanism role that played Historians of of China. “the Dao that can be of is told that not“the Dao the Dao”. eternal the reality strategic approach instead to is that characteristic still today of many indigenous theorisation societies. China, kept was In in check by the pervasive influence of this principle.At the same time, deferenceto syncretism refused that exclusive bids any for truth flourish, to together binding disparate traditions, such as Confucianism and Buddhism Marxism, and latterly as China may have owed this difference from the Westto the continuity of its owed this civilization difference have thefrom may China with its own indigenous roots. The form of civilization that evolved so gradually in deeply was informedChina with, and organised around, the fundamental principle of explicitly resisted theorisation. As puts it in the Laozi line opening of the of civilization dictated by Western science, be seen, the at deepestof civilizationmay level, as by an Western dictated of itsinstance traditional disposition and adapt. accommodate to III. and Mencius, displayed theoretical tendencies displayed and Mencius, Francois in their thought.) But seems rightJullien these in suggesting that theoretical tendencies never became the perspectivedefining Chinese of civilization. Throughout the defining its long history, perspective of Chinese civilization the remained strategic one of accommodation codified elegantly and in the adaptation, normative principle of departure from tradition in the 20 China’s be unavailing. There were of course of China? what theoretical But thisSo is a dilemma for the West. as well as strategic tendencies (Scholars of ancient in the thought such China. as the Moists, Legalists and followers as well as Confucius of the School of Names, attitude to the natural environment would follow. But such revised But theories environment would follow. the natural to of attitude present my cultures. analysis If traction little in Western have proved to have nature is correct, and it is theory itself underwrites that dualism and phenomenologically re-inscribes it in every act of theorising, then it is not surprising theoretical that remedies for a problem which, the at deepestlevel, springs from theory itself, will and intrinsic value. underpinnedthat the endemic anthropocentrism and instrumentalism Western of of dualist place theories world. In the natural such philosophers to attitudes of nature, offered theoriesto represent as that sought subject,nature locusagency of mind, mind. and the accompany moral that values or intentionality, a more respectful and considerate with reinvested was mind in thiswhen nature way, of deconstruction in turn was key across of critical a range discourses, including feminism and postcolonialism. philosophers Environmental also bemoaned the traditionsystematically has that the entrenched elevated dualism of the Western human, as subject, purpose locus of mind, agency, and meaning, rendered over nature as brute devoid object, of mind and hence meaning, of of mere matter, realm purpose 22 do the deepest roots of a future ecological civilization lie in chinese soil?  freya mathews of hunter gatherer societies around the globe, consists of a set of spiritual practices practices ofspiritual ofaset consists globe, the around of hunter gatherer societies West. the with comparison by inChina ofcivilization development inthe factor adistinctive as this note civilization obliterated. Although these peoples were already civilized, there is evidence that evidence is there werealready civilized, peoples these obliterated. Although Pelagsians—were the as themselves relatively Greeks the by peoples—named (non-Indo-European) indigenous ofthe cultures pre-Greek prior, The area. in the ofcivilization evolution inthe rupture aprofound Greece, as represented known Russia. ofsouthern steppelands the from arethought to havepeoples originally hailed BCE. These Aeolians millennium Ionians, and second inthe Danube the basin from Dorians, the as waves such ofinvasion alien Indo-European peoples, by following Francois by Jullien, example, centuries for inthe emerged described, form in the in the evident is civilization, Ancient Greek civilization West. of unfolding A different se. per civilization above, of noted militated against tendencies, this where dualising the outlook, Chinese inthe ofhunter gatherer elements consciousness ofbasic persistence the ensured inturn role however, pivotal its ofcivilization, form Chinese distinctively ofa evolution inthe ofshamanism persistence the for reason the Whatever cultures.) foreign own their under the rather thansubsuming Chinese sinicised weresignificantly Mongols themselves languageChinese was maintained Manchus language the and as ofgovernance; Mongol] and [Manchu dominance, of“barbarian” laterperiods during imperial (Even alien cultures. by orcolonisation conquest to outright subject werenot they River Yangtze and overmillennia— continuously and gradually evolved River basins ofthe and cultures languages the inChina.diverse, Thoughethnically history Yellow to pre-history from transition inthe ofrupture relative the absence by explainable ofChina, might be structure into civilizational the hunter gatherer societies, with associated ofspirituality,form normally ofapre-civilizational absorption This order to a“mandate obtain ofHeaven” rulers. ofimperial will the for in asas Earth, now figured figured now Heaven,secular world, world, the and spirit the to mediate between Shamans intent. to wereco-opted political their legitimacy and direction ofshamans to spiritual prestige lend and knowledge the appropriating were elites social BCE, emerging millennium By agriculture. second and the to pastoralism gathering hunting and from transitioned high statusearlier societies as to shamans their hold continued In stages civilization, ofChinese formative the dualism. ofculture-nature toyet animals wrong side the demoted that have not ofhunter-gatherer outlooks characteristic is power, intotemism, rooted spiritual intheir trust and animals for Such world. reverence spirit the and world everyday the between onshamanic flights guides spirit as serving generally animals toback shaman’s the community. totemic animal powers, with Shamans closely work channeled then is this magic orhealing energy; guidance, knowledge, transcendent is to gain communication such of nature. with purpose The to co-exist assumed aspirit-world with ordained individuals—shamans—communicate socially whereby 18 Their arrival in those parts of the ofthe come be whichwould to Mediterranean, parts inthose arrival Their Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences 15 Shamanism, a feature widely shared by a great variety variety shared agreat by afeature widely Shamanism, 17 16  do the deepest roots of a future ecological civilization lie in chinese soil? freya mathews 23 The 19 century, in century, st . Theory cannot convey Dao as the generous well-spring of Chinese with a dogmatic materialism hides that an Dao Dao as its guiding principle. Theory, with its offshoot, science, Dao , defined in relation to certain , defined in relation kinds of arts or practices, with can we engage century, China sought, science, China for pragmatic reasons, century, weave with to orientation questions all ultimate open, which leaves and seeks only to th Philosophy in a Strategic Mode as Foundation for a New Mode as Foundation for a New in a Strategic Philosophy strategic Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives of responding them, spontaneously without to discursive pre-conception. Such an orientation can be achieved practices only through immerse us to enable that ourselves psychophysically experience us thereby to enabling in nature, nature practices—martial other fields many of alchemy—but internal arts, calligraphy, taiji, offer potential others. endeavor human philosophyIf is help us to repair with in the our relationship 21 nature the face on a planetary of ecological upheaval integrate need to scale, then it may theory with a strategic orientation is that sensitive cues environmental to and capable We have ceased experience to have it is what exist, like to act,We to in synchrony with the communitylarger of life and hence in accord with this re-animating experience; on the us contrary, from it alienates it. Only through cultivation Daoism is a repositoryreality in this spontaneous and responsive way. of such arts and In the West, we have, I think, we have, reality to ceased itself relate genuinely to because the West, In ceased experience to we have it directly—we apprehend the it only through the twenty-firstdualising lenses In of theory. century we exist increasingly inside a discursive bubble, a world both suit convenience materially human over to made and interpreted exclusively in terms of our own ever-intensifying self-preoccupation. humankind. It cannot be ignoredhumankind. or set unless It aside. But theory is subsumed under a respond the promptings actual to of the world, then it will as it has the trap China in a dualism will that itself in the out continue play instrumentalisation to West of nature. underlying dualismturn in inevitably that subjects earth-community the larger to human despotism. the perspective of theFrom argument presented here, be it would a tragic error for abandon to China is of course of enormous developmental significance in the cultural evolution of its Western philosophical underpinnings,its Western the open of its into texture outlook. by virtueHowever, of the spectacular success material of science—its capacity to co-opt for purposes—this human nature theoretic outlook is currently perhaps displace to the notionthreatening of replace to is threatening It civility. indigenous, dualised, theoretic consciousness. IV. Ecological Civilization the 20 In their cultures retained a spiritual orientation to nature that may well have represented their well cultures a spiritual have retained may that orientation nature to case, witha certain any the continuity In of life. ways gatherer with hunter earlier, sharp represented, the invasions Indo-European that continuity little break cultural betweenwould remain post-Homeric civilization Greek and an indigenous past. accordingly set was for thestage emergence, the in classical period, of a fully post- 24 do the deepest roots of a future ecological civilization lie in chinese soil?  freya mathews competing theories. competing to open contestation by position theoretical acontingent as ofreason, aposit merely were it itwouldbe as than entertained, rather self-evident as practitioner the by attendant its grasped values,wouldbe moral with perspective, anexpanded such experience, of direct product the As beings. claims ofthe ofother rightfulness the waywould give of tendency, accommodating to generous, amore sense afelt with one’s always imperative the to serve interests own consciousness, lightofthis the ofone’s In wisdom. key was adefinitive to ego-distortedness habitualthe outlook, ofalargerhence fieldofinter-relationsto recognise context and inthe assumptions to one’s perceive capacity this and interests ofconsciousness, expansion this Hadot, awhole. as cosmos ofthe to perspective the individual ofthe perspective atnarrow aimed openingoutthe meditational practices and exercises spiritual via butalso through merely discourse not way pursued oflife, a as precisely Epicureans, Stoics and the notably schools, certain by understood was philosophy, ofancient Historian philosophy how has detailed Pierre Hadot, Hellenistic world. inthe existed also to shape Western the counter-tendencies theory allowed tradition, sense inthis and as to indeed argues, have seems ontruth, Jullien fixated Francois become philosophy For enterprise. ancient while philosophical original ofthe strands toback certain Todimension. may take lines infact us along non-dualist philosophy reconceive extra-discursive certainly spiritual, even anexperiential, that includes understanding namely eternal Dao”. the not toldcan be ofis meaning But term, ofthe root the demurral by those for whom it is inconvenient. For modern civilization, based For inconvenient. based itis whom for those civilization, by demurral modern to rational subject optional, remains contestableenvironmental hence and ethics to itrationally. itattempts as refute even Moreover, posit, theoretical amere as psychologically anthropocentrism reinforcing thereby anthropocentrism, underpins that split subject-object the generally, re-enacts philosophy like phenomenologically environmentalethics, as aninstance oftheorising, that, perhaps is for this reason The society. on little influence values have But exerted environmental far ethics. these so as ofphilosophy tradition to heir the philosophers, Contemporary needed. environmental areurgently ethic, ofan form inthe values,particularly moral new biosphere, of the integrity ecological the destroying rapidly is whichhumanity In Anthropocene—in anepoch—the surely indeed be a form ofwisdom. aform be indeed surely would result the orientation, astrategic under way inthis could subsumed be theory If being. ofourown matrix responsive and directive immediately psychoactive the as to the wisdom of following offollowing to wisdom the how out torefer working difficulties had similar Laozi ofcourse sciences. ecological or ways cosmological as dictated the terms, by oflife theoretical inexclusively them or“ecological wisdom”, wisdom” “cosmological tempted might one be to unpack to theory. itexclusively as If such terms adopted one name wouldtend to co-opt any since described, be could However, wisdom such how hard to know itis love ofwisdom , is surely apposite in this connection, as it implies a form of aform itimplies as connection, inthis apposite surely , is Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences theoria Dao , since Dao itself cannot be named. “The Dao that named. “The be cannot Dao itself , since , can and do offer theoretical arguments in favour in of arguments theoretical dooffer , canand 20 For to according Epicureans, Stoics and philosophy ,  do the deepest roots of a future ecological civilization lie in chinese soil? freya mathews 25 , 28, 4 (New , 1.1 (2009), Mind That Mind Anthós , which would Critical Inquiry (London: Methuen, theoria and cultivated viaand cultivated a vast (London: George Allen and (New York: Penguin, 2005). Penguin, (New York: Dao , perhaps offers a new point of wu wei How Natives Think Natives How , ed. by David Skrbina, ed. by David (Advances in Consciousness (London: 1928). George Allen and Unwin, ¶ (New York: Vintage, 1996). Vintage, (New York: 24 (2015), 9–29 (pp. 9–10). The Great Transformation: The Beginning of our Religious Traditions TheBeginningTransformation: Religious of our The Great Orality and Literacy: the Technologizing of the Word of the Technologizing Orality the and Literacy: The Soul of the The Soul of Primitive Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed Fail to Societies Choose How Collapse: of consciousness be required in addition discourse. to may Spell of the Sensuous of the Spell cultivation See Freya Mathews, “Why has the West Failed to Embrace Panpsychism?” to in Failed Mathews, “Why has the West Freya See Jeremy Baskin, “Paradigm Dressed as Epoch: the Ideology of the Anthropocene”, Dressed Baskin, “Paradigm asJeremy Epoch: the Ideology of the Anthropocene”, 10. Baskin, p. “Did Jullien, on Truth?”, Francois Become Philosophers Fixated to Have The early anthropologist,Lucien Levy Bruhl, pointed out in a series of books how the thought Karen Armstrong, Jarad Diamond, Jarad Ong, J. Walter See Richard Prentice, “Cultural Responses to Climate Change in the Holocene”, in the Holocene”, Change Responses Climate to “Cultural Prentice, Richard (2002), 803–24. Millennium New in the Panpsychism Abides: York: Knopf, 2006). Knopf, York: Environmental Values of indigenous people follows a different “logic” from the of thought discernable patterns in the history thought. for See, example, of Western 1926) and Unwin, article 3, 1–13. 1982) for a classic of the profound study in consciousness changes accompanied that the perspective an environmental on these see changes, For transition from oralityliteracy. to Abram, David Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives 9 6 7 8 4 5 2 3 literate but responsive in its larger orientation to nature, might help to lay foundations but responsiveliterate lay help to might in its orientation larger nature, to for a future, ecological civilization. 1 Chinese sage, beckoning us down beckoning theChinese path of sage, departure for thinking appropriate about cognitive modalities for the Anthropocene outside as the tradition. ancient compromised Greek Just parameters of the Western philosophy the foundations for laid the civilization, rooted in theoretically soeventually such manifest a new as cognitive modernity, modality, interests of all beings. But Stoic and Epicureaninterests Stoic methods of all beings. But in comparison pale the to methodological resources China, offered andwith itsby highly long evolved tradition and accommodation,of adaptation codified Great as the practices.array of dedicated a towards thus seems lead the well way China to placed discipline subsumes that theory strategic under perspective. a larger The figure of the experiential other so methods In far been the province have than of philosophy. words, can look we traditions back to such as thosethe of and Stoics Epicureans the West In in the search for cluestransforming to philosophy a discipline into dedicated not discourse merely to the to the of attunement cultivation but to of an attitude on an ethos of industrialism ethos and any hence of moral subjugation of nature, consideration for is the interests not of nature merely but a direct an inconvenience ethics environmental threat. is acquire the If force to of self-evidence and hence the authority it needs supplant the in order to anthropocentrism so modern core to civilization, be explored need to and imparted it may of more immediate, by way 26 do the deepest roots of a future ecological civilization lie in chinese soil?  freya mathews 10 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2002). Press, University ofHarvard Press Belknap Carolina:North McFarlane &Co, 2014),pp. 9–40. Chapter 9. pp. Littlefield, 2013), and Rowman 33–40. China: New Understandings ofChinese History China. governing while See Naomi Standen, “Foreign ofChina” Conquerors in culture own oftheir aspects retained disseminated and also Manchu Mongolian and rulers Yale 2005). Press, University Perspective 2004),pp. Press, 1–11;also University of Civilization Origins The 1963) p. 139. to nature thereby, and it pertains secondly, of nature. significance to moral the recover Eugenio and Donato Johns (Baltimore: Macksey Hopkins 1970),pp. Press, 247–265. Humanof the in Sciences” avowedly; inHeidegger’s unavowedly. case, in case, my own influences, ofDaoist evidence bear that both to fact the attributed be I think, can, two accounts the Any overlap findings. between language aimsorits its to either explain to Heideggerian recourse need not does and onovercoming dualism focused explicitly is butmy analysis own project, to this Iamsympathetic ofhuman discourse. world lifeless unreal literally the and than remaining rather within world ofthe trapped actual presence the To schemas. captured discursive be by being was to broughtcannot into be back “remember” that ofreality immediately, anaspect being where is experienced things ofbeing, instances as mediated—and discursively fully discursively—as experienced things between distinction the however, Icantell, Soas far Heidegger accounts. two the was out aiming to bring between placed overlap onthe comment well to particularly not so Iam here to him, I am offering astudent ofHeidegger, Iamnot metaphysics. himwith by analysis owethe donot and chapter. areadapted pages this from following inthe passages Philadelphia: and John (Amsterdam Benjamins, 2009),pp. 341–60.Several Series) Research Heidegger offered a famous analysis of Heidegger analysis famous a offered Pierre Hadot, Pierre Hadot, Harald Haarmann, Adam Nicholson, one-way. entirely not was rulers foreign their upon ofthe influence the Chinese course, Of Chang, “Ancient China”. Kwang-Chih Chang,“Ancient Significance” in China Anthropological its and Wing-Tsit Chan, firstly, the as seen as attempt, be may down tobreakdualism ecophilosophy fieldof entire The Val Plumwood, and PlaySign Discourse “Structure, is inthe work Derrida, ofthis Jacques classicus locus The , ed. by Kwang-chih, ed.by Chang,Pingfang Xu, Liancheng Sarah Lu Allan, Haven: (New What is Ancient Philosophy? Ancient What is Feminism ofNature andthe Mastery A Source Chinese in Philosophy Book The Dead: Why Mighty Homer Matters Roots of Ancient Greek ofAncient Roots OldEurope Civilization: The of Influence Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences ed. by Martha Lamberg-Karlovsky (Cambridge MA: Harvard Harvard (Cambridge Lamberg-Karlovsky MA: Martha ed.by The Languages of Criticism and of the Sciences of Man The Languages Criticism The of ArchaeologicalAn Chinese Formation Civilization: theoria , translated Michael by Chase (Cambridge MA: , ed. by Naomi, ed.by Standen Maryland: (Lanham , where , where (London and New and York: (London Routledge,1993). (Princeton: Princeton University Press, Press, University Princeton (Princeton: theoria (London: William Collins, 2014), William (London: was more or less equated orless was more , ed. by Richard, ed.by The Breakout:The Demystifying Demystifying ( Jefferson Jefferson ( AAH CASS

Kierkegaard’s Christian Philosophy and Its Enlightenment

Wang Qi 王齐 CHINESE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

ierkegaard emerged in Chinese academia with the title of “Forefather of KExistentialism” in the early 1980s. Later, he gradually gained titles such as “religious thinker”, “Danish writer”, “obscure philosopher”, and “initiator of paradoxical spirit”, all of which he fully deserves.1 For an original thinker like Kierkegaard, every new style introduced means new horizons are opened, and rereading and revitalising become possible. In this light, I will tentatively address Kierkegaard as a Christian philosopher, hoping to unite the standard division of Kierkegaard’s published works— the “pseudonymous writings” (1843–1846) and the “Christian writings” (1847–1851)—into a consistent whole.2 Although standard, the division seems heterogeneous in that the former concentrates on Kierkegaard’s writing strategy, whereas the latter focuses on the subject matter. I hope that from the perspective of Christian philosophy, Kierkegaard’s pseudonymous writings could be viewed as an indirect discussion of Christianity; while his “Christian writings”, which consist of edifying and Christian discourses, can be regarded as a direct discussion of Christianity. In a way, this would confirm Kierkegaard’s self-assertion that the religious had never left him.

In the following, I am going to concentrate on three of Kierkegaard’s pseudonymous writings, namely, Either/Or (1843), Philosophical Fragments (1844), and Postscript (1847), to demonstrate how we can view them as the embodiment of Christian philosophy. But first of all, I will clarify the meaning of “Christian philosophy”, since it is not a self-evident concept.

When referring to “Christian philosophy”, I am well conscious of being in a vulnerable position. It is not because Heidegger used to criticise the term severely, but because for any scientifically educated modern mind, “Christian philosophy” seems contradictory and impossible. Since the Enlightenment, “philosophy” has

Learning from the Other: Australian and Chinese Perspectives on Philosophy 27 28 kierkegaard’s christian philosophy and its enlightenment  wang qi sufficient truth; whereas Christianity pursues individual “salvation” with the guide individual “salvation” the with pursues whereastruth; Christianity sufficient ofself- systems or “order”—philosophy, pursues natural the by lightofreason, “Christianity”. from divorced been Consequently, to “plane” eachbelongs adifferent writings starts from this angle. this from starts writings “Christian”. called be could philosophy My reading ofKierkegaard’s pseudonymous this then spirit, Christian the by guided oraphilosophy aidto reason, indispensable an as revelation that Christian regards ahuman be philosophy could ifthere inall, All into anorganic whole. concern existential and immanence, oftranscendence, canunite faith factors Christian the a qualified to provide image” is “guiding Christianity philosophy,to sense, because In this principle. to a self-evident Aristotle’s with begins claim that philosophy equivalent clearly image” whichis mind, “value inthe already present acertain with rather, mind; only itcanbegin an empty with start cannot He that philosophy argues illumination. always and to open further spirit Christian the by guided thatextent itis to the be genuinely Christian will philosophy to This people. open all and evidence onworldly based and offreedom, spirit inthe guided ahuman be philosophy of all, it.” by illumined be and judgment, that this itcanface into acondition such philosophy to and ofman, bring activity this to offaith on …It bear judgment the anattempt rather to bring is principles. Christian aphilosophy.such from He “A deduced asystem argues, not is philosophy Christian to establish philosophy, urgency the ofChristian butalso possibility the demonstrates ofAnxiety. Age outofthe century aimstoWild twentieth leadthe In book, his practical. and urgent more about something late inthe was concerned 1950s,he issue John ofview, reiterated Wild the point professor ahistorical Harvard when from then was made more of“Christianphilosophy” If Gilson’s possibility onthe speculation revelation”. from receives to that help the reason thanks safeguarded, orsimply explored discovered, truths ofrational that body is philosophy Christian content the of “Thus He speculation. writes, philosophical for dimension up anew influence opened faith has does inthat Christian Christianity philosophy Western and to reason, auxiliary anindispensable canbecome revelation Christian contrary, handmaid “the ofreligion”. necessarily not the On is philosophy distinct, kept ofview. point historical of Medieval Philosophy 1936book, who, inhis Gilson Etienne is One scholars. two by directly of“Christian philosophy”, My conception apologetics. however, influenced hasbeen into turning philosophy eventually thereby doctrines, ofChristian acceptance the to facilitate ofphilosophy make wouldrather use others while philosophers; called inbeing interest no showed and toChristians called be preferred thinkers medieval Some highhierarchy upinthe been along had ofsciences. for time theology for Middle ofthe Ages, ofphilosophy type taken automatically be ahistorical cannot as ofWestern autonomythe In ofeach. philosophy, history the “Christianphilosophy” “revelation”.of divine Seemingly, damage any will attempt ofintegrating two the Human Freedom Philosophy andSocialOrder: Essay An Christian in , discusses the possibility of Christian philosophy from the the from philosophy ofChristian possibility the , discusses 3 Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences He argues that although reason and revelation are formally areformally revelation He that and although reason argues 6 In other words, a “Christian philosophy” will, first first will, a“Christianphilosophy” In words, other 5 He only not 4 The Spirit The Spirit ,  kierkegaard’s christian philosophy and its enlightenment wang qi 29 To translate translate To 8 is the . It embodies “a Christian embodies“a . It Philosophical Fragments Philosophical Types of Theology of Types It is is see not Climacus to doing that hard the It “Lebenswelt” 11 In the circumstances, self-posits In Climacus as a non- 10 7 , Climacus first, Climacus elevates passionto subjectivity, and then posits faith as What is has heard the is congregation more, what the “self-description” of 9 ), for he just enjoys “dancing lightly), for in the service he just enjoys “dancing thought”. of Postscript Mening Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives In “the highest passion of subjectivity”. subjectivity-constructing job of German idealist philosophers, but in a differentway, Christian principles Christianity make languages, to in “poetical” and “metaphysical” fromsound thecongregation the prevailing so strange Christian alienate as to “self- eyes, which, responsible was in Climacus’ description”, for the serious dilution of soChristian doing, By faith of his up the congregation age. intends wake Climacus to and rebuild their acuity passion Climacus, and about passion for Christian faith. For an important role,has played concerning subjectivity, faith and even Christian faith. dogmas. Christianity offered by the Church. Established As a result,“an to a certain degree, acoustical illusion” occurs the Christian such that faith becomes diluted or faded, of passion.owing the lack to Christian, and starts “plagiarise” to the well-known Christian stories—to rewrite the his absolute understand independence his from others, institutions, and sects. To resolution, we must firstClimacus’ understand diagnosis his of to times.According hisClimacus, contemporaries heard or known have so Christianity much about that Christianity has been combining they of system”, are almost age overwhelmed. “an In with and thus systematic turned into diverse knowledge and “ideas” or “-isms”, Incarnation—in an indirect, elusive, but internally systematic way. In the “Preface”, the “Preface”, In an indirect,Incarnation—in elusive, but internally systematic way. he offers declares what Climacus is only a pamphlet, written “by his ownhands, on denies his that writing He has a “meaning”his own his and at behalf, own expense”. ( these self-abandoned words resolutely normal has declared English, into Climacus community’s language”. of Climacus author Johannes Pseudonymous effortto distance himself best example I can give Kierkegaard’s demonstrate to from Christian this theology In himself Christian to while philosophy. attaching work,highly ironical deals Climacus with the central dogma of Christianity—the then the discussion will be understanding an turn out to of Christian principles from the standpoint of philosophical speculation, and it will be done in the spirit of freedom. In contrast, Christian theology is a “self-description of Christianity”, definition in his book Frei’s Hans to quote from by using within logic “theinternal stance” of the Christianity, Christian in this paper. I want to emphasise to I want in thiswe acknowledge if paper. that the intelligibility of then, there we must is admit that a line of demarcation “Christian philosophy”, between “Christian philosophy” Christian and philosophy theology”. “Christian is reflectiona human about meaning, truth and certaintyChristianthe in of light faith. And if thesubject of such a philosophy matter is Christian principles and theses, “Fragmentary” of Philosophy pseudonymousWhen writings I try of “Christian from the angle read Kierkegaard’s to be an expression them to I regard of a typephilosophy”, “philosophy”, human of of The relation philosophynot theology”. of a “Christian and theology major is a no history, of discussing a subject intellectual intention I have issue in Western 30 kierkegaard’s christian philosophy and its enlightenment  wang qi Stemninger Stemninger inexplicable and paradoxical, constantly inthe changing, embodied life-world, the in existence concrete each ways ofdifferent havinglife, of individual representatives from disappears author omnipotent to butreturns human the oftruth, system objective “object”, and acomprehensive, of “subject” longer no pursues philosophy and no longeris that relation world the of the life.manand Thus to that ofrigorous thought and hasshifted meaning of“actuality” speculative the oflogic sphere inthe infinite and almighty, will the is finiteand man Creator while and Ruler ofintellects, Medieval through entire the is Age. God principles Christian fundamental of the is one which and man, God between difference absolute thesis—an ofthe ground spirit”. any for existing asystem be butitcannot God, asystem—for is itself “Existence Climacus contrary, writes, the On asystem. such given”. be cannot of existence butasystem given, In faith. But ashift in With cansuch appear? how lies Kierkegaard,Christian answer the and sympathy. encounter concrete by and within from life-world inthis just the meaning oflife as to face fact has in turn reinforced Climacus’ position with respect to Christian philosophy. to Christian respect with Climacus’ position reinforced has inturn fact withJohn’s affinity which hasmore philosophy.speculative with Gospel than And this be pressed, he would be duped, for the sign is merely for sale”. for merely is sign the for duped, wouldbe he pressed, be to clothes Here. his Done Pressing wereto shop: bring Ifa secondhand aperson in sign ona reads one is when as it disappointing as often just is say about actuality philosophers A” aesthetical “What “the by volume: remarks first ofthe following inthe “actuality” embodied initiated whichIthinkis Schelling’s by lectures, Berlin about that demonstrates confusion Kierkegaardsubtitle his overcome has This ofWestern tounderstanding according general tradition. the work, philosophical philosophical for a title aproper not is it since impression, different Life” leaves avery Hegelians Danish the “A philosophy, speculative and subtitle the then, Fragment of of Consider example the ofphilosophy. or orientation a change ofdimension in orlanguage, inachange only butalso ofform not lies philosophy” “systematic vs. philosophy” anymore. of“fragmentary case the Innot significance the my opinion, is that postmodern to the philosophers, French Thanks ofphilosopher. akind is he thathad to to orfelt they Kierkegaard demonstrate that aphilosopher, as referring when werecautious world the around Kierkegaard oftime, scholars long period way why,explains situationcertain ina This paradoxes. and mysteries rather overa bustle, and ofhustle full whichis itself, life with beingfragmentary, consistent In Kierkegaard’s butonly that sense, systematic, be cannot philosophy Christian man man’s and concerns nor “cosmos-world” about the knowledge of asystem neither is Europe. His philosophy ofnineteenth-century philosophy Kierkegaard’s dominantfrom the speculative different is philosophy Christian Postscript Lebenswelt (mood). Philosophy has suspended its metaphysical pursuit, and starts starts and metaphysical pursuit, its hassuspended (mood). Philosophy , Climacus formulates a thesis worth quoting: “a canbe quoting: system logical worth athesis , Climacus formulates of the human being, trying to answer fundamental questions such such questions tofundamental answer trying human ofthe being, Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences Either/Or Lebenswelt . If the title “either/or” is reminiscent ofHegel, reminiscent is . If “either/or” title the Either/Or , as well as the meaning of human existence. meaning the ofhuman as existence. well , as Wissenshaft . What weencounter,. What instead, are 13 That does not mean there is no is mean there not That does Lebenswelt 14 in the Hegelian inthe It sense. It hard the to not see is 12 . The traditionally traditionally . The From that point,  kierkegaard’s christian philosophy and its enlightenment wang qi 31 Consequently, Consequently, 15 is very in this telling respect. The conclusion can only made be Either/Or Lebenswelt. Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives the sphere of life which he also holds be free, to necessity must be ruled out and the significance of choosing be emphasised.alsoHe “choose believes to has one that “choose myself to meaning absolutely”, validity”. eternal ” “in my William does hiswhile Judge work and fulfills hisvarious day in andlife dutiesday Kierkegaard does notKierkegaard of a philosopher, give him the status of a rigorous or that of a religious or that fanatic ethicist who cares “abstract, about formal freedom”, William is justwho a common turns his Judge person heaven. eyes only to among other mortal beings, who work, about chatters family and duty like a middle class William believes Judge it is self-evidentman. Meanwhile, is man And that free. in For, to live a meaningful to life in this world, one can neither depend on philosophicalFor, turns Kierkegaard theories Instead, let hide in the alone monastery. nor the Church, concrete, worldly life, concentrating on the essential problem of how to man’s to gain a spiritual the daily life make being of the finite meaning. William from the secondJudge volume of an individual is to be a Christian in the “age of the amusement park”. To lead the To of the amusementan individual park”. is be a Christian to in the “age centurynineteenth out of superficialityabyss and the of nihilism, puts Kierkegaard his hope on Christian faith, wishing reactivate it and image”. use to it as a “guiding He rejects both the spirit Ages the monastery”, of the Middle by marked “entering and the effort of the nineteenth centurymarked by comprehensivecreating systems. fooledhas by the superficialsensedKierkegaard correctly triumphChristianity. of Christianthat by secularisation faith is and damaged threatened in an unprecedented existential depth and individuality disappear to tend owing leveling. to and man’s way, people be Christiansto claimed either becauseMany they respect tradition, or they out.are in fear singled of being Therefore,main the issueKierkegaard is how for Bible—“Love the God Lord with your heart all your and with soul all and your with all your mind”. begins his formulate to Christian when Kierkegaard philosophy, say, to Needless the situation is different. totally Living in nineteenth-centuryEurope, one does not worryneed to On the contrary, one must the about prestige not be of Christianity. and rationalising Christian doctrines, meet of Ancient the in order to challenge spread Christianity and to philosophy, around the world. AsGreek result, a Christian of philosophicalfaith reinforced was by way thinking and thinkers, proofs. Medieval neverhowever, even overstepping think about the absolute difference between God and man. Therefore, their “first and greatest commandment” is still in the with the deep concern for man’s concrete existence in the life-worldwith the and deep in the concern light for man’s of Christian belief between that God there and is man an impassablegap. keeping absoluteThough “the difference between as the man” God fundamental and Christian philosophy bearsprinciple, a different colour of from that Kierkegaard’s Christian Ages.the philosophy Middle Medieval of systemising a clear intention has acquire limited knowledgeacquire limited compatible with his intellect. limited only That why is God as view has the the power omnipotent to Being disorderly existence as a system, conclude, because To Image. Cave while perhaps man will never escape from Plato’s existencehuman from point the human of view can be only fragmentary, so is the corresponding philosophy of human 32 kierkegaard’s christian philosophy and its enlightenment  wang qi something outside one’s outside something reach. “to signifies accomplish” since something, canaccomplish calculating he whether day, decisive the as time to attempts wasteshis and everyday live never he out, I think we can get from Kierkegaard’s from I thinkwecanget philosophy. Christian crucial enlightenment most the is thought train of This ethicalto actions. leads finally which others, for and God’s him/herself, to for God, responsible be commandments, to God absolutely—fulfill relate of all him/herself first should individual the subject, a As ofGod. to worthy be human being to asubject, be every elevates this demands, God subject, and subject between only relationshipestablished a genuine canbe Subject. as God emphasising by to endeavors he make humans individuals ataltar”. the temple” inthe or“serve In “work who Kierkegaard’sof those case, authority including the way, authorities, ofsecular a positive itcanexclude sorts all ofhuman equality. to in guarantee work Being starts absolute ideaofthe the Once and man” God the became between difference absolute the is “there principle the and Enlightenment after Reformation the And unchangeableness. Movement, and ofjustice source the therefore Being, absolute and highest eternal, the is God will. ideaoffree and Absolute ofthe consciousness the dimensions: two with philosophy GreekPhilosophically, rational hassupplied ideaofGod Hebrew the monotheist philosophy. understand Christian however, first must Ithinkone solipsism, with it to confuse better not and society. In individualism western orderto understand a man ought roles playto different but just ina any individual, see the placefor minister, be son.” father, minister be be the father the son the and For king, be individual. the king the for little space says, “Let Confucius example, culture—Confucianism—leaves Chinese oftraditional main the expression because from Kierkegaard’sbenefit onindividualism, emphasis philosophy, his especially aKierkegaard that as culture could Chinese Second, inChina, scholar view the Ihold solutions. edifying his with Christianity hassupplemented he how and Kierkegaard Kierkegaard’s Instead, studies. from start weshould what to see writings, ininternational rare ofwhichis areal called Christian—neither be could writer orwhichpseudonymous Christian, is ofview point acertain whether distinguishing ofview, point Christian as, any such onhimfrom orthodox judgment to pass not best philosophy, with is Kierkegaardplace, wedealIn when it his and Christian first the Reflections onKierkegaard’s Philosophy Christian faith. meaning light ofChristian inthe gain aspiritual For to era. make is one’s issue important in asecularised the him, daily, life worldly Capitalism” Max by Weber, concluded ofaChristian model the butinstead for stands of inaProtestant spirit “the citizen bear country, Judge class not middle does William soul?” inexchangecan aman give his for what Or soul? his yet forfeits world, aman gains ifhe for whole the itbe will good ofJesus—“what words ofthe resonance direct the stance is that this transparent soul?” but world damaged itprofita he whole man if the whatgained his does He hesitation. slightest latter the says, the “For without wouldchoose he soul, his Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences 16 Between gaining the whole world and nurturing nurturing gainingand world whole the Between 18 Though playing a role of a prototypical playing Though ofaprototypical arole ¶ 19 Here wecannot 20 Since 17 It is  kierkegaard’s christian philosophy and its enlightenment wang qi 33 ”. . (Duke Systemernes Period ” is translated as “opinion”. ” is as “opinion”. translated Kierkegaard AnthologyKierkegaard

I, p. 32. I, p. A EO Mening , trans. by Howard V. Hong & Edna H. Hong V. , trans. by Howard , trans. by A. Downes, H. G. (London: Sheed Concluding Unscientific Postscript Unscientific Concluding to Philosophical Either/Or (EO) , vols. 1–28 (vol. 4) (Copenhagen: Gads Forlag, 1997–2013), 1997–2013), Forlag, Gads , vols. 1–28 (vol. 4) (Copenhagen: , ed. by Jon Stewart (Aldershot:, ed. by Jon Publishing Limited, Ashgate , ed. by George Hunsinger & William C. Placher (New Haven: (New Haven: Placher & William C. , ed. by George Hunsinger Kierkegaard’s International Reception, Tome III: The Near East, East, Near III: The International Reception, Tome Kierkegaard’s I, p. 131, p. 132. 131, p. I, p. SKS) ( Søren Kierkegaard, Kierkegaard, Søren

I, p. 200. I, p. I, p. 109. I, p. 118. I, p. CUP II, 37. p. II, 214. p. II, 295. p. CUP CUP CUP EO EO EO , trans. by Howard V. Hong & Edna H. Hong (New Jersey: & Edna Princeton H. Hong Hong V. , trans. by Howard 齐景公问政于孔子，孔子对曰：君君、臣臣、父父、子 The Spirit of MedievalSpirit Philosophy The of Types of TheologyTypes Human Freedom and Social Order: An Essay in Christian An Essay Order: and Social Philosophy Freedom Human 12.11: “ , vol. 4, p. 199. , vol. 4, p. ” , vol. 4, p. 44; , vol. 4, p. 183; , vol., 7, p. , vol. 7, p. 105; , vol. 7, p. 114; , vol. 7, p. , vol.3, p.205; , vol.3, p.279; , vol. 7, p. 123, p. 124; 123, p. , vol. 7, p. Kierkegaard, 41; Søren , vol. 2, p. , vol. 4, p. 253. , vol. 4, p. SKS Matthew 16:26. Matthew Here I refer to H. L. Martensen’s comments on the century nineteenth H. as I refer “ to L. Martensen’s Here Gilson, 101. p. Frei, W. Hans Etienne Gilson, Gilson, 35. p. Wild, John On thehistory Qi, “TheChinese of the Chinese till reception 2005, cf. Wang of Kierkegaard introduktion En rammende til “Geniets Lynnedslag: Søren Cappelørn, Jørgen Niels Yale University Press, 1992), p. 20. University Press, 1992), p. Yale Skrifter Kierkegaards Søren the English version, In 215–217. pp. the Danish word “ University Press 1959). SKS Analects 子。 SKS SKS SKS SKS SKS SKS (CUP) Fragments University Press, 1992), SKS (New Jersey: Princeton University Press,Hong 1987), However, I prefer to use I prefer to “meaning”. However, Martensen writes he is by referring “system” that not only in the philosophical and scientific sense, but also in the religious, poetical, political, and even industrial andcommercial senses. Cf. SKS & Ward, 1936). & Ward, Reception of Kierkegaard”, in in Reception of Kierkegaard”, Asia, Americasthe and Australia 103–23. 2009), pp. a 10-volumed preface Chinese to edition of Kierkegaard”, Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives 17 18 19 20 13 14 15 16 11 12 9 10 6 7 8 3 4 5 1 2

AAH CASS

The Confucian Virtue of Ren in Social Relationships

Wang Keping 王柯平 CHINESE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

ocial philosophy corresponds to its moral and political counterparts in terms Sof the theoretical speculations concerned. It is internally associated with social ethics when conceived as the ontology of the social world or organisation. This is especially so when it involves inquiry into two particular domains: social interaction and social aggregation among human individuals.

According to Philip Pettit, the forms of social interaction and aggregation are neither purely physical nor non-social. They “require the people involved to have certain intentional attitudes” instead.1 In social life, as the non-atomists believe, social dependence governs the ability of an individual to reason and think. This ability is not just to have beliefs and desires, but to act with a view to having rational beliefs and desires. Accordingly, these beliefs and desires are there to shape “certain intentional attitudes”. In turn, such attitudes will have both direct and indirect impact upon social interaction and aggregation, and upon social practices and relationships. Here I agree mostly with the non-atomists on this point: individual human beings depend on social relationships for the appearance of any distinctive human capacities. If this is true, it could be claimed that each human being will come properly into his or her own simply through the experience of social relationships, and at the same time foster self-consciousness of personal cultivation in an ethical sense for the sake of adjusting social relationships to a positive and healthy extent.

As regards the ontology of the social world, I would like to reflect upon it from the perspective of Confucianism. In my opinion, the essential part of the ontology of the social world consists in human individuals not merely as social members, but also as moral beings. The intrinsic logic therein can be perceived as follows: the ontology of the social organisation considers how the organisational structure, institution and administration come into existence and function in an effective mode, and at the

Learning from the Other: Australian and Chinese Perspectives on Philosophy 35 36 the confucian virtue of ren in social relationships  wang keping of the superior personality orgentleman ( personality superior of the of virtue the by undergirded relationships human ofsound absence inthe objectives predicted its to secure fail likely most it will promoted, and designed is world social ofthe institution and structure organisational ofthe that matter no system the well conviction how Confucian the evidences Such connection adialectical forth. so and benevolence love,reciprocal universal of virtue Confucian ofthe exercise consistent and cultivation personal the on chiefly relies course of retained. This treated, constructively and properly formed, practically, areharmoniously that human relationships provided to work designed be could world social ofthe administration and frameworks institutional structure, organisational the In words, other ruled. properly and cultivated arewell long they as so world social the administrating and in organising aredecisive members social as that human individuals fact ofthe mainly because is stability. social as harmony well as social This procuring and human relationships, inreconciling role Wade-Gilesin the plays of romanisation) animportant system this domain. this in effectiveness ofpossible determinate cause most the what is itexamines time, same some food for thought in respect to social philosophy, by drawing from the resources philosophy, to social resources the drawing thought from by in respect for food some my by motivated intention to supply Incidentally, partly to dois what Iamtrying ethicalperspective. from an significance of virtue the today.of life conventional the of meanings It to merely rediscover intended not is context inthe creation transformational to its enhance ideal ofhuman perfection moral the and members; among social humane sensibility to nurture compassion social ofhuman relationships; to reconciliation the facilitate benevolence reciprocal of virtue Confucian ofthe implications moral and social into attempts to look the discussion This Platonic ofthe citizen type. virtuous the of virtue ofthe cultivation and exercise that appropriate the itoftenbelieves inprinciple, dimensions religious and moral ofpolitical, trinity Moreover, treatment ofhumanin the relationships. a features Confucianism as essentially management lies its and ofhuman therefore beings, composed is world social that the conviction the tend to embrace because Confucians is This praxis. in and intheory both obscure vague and rather be could relationships social and human relationships between distinction the inConfucianism such, aggregation. As social as well as interaction social harmonise and awhole as structure social the to stabilise serve then will This effect. maintainand to best human their relationships to reconcile capable person most the is virtue ofperfect embodiment highest the as ( human relationships” of acme the sage “the is According to tradition, Confucian the rites. prescribed culturalconventions whichare behind or onhuman affection, latterthe based is orenactedlaws, whicharelegal whilst behind codes contract, onasocial based is former The sense. inaConfucian human and relationships sense in amodern relationships social between distinction general the is here noteworthy is What ren from a sociological perspective, but also to reconsider its extended extended its to reconsider butalso perspective, asociological from ren shengren zhe, zhi renlun zhi shengren with particular reference to its three aspects as follows: follows: as tothreeaspects its reference particular with Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences junzi ren , which is considered to be the kernel to kernel the be considered , whichis ), who in some ways is analogous with with ways analogous insome is ), who

ye ), which implies that sage the ), whichimplies ren ren (also spelt as as spelt (also qua humaneness, quahumaneness, jen

 the confucian virtue of ren in social relationships wang keping 37 is ren ), Zhong yong Zhong ( ) on the right side. 二

er originated from the

仁 ren zhe ren ye, qin qin wei ye, zhe ren ren ren The Doctrine of the Mean The Mean Doctrinethe of as the Cause of Reciprocal Benevolence Ren ) on the left side, and the graph ( for “two” 人

ren I maintain that the and ethical religious that I maintain dimensions in this case could be ). Righteousness is the accordance of actions with is what right, and the 2 got by means of the ruler’s own character. That charactergot That to bybe means ownis of thecultivated ruler’s character. And of morality the Dao is by the cultivated of morality. by means of the Dao virtue of benevolence. Benevolence is the characteristic element of humanity, and the great exercise of it is in loving relatives ( historical records [written the of wood tablets and on] bamboos. Let there be the men and the government will flourish; but without the men, their government and ceases. decays the right With men the growth of government is rapid, is just of vegetation as rapid that on the earth…. Therefore the administration of government lies be proper men in getting are to men. Such The government of the ancient Emperors Wen and Wu is displayed in theWu is displayed Wen and The government of the ancientEmperors great exercise The degree of the love decreases of it is in honoring the worthy. in accord with the distance ranging from the close the remote relatives, to and the intensity of the honor reduces in accord with the discrepancy da Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives Subsequently, this primarySubsequently, accepted was meaning and developed by Confucius followers.(551–479 BC) and his later In government, asked about one of the Confucian classics, State when the Lord of Lu Confucius replied: It is therefore of as thought a kindIt least and of humane at reciprocal act engages that two individuals. human a virtue Such could occur nowhere if there were only a single individualhuman with no social interaction. This the case, being the concept of rendered as humanenessoften and benevolenceto its due characteristic involvement relationshipsof human or social interaction. The Virtue of Etymologicallyspeaking, the Confucian virtue of primordial form of a Chinese pictograph. component parts Its consist of the graph for ( “human” social ideals, unity consultative settlement of in affectioncivil and rationality, disputes is hoped all these that and the It like. elements will the blend construction into of anda modern thus open path of future up a unique political democracy, and legal or elsewheredevelopment village”. in China in this “global from is goal this, also my proposed partly distinction inspired by Li Zehou’s between andethical religious preoccupations critical through inheritance and transformational creation. utilised serve to socio-political purposes, provided they can be transformed creatively the individualinto pursuit life, of of the the meaning modern and into form of China’s political systems and legal with an emphasis relationships, on human group dynamics, of Chinese philosophy. An alternative perspective from a non-Western heritage may heritage An may perspective alternative of Chinese philosophy. from a non-Western contemporary investigating to track move lead us off the in regard help to beaten to social issues. it is though not solicit an easy Even or fruitful to agreeable any matter solutions, least it would at help us employ for a new reconsideration, angle and deploy a fresh perspective Apart for reflection of in the realm social philosophy. 38 the confucian virtue of ren in social relationships  wang keping of universal love comes into being through a progressive process, during which it is whichitis during process, into being through lovecomes aprogressive of universal affection. Naturally, mode than kinship-constrained the loverather this universal Noticeably, to “outflow of action mode a inlove denotes to all” proposed the it demands an insightful cognition of human affection qua the fountainhead of qua the all ofhuman affection cognition aninsightful it demands quality. complete and to inclusive its the way Thus, of attainingperforming and of virtue that the signifies interpretation ( heart-mind” ofthe virtue the ofloveand principle “the of Song inthe Dynasty, virtue the thinker ofNeo-Confucianism interpreted men”, all of“loving intentional to extension this Owing Xi(1130–1200),a leading Zhu over. world the and country the across to people the all considerateness ofall-embracing form inthe eventually and fellow-citizens, and neighbors friends, to ofhuman-heartedness form thirdinthe relatives, other and sisters, brothers, the to fraternal affection of form inthe second parents, to the piety offilial form in the For forms. butinter-connected exemplified invaried first embodied instance, itis Confucius’ advice given to young given people: advice Confucius’ in re-emphasised ideais asimilar to alike. humanextended all beings Elsewhere of virtue ofthe definition of For virtue. ofthis aspects key instance, Fan some stress Chi virtue about asked the would occasions, Confucius different on disciples different itwith discussing When In good. common the pursue inorderto orderand of life retain social to walks all ofrites system the applying by than substituted rather assisted practically ofanentire state.the administration for is sufficient it Hence, butnot primary is love that kinship-based fact the demonstrates changeof such development and The process forth. so and norms social laws, codes, institutions, as moral established that are ofrites that system stand the for ofpropriety, regularities regularities the worthy. to less the to itcomes apt when reduce Under arise there circumstances such is worthy—it the ofhonoring case the with Similarly to ones. remote relatives more close from extended itis when It to decrease inclined cases. is inmost authentic and is natural loveoraffection kinship-based This inparticular. members family and ingeneral relatives stemsfrom loving virtue humanity”. ofthis practice basic The the ofstate.What underlines affairs the inconducting wise and upright be that will they cultivated to arerequiredto according men well the be These having inadministration. by men proper achieved the is government Good ren The AnalectsThe Dao , Confucius replied, “Itto men.” loveall replied, is , Confucius principles of propriety areproduced ofpropriety principles worthy. to less the worthy more the from thatranging the Itreason this for is things, he should learn more about the old texts. old about the more learn should he things, ren qin in loveto ( all trustworthy. He and honest outflow should abroad. He prudent, be should when elders to the respectful and A youth home, filialwhen at be should of morality is the virtue of benevolence, “the characteristic element of element characteristic “the ofbenevolence, virtue the is ofmorality ). When he has time and opportunity after the performance of these ofthese afterperformance the opportunity and hastime he ). When ( Lunyu fan aizhong ), the virtue of virtue ), the Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences ren . Here, longer no but confined to relatives, loveis ), and makes friends with the human-hearted ( human-hearted the with makes friends ), and ren ren is discussed more than any other virtue. than more any virtue. other discussed is . 3 is taken as the virtue of all virtues due virtues ofall taken virtue the is as 4 Apparently, this is the most concise Apparently, concise most the is this 5 Dao ai zhi li, xin zhi de zhi xin li, ai zhi or truth of morality such such ofmorality ortruth ). This ). This er er ren as as  the confucian virtue of ren in social relationships wang keping 39

ren

and zhong , they are ti zhong , ti, xiao as benevolent and ren According to Chinese to According 6 xiao a principle of fraternal

is ti ) with the historical to regard the superior or man jun zi, qing ben ti This “affectionate root” my mind to This is 7 serves unifies asall a thread that his moral calls for the boundless pursuit of extension. ren ren ) in the Chinese mentality and ideology with a constant as explored and explicated by Confucius himself over 100 times ren is a principle of filial pietyto parents, and qingli jiegou xiao . in terms of humaneness, reciprocal benevolence, universal love and the like. In my observation, my In “the doctrine of the Master” is inferred be the doctrine to 8 shu ”. ren Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives on to assert,on to “the doctrine is be true to of the Master the principles to of shu of the virtue of emphasis on the affection education of human keystoneas the of social structure. the Confucian virtue thought In of it beginsNotwithstanding that with family-centered it is constraints its at stage, initial example, when Confucius Shen, once Zeng told scope. larger a much extended For to one of his his that students, doctrine is went of an all-pervading Zeng “that unity”, ontology of humankind and of public ethics. functional both as a psychological organism and a moralorganism, for it involves not simply feeling, emotion and but also sensibility, understanding, cognition ends it up with Hence, Li Zehou what calls the “affective-rational and rationality. ( formation” gentleman, Youzi, a disciple of Confucius, generalised his observationsgentleman, Youzi, as follows: “The superiorman bends to what That being hisis established, attention fundamental. all practical courses existence of human will piety Filial and emerge. fraternal submission are the root of all benevolent they?” actions, aren’t customs, ponderings, and chiefly consistsat least in four principles including and Then, do these what principlesto actuallyWith regard mean? considered be two to principles cardinal the virtue to related of actions. When the talking about character of the to “learnto more the about old food texts” contain for that andthought the moral of historicalteachings records. this could be wonderAt point the what specificsConfucian one may of the virtue of Confucius, to theAccording virtue of human values in one values sense,human cultivation and constant a of reciprocal benevolence for of the small instead “I” in the otherthe of bigthe sake sense. “We” As for Confucius’ friendsadvice I think it means the in context to “make to with the human-hearted”, work as an auxiliary force accelerate and push to forward the progressive process described This above. function goes along with the subsequent recommendation culturally. It provides a solid It basis for the developmentculturally. of love in a much broader to all” nor “loving“outflow in love all neither the to say, That is sense of sociality. could be possiblemen” without the family affection as its necessary foundation. As a consequence, Li Zehou considers family affectionto be most elementary it in that serves root” mould a type to ( of “affectionate submission elder brothers. to up the root Theymake of the most cardinal virtue of as benevolent actions or humane because they are characteristic of loving relatives, the growththus to leading of family affection grounded in the blood or lineage clan system. Empirically speaking, this family and humanised affection is bornnaturally, 40 the confucian virtue of ren in social relationships  wang keping it would be made up of three to five generations and therefore form a network of network a form therefore made and it wouldbe upofthreeto five generations clan, for ofthe size to largethe as as be used past inthe outthat family the pointing ( to state the “regulateis govern and rightly” family the inConfucianism leading ofthe ideals one amatter offact, As important. equally and interrelated state areclosely the family the and tradition, Chinese inthe Renowned state the for family. inthe to and life the to service the reciprocity altruistic as of Noticeably, principle ofthe application the expanded hereby Confucius populace. among general the life insecular operation easy,rather than difficult with regardits than practical, to rather spiritual in that itis believers religious by It ofimperative akind as to adopted direction. tends be a sacred advocated and in outlook to Christian the attributed is rule” golden “the In contrast, world. secular inthe life indaily It to exercised be is performativeness. and usefulness ethicalness, by characterised chiefly whichis ofConfucianism, reasoning pragmatic inthe deep-set is Bible. reciprocity inthe Yet, ofaltruistic prescribed principle the to rule” golden “the inessence identical It orless more encounters. social appears to applied reciprocity ofaltruistic oraprinciple ofmutualout to concern akind be your family”. youwhen with together live youstate. when the for areat work resentment no Have against anyone grudge no Have to done yourself. wish you as wouldnot doto others not “Do Zhonggong: it to others”. do donot want you to to done donot be yourself, statement: “What following the of to principle the With respect jargon. incontemporary expressed might be as orstakeholders, stance beneficiaries towards all win-win the to nurture tendency zhong Taking of interaction. awareness ofsocial principle the context, into the account themselves”. develop others lets also seeks himself to develop inwishing who and themselves, establish others let to seeks also himself, to establish inwishing “who, someone by performed conduct and human products in essence and dependent upon human action in the main. inthe human upon action dependent and inessence human products state the and family are the both because spheres, legalsocial moral, and affective, ( cultivation ofpersonal foundation the largely upon depends rightly state the governing and family ofregulating the enterprise whole the standpoint, according to the Confucian stateNevertheless, conflict. wereplunged and into chaos the and family the whenever life. Such impossible wouldbe alife peaceful happy and liable be to a live will people then and governed, to well be likely statethe most is regulated, well is ifeachfamily According to beliefs, Confucian administration. and organisation ofsocial units basic its as families that comprises of alarge community kinship. Inreality, orclose instable affinity members somethingkeep all the is state and well to regulate family the It easy means inter-relationships. no by complex is as such is commonly acknowledged to rely on two paramount principles of principles paramount to ontwo rely acknowledged commonly is such as The doctrine classics. ofConfucian to corpus the ascribed texts and discourses other in The AnalectsThe shu could be seen as that of mutual thoughtfulness or considerateness owing to its owing orconsiderateness that as ofmutual seen be thoughtfulness could . As regards the principle of principle the regards . As 10 Elsewhere Confucius reconfirmed a similar idea when talking with ideawhen similar talking a reconfirmed Confucius Elsewhere proper, not to speak of his frequent reconsideration ofitinmany reconsideration frequent proper, to speakofhis not Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences 9 This code of conduct evidences a strong and thoughtful astrong thoughtful and evidences conduct of code This shu , Confucius asserted that it is exemplified in exemplified that itis asserted , Confucius zhong 11 , it is often identified with the code of the with often identified , itis Accordingly, of principle the qi jia zhi guo qi jiazhi ). xiu shen xiu 12 It is worth It worth is shu shu zhong turns turns ) in

 the confucian virtue of ren in social relationships wang keping 41

) 14 ren ). In order ). In and qin qing , ) As noted 16 ”. jing ), the enduring ren ). All this seems ) and his constant ne gang ) as the excellent guo tai min an as reciprocal benevolence involves the involves application with other virtues, and ren ren works in a threefold mode ren is comprehensive in its ren qi jia zhi guo he weigui ) in daily life, to remain ) in daily life, remain to ), that of mutual thoughtfulness of mutual ), that ren , what has he to do with has he to , what the rites , what has he to do with has he to , what music?” ren gong ren ) and the modest ( xiao ti mu ) are near to the virtue) are near to of ) to the extent that he the believed extent that ) to firmly a state ). It follows of the virtue the). It attainment that ne ) when helping others. if a man Even li yue ), serious work ethic and ( attentive zhong zhong ) when copingto be and with affairs on duty, gong jing ), the simple ( yi , Confucius recommended, as the Source of Social Compassion ren ), and the modest ( 15 ) somewhat parallel “the golden rule” to but exercised in the daily Ren mu shu . : “If be a man without the virtue of ), the enduing ( ), the enduing I would conclude that the I would conclude Confucian virtue that of ren ren 13 ) directed to the) directed win-win to strategy of social interaction, of reciprocal and that It is to have a sedate attitude and conduct attitude a sedate ( is have to It serious ( and attentive strictly sincere and honest ( rude go among to happens and tribes, uncultivated these qualities are not to be neglected. gang is preconditioned with the nourishment and exercise of such virtues as the aim for eventually?”This is teleologicalostensibly a query requires that a ), the simple ( ren ren yi zhong sincere and honest performance ( of firm ( Soon after thisSoon after advice,Confucius to add,continued “The firm ( ( from the depictions, above the virtue the approach to of of three moralcodes daily life to and social services, a codes include having that and conduct attitude sedate ( virtue of Furthermore, Confucius compared the often virtue of asked him how Chi example, when Fan the it was mostregarded complete of all. For the virtue attain to of and power of both rites and music ( could be governed well and kept in order with the appropriate employment of rites he denounced the practiceand music. However, of rites and music without the virtue of of propriety? be a man without If the virtue of All this shows the exercise that of rites and music needs a moral foundation in the composition and function. On several other occasions, Confucius himself treated he instance, treasured the culture as the most fundamental and complete virtue. For Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives The Virtue of As evidenced in the previous section, the virtue of based filial on piety and reverencefraternal ( ( benevolence ( life of the secular world. quality”, and humaneness is motivated and championed harmonise to relationships, human This goal is often describedand also stability facilitate social to order, in and harmony. in peace andterms the of “keeping people ( thestate ease” at achieveto this goal, the Confucian virtue ultimate of comprising principles: three inter-linked the principle of family affection ( At thisAt point, there arises the following question: “What does the Confucian virtue of teleological judgment.Confucius’ Thus, judging from preoccupation of with the ideal the family well” ( and governing“regulating the state emphasis on “the supreme importance ( of harmony 42 the confucian virtue of ren in social relationships  wang keping and continuous cultivation on the part ofhuman beings. part onthe cultivation continuous and pursuit ofpersistent aprocess itsuggests true, Ifis this virtues. standard other all for up set to that me Confucius the man of humaneness will be so courageous that he will lay down his life inorder lay life his down that will courageous he so be will manthe ofhumaneness ofhumaneness”. virtue their to preserve lives their even sacrifice will They ofhumaneness. virtue their ofinjuring at expense live the seek to not will the man ofhumaneness scholar and determined “The to Confucius, According become? could may manOne the ofhumaneness courageous how wonder humaneness”. tosure have man hascourage may courage, butthe who always man not the of be is “The manof humaneness saying, his in by Confucius is affirmed nature. This of virtue the to Xi’s Zhu reference with preceding passage. inthe cited Moreover, interpretation of virtue ofthe qualities essential ofthe knowledge the bears that ofwisdom virtue ofthe prerequisite the what without itcanbe become cannot of virtue the Second, himself. before ofothers thinks he because disinterested as His state designated be could interest. such as ofmind personal his beyond even worries and with anxieties filled man be could superior the awhole, as about the concerns Yet, gains, and among fame others. external and cares social to his itcomes when relatingexpectations and to concerns selfish to his with respect be true could This of virtue ofthe possession dueto his anxieties from to free be supposed man is superior the First, case. to inthis to referred be points more In aretwo there addition, life. ofhis atsacrifice the even them to ready confront is he because challenges, and hardships difficulties, fear of from free man courage of keeps real. The virtue and true what is knows he because illusions, and appearances about phenomenal perplexities from free man keeps wisdom of virtue The wants. and desires such beyond goes he because disgrace, and gain, honor about fame, anxieties from free courage.man and More keeps ofhumaneness specifically,wisdom virtue the man”, i.e., humaneness, way the ofthreecardinal interms virtues, threefold that is way of“the superior ofthe short Here that fell he to hesitate again confess not did he orteachings to others. advice presenting when self-improvement for opportunity He ofevery to make most had tendency the the progression. and cultivation moral his regarding usual as remained modest Confucius above quotation, inthe observed is As zhi of virtue the are They agenda. outstanding onhis virtues threeofthe I find involved. In interlocutors the ofthis, spite with inaccord occasions ondiverse them emphasised and virtues of diversity a offered Confucius because query toanswer this no easy is There with? mainly concerned is Confucius virtues key arethe What and that and of he is free from fear. from free is he ( wisdom ( ofhumaneness virtue equal With the not butIam to it. is threefold, man The waysuperior ofthe ren 18 yong zhi accommodates the virtue of virtue the accommodates ), he is free from perplexities. With the virtue ofcourage( With virtue the perplexities. from free is ), he , as emphasised in the following account: following inthe emphasised , as status quo Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences 17 ren ren of the country and the living conditions of the populace populace ofthe conditions living the and country ofthe as the most perfect virtue. It ideal the as deployed virtue. is perfect most the as ), he is free from anxieties. With the virtue of With virtue the anxieties. from free is ), he yong as courage because of its inclusive inclusive ofits courage because as 19 This expresses the view thatview the expresses This ren . This is justified is justified . This ren as humaneness humaneness as yong ren , that of ), ren .  the confucian virtue of ren in social relationships wang keping 43 ). ), the zhi yi as a moral And second, 20 ren ), and the of feeling li ). These four kinds of zhi is in a way like moral is dedication of in a way ren ); that of shame and of shame dislike,); that the virtue of ren ); that of reverence); that and respect, the virtue of propriety yi 21 as the most fundamental and perfect virtue therefore paid of all. He together with other virtues a psychological through investigation ren ren ); and that of approving); and that and disapproving, the virtue of wisdom ( li lose them”. righteousness ( ( Benevolence, righteousness, and wisdom, propriety, are not infused us into are certainly furnishedfrom without. is with We simply them. from of It want Hencereflection. it you and is said: “Seek Neglect youwill and find them. will what iswhat not good, powers. the their cannot blame natural to be The imputed of compassionfeeling [commiseration] all belongs men; so to does of that andshame dislike; of reverence and that and respect; of approving and that and disapproving. The of compassionfeeling implies [is the capacity for] the virtue of benevolence ( From the feelings proper it, to it is for the practice constituted From is of what good.If men do Thisnature is good. human that I mean in saying is what ), the and of shame feeling dislike the virtue into of righteousness ( ren Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives the of approving feeling and disapproving is essential men because to it is the beginning these of wisdom four have kinds or knowledge. Men of feeling just as they knowledge is of what good, just and right. Elsewhere, reasserted Mencius the feeling of compassion that is essential men to because it is the beginning of benevolence, the and of shame feeling dislike is essential men because to it is the beginning of righteousness, the of modesty feeling and complaisance is essential men because to it is and the beginning of propriety, virtues. For instance, the of compassion instance, feeling the virtuevirtues. turns into of benevolence For ( of reverencefeeling and respect the virtue into of propriety ( approving and disapproving the virtue into of wisdom ( correspondfeeling the four to kinds of virtue are determined that by the judgment or According to Mencius, human beings have feelings, which motivate them to take feelings, take which motivate them to beings human have Mencius, to According is good, nature and soactions. is heart-mind. the Human human This the case, being beingshuman will proper proper feelings, actions and accordingly take have for the practice is self-cultivation is through of what good. It into feelings that can change the virtue of and heart-mind. nature human into The most of influential his formulations reads as follows: imperative. It is in this aspectimperative. It the virtue that of a religious kind, even it is though directed moral at ideals and the secular goods. is widelyIt recognised BC) succeeded (372?–289 Mencius Confucius that in championing affection human considerable to attention and moral conduct,also and reflected upon to accomplishto his virtue of humaneness. resolution His and integrity are suchthat threats. All by external or fatal he cannot temptations this be swayed is at due to least two reasons: major first, he holds the conviction exercise the brave that of “the virtue brings glory him, and the to opposite of it brings disgrace”. he cherishes the spirit of martyrdom and acts upon the virtue of 44 the confucian virtue of ren in social relationships  wang keping deemed human. be entitled to not who havesimply are ofthem none Those have limbs. four their contrast, Socrates seemed to be skeptical about it and hankered about itand after to skeptical it through be seemed his Socrates contrast, love. In universal and benevolence ofreciprocal standpoint the from commitment social and ethical choice ofappropriate means pathby right ontheir to decide people above. He mentioned conventional inthe advised rites therefore was present that it assured about itand however, to appeared certain Confucius, be good. and was similar, right sought what that is Socrates and regard, is, whatin this Confucius Noticeably institutions. political and norms, social ofconduct, of propriety, codes ceremonies that the as weredeployed Xia, ofthe Shang rites dynasties Zhou, and threeancient inthe adopted to means rites the restore “to toSecond, return rites” the or self-control. temperance It inaway involved Greekwhat is the inegoism. is like intended discipline to inthat and itis control self-denial religious as same the not is one’sexpectations. to ”means curb It orselfish ambitions feelings, one’s desires, self “tosubdue ofcontextual to reflection. Here makeFirst, inview ofpoints areacouple men: all loving and benevolence ofreciprocal interms becoming virtuous the way of articulating itoutwhen pointed had already because Confucius is This granted. for as thoughheit outcome took virtuous beginning to the affective the from Yet, intermediate virtues. key overthe four transition the to skipped he me, itseems of ground affective the Mencius reconfirmed Confucius, predecessor his with As like. the and famine natural wars, calamities, fatal ofgrave diseases, accidents, victims innocent to applied the itis when one’s benevolence with accord orvirtuous conscience good It outin acted to orunknown. is one matter no areknown in need they whether to others help actions involving spontaneous sense, inanactive performativeness and ofwarm-heartedness butalso sense, inapassive pity and sympathy by characterised than private. Moreover, rather social only not essentially itis is of compassion In situations. placedin similar humanswhen feeling ofall alike the aword, reactions inthe observable itis because applicable universally and interactive socially as construed itcanbe unknown, person to directed another and accident unexpected an by aroused feelingis this Because orcommiseration. feeling ofcompassion the aevent. such ofgaining remaining areputation for by adislike unmoved from nor friends, and neighbors oftheir may onwhichthey praise the aground seek as nor parents, may onwhichthey ground as a favorso, gain the not feel child’s ofthe will They afeelingofalarmordistress. experience will they exception without intofall awell, about to achild sees suddenly If example. someone following the with immediacy its Mencius illustrated to feeling ofcompassion, the reference With particular instead other, offrom it? isn’t of virtue the ascribe sky the under all will to returns rites, and the dayone himself subdues To of one’s subdue virtue the is to return rites and the self 22 All this exemplifies the moral instinctiveness and unselfishness of unselfishness and instinctiveness moral the exemplifies this All ren to him. Hence the practice of the virtue is from a man himself aman himself from is virtue ofthe to Hence him. practice the Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences 23 aretē

sōphrosunē ren . If aman for , virtue of , virtue  the confucian virtue of ren in social relationships wang keping 45 with and ren or soul. 25 akrasia psychē ) self-cultivationof junzi . Notwithstanding this, the two Accordingly, in both moral cultivation and social Accordingly, 24 orthen paideia as the most paramount of all virtues features an affectionate-cum-rational ren Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives upgraded society-oriented to reasonableness in terms of reciprocal benevolence and universal love. with desires natural and feelings alike, develops affection into human or love through in termsculture of rites, merges with reasonableness modification through and adjustment in accord with relationships, human the virtue and turns into of the help of moral and social awareness commitment. As a result, the Confucian virtue of structure because it is rooted in family-based affectionateness and kinship love, and in fact optimistic good. and considered Plato be innately it to nature, human about pessimisticwas it, about and therefore examined it with a focus on its other weaknesses the passions to related and desires of the tripartite When it comes the process to of self-cultivation, the Confucian line also of thought counterpart.diverged from its Platonic That is, the former assumes it commences that guidance by principle. this something seem share domain, Confucius to In and Plato determinism. of educational both thein common extent that to of them were in favor They held the men beliefcould that become virtuous or good as theyso long were exposed correct to education or thinkers differ appear to Confuciuswidely in their conceptionwas nature. of human can help us escape “blinded being dualism by a mind-matter or by of the dualistic way dividing with the half world, of the along reality the denial the of ‘mental’ ”. to self transitionThird, the intermediate from the prerequisite one’s of subduing of the virtuethe attainment implies a process of self-cultivation via the revival of the rites and This the conduct process of propriety. calls for correct education and sticks monism, to distinguishes whereas Platonism and thus clings mind from body, as well, one Graham of the and A.C. dualism.to Herbert to Fingarette According of studying Confuciusadvantages in particular is get off the routinised to contrast between mind and body as compartments inner and outer of oneself. This is simply the factdue to Confucius that treats mind and body it as an inseparable Hence, whole. Confucianism became preoccupied with the highest form of achievement of which as isman man in the visible capable is world. or material Platonism concerned with divine becoming humans god-like as becoming in terms of man man in both the visible world and the invisible one. interaction, Confucianism no makes distinction and thus between mind and body, in the living or secular both world whereas alone, Socrates pursuedand Plato it in example,the secular the two world overshadowed Chinese by the divine world. For thinkers ( associated it with the superior or noble man’s Greek whilecounterparts their a refined personality, it linked thewith suitable utility of divine reason as a special giftEventually, given to humankind.by god dialectic did not reason. ignore the practical He and values popular definitions of the virtues,conventional but questioned them critically from epistemological positions. This is becausewas firmlyhe convinced realthat knowledge would necessarily to lead goodness and justice. addition, Confucius bothIn and Mencius expounded the development of the virtues 46 the confucian virtue of ren in social relationships  wang keping applied to supervising the passionate and appetitive parts of the soul. With respect With respect soul. ofthe parts appetitive and passionate the toapplied supervising fully be training should moral and reason whichdivine education)(correct during Thus the Platonic virtue of the Thus virtue Platonic or to legalcodes job,the suffice todo it oughtresort not to If does soul. the this within components other ofthe incorporation rational onthe harmony that focuses psychic of to according model the to best Platonic at its work itshould psychology, moral Plato, by contrast, holds that the process of self-cultivation depends on depends ofself-cultivation that process the Plato, holds contrast, by come to regard Confucius as a guide to a moral philosophy with an emphasis on the onthe anemphasis with to philosophy amoral aguide to as come regard Confucius throughout discovered canbe in general time”. and space “a inpubic as inactions operating force virtue directed the to conceive me of reminds of Fingarette’sThis virtue onthe observation Schwartz: Benjamin by I. comment of sense to Withmoralised the reference virtues. ofthe comprehensive and fundamental It ingeneral. nature by humaneness most loveand the is universal benevolence, Taken of virtue Confucian the insum, of Transformational Virtue ofthe Creation respectively, Greek and Chinese ofthe peoples. ofconduct, codes the and thinking as and in Chinese too little”. of“neverterms never too much, as is renowned principle The mean”, golden of“the principle similar stems the in from in eachcase understood that measurement the inPlatonism. It alarge coincidence rather passions” is spirited as the as well desires “the appetitive and in affection” Confucianism emotive “the toafter needed look is ofmeasurement that akind to is noted be point important An insightfully. and sanely through philosophy learning orgod-likeness refinement to sublimated ofdivine be to is level the Platonic virtue oflegal Ultimately, guidance education. and persuasion by consolidated time, same at the and soul, ofthe constituents other as desires and overpassions reason practical of leadership inthe grounded is structure The structure. arational-cum-legal features ren nomoi when translated as “perfect virtue” by Legge, it is worth quoting the following following the quoting worth itis Legge, by virtue” translated when “perfect as 27 in all the encounters of social life—which is emphasised is life—which ofsocial encounters the in all of side this thought itis thathumanity. inmuchlater acknowledged be Chinese It nevertheless must and love,benevolence, as whichhas ledto term ofthe translation the aspect the capacity to perform the the to perform capacity the and virtues social the all embraces also certainly it Thus virtues. separate the all embracing awhole itexists—is which—where of human excellence It anattainment individual. ofthe to life is moral applied the as good the ideaof Socrates’ as ultimately as mysterious even and broad as something Latin the from virtue of to evolution Here, the ofaparallel something wouldsee one An intended An for the sake of reinforcing the educational project and character formation. formation. character and educational sake the the project ofreinforcing for mesos philopraxis in Greek. Curiously, inGreek. along all ways the ithasunderlain of Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences dikaiosunē vir jen . What it seems to encompass in Confucius is is inConfucius to encompass itseems . What of the virtue of virtue ofthe [ li ren [rites] in the proper spirit. It is this social It social this is spirit. proper inthe [rites] ]—its capacity to make the individual act well well act to make individual the capacity ]—its as justice that is comprehensive of all virtues virtues ofall comprehensive that is justice as ren The AnalectsThe could be seen as that of reciprocal that as ofreciprocal seen be could ren in particular and of other virtues virtues ofother and inparticular . This leads leads . This Fingarette to Ren . ren 26 . I think he is right right is . Ithinkhe virtus orthen paideia orthen and and zhongyong

 the confucian virtue of ren in social relationships wang keping 47

28 The have nowadays? I suppose nowadays? it lies have as examined this through discussion. ren ren In his opinion, In as far as I could see, “to 29 ). in Confucianism is proposed of human as an ideal ren zuo ren zuo is relevant more and than helpful owing its to trait . The to thisothers attain might virtue a than no longer ren ren Hui’s successive praxis of the virtue Hui’s “for three months a time” at 30 . Evidence of this is embodied in Confucius’ appreciation of Yan Hui’s Hui’s of this. Evidence is embodied in Confucius’ appreciation of Yan ren is become ( to human as part of the virtue of Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives shu it is not the cultivation to simply of a refined related of altruistic For reciprocity. but also as a traditionalpersonality, source can be taken out of which a form of social individual can do humans ethics can be developed to say, That foris modern society. can be facilitated by means of both trans-historical reconsideration is of what right or good one in more heritage cultural than during different phases of human evolution and transcultural synthesis of rule all the among positiveby virtue with rule by law, and share. systems create to happen value we humans that and healthy respectWith the dilution to relationships, of human for the instance, principle of image, and alsoimage, reflect to of the images others for a double check. This mirror to be is contrived metaphorically from the virtue of can be acquired by means of sincere self-cultivationIt in the spirit of consistency it is mind, however, presumed my undergo the to process of and perseverance. To creative transformation with reference modern to society and its issues. This process in the rediscovery of the virtue the problematic circumstances against of life we are circumstances become relationships under which human have confronted with today, increasingly competition, keen diluted or thinner constant due to disturbing anxiety, stress, tense ambiance, others. among and self-defensive Therefore, mentality, each modern needs human use, to as it were, a mirror look his at to or her reflected continuously over a sustained period a long time, much less all the time. We can draw continuously can draw over a sustained period time, a long much lessall the time. We the following inference from tentative the account: above in this habituation context bears moral consciousness a strong resembles and that Hegel’s both Aristotle’s conceptions of habituation. What relevance does the Confucian virtue of connotes span of time a long in one sense, and demonstrates a spiritual and behavioral in thehabituation other sense, act enables to him that upon a habituation the virtue striking In contrast, othershabitually and spontaneously. could act according to is a month or a moment. not difficult It for a personthe virtue to do the for a day, right fromtime thing time, to but it is difficult to do the for him or her thing right form indicatesprocess a perfection of human exercise the constant according to of the virtue of whose heart Hui behavior: “Such was for three months a time at would not go off course from the virtue of or a month”. day Above all, the I think virtue of perfection, is be that approached an ideal to and accomplished via a boundless pursuit read for to or consistent instance, practice. Qian Mu, to According Analects is achieve to become the highest human” form as a man man. This being of highest performative function and its of language interdependence with social convention. is this he says would like add that I what just virtue to part Hereby of the is story. Yet, also a self-conscious force and operating in private space and time within the family and performed it is inward be cultivated to outward both on Moreover, proper. private andpublic occasions. 48 the confucian virtue of ren in social relationships  wang keping 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 Li, 6 Confucius, 5 Confucius, 3 22 21 20 Mencius, 19 18 17 16 15 14 living a life ofequality, alife complaisance. living and mutual care,reverence independence, canenjoy they where environment asocial creating thus contract, that ofsocial with ethics ofsocial part as reciprocity ofaltruistic to integrate principle the utmost their 4 2 1 sense. teleological inits to ahealthy ofhuman ensure relationships development minimum morality have than more also and something sense, instrumental inits contract of social implementation any effective to supervise than more legalsomething prescription For scopes. to two drawn the force be from have weshould a complementary alone. It contract orsocial However, demands ethics social oneither rely itcannot awareness to highlyneeded renovatesocial human the ameliorate condition. and of into akind transformed best at its itcanbe successful, is If integration this The of Works Mencius The of Works Mencius House, 1995),3:4. The Analects. Confucian The Analects Confucian The Analects Confucian The Analects Confucian The Analects Confucian The Analects Confucian The Analects Confucian 1995), p. 1. The Great Learning The Analects Confucian The Analects Confucian The Analects Confucian The Analects Confucian accuracy. sakefor the of original to the with reference Chinese modifications to necessary are subject 1995), 12:22. The Analects Confucian House, 1995),p. 41,mod. 1998),p. Press, 8. Education 1995), p. 832. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy James trans., Legge Li Zehou, Li Zehou, Lunyu du jin The of Works Mencius Lunyu du jin The Analects Confucian The Analects Confucian , pp. 18–20. ¶ ( The Doctrine of the Doctrine MeanThe Da xue , 3:6. , 11:6. Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences , 14:4. , 14:28. , 13:27. , 13:19. , 3:3. , 1:12. , 12:2. 15:24. 6:30. , 4:15. (A Present-day Reading of (A ( , 15:9. Lunyu ), trans. by James by ), trans. (Changsha: Legge Hunan House, Publishing ), trans. By), trans. James (Changsha: Legge Hunan House, Publishing ( Meng zi , 1:2. Englishversion the from citations subsequent All , 1:6,mod. , ed. by Ted, ed.by Press, University Oxford Honderich (Oxford: ), trans. by James by ), trans. (Changsha: Legge Hunan Publishing ( Zhong yong The Analects Confucian ) (Changsha: Hunan Publishing ) (Hefei: Anhui Anhui ) (Hefei:  the confucian virtue of ren in social relationships wang keping 49 vol. , p. 23. , p. , 792d, 897b, 902b, etc. 902b, , 792d, 897b, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Mass.: (Cambridge, Philosophy East and West, East Philosophy Disputers Tao of the Laws (New York: Harper and Row, 1972), p. 55. 1972), p. Harper and Row, (New York: Disputers of the Tao: Philosophical Argument Philosophical in Disputers Tao: of the , 176a–177a; , 176a–177a; p. vii. p. also See Graham, Theaetetus , 6:7. , 12:1. The World of Thought in Ancient inChina Ancient of Thought World The Confucius: The Secular as Sacred , 499c–500d; , 499c–500d; , p. 9. , p. (Illinois: Open Court, 26–27. 1989), pp. The Secular as Sacred, The Republic Lunyu jindu Lunyu Benjamin I.Benjamin Schwartz, Herbert Fingarette, Herbert Fingarette, “Response in Professor to Herbert Rosemont”, Fingarette, The Confucian Analects The University 75–76. Press, 1985), pp. The Confucian Analects The also 4 (1978), 512. See Graham, 28, no. A. C. Ancient China Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives 30 26 27 28 Fingarette, 29 Li, 23 24 Plato, 25

AAH CASS

Human Chauvinism and Divine Reason (大人类主义及神聖的理性)

Norva Y. S. Lo 勞若詩 LA TROBE UNIVERSITY

1. Human Chauvinism, God and Reason

any people believe in the superiority of the human species above all other Mspecies on Earth. Human chauvinism (大人类主义) can be referred to as the view that human beings possess far greater intrinsic worth and rights than other creatures, where these human-chauvinistic rights are meant to entitle and permit human beings to consume and exploit nature at the expense of other species. Historian Lynn White has argued that the human-chauvinist sense of superiority and entitlement is deeply rooted in some core Abrahamic and Judeo-Christian teachings.1 For example, the thesis that humans are uniquely made in “the image of God” and, subsequently, the thesis that humans are authorised and blessed to “rule over” and “subdue” the other species are given in the Genesis 1:27–28:

God said “Let Us make man in Our image, according to Our likeness; and let them rule over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the sky and over the cattle and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps on the earth”. God created man in His own image, in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them. God blessed them; and God said unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it.

The belief that human beings are uniquely made in “the image of God” is usually accompanied by the further belief that God has a special love for human beings—a love far greater than his love for the rest of his creations—which then justifies human dominion over other species. An important premise in this religious argument for human chauvinism is a God-based value theory (以上帝为本的价值论), which takes God’s love, blessing, approval, or grace as the ultimate source and foundation of objective value. The God-based value theory maintains that something is worthy if and only if God loves it. The theory can be refined by adding to both the analysans

Learning from the Other: Australian and Chinese Perspectives on Philosophy 51 52 human chauvinism and divine reason (大人类主义及神聖的理性)  norva y. s. lo (勞若詩) 大人类主义论证 or “unconditionally”. (meaning “non-instrumentally”) as “intrinsically” such qualifiers, analysandum and God loves it. In short, the the In it. loves short, God equivalently, Or good. ifitis only ifand if only ifand something good is something loves God In good. words, loveanything not other that not is does and good that is everything abeing wouldbe who, loves things, God among other anall-good then part, good” “lovethe onthe If to and focus good. dothe to wejust good, lovethe also but good, the to just know not To is out, all-good. has pointed Aristotle as good, be that namely ofbeing properties, ofGod’sappealing to another divine supposedly Secondly, ideathat the God’s by explicable ofvalue is measure absolute the loveis universe. inthe entities physical do as objectively as status, that ontological oftheir exist interm valuescould seems it then universe, physical inthe ofentities creation the as metaphysicalsame kind ofthe anevent If ofvaluesis them. creation the createloving by valuesinthings also could he existence, their willing by universe hascreated physical God inthe things as that just argue could one then ofbeing all-powerful, property divine his and of God to all-powerful the be supposed creator the is God to child, the authority apowerful ahumanthat is parent while course isof God and ahuman parent on humans?between difference The main Christian orstanding So to why child. the agreater wouldthe worth attributing for foundation anobjective not attitude itself—is by siblings—this other overthe child that and parent’s the the subjective, merely is entitlement attitude ofprivileging We siblings. and his thinkthat child’s the wouldquite rightly ofsuperiority sense than rights hasmore and worthy more that is he asense child inthe inculcates this and siblings, than more his achild loves aparent Supposed needed. is explanation But further loves. he things some onthe worth objective bestow somehow could alet 1989).Perhaps way, inasimilar ultimate to God—the parent everything— R. S. 1967; Isberg, (Coopersmith for them love parents’ by their on orconfirmed as dependent have worth own their sense often that told us children psychologists Two value ofthought theory. may God-based Firstly, lines the explain child of domination”). oflatter interests overthe (“logic take higher priority former the interests of worthy, intrinsically that such the less arethe who to dominate those P1. G2. value theory). (God-based X more/less G1. humanchauvinism for God-based argument God’s supposedly greater love for humans bestow greater objective worth worth God’s greater humans greater objective bestow lovefor supposedly

Those and only those who are more intrinsically worthy are entitled are entitled worthy more intrinsically are who those only and Those God intrinsically loves human beings far more than more nonhuman beings. far human beings loves intrinsically God loves intrinsically ifGod only ifand worthy intrinsically more/less X is ) can be summarised as follows. as summarised ) canbe 2 4 Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences God-based argument for humanchauvinism God-based argument

authority of everything! So if one grants the existence existence the So grants if one of everything! authority 3 ( 以上帝为本的 Judeo-  human chauvinism and divine reason (大人类主义及神聖的理性) norva y. s. lo (勞若詩) 53 (1.1), rationalist thesis of rationalist Gospel of John Gospel ), according to which which ), according to . […] we Christians must be very 大理性主义 ( , and that, because of this, is also open reason reason Underlying Aristotle’s outlook on value and outlook on value Aristotle’s Underlying 5 ), which says that human beings human are essentially that ), which says 6 . reason chauvinismreason rational , Bk. 8). 1, Ch. 理性主义人性覌 Politics ( Human beings are far more intrinsicallyHuman worthy than, and are entitled

From the beginning, ChristianityFrom has understood itself as the religion of the as the religion according to “Logos”, careful faithful remain this to to comes live fundamental line: a faith that to from creativefrom the “Logos”, is all that to truly HC. far higher interests beings, nonhuman human such take that dominate, to priority interests over nonhuman chauvinism, (human from G1, G2 and P1). Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives Suppose God who the is creator “Logos” Benedict is interprets indeed, XVI as Pope Then the thesis God of made in the image are humans will that it, reason”. “creative in effect resemble humans mean that theyto the God are that This extent rational. the moremeans rational a person that is, the more God-like the person is! While with God, and the Logos was God”. The term “Logos” in Greek can mean “reason”, term The with“Logos”“reason”, God, and the LogosGreek can mean in God”. was it isalthough not the of the on only term. meaning and elaborating Interpreting became Pope who later Joseph Ratzinger, the thesis Cardinal God is that “Logos”, Benedict XVI, said in a 2005 lecture: Aristotle’s proposal reason that is theAristotle’s essence species of the human fits perfectly with the Christian of God and in the are uniquely image made humans belief that fathers’ Church viewmany God is that Reason. God The idea that is Reason, or that rationality can find issome support a divine quality, from the the beginning the “In was Logos,for example, that which states and the Logos was It is not surprisingIt Aristotle that loved by was the fathers. Christian Church Recall the Judeo-Christian of God”— in “the are uniquely image made belief humans that of its put a token has divine the creator that self each and everyone into human of species, setting not humans only part from, but also all above, other species. What is the with divine shared has and none humans other quality the of his Creator that it is but all the rest a quality lack. all and have that only humans Clearly, creations? moral standing ismoral standing a form of is a supreme meritreason, or rationality, gives that those who possess it far a greater intrinsic worth and standing, and entitles rights, far greater them to those than who it.lack human nature human nature rational animals, whose essence) the common human humanity (i.e., is rationality. also held chauvinistic the human allHe things has made specifically view “nature that ismerely things in nature of nonhuman the value and that for of man” the sake instrumental ( the object of God’s greater love—that it more greater worthy make other than speciesthe object of God’s on Earth? the Throughout history the faculty of westernis of reason,philosophy, or rationality, the quality most put forward often putsas the onenot that humans apart only from but also all above other species. Aristotle, for example, held the Is human chauvinism human Is a justifiable position to the idea of a appealwithoutsupernatural Doescreator? some species the human qualities—other have supposedly than being 54 human chauvinism and divine reason (大人类主义及神聖的理性)  norva y. s. lo (勞若詩) 主义论证 a as re-branded and re-casted canbe human chauvinism for argument God-based original whole the rationality”), “Reason” of replacement with the by (or “perfect “God” Thus, love it. would beings rational ifperfectly only ifand good maintains is that something theory value Reason-based rationalist or the value. Put simplest, objective atof genuine its reliable more person’sthe the anindicator wouldbe love(or orcommitment) desire, is, rationalperson that a rational,more and the not are who from those differently to) wouldlove(or arerational orcommit who desire, thatthings those is idea here of the Middle Ages’ exclusive trust in God and the Church’s the and inGod trust onall exclusive Middleof the Ages’ authority sole to how about and what live. to Thatradical reversal believe a was oneself for decisions to make inaposition and autonomous, is one every eachand to reason, capacity the socially. to possess To supposed human being is that extent every the eachand and politically both effect had ademocratising also inhuman faith rationality cast, way to nation states. that emerging The ofthe Enlightenment’snew, rather re- or Church Christian gave ofthe power political whichthe during era, towards anew step was adecisive of“God” replacement the “Reason” by science and politics, the called is Age of also Enlightenment The ofReason”,“Age philosophy, inart, where hence the term “Reason” with acapital “R”. with “Reason” term the hence rationality, inits intheir rationality is God areimperfect human beings has put it, “rational commitment” is the foundation ofvalue. foundation the “rational is commitment” has putit, ofvalue. “rational foundation idea, the same desire” is value. Michael as Or ultimate the ofobjective foundation Smithis very hasputthe theory a as which wehave earlier, orre-branded recast be seen now could value theory, God-based the Reason, that is God Under perspective theological the to dominate, that take such human nonhuman beings, interests higher far HC. of domination”). oflatter interests overthe (“logic take higher priority former the interests of intrinsically, worthy that such the less arethe who to dominate those P1. ofhuman nature). thesis rationalist R3. rationalism). (frommoral rational areless who those R2. value theory). (Reason-based Xmore/less loves R1. humanchauvinism for Reason-based argument and P1). R1,R2,R3 from (human chauvinism, overnonhuman interests priority ( 理性主义价值伦

).

Human than (from rational more nonhuman beings arefar beings than more rational aremore who those loves intrinsically Reason intrinsically ifReason only ifand worthy intrinsically more/less X is Those and only those who are more worthy intrinsically are entitled areentitled intrinsically more worthy are who those only and Those Human beings are far more intrinsically worthy than, and are entitled areentitled and than, worthy Human intrinsically more arefar beings Reason-based argument for humanchauvinism Reason-based argument Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences ), whichsays that Reason’s God’s love(rather like love) 7 Or as Christine Korsgaard Korsgaard Christine as Or 8 The central rationalist rationalist central The ( 以理性为本的大人类 Reason-based value perfect form—  human chauvinism and divine reason (大人类主义及神聖的理性) norva y. s. lo (勞若詩) 55 worth or dignity, the violation worth of which or dignity, equal Indeed, the God-based theory Indeed, value we have that 9 X is more/less intrinsically worthy if and only if God intrinsically loves God intrinsically loves all beings human and equally. X is more/less intrinsically worthy if and only if Reason intrinsically Reason intrinsically loves those who are more rational more than beingsSome human some are more rational than other beings human Those and only those who are more worthy intrinsically are entitled All beings human are equally and being no intrinsically human worthy,

human egalitarianism human instead. R4. (empirical fact). R1. loves X more/less (Reason-based theory). value R2. those who are less rational (from moral rationalism). Reason-based argumentReason-based human egalitarianism against equal priorityequal egalitarianism, (human from G1, G3 and P1). to dominate thoseto dominate who are the less the suchthat worthy intrinsically, interests of the former priority higher take (“logic over the interests of latter of domination”). HE. anotheris being, human dominate entitled to interests all human in that take G1. X more/less (God-based theory). value G3. P1. God-based argument for human egalitarianism Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives Replacing “God” by “Reason” in the argument will not do. For not by “Reason” all beingsReplacing human “God” in the argument will For not do. fact,are equally rational. In such a substitution will result in a Reason-based argument against The idea of absolute equal human worth is the foundation of the United Nations’ absoluteThe of idea worth human equal United is the of thefoundation the (1948). Without religious Rights” faith in God’s Declaration“Universal of Human love for can theequal all, idea of absolute however, worth human equal be justified? the Judeo-Christian religions. seen features above as an important premise in the argument worth, for human equal which can be summarised as follows. 2. Human Egalitarianism, God and Reason Western liberal democracy is thepointed backbone often out that of is the It belief beings all human are bornthat with an is absolute an crime. This belief, it also is argued, often has its theoretical origin in matters. The periodalso to revolutionary openedway the scientific technological and developments subsequently were to that bring benefits unimagined material to but alsohumans, radical destruction witnessed as we have nature nonhuman to since Reason, has turned out that no less It God, than vastly the middle century. last of privileges over all humans the other species. 56 human chauvinism and divine reason (大人类主义及神聖的理性)  norva y. s. lo (勞若詩) philosophy and theology. Firstly, like God who is supposed to be all-good, the moral moral the theology. and Firstly, to all-good, be philosophy supposed is who God like moral to inChristian that ofGod parallel played conception the by theories moral rationalist in role functional plays a ofReason conception rationalist The inus. motivations rational generating by to us act moving capable of faculty apractical also is In reason addition, outprobabilities. working and maintaining for consistency, logical beliefs, false from true distinguishing for capacity anintellectual just For beings. rational not is (at reason as partly) least rationalist, the due to ourconstitution less, then rather rationally more to us act causing functions, capable other of,among inus its afaculty is rationalists, the by understood as Reason, 3. Functionalbetween Parallels “God”and“Reason” onEarth. species other ofthe expense toward behaviours and atthe unjustified to otherwise employ pardon conveniently whichpeople inhabitants, ofnature other its and humanthe exploitation of rationalisation butaself-serving nothing is human chauvinism for variants, other its or argument, have that Reason-based the argued philosophers 1970ssome Since the onEarth. species other of the members to areentitled dominate exploit and human ofthe species which members under human chauvinism, for argument to that Reason-based parallel ofthe exactly structure hasalogical ofhuman beings, groups other some dominate exploit and to areentitled ofhuman beings groups whichsome under elitism, for argument Reason-based The ofelitism. Instead form toegalitarianism. anabhorrent itleads to human support no gives account Reason-based the Unlike account, God-based the temperaments, orany factors. contingent temperaments, other needs, desires, oftheir that to regardless are applicable human all beings, duties capable moral ofgenerating inthat itis to universal takes be Reason rationalist moral beings. arerational they as far inso human beings, for motivation ofmoral source and internal infallible and to an be takes Reason rationalist moral the to all-powerful, be supposed is who God judgements. moral at true arrive and evil, and good moral between alone that reasoning candistinguish human and beings reasoning via that itis maintainsrationalist The concerned. is morality as far as to all-knowing be Reason good. is lovewhat only wouldloveand inthat Reason to all-good takes be Reason rationalist interests of the former take higher priority over the interests oflatter interests overthe (“logic take higher priority former the interests of intrinsically, worthy that such the less arethe who to dominate those P1. human beings (rejection of human egalitarianism, from R1, R2 and R4). R1,R2and from ofhuman egalitarianism, (rejection human beings other ofsome interests overthe take human beings some higher priority of that such interests human to the beings, entitled dominate, other some ~HE. of domination”). 11 Secondly, like God who is supposed all-knowing, the moral rationalist takes rationalist moral the all-knowing, Secondly, supposed is who God like

Some human beings are more intrinsically worthy than, and are and than, worthy intrinsically aremore Some human beings Those and only those who are more worthy intrinsically are entitled areentitled intrinsically more worthy are who those only and Those 10 Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences 13 Finally, like God who is supposed to be all-present, the the Finally, to all-present, be supposed is who God like 14 12 Thirdly, like  human chauvinism and divine reason (大人类主义及神聖的理性) norva y. s. lo (勞若詩) 57 (Durham: Acumen, , 155 (1967), 1203–7. Science ¶ (London: Routledge, 1993). (Blackwell: 1994). (Blackwell: Understanding EnvironmentalUnderstanding Philosophy , ed. by Jeff Malpas and Norelle LickissMalpas and , ed. bySpringer, Jeff (Dordrecht: reasoning. Feminism and the Mastery and the of Nature Feminism The Moral Problem Moral The , trans. by E. Barker (Oxford:, trans. by Oxford E. Barker University Press, Andrew 1948). See a priori Real people, however, seem often not to be motivated to do what they people, seem Real to do what notto be often however, motivated Politics 15 The Idea of Human Dignity of Idea The Joseph Ratzinger, “Cardinal Ratzinger On Europe’s Crisis of Culture”, 2005, available at: at: 2005, available Crisis of Culture”, On Ratzinger Europe’s “Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, A. Smith, Michael See Val Plumwood, Plumwood, Val See Lynne White, “TheHistoricalLynne Roots of Our Crisis”, Ecological “Two Conceptions S. Lo, of Dignity: andSelf-determination”, Honour Andrew and Y. Brennan S. Lo, Andrew and Y. Brennan , emphasis added. Brennan and Y. S. Lo, “Environmental Ethics”, in E. N. Zalta (ed.), Stanford Encyclopedia of Stanford (ed.), Zalta in E. N. “Environmental S. Lo, Ethics”, and Y. Brennan at: available University, spring Stanford Research edition, Lab, 2015, Metaphysics Philosophy, . in 43–58. 2007), pp. 2010). Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives 6 7 4 5 Aristotle, 1 2 3 postulates on Reason, which appears to share many of God’s divine properties.postulates as on Reason, of God’s which appears Just many share to God cannot be defined or analysed existence, into neither can Reason be defined or partanalysed a constituting being into nature. of human all-knowing, all-powerful, and all-present, in so far as morality is may concerned. It not be true the much of rationalist that moral philosophy since is the Enlightenment parity By functionallya failed to attempt of reasoning, with replace “God” “Reason”. there ishowever, a prima facie case least at for those who sceptical are already be likewise God the of to magical theabout postulate sceptical the about rationalist from groundless the old religious ideal. to attachments all-embracing conceptionThe moral of rationalist’s many as contains “Reason” problems and risks of us regard which many as the original religious notion of “God”, as a fictionUnder the to rationalist be true. toomagical simply account, Reasonhas very and powers. talents many Like its predecessor, Reason be all-loving, to is taken Rejecting source the idea of God the ultimate being of moralstandards, the project provokeEnlightenment a subsequent to was existential crisis value of human and purpose. moral while on making decisions, humans, intent If were illuminated by a divine spark of Godly Reason, this a reassuring was safeguard of moral certainty the at same time it is But and objectivity. a failure set to beings human completely free judge to be morallyjudge to required of them. Whenpeople are not motivated by their moral judgements, is simply that a failure rationality, due to of their rational capacities? Is as the rationalists believe, really resource the main combat beings in human to selfishness, and waste, greed, other human Thisvices? to question be a seems not answerable by Contemporary formsKantian of moral rationalism usually adopt some notion of For example,attributing to reasonreason or rationalityabove the analysis. fitting the second andthird features described rationalist above, moral internalism classifies people as irrational if theylack motivationto act to their moral according judgements. 58 human chauvinism and divine reason (大人类主义及神聖的理性)  norva y. s. lo (勞若詩) 10 9 15 14 13 Smith, 12 11 Korsgaard, 8 Supplementary VolumeSupplementary 63(1989),89–111. Virtue Plumwood, forEthics Nature: ofEnvironmental ATheory Lo, “Is HumeLo, “Is Inconsistent?” of Theories MichaelValue”, Smith, “Dispositional A. Y.S.Norva Hume Lo, “Is Inconsistent? Motivation Morals”, and in See Peter Singer, Brennan Lo, 2007. and Christine M. Korsgaard, Korsgaard, M. Christine , ed. by Charles R. Pigden York: (New Charles, ed.by R. Palgrave 2009),pp. Macmillan, 57–79. Moral Problem Normativity Femininism Animal LiberationAnimal . Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences . ; Brennan Lo, Y.S. and The Sources of Normativity The Sources of Normativity (New York: (New House, 1975);Paul Random Taylor, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); Press, University Princeton (Princeton: Understanding Environmental Philosophy Understanding Environmental (Cambridge University Press, 1996). (Cambridge Press, University Proceedings Society ofAristotelian Hume onMotivation and Respect , . AAH CASS

Ways of Doing Cross-Cultural Philosophy

Koji Tanaka THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

n 1971, Antony Flew wrote:

I Philosophy, as the word is understood here, is concerned first, last and all the time with argument. It is, incidentally, because most of what is labelled Eastern philosophy is not so concerned—rather than any reason of European parochialism—that this book draws no materials from any source east of Suez.1

This passage appears in Flew’sIntroduction to Western Philosophy. As the title suggests, this book is about Western philosophy. Given that this is the topic of his inquiry, there is perhaps no reason why he should venture into what is often labelled “Eastern philosophy”.2 However, rather than simply claiming that a study of Eastern philosophy is beyond the scope of his concern and leaving it at that, Flew assumed that philosophers “east of Suez” are not concerned with argument and took this assumption to license himself to disregard it.

Anyone who has even a slight knowledge of the history of Eastern philosophy, especially the philosophies that have developed in China and India, including Buddhist philosophy, would find Flew’s characterisation of Eastern philosophy amusing (to put it mildly). In China and India, debates have been a cornerstone of intellectual and socio-political activity. Indeed some Buddhist traditions still use debate as part of education to this day. Philosophical literature sprang out of highly detailed examinations of the techniques and methodologies of debate and argumentation. For instance, Indian Nyāya literature contains analyses of correct reasoning, Buddhist pramāṇavāda tradition investigates perception and inference as means to acquire knowledge, and the Chinese Mohist canon includes a study of correct judgements. Numerous texts can be cited which demonstrate that

Learning from the Other: Australian and Chinese Perspectives on Philosophy 59 60 ways of doing cross-cultural philosophy  koji tanaka variables that stand for any propositions. Contemporary logicians take the forms such such take forms the logicians Contemporary that stand any for variables propositions. arguments and rational reasoning. rational and arguments about theorisation literature inChina ofrigorous India and philosophical full is of argument: of argument: form propositional the with concerned “look”. should is reasoning logic Proposition or ways the that arguments with aconcern arethought ofas concepts logical to say is and that logic conception way this One to oflogic. articulate conception formal onthe based is largely literaturecontemporary The onlogic Western Logic Formal philosophy. Western ofcontemporary part as materials non- to how and use philosophy to how docross-cultural study ofshowing a case as serve will about logic dialogue ofcross-cultural My possibility ofthe examination Western and Eastern between dialogue logicians. across-cultural tohow undertake oflogic lack entail the development ofthe not does logic offormal that lack the development However, ofthe argue East. the Iwill in logic formal of no development is, indeed, that show there first In paper, this Iwill East. the of taken hasbeen tradition no to this that is imply there see, wewill As East. of development no is often theidea unifiedin there that This is principles. ofthe properties and features the inorderto examine principles those have they and formalised instances not particular from argumentation and reasoning of principles have abstracted not Itthem. claimed that philosophers Eastern is that employ arguments particular the from apart ofargument modes these underlying investigations principles areno ofthe there yet, ethics; and reality knowledge, inelaborating nature putto onthe hasbeen use oflanguage, argumentation scholars, According to these reasoning. rational and argumentation that underly principles the examine onand to reflect failed have inquiry, they nevertheless philosophical of to have topics traditions important Eastern as taken argumentation and debates West. inthe achieved of studying no tradition speaking, havescholars is, strictly claimed that some there That said, dishonest. days, to intellectually be considered these is, line along Flew’s philosophy ofEastern Dismissal passage). problematic the Flew penned itwas already available available widely now when (infact, is philosophy of Eastern “east traditions ofSuez”. philosophical various the representation accurate Amore ofIndia, even alone let philosophies the represents among philosophers—hardly butalso ofNew bookstores Age among customers the just not common still which is view However, philosophy—a ofEastern problematic. as argumentation view this and rational thinking identified and experience perceptual purely non-conceptual, time. at his that ofIndian was popular philosophy reconstruction onacertain Flewby was based assumed philosophy ofEastern saidthat be understanding itshould the In fairness, 4 logic This reconstruction emphasised the possibility and importance of importance and possibility the emphasised reconstruction This A

⊃ in the East, or if there is, that it fails to match the sophistication to match that sophistication the itfails is, orifthere East, inthe

B , A 5 That is, it is claimed that even though philosophers of the ofthe is claimedphilosophers even though that is, it That so so Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences B , where , where 3 ⊃ is a conditional and and aconditional is tout court . I will use this point to show point this use . Iwill A and and formal B are propositional arepropositional logic in the inthe logic logic in  ways of doing cross-cultural philosophy koji tanaka 61

B , , A ∀ and , B ∃

) where ⊃

12 P A , is often (necessity □ B everything is no matter so not 9 7 A , B

⊃ (thus

More specificallyabout More ? Not necessarily. We can We necessarily. ? Not P 11 A (everything is P stand for. Predicate logic is Predicate for. stand xPx B ∀ is not b By separating By formal analysis (as a proper The name). (as focus of 10 ) so and a P A ) but However, we do not findEastern in However, P 8 (again, the exact identity (again, of these objects b as valid because as valid if we assume that and 6 a . For instance, the form: instance, . For (something is xPx (as a predicate) and a predicate) (as ∃ P , (thus something is P ∀ , is ∃ a , ⊃ as the the object question propositions and of what delegate of study B must also be true, what no matter so B A , stand for as stand irrelevant. the of Theyways investigate separating systematic B . Does assumption that guarantee everything that is

B P ⊃

(and variables)? (and What expressible power would it give if we added a A and are true, , ). So many logicians consider many ). So this form of argument be invalid. to is a predicate. To elaborate on this form, elaborate it what assume matter something that (no To is a predicate. argumentation that have been advanced by Eastern logiciansargumentation have should that be taken seriously despite the fact they that did not develop a formal account of logic. I will also argue the Eastern logic that traditions important can make contributions to a mistake to think of them as engaging with of logic. think of them as a study engaging to a mistake “[‘Buddhisthas Garfield thisto say: logic’]Buddhist “logic”, never reaches a level of sophistication would lead us in the that it seriously modern take world to as a sophisticated account of reasoning or of consequence in general”. relations we can resistI think that these conclusions. The accounts of reasoning and Because of formal of the lack logic, some there is scholars think that been led to have “Technically, claims, Hansen instance, no tradition of studying logic in the East. For semantic had theoryclassical China but no logic”. of argument from of cognitive the investigation process and identifying cognitive process as and the Buddhist focus philosophers, of Indian Siderits argues it is that the answer is no. Many Chinese and Indian philosophers Chinese and Indian variousthe answer investigated is Many no. have features of argument and rational reasoning. texts formal analyses of arguments and rational reasoning as articulated nor above validitydo we find definitions of terms in of the form of argumentsthan rathertheir contents. Thus, there is no development of formal logic in theEast. inquiry for contemporary instance: logic concerns of such For languages. the nature What sentences are expressible consisting, in a language for only of instance, P What the language? operator) to forms (formal) language? in what come valid out we find studies of argument and questionsCan like theseEastern in material? I think The formal conceptionhas led contemporary logiciansto focus on the propertiesof formal express languages that the forms of argument. of focusing on the forms Instead of argument and reasoning expressed languages such as English or Chinese in natural or Sanskrit, they are concerned with consist the languages that of such terms as propositions),(as P Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives is) is imagine a situation with two objects is irrelevant) where what propositions A and B stand for A and B stand what propositions considered not (though by everyone) A concerned with quantifiersIt in arguments. andis predicates involved concerned with such forms of argument as: P as A those forms argument of should be considered that “valid” from those are that forms are those where the truth of the premises Valid appears (what before “invalid”. guarantees the truth“so”) of the conclusion appears (what after ‘”so”) 62 ways of doing cross-cultural philosophy  koji tanaka constrains the methodology for studying the relevant Eastern literature. Eastern relevant the studying for methodology the constrains Western inthe conception to that offormal note dominance the literature logic literature. to explaining logic how Before doso, however, Ihave contemporary the geometric system. For system. inawaygeometric that Frege, ofconcepts 1)ananalysis requires this ofthe to consistency the (assuming that this) canshow one system number of his consistency from the inference for the ajustification us owes He that Hilbert argued is numbers. about other the whereas figures about geometric is One system. a number by from thatexpressed different is system ageometric by that thought the expressed Against Frege claims are Hilbert, about. principles be whatto logical scaffolding this took Hilbert scaffolding. consistent share same the systems long two the as so consistent is ofnumbers that asystem showing by to consistent be shown can be anywithout material attached. ofgeometry system ascaffolding just that a followed It as conceived is system aformal where tosystem aformal of view, pertains consistency instantiatedbe mugs”. beer and anything by including “tables, chairs that can structure to formal the pertains to there. end seems For consistency Hilbert, however, concept, fundamental logical this Their about agreement concept. a logical consistency. logic—about modern in mainthe figures Frege of debate between Hilbert—two and 20thcentury Consider early the follows. as conceived be could material ofengaging onlogic Eastern alternative method An with PhilosophyCross-Cultural ofLogic methodology. literature, Eastern toadifferent wewouldneed employ relevant material inthe alegitimate investigation oflogic to conduct that ifwewish lack the oflogic entails that logic lack the offormal inference the accept also and East inthe develop not did that study the oflogic accept Western the by logicians. as areunable thus, to recognised and, be forms various expressing language formalised to pertain in Eastern texts expressed concepts no because This is ground. offthe get even cannot principles oflogical theorisation philosopher’s ofinvestigating Eastern method comparative literature, this logic in contemporary dominant the paradigm provides oflogic conception however, formal the and texts, Eastern inthe found be cannot forms ontheir based If ofarguments examination one already has. concepts the differences—with and equivalences them—finding comparing by “foreign” the concepts can grasp or philosophers Eastern ofby made use concepts the to understand Western inthe concepts wishes and certain tradition with already familiar is if one assumption: methodological following onthe based terms incomparative traditions ofdifferent philosophies ofthe anunderstanding It that wecanachieve assumes and Eastern between differences concepts. and equivalences Western seeks method Acomparative philosophers. 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 ways of doing cross-cultural philosophy koji tanaka 63 The fact they that do not address 19 without the assumption logic that logic Indian (and Buddhist) philosophers (and Indian answer them by 18 concepts they or that do not study Nor has anyone after Hilbert after logic that demonstrated has anyone is exclusively Nor formal. 17 logical Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives drawing on and advancing arguments from both Eastern and Western philosophical on and arguments advancing drawing fromboth Eastern and Western traditions.“cross-cultural” Thisapproachmakes the part of cross-cultural philosophy it is philosophy. do that redundant. to One say might own distinct perspectives, we can develop original solutions contemporary to issues based on the conceptual resources found in Eastern traditions. This is like fusion cuisine by the enjoyed cosmopolitan cuisine citizens of the world. Fusion is not simply a juxtaposition of two or more cuisines but is genuinely novel fare that we can facilitate drawsnew ideas on different by culinaryIn a way, traditions.similar philosophers address logical questions, we can develop a new Eastern approach to on logic.material Rather comparing than the ideas expressed by Eastern philosophers logicians know logic, about Eastern treat logicwith we can instead Western what texts as sources of inspiration for a new perspective on contemporary philosophical issues. dialogue with In those Eastern texts which address logical issues from their analysing the ways in which we acquire in which knowledge.analysing the ways these questions from a formal perspective does not they imply that do not engage with is exclusively formal. fact, the different to perspectives attention In if we pay Easternfrom which They are concerned with such questions as: followsWhat from what? countsWhat as good reason? When is reasoning warranted? They your do not address these questions from a formal perspective. Chinese philosophers Instead, address these questions as part the cognitive of investigating processes of distinguishing similar from dissimilar kinds of things. analysis of argument is a sign of the development of the lack of logic without begging the question counts what of logic. about as a study thisIf is right, of formal the lack analyses of arguments and reasoning of and the lack formal logic do not of logic the entail lack philosophers as such. Chinese and Indian logical issuesinvestigate concerning good and bad argumentation and reasoning. might suggest so. However, Hilbert was ultimately silent about why Frege was was Hilbert silent Frege ultimately was why about suggest However, might so. wrong. fact,In it is an open question whethernot or logical principles—the principles that underlie rational reasoning and argumentation—must be understood the according to lack of Thus, theformal we cannot that claim literature. formal conception in Western and not only with the scaffolding can be that filledways. different and many in used thus was arguing the formal that conception,it is that least at in the way Frege articulated is above, not all there is theof logic. field to the formal think that conception to wrong should alone not define the field Frege Was of logic? The influenceHilbert-style of the approach in the 20th and 21st centuries brings out the complexity the in contentsof the individual involved terms appearing in the system, and a demonstration 2) of the reducibility one of set of concepts and The consistency another. into relations of a set of thoughts hinges not only on the scaffoldingalso but on the of thecontents concepts in the involved set and relations logical principles Frege, are concerned with the contents of conceptsof thoughts. For 64 ways of doing cross-cultural philosophy  koji tanaka overcome the difficulty of accounting for accounting of the difficulty overcome to partly developed was oflogic conception formal The itself. ofreasoning act the from separate be must orirrational standard rational the as what for counts mayof reasoning ofassessment, qualify. to object the reasoning be inorderfor But, acts some that as astudyrationality of conceived is study alogical because This is times. modern in discredited been has oflogic conception psychologistic The neglected as a result of uncritically embracing the current, dominant Western current, the embracing ofuncritically aresult as neglected that have oflogic been that alternative conceptions wecanuncover possibility to approach philosophy, a is there cross-cultural new If this wewereto adopt 4 3 2 1 cultural perspective. across- from conducted is reasoning logical and studysuch a ofargumentation Western It that of logic. time is conception contemporary the critically to examine them use and traditions logic Eastern various ofthe analysis comprehensible and Western inthe trained have tradition attempted logical athorough to undertake No on non-Western logicians analternative conception. to propose resources No argumentation. and hasdrawn one reasoning rational that determine logic of conceptions examination ofthe investigations intocontemporary a specific Very tradition- and have attempts few historical made been to integrate these of logic. history literature the of body Western thatexamines extensive is an There categories. analytical its enrich and inquiry oflogical importantly, more horizon the but, expand logic Chinese Western literature.contemporary that dominates oflogic conception challenge wecanthen formal the conception, alternative Based things. onthis dissimilar from similar in whichwediscriminate study onthe way ofthe based reason good as ofwhat counts alternative conception however, an wecandevelop fieldoflogic, the outside falls making discrimination Instead of or irrational. that investigation process ofconceding Chinese ofthe the rational is reasoning the whether tellus not through does goes in whicha reasoner psychologistic. as investigationdescribed canbe logical their of discrimination, act onthe focus ofthe Because orthat. this ofdiscriminating process cognitive the view. For investigation from logical separate donot logicians instance, Chinese (Cambridge: 2006),pp. Cambridge Press, 131–32. University 1–3). (pp. ofChina outside India. and traditions that philosophical areno suggest there not butIdo interest, ofmy research because tradition) India philosophical (including Buddhist in that haveChina and traditions flourished philosophical drawn the areall from my examples that mention convenient label. the also Ishould itis to and paper use this for us concern not do within each tradition). differences even However, (and traditions those different between differences respectively. ignores outdated The philosophy” “Eastern label philosophers” “Eastern and philosophy” “Eastern region ofthis philosophers and West” philosophies call and See John Clayton, See Tom Argumentation”, Tillemans, Buddhist “Introduction: For sake the “east ofconvenience, to Irefer region the to “the ofSuez” incontrast East” “the by Anthony Flew, Introduction to Western Philosophy Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays Cross-Cultural in andGods: Reasons Religions, Philosophy ofReligion ¶ Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences 21 This will not only contribute studyto the of contribute only not will This rational (London: Thames & 1971), Thames p. 36. Hudson, (London: reasoning because the process process the because reasoning Argumentation 22(2008),1–14 20

 ways of doing cross-cultural philosophy koji tanaka 65

31 8 (1979), Scripture, Indian Logic: A Indian , ed. by The Stanford Stanford The Davidson’s Philosophy Philosophy Davidson’s The Discovery of Philosophical and Philosophical Science in and Civilization , ed. by Jonardon Ganeri , ed. by Jonardon (Boston: Wisdom (London: 1998); Routledge, , ed. by Shoryo Katsura and Journal of Indian Philosophy Journal of Indian Journal of Philosophical LogicJournal of Philosophical , PhD Dissertation,, PhD University of Pittsburgh, , ed. by K. (Cambridge: Needham Robinson and J. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015); Chad The Development of the Logical Method Chinain AncientMethod The Development Logicalthe of The Character of Logic in India Logic of in Character The Blackwell Companion to Buddhist to Philosophy Companion Blackwell (London: Routledge, 1995). 31 (2010), 247–85. 34 (2013), 1–24; Dan Robins, “The Later Mohists and Logic”, Robins,Mohists 34 (2013), 1–24; Dan “The and Logic”, Later , ed. by Gottfried Kambartel, Friedrich Hermes, Gabriel, Hans , p. 242. , p. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Encyclopedia Routledge (Spring 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), available at: Philosophy of Logic”, Tillemans, 320–30; Tom pp. Wiley-Blackwell), (Chichester: Emmanuel Steven Logic, Language: on Dharmakīrti Essays Successors Tibetan and His Publications, 1999). University of Chicago Press, 1980). University of Chicago History of Logic and Philosophy History of Logic and Philosophy (Vienna:Ernst Steinkellner Arbeitskreis für Tibetische und Buddhistische Universität Studien plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2014/entries/frege-hilbert/>. Correspondence Mathematical Verrart; Christian (Chicago: Hans McGuinnessKaal Thiel and Brian trans. andby Albert articulated in Koji Tanaka, “Davidson and Chinese Conceptual Scheme”, “Davidson Scheme”, and Chinese Conceptual articulated in Koji Tanaka, Philosophy and Chinese Journal of Philosophy of Philosophy Encyclopedia Chinese Logic Chinese Reader Formal? Is Logic That Say To Mean What Does It the “formal this conception paper, 2000. In of logic” is the refer conception to meant to of good and bad arguments and reasoning asarticulated above. syllogisms can be shown bea fragment to logic. of predicate Press, 1969/1922) and Christoph Harbsmeier, Paragon (New York: I: Language 7, Part Logic and Volume China, see several India, articles collected University Press,Cambridge in 1998). For Hansen, “Logic in China”, “LogicHansen, China”, in Siderits,and Mark “Deductive, Both Inductive, or Neither?”, (2003), 303–21. 219–41. Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives 20 21 18 19 See 16 17 14 15 10 11 12 Garfield, 13 9 7 8 5 6

AAH CASS

Modernisation and “Integrated Buddhism”: The Buddhist Reforms of Ouyang Jingwu and Taixu

Zhang Zhiqiang 張志強 CHINESE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

1.

n the summer of 1924, Dharma Master Taixu convened the World Buddhist IConference at Mount Lu, a famous Buddhist mountain located in southern China. Japan dispatched a delegation of six people to attend the event, led by Saeki Jōin [alt. Zyōin] 佐伯定胤 (1867–1952), the chief monk of the Japanese Yogācāra school, and Kimura Taiken 木村泰賢 (1881–1930), a professor at the Tokyo Imperial University. During their journey the delegation visited the China Inner Learning Institute, where Saeki gave a speech titled “An Elementary Explanation of Vijñaptimātra”,1 and Kimura presented a special report on “Recent Developments in Japanese Buddhism”. Saeki’s speech laid out his appraisal of, and aspirations for, the China Inner Learning Institute in the following passages:

The [transmission of the] Yogācāra school has been discontinued in China for over one thousand years. In recent years, [however, the school] has been promoted by the Chinese lay devotee Ouyang Jingwu—so there is hope for the revival of the Yogācāra school in China. During this trip to Nanjing, I visited Ouyang Jingwu, and conveyed the immense reverence I have for him [on account of his efforts to revive Yogācāra].

Yogācāra Buddhism comes from India, and is a fountainhead of East Asian culture. I hope that today and in the future China and Japan will join together to elucidate the Buddha’s invaluable teachings so that Buddhism can be spread across the world.

This speech clearly indicates that Saeki, in his capacity as a representative of the Japanese Yogācāra school, offered a very positive assessment of the Inner Learning Institute, and aspired to partner with the Institute to promote Yogācāra learning.

Learning from the Other: Australian and Chinese Perspectives on Philosophy 67 68 modernisation and “integrated buddhism”: the buddhist reforms of ouyang jingwu and taixu  zhang zhiqiang 張志強 delegation to delegation China by the led This was to study Buddhism. Chinese another dispatched and puttogether ofJapanese jointly Buddhism schools various the Asian Conference, Buddhist In after the East years autumn the of1926,two Learning Institute,Learning content the ofTakai’s was, roughly, speech follows: as history”. AccordingBuddhist to that anaccount was later China the by recorded Inner of Yogācāra “the instead viewpoint and the discussed from seen question, as school However questions. Takai’s these answer in “did threepoints” the speech answer not Shingonthe ( TakaiJapanese delegation chose Kankai ofTantricPerhaps Ouyang’s touched issue because onthe questions the Buddhism, were: These three questions. Japanese the asked Ouyang time delegation Jingwuat this members. other 1943), and Institute, ofthe head the exchanged with ideas Ouyang Jingwu Nanjing, stayed delegation the also atChina the Inner Institute, Learning they where Tendaieminent (Ch. Tiantai) Umetani monk school Kōei the three laws: all conditioned things are impermanent, all dharmas lack self, lack self, dharmas all areimpermanent, things threelaws:the conditioned all gobeyond teachings Buddhist donot ofthe In principles the terms, general [of substance Buddha’s the true teachings]? ofNāgārjuna and theories Huayan the Tiantai and How the [traditions]. canweuse of] interpretations [the by encumbered easily is former’s] [the and Hinduism, doctrine of] with [those of confused practices the Third, areeasily Buddhism Tantric world]? modern inthe precepts orthodox the [of observing practice the How ones]. popularise and ancient inplace ofthe canweadjust [guidelines new to acceptable accommodate follow be and itwouldnot however world]; [to applicable modern the time.Most arenot [ofsome precepts] the for properly functioned hasnot ofthe] precepts [observance the Second, and negation? to affirmation beyond return and what is [of analternative totenets as them]. Buddhism How images dowetranscend teachings essential advance the and non-Buddhist philosophy,and criticise science of[modern] secular hard views tothe refute extremely be itwill First, this] together with the view of the non-reality of the phenomenal world ( world phenomenal ofthe non-reality ofthe view the with together this] ālayavijñāna of arising dependent the ofMahāyāna] schools or incomplete, discusses investigation of] on[the based karma ripened of mental ofthe effect arising dependent ( “storehouse consciousness” ( mind cogitating the investigate Mind mind. must one encompasses this “one the from ( mind” [as in“idealism” and apart together such] merge ideal—they arenot nirvāṇa 堅實心 citta ), the aggregated), the (* mind 真言 is perfect tranquility. The first two constitute two tranquility. reality, first isan The perfect the last is ; the ; the ) Tantric school’s Chisan Kangakuin Institute ( based on [their understanding of] the aggregated the [and mind, of] understanding on[their based bhūtatathatā citta Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences . Provisional Mahāyāna. Provisional propaedeutic the [that is, ekacitta Asaṅga to correct these, and fully bring out the outthe bring fully and these, toAsaṅga correct , or true nature). the Hināyāna, ortrue discusses ālayavijñāna ). Hence to study Buddha’s the teachings, samudaya-citta 高井觀海 ), and the immutable the ), and mind ; ( 集起心 1884–1953), a professor from from 1884–1953), aprofessor 梅谷孝永 —a term denoting the the denoting —a term 歐陽竟無 智山勸學院 . While at . While

(1871–

), to  modernisation and “integrated buddhism”: the buddhist reforms of ouyang jingwu and taixu zhang zhiqiang 張志強 69

) basis 真實 ) Tantric school’s Chisan school’s ) Tantric , and the dependent arising of 真言 ālayavijñāna 2 and speaks of the view the world that is ( the real , he categorised all as Buddhist pertaining teachings Hināyāna, to ) is what is explained by the Yogācāra school, and its has origins) is is what explained by the Yogācāra ), the dependent arising the of [subsequent] outgrowth of Mahāyāna. The Inner Learning Institute places Institute Inner Learning The [subsequent] outgrowthMahāyāna. of and strives its which has roots to in Mahāyāna, importance on Yogācāra, apply itself this to foundation. 虛妄 discusses Mahāyāna Real the dependent arisingin Mahāyāna. of the bhūtatathatā this] mind, [and the is immutable is what explainedof [insight into] in each schools, and Shingon and represents the Tendai Kegon, of the Sanron, school. He was not only deeply versed in Tantric Buddhism—he not was also school. was only deeply versed an He Tantric in citta bhūtatathatā Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives (i.e., accomplished scholar of the Yogācāra and the Abhidharma schools. his speech, In accomplished scholar of the Yogācāra he proposed a schema for classifying and interpreting the entire body of the OnBuddhist the basis teachings. of a division between reliance on the cogitating mind, each of which were, mind central and to immutable mind, aggregated of dependent the teachings arisingrespectively, effect of the mental of ripened karma Takai Kanko scholar-monk a was ( of the Shingon Takai 智山 this tradition’s place in Buddhism. Moreover, this question in Buddhism. place revealed two Moreover, mutually this tradition’s The premises hisrelated understanding underlay that of Buddhismmore generally. first Nāgārjunafor judging “the and are the theories standard is that and Asaṅga” of correcting and Buddhist the second teachings, is these that two were needed to 2. The questions three reflect were, over what the duration advanced by of Ouyang the instance, somehis of his career as a Buddhist long thinker, core concerns. For Buddhism, reflected histhird question, uncertainty which referred Tantric to to as more deeply the the reasoning modernisation behind, for, and plans reforms that focusing on those bywere advanced the Institute, Ouyang. I will of its core leader, then bring these together with a discussion My on the modernisation of Taixu. plans in doing theintention themes, so delineate it to motivations and underlying context modernisation. of Chinese Buddhism’s the dialectical relationship that existed between Chinese Buddhism’s modernisation existedthe dialectical that relationship between Chinese Buddhism’s and early twentieth-century essence, Buddhism. Japanese In this dialogue with Buddhists a key contributory was Japanese subsequent cause of Chinese Buddhism’s modernisation the next reforms. section In of this article I will begin by analysing the discussions I will Buddhist between delegates. and the Japanese Ouyang then explore flourishing of Yogācāra. flourishing of These conversations between and the Institute membersInner Learning of the unique ideas the Institute’s way, us, reveal in a roundabout to delegates Japanese Buddhism,about as well as its members’ the reasoning behind, and for, plans modernisation and reform of Buddhism. They are richly symbolic as they clearly show the is classified as this schema, In Yogācāra, Mahāyāna. and real provisional Mahāyāna, represented by his thus Mahāyāna it below placing real the provisional Mahāyāna, schoolown Shingon and other schools developed had that subsequent the early to 70 modernisation and “integrated buddhism”: the buddhist reforms of ouyang jingwu and taixu  zhang zhiqiang 張志強 for Ouyang, the status of Tantric Buddhism rests on whether it concords with “the “the status the with ofTantric Ouyang, for itconcords onwhether rests Buddhism grounds, teachings. these Buddhist On ofthe substance true the convey explicitly teachings the ofTiantaicorrect Huayan and failed to they because specifically more led him onto the path of Buddhist scholasticism, studied Buddhism inJapan studied Buddhism from scholasticism, led himonto pathofBuddhist the Gui Bohua friend statethe His ofJapanese close Buddhism. in1907Ouyang Earlier wentto Japan was indispensible. to investigateexperiences Ouyang Taixu and reformers. from these learning and upon that felt reflecting both Chinese ofthese both for motivation animportant provided 20thcentury early the ofJapan’s successes and In regard experiences the in to this, organisations Buddhist symbiotic. to latter the was be seen and reform organisational scholastic former the between “organisational revolution” ( 理革命 whichTaixu Dharma, the interpreting and revolution” ( a“learning called similarly 虛 leader, Buddhist reformer, Taixu renowned and Republican-era early eminent sharedthe by itwas that also was life; Ouyang something throughout held his strong commitment to reforming This China’s precepts. the organisations Buddhist instituting intention behind to original remaining the renewal while faithful pursued Buddha’s the to establish initial decision day ofthe toto intention needs that the the yet lay remained faithful the behind that adapted organisations new lay construct so in doing to need inthe somehow China’s to need about the reform For organisations. Buddhist challenge the Ouyang, related concerns to his was closely Ouyang’s this, precepts about the with question inline And organisations. religious establishing hand inhand with goes precepts ofthe observance Elevating the ofhis. long-heldconcern another reflects precepts, ofthe whichrelates observance Ouyang, to the by raised question second The later. disparity important very to return this Iwill schools. ofBuddhist division the upon based scholasticism teachings, Japanese the Buddhist and ofthe to body approach entire Buddhist the Inner the Institute’s Learning between disparity to integrate systematise and mission fundamental the reveals sense delegates ofthe inthis misunderstanding The possible. be could canon Buddhist entire ofthe that teachings asystematisation Buddhist so the at whichaimed organising and awhole, as Dharma the interpreting, for methods and Ouyang a“scholarly revolution”( called ofYogācāra interpretations however, new their concerned, ofwhat thought werepart Yogācāra onthe Institute ofthe to scholarship members as were far As school. to make aspired contributions that Inner the Instituteassumed Learning primarily delegates Both aspirations. and goals about its misunderstanding a fundamental Takai’s Saeki and both Ouyang, for Institute ofthe appraisals betrayed positive ofYogācāra”propagating “doctrines the In Asaṅga. sense, by this represented as make, that however, Inner the about is Institute Learning concerned only was not ofTiantai to Huayan. and thatdoctrines Ouyang point was trying important Amore ofNāgārjuna Asaṅga”. and theories “encumbered” be the by not should one such, As (1890–1947). Essentially, the “scholary revolution” of reorganising, categorising categorising revolution”ofreorganising, (1890–1947).Essentially, “scholary the ), was intended to lay what for Taixu afoundation an called life inhis earlier Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences 組織革命 ) in Chinese Buddhism, and the relationship the and Buddhism, ) inChinese 研學革命 saṃgha [community of monks], and which and [community ofmonks], ) which involved new positions on, on, ) whichinvolved positions new 桂伯華 , who had earlier had, who earlier 太 學  modernisation and “integrated buddhism”: the buddhist reforms of ouyang jingwu and taixu zhang zhiqiang 張志強 71

on saṃgha ). They 分宗部勒 ) that Japanese Buddhism Japanese ) that vinaya [1906–2005]. In other words, [1906–2005]. In how can Buddhist Learning serve as an instrument Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives 印順 deepen our knowledgeto of the religion, and the at same time not compromise or erode our faith in it? These are probably thekey lessonsChineseBuddhists that drew contributing our knowledge deepening to of Buddhism, one can continue maintain to those Ouyang, characteristics this involved Buddhism it is. make what that For when studying Buddhism themodes differentiated through of thinking how, about enquiry linguistics of philology, this and history, one can integrate differentiated knowledge the principle through the of “using study the to Buddhist teachings (wordsBuddhist teachings” of the famous contemporary scholar-monk Yinshun of when he established “inner learning” kind of learning” as “another predicated on the premise “Buddhism that the same is At neither a religion nor a philosophy”. time, the body vast of accomplished academic research on Buddhism emerged that modernisation period developed Buddhism’s during and flourished Japanese under while the influence of empiricism. to consider how, have prompted Ouyang may This Western science and philosophy, and science unearthing and and philosophy, expounding the “truth” of Western become neededBuddhist to an indispensable teachings, part of studying Buddhism. when expounding the “truth”However “refute” of the Buddhist in order to teachings non-Buddhist views, so how one does can transcend that “dogmatism” one avoid inter-sectarianhave conflict? been conscious This must was that Ouyang something challenges of Western “science and philosophy”. This stemmed from another “science of and philosophy”. challenges of Western core concerns—whetherOuyang’s Buddhism as Oriental an body of learning for achieving virtue could, in the face of these a key role challenges, continue play to in guiding and giving the lives to meaning of modern Chinese, and Oriental people achieve this, Ouyang, according to “refuting” or critiquing To more generally. reforming the precepts to adapt to the needs of the day, while avoiding “breaking while avoiding reforming the precepts the needs to adapt to of the day, the precepts” and sacrificing the originalBuddhist of forming the intent andaccount follow of a misguided new” desire “accommodate to trends in society. was a core conundrum perplexedhad long This, that arguably, Ouyang. the we return first to questionBuddhismto how as should respondto the Finally, Buddhism—which were themselves based on their own assessment of contemporary problems. On this point, question reflects Ouyang’s his doubtsabout the China’s relaxation of the rules of monastic discipline ( years’also reflected the modern to adapt many to implemented world. It ruminations on the question how one as can reorganise to Buddhist organisations through There were also some important differences between Ouyang’s and Taixu’s appraisals Taixu’s alsoThere were some important differences and between Ouyang’s modernisation. These differences Buddhism’s were of Japanese to principally related their respective appraisals strengths of the relative and weaknesses of theJapanese systemschools of “differentiated being self-administering” ( also reflected both figures’ designs for aheadpath the Chinese for the reform of 1906 until his death in 1915. Taixu also long wanted to go to Japan to “survey to place a Japan go to to also wanted long 1906 untilhis Taixu in 1915. death and where Buddhist Learning and Learning European proportion”, in balanced were there on twotravelled occasions—first in 1925, whenattended he again in 1917, and the East Asian This Buddhist Conference. is the questions background to of Ouyang’s delegation. the Japanese 72 modernisation and “integrated buddhism”: the buddhist reforms of ouyang jingwu and taixu  zhang zhiqiang 張志強 correct faith and right action. right and faith correct was to Dharma re-establish wemay the such, sayAs tenet ofmodernising core the Ouyang Lü Jingwu, Cheng of research the We studies, Buddhist Chinese ofmodern may that note history inthe Japanesefrom studies. academicBuddhist Buddhism’s ofmodernising experience this into practice in the real world through right action ( action through real inthe world right into practice this was to put organisations ofBuddhist reform ofthe saidthat be purpose the equally itcould And Mahāyāna oneself). just ideal not (i.e., and ideal the ofsaving others ( faith to correct be understood thinkers what towards establishing these weredirected life” learning” of“inner and human for society. of“Buddhism saidthat be tenets itcould the In ofthis, view educating elevating for and acentre as and Dharma, propagatingand orthodox the protecting for abase as serve could organisations that reformed hoped same—both fundamentally the regard wereinthis figures these ofboth organisations Buddhist customs”. of reform for the aspirations the Inopinion, of ofmany spite differences ( Assembly ( vehicleofhumanity” of the Taixu Dharma ofan“orthodox order, monastic notion the onthe build to reorganise Identical Venerable prompted ofteachers. concerns teachings system the the and inŚākyamuni’sit existed of clergy, the remodeling system uniting the and times, orderas Buddhist ofthe spirit true the layof the devotee” advocated and reviving “ the Ouyang established point, second the (i.e.,world (i.e., human ofpeople In the realm) human lives lives). the and relation to the salvation) to that inimproving come role play itcould so personal active amore and knowing self emphasised (whichtraditionally wanted Buddhism both to reform premise—they common shared a figures these both agendas of reform the differences, sake the ofhumanity”. for that oflearning is principle Inthe respective oftheir spite ofOuyang which“established Jingwu, humanity”, learning” “inner the as well as Taixu’s human life”, for “Buddhism whichadvocated “achieving Buddhahood within backdropthe was against whicharose essence, in first, The concerns. two these gravitated around project modernisation In Buddhist Chinese entire the my opinion, society? ofChinese reconstruction inthe participate China, actively ofmodern and thatcanadapt to they needs so the reformed be lineages, ofChaninstitutions transmission Dharma and tonsure lineages ofwhichstand atcentre archaic the the organisations, Buddhist canChinese how broadly, more and, Chinese the for Second, peoples? oflife Oriental the a wisdom toas play continue role reinvigoration, asignificant through and acreative religion, even offire and philosophy baptism the endure science, Buddhism Western Western can modern how by posed challenges ofthe civilization, face inthe First, agendas. core Ouyang advancedby two reveal “threequestions” the In essence, itmay as seemed. have first straightforward as not is and contextual issues, to and have appears range touchedofbackground abroad upon question this of this, In ofBuddhism. approach light faith-based the and ofscience approach empirical the 正信會 ), and use Buddhist faith to “elevate the people and correct the the to faith “elevate Buddhist correct use and ), and people the Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences 吕澂 人乘正法 正信

and Venerableand synthesised Yinshun to all, anextent, ; śraddhā ) to establish alay Faith) to Correct establish devotee bodhimaṇḍala ) in the Dharma according to according the Dharma ) inthe 正行 [place ofenlightenment] [place ; samyak-pratipatti ).  modernisation and “integrated buddhism”: the buddhist reforms of ouyang jingwu and taixu zhang zhiqiang 張志強 73 world samsāric ). Such a system,). Such 分宗部勒 ) of the Buddha’s teachings. Onaccount teachings. of this, the ) of the Buddha’s samyag-jñāna ; 正解 Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives instituted an organisedinstituted and hierarchical system the moderniser’s called of what schools “differentiated being self-administering” ( studies of the teaching that each figure that studiesconstructed. of the teaching 3. Strictly speaking, the doctrines of Chinese Buddhism are sectarian in nature. Sectarian divisions stopped the at level of doctrine in China however, and lineage, and never fully evolveda strict into system of dividing Buddhist organisations, or in contradistinction a Buddhism to divided different into schools and It could schools. correct movement to were intended the teachings and Ouyang’s Taixu’s be said that facilitate the constructionto Buddhism, of an integrated different but had strategies sectarianfor approaching Buddhism and its underlying principles. These points,to a certain determine degree, were to the characteristics of the models of systematic an integrated Buddhism should have a completely systematised Buddhisman integrated should have doctrine, and should organiseto defined differentteachings according principlesagainst to so as militate contradictions, the foundations for and a wholly and Buddhist lay teaching integrated systematic of the doctrine. study the same time, At organisational reforms should be directed constructing at BuddhistBuddhist a unified organisation church, or a united these contrasting systematic studies of the doctrine corresponded with differently configuredBuddhism concrete for plans actual using a such a to integrate into schema type Buddhism. of ideal Strictly speaking, this Buddhism, ideal Buddhist by about an integrated brought and systematisedteaching doctrine, is essentially a type Buddhism. of integrated Such and these serve came to as the two core models of the early twentieth-century Chinese Buddhist modernisation movement. Their differences were the result of different understandings of truthaboutnature the Buddha Dharma. in the And these, divergentin turn, principles led to for the systematisation as well of the teachings, as the formation of different systematic studies of the doctrine.More importantly, construction Buddhism. of an ideal And they also the doctrinal laid foundations for reorganising Buddhist organisations, and thus right action. This, as a whole, could be called the correct movement to the teachings. each developed different“correcting teachings”, systems thefor and Taixu Ouyang precipitated the development of another principle—“integrating” or “systematising” this body vast constructing through and systematised Buddhist teaching an integrated doctrine. This,turn,laid the in the foundations It for a meant that further step. various forms Buddhism of actual appeared in this that imperfect Buddhist this Buddhism. “integrated an ideal regard, into be In integrated needed to teaching” and “systematised doctrine” were underlying principles supported that the Yet for faith and action be right, to they must be founded on a rightYet understanding ( modernisation movement address came to another theme—establishing a standard, orthodox understanding of the Dharma,based on the selection, categorisation and interpretation of the and body variegated vast of the This Buddhist teachings. 74 modernisation and “integrated buddhism”: the buddhist reforms of ouyang jingwu and taixu  zhang zhiqiang 張志強 self-administering”, where monasteries are managed internally at different levels and and aremanaged levels at different internally monasteries where self-administering”, being of“differentiated to Japanese the similar schools something system Buddhist Taixu was to establish Buddhism ofChinese that reformation held aimofthe the managing nationally. Buddhism To have not could one school- aim, the this achieve authority, supreme charged with and with to aconfederation establishing a view with adopted, be should aspect that self-administering and the only out, separated be should that inChina functions two the proposed he itself, administered school Taixu Japanese the each that than whereby felt adopt rather model nevertheless that Japan’s acknowledging Although self-administering, were schools differentiated propagating insociety. Buddhism the and teachings for upholding platform creating anorganisational as seen was This organisations. upeducational benevolent and setting for abasis as serve organisations oflabour, through allocation the integrated exploited tightly and Buddhist are fully members of capabilities aresubordinate different the to temples largersmaller ones, critiques in regard to the constitution of this system and its modernisation: its and system inregard ofthis to constitution the critiques inJapan. and however, exist did Taixu observations excellent made following the theory. ofmy my how theory, and establishment investigations inJapan my verified for the basis is the Ihave orders planned…. This monastic of Buddhist integrated confederation the tightly as as not certainly is sound—it not and loose itis inJapan Although association, offaith. aBuddhist is there object Three The temples. and the only be ofclergy should case the Treasures is as to according schools adivision be cannot teachings; certainly Buddhist there Faith tofaith inthe aunified be lay needs there for devotees, Association In Correct ofthe organisation orders. ofthe terms monastic and of dharmas the] Maintenance Teachings, ofthe [Overseeing aunited and confederation aBureau and for Practice advocate that aBureau be there [Overseeing] for butI this, discussed orderhas also monastic onthe Mytemples. discourse own hasits eachschool ofschools, awhole. Inas division ofthe terms inBuddhism faith butno inschools, faith forming towards eachschool, aredistributed energies itself, administers Japanese eachschool Buddhism nationally…. overBuddhism in Because jurisdiction has administrative organ which supreme no is there organisations, systematised has strictly inJapan order. monastic eachschool onthe Although in] my discourse own intendedplanswith the happen to accord [outlined These to activities. their according aredivided enterprises culturalbenevolent Social and school/sect. the by arerun and school/sect, intheir specialise universities whereas schools], [curriculum aregeneral schools middle and schools elementary programmes— education Buddhist runs similarly Each people. school their of allocate labour in away capacities ofthe schools] that most makes the [designated to] people matters have attend to particular [of them—all the Temples school. entire the particular to according and areranked size, their of which manages administration the affairs, has abureauofschool school Each organisation. systematised inJapanEach school rigidly own hasits 3 Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences  modernisation and “integrated buddhism”: the buddhist reforms of ouyang jingwu and taixu zhang zhiqiang 張志強 75 4 kyamuni. Śā kyamuni”. For Taixu, this is Taixu, For kyamuni”. Śā regarded to be the peerless, to regarded supreme honoured one—this is because all of the dharmas by transmitted the patriarchs came from dharma lineage in the way that each school’s founders did, and so each school each school’s that dharma in the way lineage has an independent spirit. The aim of this spirit foster]is [to reverence of the patriarchs which the Dharma to has been [in the transmitted school is mostlyin question]. Buddhism Chinese like Buddhism, this. in Japan In is patriarchs the lineage although revered, are quite in reality Śākyamuni The different schools of JapaneseThe different Buddhism schools mostly today transmit of the kyamuni. He systematised He all the pertaining as Buddhist “the teachings teachings kyamuni. Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives sectarian studies in Buddhism would be even an through more accommodated inclusive, systematised of Buddhist study doctrine.Chinese Thisturnallow in would Buddhism—which less already was sectarian Buddhism—to transcend Japanese than the limits sectarian of faith even further, which would in turn facilitate the unity the restraints of traditional schools, a deeper at level it also refined and outlined appeal for the structural foundations of sectarianTaixu’s doctrine. This shows that Buddhista unified confederationwas advanced on the premise there would that down break the tradition to be no attempt of sectarian approaches the study to Buddhist model for a united confederation, Taixu’s of Buddhism. That is, under In summary, in order to construct in order to In summary, Buddhist federation a united and realising the ideal necessary it was felt that systematise to Taixu Buddhism”, of forming an “integrated the in their Buddhist entirety teachings a conceptual at level, and establish a systematic of the doctrine study a whole made of the Dharma that approach possible. distinctive systematic through break studies model to able was Although Taixu’s Śā of the [time that of]to of the three periods that extending to the Buddha and the “the doctrine pertainingthree systems”, true to reality of the three that extending to andranks ‘”activities and the three schools”, which concord with and the nature capacities sentient of the three bases that beings] [of extending to and three realms”. namely, a system based on the theorynamely, “the schools eight that their distinctive have wasalsoAnd it on this strengths, analysis but in thebasis final theyall are equal”. develop From to he his began that “ideology of Buddhism system”. qua integrated this point on he “was not restrained and by undertook the sectarianism of the past”, a categorisation and interpretation of all the down handed Buddhist from teachings why Chinese Buddhism’s tradition of revering patriarchs and dividing Chinese Buddhism’s schoolswhy never evolved a formal system into schools of “differentiated being self-administering”. tradition of revering the movement made the Buddha Chinese Buddhism’s Moreover Taixu was in It concordance with this unificationtowards seem inexorable. view that hisadvanced first of the doctrine study systematic to categorise in order the Dharma, According to Taixu, a distinguishing of Chinese Buddhism feature is of a tenet Taixu, to According “revering in which it is of the of the patriarchs recognised and the Buddha” “all that dharmas transmitted by the patriarchs came from based faith of Japan—rather there needed to be a united faith in Buddhism be there a united needed to based as a faith of Japan—rather concerned, was Buddhism Chinese already were and Japanese Aswhole. far as Taixu “differences to revering regard he called in what different the in thishaving regard, patriarchs and the Buddha”: 76 modernisation and “integrated buddhism”: the buddhist reforms of ouyang jingwu and taixu  zhang zhiqiang 張志強 study that aims at using comparison and inference to patch up contradictions in to patch inference and upcontradictions study that comparison aimsat using to say, to is conclusion”—which the subsequent “research is Buddhism arational itis study the of basis, the On this unites and teachings. that identifies aprinciple it is teachings— entire threadofthe connecting the that is onaprinciple rests authority is that this second The doubted. be Buddha ofthe cannot words ofthe authority is the that first The two premises. had principle This Dharma. the systematising for Weishi. from principle new ofa unearthing the marked distinguished be should This Weishi—it than Weishi. more the that held he Faxiang basis, encompasses this On life’s that his was for theory than The main is broader ofthis studies. tenet Faxiang foundations conceptual the laid theory This schools. aredifferent but consciousness”) Sanskrit: characteristics; that FaxiangIn theory advanced his 1916Ouyang ( Jingwuformally Learning Institute. Taixu’s ofongoing between debates focus were the China the and Inner disciples differences These Dharma. systematic study ofthe approach to the a different to have appears prompted this and on, thatwerefounded they Buddhism sectarian the and however, orders monastic attitude had adifferent traditional towards Ouyang, ofaunited confederation. Buddhist “integrated pursuit Buddhism” the and Taixu, like Ouyang, advocated revolution. thorough amore Buddhist advocated an Taixu,In who with contrast Ouyang revolutionary authentic Jingwuwas amore 4. doctrine. study ofBuddhist systematic ofhis characteristic itwas adistinctive and planned, he model organisational ofthe Buddhist characteristic distinctive is a This to that instigate targeted not and them. arevolution orders, integrate monastic old the apparent, deeper meaning conveyed deeper latter, the by apparent, Hināyāna’s canbreak one outfrom less the ofMahāyāna,Hināyāna discerning and perspective the unearthing by from Mahāyāna Hināyāna. made between at Looking so-called and distinction asharp be For Mahāyāna there segregated, should nor Ouyang, strictly be teachings not should ofexplication. procedure acorrect through following latter the immediately uncovered canbe apparent, not Although ultimate truth. Herein uncovered. canbe contradictions resolves and that differences unites doctrine that profound amore so indepth are explained teachings inthe contradictions apparent wherein teachingsthe scriptures, ofthe a grand confederation as well as its system of self-administering schools. ofself-administering system its as well as confederation a grand in anintegrated Buddhism establish so and schools, Buddhist ofthe integration and educate people, are all held to held areall educate contain people, to means expedient butuse explicitly and directly speakofultimate truths do not democracy”. discarding and revolution about talking aglobal like oriented—is socially and scholastic expansively more that religion makes the sakerevolution—one the ofaBuddhist for temples and orders ofhistory. that To years temples have and thousand orders two monastic abandonthe Taixu monastic the As discard cannot Buddhism ofChinese revolution “the said, Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences dharmalakṣaṇa neyartha 5 Taixu’s to and to sought reorganise reforms ) and Weishi) and , or teachings that directly speakof , orteachings that directly nitartha 唯識 sutras, or those that they orthose sutras, ( vijñaptimātra 法相 ; dharma ; dharma ; “nothing  modernisation and “integrated buddhism”: the buddhist reforms of ouyang jingwu and taixu zhang zhiqiang 張志強 77

6 Awakening of were firstJapanese raised by ). )—as the words they of the are Buddha, hinā 大乘起信論 Awakening of Faith ) or small ( mahā ). The difference between schools “each school choosesthat is Dasheng qixin lun 行 ( xing Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives the study of Weishi laid the foundations for laid his systematisation of doctrine. of Weishi the study By developing a distinction between outlined so-called Ouyang old and new Weishi, be he felt the doctrinalwhat to backgroundthe of composition of the Doubts the authenticity as to of the Ouyang, this however, problem special significance, had scholars. and became For a basis for critiquing sectarian Buddhism, and provided another dimension for establishing his account of systematic doctrines. and as the theory Just Faxiang that are different schools was thesystematised foundation for teachings, Weishi Ouyang’s Clearly, Taixu planned to maintain sectarian maintain planned to studies in Buddhism, and by bringing Taixu Clearly, together the studies of different schools, establish a synthesised, accommodating and and Ouyang’s systematised of the Taixu’s doctrine. study The differences between approaches sectarian to Buddhism is further evidenced by their different views on the Awakening of Faith understanding this in part lies in Taixu’s interpretation of the of the word meaning understanding this in part lies in Taixu’s school held that is a self-verified realm—it of practicesis the realm Taixu “school”. willthat the realisation lead to of buddhahood, and an expedient designation for the term practice ( a certain point explain the to practices for observing whence all dharmas arise”. doctrines, it would be seen the theories that of these schools their own each had rationale and respective place. criticismAs be expected, may Ouyang’s of sectarian Buddhism Taixu made even if the schools eight different had merits and Taixu, employed For uneasy. different expedientanalysis means, in the to final The equal. key they always were Buddhism, key foundations and for laid constructing systematic a thoroughly of study Buddhist doctrine Although whole. as a united this systematic of the doctrine study fundamentally no room had for sectarianism, it did acknowledge different that schools formed divergent approaches due to the Dharma were primarily to that products of different historical conditions. the Through study of these systematic synthesis, which in turn inter-sectarian makes competition for supremacy inevitable. The principle of dividing and classifyingteachings cannot the resolve this problemat school could in the end create faith in one’s one’s a fundamental level, which is say, to As such, Ouyang’s faith in Buddhism more generally. one’s to problems in regard completely undermined sectarian approaches of the study to account of Faxiang which sectarian Buddhism stands. Strictly speaking, this principle of categorising isthe teachings one of systematising Ouyang, to the According Buddhist teachings. the sectarianhowever, method of selectively categorising to in order the teachings own school isestablish basically of establishing the and special merits a way of one’s school and showing contempt other towards schools. Navigating one’s elevating between special merits and the notion of equality it difficult makes to establish a purportedto self-understanding.matters confinement relating to On account of this, one understand can come to there is that nofundamental difference between are great ( that teachings all truths As be can used such,and unitary. are equal the that principles of Faxiang dissolveto the foundation for the division and categorisation upon of the teachings 78 modernisation and “integrated buddhism”: the buddhist reforms of ouyang jingwu and taixu  zhang zhiqiang 張志強 functions associated with each of the Four eachofthe with associated conditions as Conditions:functions causes Sk.: Because of this, Taixu’s ofthis, Because the for support ofdoctrine. classification the ordering for principle study teachings highest ofthe the as systematised the cardinal principle of 釋教篇 Buddha’s] on[the “Essay inthe principle highest the as Teachings” ( bodhisattvas” “realm ofthe the Buddha ofthe practice and through identifying to his knowledge correct and Suchness relationship between throughout Ouyang’s concern a core intellectual career. From ofthe outline this itbecame such, ofOuyang’s As study Dharma. development ofthe in the systematic teachings, the itplayed and interpreting and role apivotal categorising for criterion “determining supreme” ultimate the became path whichis the that itis speaking, supreme. Strictly that is pathofSuchness the identifying and reality” “inherent qua Suchness venerating by Buddhism ofsectarian framework theoretical the Suchness from arising conditioned to attack ofthe foundations theoretical the ( that Suchness theory ( pratyaya hetu-pratyaya Faith to the study of Buddhism, and their teachings, were established. While Ouyang’s While teachings, their and wereestablished. to study the ofBuddhism, approaches which sectarian upon foundations doctrinal the thoroughly undermined This study ofdoctrine. systematic Weishi, distinctive own his Ouyang developed study the ofthe between coordination Through this study the Faxiang and ofthe truth. and history between synthesis contrived amore promotes by proposed inthe manner systematisation need be a to which not Taixu, does There ofhigher truth. expressions areconcrete highertruth—they manifest all conditions other and ofhistorical onaccount teachings formed ofthis, Because capacities]. teaching [as ofdiffering for afoundation phenomena all people discriminate properly bodhisattva’s is the means” expedient as to capacity “ultimate truth This means. through being applied expedient is ultimate truth thatmeans leadto ultimate truth, In ofexpedient case the ultimate truth. is means expedient Inthem. sense, this pervades a“genuine ultimate canbe truth because expedience” expedience—they mere In arenot means Ouyang’s expedient ofultimate truth. system, repository the status their and as conditions, other and ofhistory teachingsof the quaaproduct notion the together ofbringing problem ofthe backdrop inthe existed This means. expedient and ultimate truth relationship the between discern should one of how involved question the contradiction prominent most The study doctrine. ofthe Taixu’s within ofcontradiction asite became and Buddhism, of sectarian systematic ( ( zhengzhi 增上緣 所緣緣 catvārah pratyayāh . Based on the comprehensive account of the Four ofthe account . Based comprehensive onthe Conditions ( ), and extending through to the theory, formed later in his life, of “the sole sole of“the later life, through extending ), and to theory, inhis formed the

), conditions enabling an object to be taken as a cause of consciousness to ofconsciousness taken be enabling acause as anobject ), conditions adhipati-pratyayam ālambana-pratyaya

正智 ), continuous sequence of sameness condition ( condition ofsameness sequence ), continuous ; samyag-jñāna nirvāṇa tathatā ) provided by so-called new Weishi, new differentiated he the so-called by ) provided Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences without remainder” without ) and contributory factors as condition as factors contributory ) and ). This served as a foundation for establishing the for foundation as a served ). This ) is inherent reality ( reality inherent ) is ;) is its function ( function its ;) is . Here he used so-called new Weishi to criticise Weishi new Here so-called to criticise used he Awakening ofFaithAwakening Awakening ofFaith’sAwakening yong 7 —each step deepened and clarified clarified and step deepened —each ti 體

用 ) and that correct knowledge knowledge that) and correct

in the in the ), which he in turn used used inturn ), whichhe was seen to be a defence to adefence was be seen 等無間緣 Awakening ofFaithAwakening account of the ofthe account

Shi jiaopian Shi si yuan

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, ,

 modernisation and “integrated buddhism”: the buddhist reforms of ouyang jingwu and taixu zhang zhiqiang 張志強 79

in his into into

), and the saṃgha monks bodhimaṇḍala śrāvaka-saṃgha śrāvaka-saṃgha Saṃgha Zhina neixueZhina yuan monks. A key theme śrāvaka śrāvaka Bian fangbian yu sengzhiBian fangbian śrāvaka śrāvaka (Doubts Concerning the China Inner (Doubts Inner the China Concerning for the lay devotee. As for was the far lay as Ouyang (Explanation of the Disciplinary of the China Rules of the lay devotee not was only of the a centre lay for maintaining bodhimaṇḍala (Chapter on [Buddha as] Teacher) of his on [Buddha as] Teacher) (Chapter [community of monks], and as a result the Council boycotted was 支那内學院文件摘疑 bodhimaṇḍala (On Expedient Means and the Institution of the (On and the Expedient Institution Means 釋師篇 支那内學院院訓釋 saṃgha and others founded the Chinese Buddhist Council. Thishad two core Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives into monksinto who were concerned with of the world, the salvation and who took responsibility for and society. elevating the protecting teachings and propagating emphasised strongly the key importanceBecause of the of this, Taixu reforms, insisting monks that role the in reforming leading Buddhism; should play wenjian zhaiyi”wenjian Documents)Learning in which he expressed Institute dissatisfaction the Inner that restrictedLearning Institute the category of monks to reform thinking transforming about involved plans in Taixu’s bodhisattva monks; transforming monks who were concerned for their own salvation Because Ouyang limited theBecause category limited Ouyang “monks” of those to in the he directed the responsibility Hināyāna), (i.e., monks to who belong for “benefiting disciples,the lay world” to and as such transferred organisations. clerical lay power to As criticised were immediately plans unsurprisingly, Ouyang’s Perhaps by Taixu. wrote, neixueyuan “Zhina built, being was Taixu Learning Institute Inner the China and propagating the Dharma Buddhistand through education—is propagating also to was serve as a basis As for explained society elevating in hisOuyang “General more generally. as its takes core “[It] a system tenet Regulations for the Chinese Learning Institute”: of expounding the and Buddhist cultivating people teachings, and propagating the benefitting world, at peoplerather than talented who merely benefit themselves”. of teachers. On this basis, also Ouyang the advanced theory of the “ [place the could construction be said that devotee”—it for of enlightenment] the lay Monastery the marked on the model of the Nālandā Learning Institute of the Inner establishment of such a concerned, the “Shi shi pian” shi pian” “Shi yuanxun shi he clearlyteacher identified a being a buddha,with Learning being Institute), Inner and merged the system in Buddhism of the teachings with the system of teachers— of the system the status and elevated of teacher, this the status returned to the Buddha from the and vehemently criticised by monks, and soon faded from existence. Nonetheless, the tenetsthis of subsequent Council provided an impetus for efforts Ouyang’s to construct a systematic of Buddhist study doctrine. his In 辨方便與僧制 authorities into a united clerical authority. In lineauthoritieswith these In clerical a united into two authority. principles, and now possessing a clerical authority independent of political authorities, the Council supervise the authorityhad autonomously, the spread teachings to all Buddhist organisations, handle all disputes within the religion, order within and maintain the religion. and his devotees, Ouyang of people Due the of the status as however, lay principles by formulated this Council were seen wrest as a means to clerical authority systematic of doctrine study reformed these foundations, it also harboured his forplan the reconstruction of Buddhism. As early as Ouyang, 1912, Li Zhenggang 李證剛 guiding tenets—first,to help realise of the clergy the autonomy underthe Republican transform separation and religion, of state and autonomous secondly, clerical system’s 80 modernisation and “integrated buddhism”: the buddhist reforms of ouyang jingwu and taixu  zhang zhiqiang 張志強 3 2 1 7 6 5 4 of these disputes were different understandings of modern society, and these different different society, these modern and of understandings weredifferent disputes of these Yet world. the and to society, country the a greater contribution against backdrop the unity, ecclesiastic make and could Buddhism that through clericalism reformulating necessity for the modernisation and development of Buddhism inChina. ofBuddhism development and modernisation the for necessity orchurchwas a group aunited religious establish and divisions sectarian to transcend learning Japanese the although from was muchto there experience, learn reformers, ofthe Chinese self-administering. being perspective From the schools differentiated inregards of system adopted to the thatJapanese reformers reflection Chinese critical necessarily the underscores theaccord in dialogue an toachieve difficulty This affiliations. strong sectarian with Ouyang Japanese Jingwu and between ideas scholars clash inthe of basis had its This Dharma. to ofthe studies the approaches sectarian of reconstruction and acritique both entails teachings entirety Buddhist intheir the ofunifying principle onthe based doctrine study ofBuddhist A systematised aim. this with teachings Buddhist corresponded entire ofthe systematisation on the into Studies aunited organisation. traditions different together Buddhist bringing and Buddhism, aninclusive ofconstructing ideals towards the weredirected Buddhism We article. ofthis ofChinese at beginning the reforms have that modernising the seen Japanese and delegates, whichIdiscussed reformers Chinese the between dialogues ofTaixusystematisations Ouyang and wemay into Jingwu, todeeper the look begin doctrinal and reforms Having modernisation Buddhist the compared and analysed considering. worth sense, inthis plans arestill, reform and Ouyang’sand modernisation Buddhist Taixu to inregards functions. Buddhism’s and understandings responsibilities social different figures’ two ofthese backdrop the formed themselves understandings Buddhist Teachings],Buddhist in (Nanjing: Jinling 1942). kejing chu, waixue in Venerable Taixu), 2004),p.148. wenhuachubanshe, Zongjiao 26,(Beijing: fascicle Teachings inChina Japan’], and in Writings ofTaixu) (Taipei: Taiwan 1987),p. wenshu, 16. ofMy Movement toHistory Improve Buddhism), (Inner Yogācāratenet ofthe school. akey is and mind, from apart exist that phenomena no doctrine idealist orthe consciousness” Taixu, “Wo gaijin defojiao yundong lüeshi” ofthe are thirdvolume all takenfrom the passages Institute’s These journal, Translator’s note: Ouyang Jingwu, “Da Chen Zhenru shu” Ouyang Chen “Da Jingwu, Zhenru Taixu, “Wo fofa” zeyang yiqie panshe Taixu, “Zhong Rizhiyidian”, fofa p. 148 Taixu, “Zhong Rizhiyidian” fofa Neixue zazhu

Learning) 歐陽竟無內外學

内學雜著 . Vijñaptimātra Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences Taixu wenji (Assorted Writings in onInner Learning), (Assorted (Ouyang Jingwu’s Writings onInner Outer Learning) and (Ch. 中日佛法之異點 Taixu fashi quanshu , p. 140. weishi weishi 我怎样判摄一切佛法

. 答陳真如書 我的佛教改進運動略史 唯識 Taixu wenji ) is the doctrine of“nothing but doctrine the ) is (Differences between Buddhist Buddhist between (Differences 太虚法師全書 (Letter in Reply to Chen Zhenru), to Chen inReply Zhenru), (Letter 太虛文集 (How I Categorise All the the (How ICategorise All [Translated by Corey Bell] Ouyang Jingwu nei nei Jingwu Ouyang (Complete Works of (A Summary Summary (A (The Collected (The Neixue ¶ 内學

AAH CASS

From Cosmology to Humanity: A Perspective from the Recovered Bamboo Manuscripts in China

Shirley Chan 陳慧 MACQUARIE UNIVERSITY

hen intellectual historian Wing-tsit Chan used “humanism” to characterise W the entire history of Chinese philosophy, he described how the Zhou (1111–249 BC) people had radically transformed their belief by professing the unity of man and Heaven, laying the foundation of Chinese culture that centred on man and society. The power of “Heaven” and the “Mandate of Heaven” were supplanted by the belief that human virtue and effort (as embodied in the Son of Heaven) were the only powers that maintained the decree of Heaven.1

In the last four decades, the discovery of previously unknown philosophical texts dating to the fourth century BCE and the Han 漢 dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE) has revolutionised the study of Chinese culture and history, and has opened up a new channel of discussion of ancient Chinese philosophy. Archaeological finds of grave goods in the form of manuscripts that have not been subjected to interpretation and reinterpretation provide new materials for rediscovering this particular period of Chinese history and intellectual development. I will focus my study on two sets of Warring States period (453–221 BCE) texts, namely, the Guodian bamboo manuscripts (郭店簡) disentombed in 1993 in Hubei province, China, and the Shangbo jian (上博簡), a collection of bamboo texts written in a similar script bought by the Shanghai Museum in 1994 from an antique dealer in Hong Kong. The Shangbo jian is about the same vintage and probably from the same area as the Guodian corpus. The importance of these discoveries cannot be underestimated: many of the texts are without counterparts in the transmitted tradition, affording us fresh insights into the development of Chinese cosmological thinking in the period between the death of Confucius (551–479 BCE) and the writings of Mencius (c. 372–289 BCE).

As part of my ongoing research into Chinese philosophy based on the recovered Guodian and Shangbo bamboo manuscripts this paper provides a brief survey of how

Learning from the Other: Australian and Chinese Perspectives on Philosophy 81 82 from cosmology to humanity: a perspective from the recovered bamboo manuscripts in china  shirley chan study attempts to demonstrate that the dynamic discourses in these bamboo texts texts bamboo inthese study to attempts demonstrate that dynamic discourses the thought. My cosmological of facets different whichintegrates aphilosophy that itis and synthetic; and inclusive is texts ancient inthese presented as cosmology Chinese phenomena receive the fundamental principle of existence, namely, ofexistence, transformation principle fundamental the receive phenomena corpus, Nature natural the and order. In the arederived. regularities and which related principles In Guodian the texts exemplars. Heaven moral as between teachings act and provide humans; and they intermediaries In human society, the personal). (the achievement (3)itordains and individual realm socio-ethical); (the human inthe principles moral normative of values to (2)itsymbolises things; all assigning the and ofdevelopment multitude principle includingthe ofthings, the of birth the for responsible pattern) is and natural of the cosmic order(the source the evaluated canbe (1)itis at threeinterrelated levels: Guodian manuscripts of that concept the I have proposed ofhuman behavior polity. and principles general the and human the world for implications philosophical their to know about seeking ofNature’s understanding the order: an ideal socio-political patterns is and features for conditions essential attempt the to the define is texts the that pervades concern oneness, centrality, as such vocabularies inrich (ways) expressed principles various by upheld ofwhichare worldview, dynamism and an organic, synchronous complexity the inthe case Guodian and muchthe Shangbo whichpresent texts, is very one. This stagnant have and asingular texts been early inthe never presented models cosmic the development, historical ofthe part As tradition. received ofthe treaties in the found is from what different no and unchanging homogenous, as and philosophy and cosmology ofChinese views challenge and our existing modify will paper this way,cosmic in way the that is, ofHeaven discussion general the what). (the Ihope the understanding by how) (the human life to ofhow develop question core the concerning framework abasic present butrather sense, modern inthe universe of the structure about the that arenot cosmology Chinese ofearly invariably shared themes mid-Shang from texts early the metaphysicians; not thinkers, moral and weresocial period ofthis major philosophers Chinese that us the reminds aptly Rosemont ethical dimensions. and religious of political, human the realm—the synergy for implications ofits anunderstanding to develop orderis cosmic ofthe To conceptualisation the philosophers Chinese ancient the Warring States period. inthe humanity and cosmos the between correspondence the and of cosmology concept onthe particularly ofwhat Ihave subjects, onthe far so found a summary to provide is paper aimofthis the texts, ofindividual analyses in-depth of conducting Instead beenrecognised. intellectual field thanhas hitherto dynamic and fluid, hybrid c.300 intellectual history ofChinese period formative the during tian yinyang yinyang 3

is depicted in relation to the natural order; it is where the myriads of myriads the inrelation where to natural the itis depicted order; is 陰陽 tian junzi 2 and and Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences has been depicted as the origin of things and the source from from source the and ofthings origin the as depicted hasbeen

wuxing wuxing 君子 (gentleman) or (gentleman) 五行 tian Yucong . More importantly, single overriding the 天 (Heaven) as depicted in the various (Heaven) various inthe depicted as

語叢 商 1 Shengren Shengren and and (c. 1500 Tian Yucong in this context resembles resembles context inthis 聖人 BCE

3 of the Guodian ofthe (sage) are ) toHan early have BCE reveal a more amore reveal  from cosmology to humanity: a perspective from the recovered bamboo manuscripts in china shirley chan 83 . , 序 xing

xu , Xing Xing 形

xing , 名

察天道以化民 and are part of ming 氣 , qi 物

wu , is not only the source or cause 命

tian ). ming 成 are specific principles about its into coming cha tiandao yi tiandao cha hua minqi tian cheng (principle) principles/patterns” as “reasoning and 理 li ) contained in the Guodian corpus in the the Guodian ) contained various that states and so forth point of the the prescribed awareness to order, discusses in detail ability the human experience to musical ming ) and its ( becoming

4 further explains how humanity is endowed with certain distinctive in the specific text refer to prescriptions, dutiesallotments,and objects, 生 性自命出

1

( 容 forming the model and principles, all things will develop or are put into

), the process by and which all existence, being things come into and, in this sheng 化 tian Xing zi ming chu Xing Yucong rong ). All in understand things arise are we to the way How from one source: Heaven. hua Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives their interconnection. Here, thetheir purpose interconnection. relates Here, of observing of Heaven the Way knowingto the functions and causations expressed in the great transformation ( For moral senseparticular endowed by Heaven. context, the people’s being call into transformthe character ( of the people” 氣 beings,which things, human in particular, should be properly in the placed totality ariseof things that from this source? The short underlined answer, by this passage, of humanity and manifest in order to the Way of Heaven is understand to the Way human nature (as endowed by Heaven) and practice cultural by the sages. initiated endowed by Heaven) (as nature human by illustrating of variousIndeed, the natures that the things are derived from Heaven, of humanity texts point a possible to the integration of the to Way leading channel and the correspondence This of the of Heaven, former the latter. to and the Way so as to of Heaven is condensed in the one examine sentence, “to closely the Way responses and physical movements. The function of music and are rituals significant because they elicit sincere moral emotions by directing moral to our intention whileengagement, satisfying our sensual needs, part which are an integral of our spirit the human distinctive or emotions,nature, which define humanity’s this way, In cultivation is out by externalare drawn situations. a process Moral of integrating zi ming chu emotional capacities and responses external stimuli to are human nature. The performances activity of mental as the stages correspond that physiological to The features with their assigned functionalities. The of human beings, inbornnature in particular the derivative abilities sense, to feel, think, correspond, interact, and social makes transformationengage, construction or cultural possible. The their and patterns regularities. other words, In of existence of all things and phenomena; it also prescribes the principles, patterns, andbe reasoning embodied to in all things in the process of their brief, formation. In inherent in everything produced by ( being phenomenon renders of things of different but onenatures that classification possible. The concepts of principle, and assigned functions and correspondences actual all things. among the notion of Moreover, things in compliance with the essence“managing of principles” is also introduced: with and development. Significantly, the notions and development. Significantly, and names, forms, orderly sequence and appearances and, by extension, functionalities, courses and manifestations, transformation characteristics and related of various world. Thethings whole and in the happenings natural universe is an ordered 84 from cosmology to humanity: a perspective from the recovered bamboo manuscripts in china  shirley chan that By collocating easiness. and joy gain greatest the will practice in moral ( to life. Similar togood the in leading joy amorally and self-mastery, ease, make possible virtue practising and More acquiring in significantly, pleasure find who to principles. moral those by decreed as potentialities moral their canmaximise and of perspective naturalist seemingly the task Therefore, the human ofbecoming acomplete being. to accomplish individuals required of butwhat is Heaven by offunctionalities, result “bestowal” end the not is Their potentialwithin. moral-humane the inmanifesting ofself-consciousness faculty The feelings. cultivate and moral outhuman sentiments bring inturn, Rituals music, and human needs. emotional and sensual outofthese whichgrow ofrituals, characteristic unique Relatedthe stimuli. is external waiting to by to this evoked be development, to moral conducive tendencies emotional arespontaneous they congenial because human human nature ( harmonise Heaven. by endowed To people’s the develop and transform to is character moral nature inborn as their with accord cultural pattern createdshould human by beings Way ofHeaven Way the and means that the ofhumanity, This present. and past the together ofbringing function inits lies process uniqueculturalvaluethe ofthis 道 ( ( of Heaven” order.human relationsconstant social and “the principles The terms of principle fundamental the as ethical standards that and moral serve normative In Guodian the texts, of through integrating constant the principle have culturalpractices ofregulating human relationssetting by initiated process the Toon things. to arebelieved sages the human goal ofcultivation, this accomplish that completion, to full ofdevelopment nature principle inborn and thatand the learning of the old tradition and classics (i.e. the classics and tradition old ofthe learning the people’s ultimately through to is transform morality imbuedwith be and character a Wuxing The cultivation. ofmoral process inthe heart-mind ofthe intellectual capability and responsiveness emotional as the sensual organsaswell ofthe function the confirms ofhuman part as process, to life the qi In discusses regard, Guodian the this rituals. and corpus ofmusic cultural practices the tiande tianchang junzi, and and ) are discussed analogously in terms of moral and ethical principles. In other words, In words, other ethical principles. and ofmoral interms analogously ) arediscussed tong Changes Yucong 2 tian qing qing to realise and understand the distinctive moral features endowed by Heaven by endowed features moral distinctive the understand and to realise xing 天德 further stipulates that one who harmonises ( stipulates that harmonises who one further

同 is responsible for the production and assignment of the myriads of things, ofthings, myriads ofthe assignment and production the for responsible is ming ) sensuality with the affective and cognitive responses (of the heart-mind) heart-mind) (of the responses cognitive and affective the with ) sensuality 天常 ( produce morally congenial sensual feelings and spirit. They are morally morally are They spirit. and congenial feelings morally sensual produce , and the the , and 情 ) and “the Way “the ) and of Heaven” ( suggests that the uniqueness of human nature lies in the rational-moral ofhuman naturerational-moral inthe that lies uniqueness the suggests refers to the specific features and functionalities, including functionalities, features and to specific the refers ming ming emotions), both of which are free flowing in nature and essential in essential nature flowing and ofwhicharefree both emotions), ), or “the great regularities” ( regularities” great ), or“the 命 Spring andAutumn Spring tian with with Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences Yucong is also considered to be the source of the constant ofthe and to source the be considered also is xing/shenghu xing/shenghu tian , the Guodian, the text in the above contexts, we can infer from the texts texts the from wecan infer above contexts, inthe xing tian . The features and capacities derived from derived capacities features and . The 性

tiandao Annuals / has moral implications: people should should people implications: hasmoral 生乎 tian dachang 天道 ). The ). The . ) with external factors such as the the as such factors external ) with Wuxing Rites he ) or “the great way” great ) or“the ( 大常

Yucong 和 , the , the 五行 ) and assimilates/conforms assimilates/conforms ) and tian ), “Heavenly virtues” ), “Heavenly virtues” by steadfastly adhering adhering steadfastly by Documents

1 (Five Conducts) (Five Conducts) text suggests that suggests text tian imposes imposes , the , the xing dadao , the , the Poetry 大 5 ,  from cosmology to humanity: a perspective from the recovered bamboo manuscripts in china shirley chan 85 and are tian ) because of humanity’s ) because of humanity’s 貴 ) it. humanity Rather, is . Such an inherent . Such 逆 gui tian ni , whereas the petty person ). Here our earlier discussion). Here tiande of the Guodian corpus. of the Guodian or 治人倫 Solitude and AdvancementSolitude Depends on plays a role in reinforcing the plays normative junzi that the basic that principles governing human ) or “go against” ( against” ) or “go 成之聞之 tianchang 亂 zhi renlun there is a metaphorical expression comparing the isconcerned with observing these principles and or luan junzi as a determinant of individual experience of a specific 理人倫 唐虞之道

tian Chengzhi wenzhi Chengzhi wenzhi ) all correspond fully. This) all includes correspond the proper ordering fully. of human li renlun ) violates this principle. the and regulating educating people, Through 命 in the 小人 . Recognising and adhering thedistinctiveness to of these relationships is ming , which means “reasoning principles/patterns”, which means “reasoning things in and “managing Tang Yu zhi dao Yu Tang 名 tiande 理 li xiaoren Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives relations and therelations roles and positions of individuals in society. theLastly concept of incident isforward put text in the Guodian human nature as derived from Heaven, to make their correspond name make to as derived with nature human their from Heaven, characteristics,human distinct from other species and as members society. of human practicesCultural based on ritual and music, as envisaged by the sages, are believed be the mostto effective means of affirming this harmoniousrelationship between thus ensuring position, proper that names,humanity order, and Heaven, and assigned duties ( development. As part world, beings human are not of the natural set apart from it, and should so, not “disrupt” ( partan integral and is importance of ultimate of nature ( inborn and developing and principle capacity know to empathise and to with the Way this fully end, beings human are to understand comply and to with it. To of Heaven, all things. as the source assigned of all things—their nature, and functionality, Heaven we take If reasoning and principles—thenrelated implies the unity of humanity and Heaven comply beings human are to withthat and principles their nature of growth and ethical principleethical symbolised in the ( isthe sage fulfillingtask of the serving and earth.variousHeaven At places, the the important texts state Guodian role of the ruler as moral leader of the people, and in betweenrelationship and the the people between sage the relationship to the sun and relationships between one being and another. Accordingly, in the human realm, in the human relationships between Accordingly, and one another. being relationshipshuman are identified with and should correspond with propernames, ming crucial not only for social stability but also order and principle for the natural as is the that said It by Heaven. intended It is furtherIt in stated are notrelations simply something imposed from without but rather are a reinforcement of an existing order conferred natural by defined by the distinctionsorder, between things, encompasses natural the compliance with their essence”, is relevant: and regulating harmonisingcompliance with human their essence”, relationships should be seen as a necessary process of human the in management observingorder through inherent principles of reasoning nature; and of human sagehood or the virtue of a transformingultimately the people them or making moral, in which case it is referred as to socio-ethical and moral considered are standards be rules to decreed by peoplewhat observe should constantly Adherence as correspondence Heaven. to principles constant to is associated with and regulating harmonising human relationships ( of 86 from cosmology to humanity: a perspective from the recovered bamboo manuscripts in china  shirley chan corpus on the other hand contains individual texts that entail the synthesis of political ofpolitical that synthesis entail the texts hand contains individual other onthe corpus of I have concept the outlined far so always cherished. be ofthe qualities original the valley: inthe of angelica growing ofthe virtue This circumstances. adverse ofone’spoints at different and ultimate goodness confronting including when life anawareness ofone’sRather, itis maintain should one how and uprightness duty inevitable. and predetermined is that attitude everything ofacceptance a submissive concepts the from that, is of“knowing Guodian ofthe to concept the texts contribution important An successful. arerequiredinorderto become recognition timely and qualities personal that both the Similarly things. amultitudeand ofother circumstances between an individual’s to interactions aresubject that and these life, tian ye expression The ofcircumstances. because changed simply frequently lives same, remained the their above yet examples inthe figures ofthe qualities personal people. The the benefit or serve can they inwhich position anofficial with honoured or promoted be not talented most will the even recognition, Without timely employed. and recognised “encounters”and ( ( of“timeliness/opportunity” interms issues these discusses fact, in anindividual’s for explanation of orthe The text, experience. managing the human world—concepts that emerged from intellectual discourses intellectual discourses that from emerged managing human the world—concepts for principles and translated be should manifestations intoguidelines its proper orderand cosmic ofthe understanding the how and ofcosmology themes key the Fanwu liuxing astate. unifying and governing for preconditions of principles fundamental the of advocate imitationand heavenly recognition ofthe the The pattern. texts ruler’s on the understanding state emphasis well-regulated a unifiedand with to establish is texts ofboth concern primary the textual inthe tradition, counterparts Form) the and The cosmology. and theory and calamitous events; thus, individual fortunes, personal opportunities, and and opportunities, personal fortunes, individual thus, calamitousand events; auspicious both of unpredictability the illustrate to heroes legendary and figures Timeliness a swirling world of change. Nevertheless, as an individual, to know one’s to know anindividual, as ofchange. world Nevertheless, a swirling ming to, that constantly adhere should one principles moral ofthe In discussion ourearlier to one’s related ofevents consequences and context, causes, the concerning factors concrete by aredetermined catastrophes refers to one’s prescribed roles, duties, and related missions to be undertaken in to undertaken to be related one’s and refers missions duties, roles, prescribed

遇不遇 ming ( 6

shi yi Qiongda . With these, one is able to see what is under our control and what is not. not. what and is ourcontrol under able what to is see is one . With these,

凡物流形 , Hengxian 天也 yu yu declares that declares 遇 Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences ), exemplifying how the virtuous and the talented will be be talented the and will virtuous the how ), exemplifying and the the and 恒先 shi 窮達以時 Fanwu liuxing 時 yi are two of these examples. Without any received examples. ofthese aretwo , tian 一 shi Hengxian tian (one, oneness) and and (one, oneness) . In those examples, coincidences are the cause cause arethe coincidences examples, . In those 世 ). This text gives extensive examples of historical ofhistorical examples extensive gives text ). This tian ordains the sequence of events and the orbit of orbit the and ofevents ordains sequence the , and , and in the Guodian manuscripts. The The Shangbo Guodian inthe manuscripts. junzi 凡物流形

恒先 yu shi shi Tang Yu dao zhi is thus compared to the fragrance to fragrance compared the thus is 遇 時 , the author(s) construed a set of aset construed author(s) , the reflect on, discuss and develop develop and discuss on, reflect ), “the trends of the age” ofthe trends ), “the ( (All Things Are in Things Flowing (All heng 恒 junzi 唐虞之道 (constancy) as (constancy) as should and will will and should asserts asserts ming yu bu yu buyu yu ming shi is not not is 世

命 ), ”  from cosmology to humanity: a perspective from the recovered bamboo manuscripts in china shirley chan 87 —, the “one”. —, the “one”. yi is a holistic approach a yi 恆 which appears seven times the text, throughout should as the source and origin of all and as the realisation of all showcases how philosophical concepts and ideological yi can be seen as another by ancient attempt Chinese heng presents a cosmic process characterised by flowing and changes Hengxian Hengxian Fanwu liuxing Fanwu and other related concepts and other related are the practice and principle the ruler that emphasises and “oneness” are the “reversion” principles that of evolution heng Fanwu liuxing Fanwu Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives movement and reversion. componentsyet they and return are differentiated Its Although and the spontaneouslynaturally interconnected whole to and unity. differentiation and boundaries they are drawn, are a part of the cosmic continuum. Developing from a unitary origin a complex into whole, the universe has existed “constancy” that enables be all ever-operative that things to “constancy” and ever-lasting. The same process applies in which all realm social the human to and political institutions were establishedcreated, practice and enforced language, through and repetition. Hengxian The universe of Heaven. is in supportconstant that the cosmic continuum—the Way generation with and transformation. rulers Written scholars and elite as the intended readers, should follow in the process establishing of and building a socio-political system period. States text The illustrates the in thecosmic Warring process“non- from and from “reversion” to “reversion”, to from “creation” “generation”, existence” to realm, in particular the cosmic process of self-generation and regeneration, and the philosophical implications of this cosmic process.text The about generationis and activation rather non-existence than and non-action as has sometimes been thisargued. context, In be conceived as an inherent quality contributes that the cosmic to process of self- this sense the principles are closely statecraft, to in ancient polity China related and traditional Chinese political in particular. culture textThe of the philosophers between the relationship elucidate to cosmic and patterns the human the pervasive principle the in socio-political would qualify that realm the ruler be to sum, as the most In the one. basic and the first numeral, ruler should seek in every begins with aspect himself It of political through activity. introspection and wholeheartedness, bringing unity the different to and harmony levels of the socio-political structure until the unification of the empire In is realised. the ruler the process should initiate of bringing completion— all into textThe provides a structured messageabout leadership political and related schema centred on the concept of It is a multi-dimensionalthings unified. term, not only the explaining formation and solidarity of the influxin the cosmic process the at macro level, but also representing integrating a progressiveintegrating Confucian treatise of self-cultivation with a fundamentally Daoist view of cosmology. The cyclical reversals; it is only with some kind of underlying force cosmic that formation and transformation is possible. Complying with the cosmic and pattern principle, during the Warring States period. States Cosmologicalduring discussion the Warring during this period not was based model, on a singular rather but discourse a dynamic stagnant or was in which various ideas and concepts of rulership are embedded, and reflecting statecraft the socio-political reality and the concerns of early Chinese philosophers and political Theseplayers. texts reflect the synthesis of the ancient schools Chinese of philosophy, 88 from cosmology to humanity: a perspective from the recovered bamboo manuscripts in china  shirley chan the Guodian corpus and the the and Guodianthe corpus The Conclusion 不廢 ( abandoned and discarded be not lastly,and will ofnames actualisation the intended the effect, achieve will activities all constancy outofplace;with none with ( regenerate reproduce and revert, will system ofthe setting productions upand the all pattern: first, emulation cosmic ofthe an be which should system, socio-political the of establishing claims aboutprocess the The buthave abandoned be order arenot lasting effectiveness. of author the concerns What state affairs. language and music, maintained ofritual, through forms institutional structures other language proper and manyritual anorderedstateof building practice, by unified The names. correct the to follow people of rectifying 2 the basic ground rules of causation. If multiplicities of things are part of the natural ofthe arepart ofthings If multiplicities ofcausation. rules ground basic the and ofHeaven pattern ofhistory overall the dictates course orthe intelligence also cosmic The parts. connected many ofits the components with One as exist will and 1 of dynamic concept and rich the from naturalthe law legitimacy seeking pattern, and with incompliance one orderbutis cosmic the ofor denounces independent that is one order.not is social humanincreating onthe role human The role emphasis and Warring inthe arealisation philosophy with ofChinese Statesdevelopment period, the intellectual affirm natural and order. movements manuscripts These cosmic the in heavenly of patterndiscerned onlegitimate principles founded power of unified vision the able to be realise will orderaruler cosmic the that following by emphasise Warring inthe philosophy ofChinese They States development the period. showcase ( ongoing the practice concerns italso ofnaming; initial the act concern just not ( throughexistence into come and matters that affairs “activation” asserting After natural and response. action spontaneity, the the Whereas cycle. anatural developmental the from call also returning to is One process, cosmogonic zuo tian Yucong, Chengzhi wenzhi, Tang wenzhi, Yucong, Chengzhi Yu dao, zhi Xing chu ziming ), the text points out that establishing names through clear communication does throughdoes clearcommunication outthat names establishing points text ), the Zhanguo ChuZhanguo (7) zhushu Chengyuan Warring ofthe Museum ofChu Collection Bamboo States Manuscripts Period Ma [1]),ed.by Chu cang Zhanguo zhushu guan Bowu 1969),pp. 4–8.Press, Excavated texts cited in this study can be found in the following collections: collections: Excavated following inthe study found canbe inthis cited texts Wing-tsit Chan,Wing-tsit ) but will sustain and be long be and sustain lasting. ) butwill . ¶ 馬承源 Hengxian A Sourcebook ofChinese Philosophy Laozi (Shanghai: Shanghai 2001); and chubanshe guji Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences and other Daoist texts attach importance to emptiness and and to emptiness attach texts importance Daoist other and 上海博物館藏戰國楚竹書 emphasises human effort in the interplay of conscious interplayconscious inthe of human effort emphasises Hengxian Hengxian

(1) and and is to human and make is that sure human affairs fu 上海博物館藏戰國楚竹書 復 Fanwu liuxing ); all actions will attain will actions ); all (Princeton, NJ: University Princeton (Princeton, Hengxian ( 七 texts in the Shangbo corpus Shangbo inthe texts corpus ) (Shanghai Museum collection is presenting a vision avision presenting is Hengxian and and Shanghai Bowuguan cang Shanghai Bowuguan heng ( Qiong da yi shi dayi Qiong 一 Shanghai ) (Shanghai (constancy) makes four makes four bufei bufei xi 習 of )  from cosmology to humanity: a perspective from the recovered bamboo manuscripts in china shirley chan 89 ) 16 愛 li 情 3… , [natural 夫古者 qing 14 … begins in in the Guodian Texts Texts in the Guodian dao Tian (human nature); rituals nature); ( (human xing Journal of Chinese Philosophy Journal of Chinese 望生於敬，恥生於望， 2 喜怒哀悲之氣，性也。及其見 39 no.1 (2012), 106–20; Shirley Chan, “Cosmology, “Cosmology, Chan, (2012), 106–20; Shirley 39 no.1 … 17). [human nature].” nature].” [human (dispositions) derive from xing ; by being (a man of) man (a ; by being humanity he the was right person the at Qing ; intimacy derives from love; loyalty ( derives from intimacy”. in the Guodian Texts (Part I)”, (Part I)”, Texts in the Guodian 嚴生於禮，敬生於嚴， 忠生於親。 : “ 8 1 ming xing Tian ; ascending as the son of Heaven and yet not and yet conceited is being ; ascending avoiding as the son of Heaven Yucong 2 Yucong is derived from (dispositions); derives awe from reverence; the sense derives of shame from ming 古者堯生為天子而有天下，聖以遇命，仁以逢時， qing qing Journal of Chinese Philosophy Journal of Chinese of happiness, anger, sadness, of happiness, andgrief anger, When none is other nature. (called) than it [that qi ] appears on the outside, it is because (external) things have laid hold of it. Human nature ] appears nature on the outside, hold laid of it. it is Human because things have (external) qi 舜居於草茅之中而不憂，升為天子而不驕。居草茅之中而不憂，知命 This is spelt out in and possess born was be the son to of Heaven making the empire. By ancient“In times Yao For details see Shirley Chan, “Cosmology, Society, and Humanity: and Humanity: Society, details “Cosmology, see Shirley Chan, For 也；升為天子而不驕，不流也 himself he met his a sage ancientright times, not was time… In Shun disconcerted by living in a hut; he ascended as did not yet become conceited. Living in a hut and notthe son disconcerted being of Heaven is know to one’s ( indulgence.” 15 生於性，親生於愛， derive from … love derivesawe from 生於性，禮生於情， Innovations (2011), 64–77. Innovations is, derives descends The the mandate from the mandate; from Heaven. disposition]; 於外，則物取之也。性自命出，命從天降。道始於情，情生於性。 of Chu bamboo manuscripts of the Warring States Period [7]), ed. by Ma Chengyuan [7]), ed. by Ma bamboo Period manuscriptsof Chu States the of Warring guji chubanshe, 2008). Shanghai (Shanghai: (Part II)”, Society and Humanity: and vol. Issue: Confucian Philosophy: 38, Supplement to Supplement Transformations Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives 5 6 4 “The 3

AAH CASS

Efficient Governance through Synthetic Transformation

Wang Keping 王柯平 CHINESE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

hina is currently confronted with many challenges due to the social changes and Ceconomic boom brought forth by the reforms launched over three decades ago. In order to tackle these challenges, it is highly necessary to develop and apply a form of efficient governancexiaozhi ( ) in accord with the current politico-cultural setting. The idea of effcient governance is largely drawn from two leading sources: one is the ideal of humane governance (renzheng) in Confucian political thought, and the other is the notion of good governance (shanzhi) in Western political philosophy. Practically, the ideal of humane governance mainly consists in the demand for wise leadership that is often attributed to worthy and capable practitioners xianming( or xianneng)—practitioners who are held to be morally decent and politically wise when engaged in governmental operations or conducting state affairs. The notion of good governance depends principally on such key values as rule of law, social justice and equity, liberty and responsibility, transparency and democracy, among others.

Under such circumstances, the form of efficient governance is also associated with a notion that draws on pragmatic reason (shiyong lixing) qua the theoretical ground of Confucian pragmatism, and with a mode of democracy suitable to the Chinese heritage and status quo. As such, this notion bears such fundamental features as ethicalness, usefulness, affective-cum-rational synthesis, historical awareness, and situational adaptability, whereas the mode of democracy is based on three major principles relating to people’s expectations (min xin), people-oriented administration (min ben), and people’s sense of sharing (min xiang) according to the conventional perception of what democracy ought to be among the general public of China.

It should be noted that the chief determinants of humane governance are derived from the traditional legacy of China while their counterparts of good governance are derived from the modern mentality of the West. In a cultural sense, the former

Learning from the Other: Australian and Chinese Perspectives on Philosophy 91 92 efficient governance through synthetic transformation  wang keping calls for a synthetic transformation in the light of incorporating the most working working most the lightofincorporating inthe transformation asynthetic for calls factually This perspective. atranscultural from sources two ofthe rejuvenation and rediscovery adesirable latter the and Henceare endogenous exogenous. arises there taken advantage power, executive state-owned oftheir ofthe “hijacked” and some that have groups ofinterest criticism sharp is there country the In across addition, inChina. oflife walks all from demands growing the gratify change to aprofound inorderto undergo heavy under management pressure is now social being true, This forth. so and human as rights well as civil educational options, dignity, social culturalfacilities, participation, political benefits, share ofeconomic naturally and have to hanker better-informed, aftergreater keen a aspiration skilled, better- are relatively better-educated, who ofcitizens population a large mobile upin ends this All residence. orpermanent long-term for employment to another one from place means move to sufficient cansecure who country the across people more In areincreasingly citizens. there treated addition, humanely individual as to and more be era computerised inthe to better be informed expect who those for economy.knowledge-based Meanwhile, alternatives more areincreasingly there ofthe times want who to inthese haveto those abetter profession and education For accessible of globalisation. opportunities more instance,areincreasingly there context in the industry nature the and boom ofmodern ofeconomic a consequence as difficult more becomingmore and is social managementis, arena.That political the in exemplified remedy,all ofwhichis one challenges, arecertain itthere behind for cure- or than aninstant rather fulfillment process anarduous certainly is renaissance In my responses. view, skeptical even and idealistic the realistic, it hasspurred media quite recently. domestic inthe publicised By far widely been large, and so dream”, of“the catchphrase by the Chinese signaled is renaissance This which has society. ofthe spheres inall development rapid and peaceful by facilitated eventually emerged, China ofawell-off has renaissance promising orso, a threedecades past overthe exercised policy open-door and to reform the society. ofChinese China, Thanks for than abalanced revitalisation good inhibiting however, harm more did movements, ideological and revolutions radical Successive state semi-feudal and ofbeing. asemi-colonial from independence and sovereignty 1949that the until not is New conflicts. It it had regainedChina announced domestic invasionsforeign or by either caused 1840s,China decline the adrastic had suffered Opium the since orinfluences. Ever ornatural in political disturbances Wars social, cyclically, to owing downs and ups principally of witnessed China has history The Efficient CriticalGovernance asa Necessity way one oranother. negative conformism culture inChina today. beaten of towards the track to apt misdirected be Rather, itis ofpolitical context glocalising inthe orfunctional fruitful be canhardly governance orgood humane governance ofeither rehearsal any single-minded because is This education. democracy and adjustment ideological to institutional reform, relating ofpractice ofthreetypes virtue by day made feasible China assumedly is inpresent- kind However, ofthis sources. both atransformation from components Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences  efficient governance through synthetic transformation wang keping 93 ) above any attempt to to attempt any ) above weihu shehui wendingweihu shehui Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives rehearsal or empty promise will lead the majority of the Chinese people sheer to disappointment and even irreversibleskepticism. is acutely aware of the difficultiesis acutely aware and obstacles it is confronted with. at And the same time, it is sensitive the entire what society to expects of China from practical performance rather political than catchphrases conceived are often as a that sort of lip service it is summary, by time high the general for public. the government In to within a breakthrough theirmake first five-yearpretentious term any of office, for relevant measures resolve to all these problems. Otherwise the public credibility and authority of the government itself will The be weakened. new leaders are determined start to a comprehensive by a second to launching plan Long March deepen the reform in all public sectors, reinforce and the same at time to attempt by removingthe market economy restrictions on private enterprises. The leadership have helped the newleadership have up its campaign mind to make for a comprehensive reform the at present foruntil it has no time wait to the stage, scheme of the bigwigs the blueprint for becomes a consolidated and institutionalised system. Fortunately, reform is in principle designed from top-downChina’s and rather bottom-up, than it will thus the central enable government shoulder its to responsibility up and take six the problems: between widening the grave diminution gap of reform the vitality, therich split-up of the society the retrogression and the poor, as a of the rule law, of whole, the crime high and the rate, disastrous pollution of the eco-environment. a In word, these problems are crises the process plunge may of reform that jeopardy. into of these awareness issuesHeightened as well as the demands of the general public disrupt policy-making and governmental operations. All push this the to threatens progressive reform either a standstill into track, a wrong or onto thus ridding the government of its efficiency and depriving and credibility, majority the sharing of in the benefits of the economic bonus procured by the reform. And worse still, this situation tends nurture to maladministration misrule, or which in turn fosters least at place the maintenance of socialplace the maintenance stability ( introduce true reform driven enhance public Their ambitions to welfare. have them riskto using unnecessary force or violence suppress to criticisms from the general their privilegespublic and intellectuals have in particular. to Scheming institutionally secured, increasingly these bigwigs influence and been to able or tycoons have of bigwigs. Theiremergence started in the 1990s when the reform branched off the of the path commonmain good, and their growth has developed further over the past two power” decades or so the “magic due to the of so-calledunder market economy their control and the abuse of public welfare by corrupt officials. This has group tried every establish means to hidden schemes secure to On the their one gains. hand, they are working promote pseudo to reform for their own benefit, they and on the other, enterprises. Theyas regarded are they are in that nottycoons merely corrupt, super-rich life, but also and livingextravagant an occupy positions them to enabling monopolise properties, national abuse the common good, the social and sabotage a smoldering to leading revolt fire of order, the general among According public. observationsto by some Chinese academics, this interest group stands for a group 94 efficient governance through synthetic transformation  wang keping the ruler provides for others, through the radiating impact he has upon all his his all hasupon he through radiating the impact others, for provides ruler the thatmodel role important the ruler implies ofthe personality self-disciplined The function. moral and social their for ofrites intended to observance the is restore other the and ortemperance, approximate to self-control ofvirtue order to cultivate akind by is preconditioned people as loving ofhumaneness respectively, and virtue Briefly the ( leadership ( practices bad and good the between ( ruler corrupted and to constrain the privileged. Fortunately, privileged. the to and constrain areworking measures corrupted these late onthe down since 2013to ever crack leadership new the by taken exercised and have tough some measures been concern, and situation In to foregoing the response of humaneness as loving people ( people loving as of humaneness virtue the factors: fiveprimary at least upon largely dependent is humane governance of exercise the standpoint, According to humanistic the pragmatism. Chinese and renzheng with preoccupation traditional stemsfrom the idealThe ofhumane governance The Key AspectsofHumaneGovernance mixed institution. Westernfrom ina philosophy, ofdemocracy political mode Chinese the and drawn governance good for conditions elementary the pragmatism, Chinese namely, inChina’s ofhumane governance aspects key the heritage, Confucian Tentatively main sources, four at least with connected is rationale the speaking, governance. ofefficient rationale about the aquestion First arises there ofall, The RationaleofEfficient Governance subsequently. philosophy. Moreover, to formulated be determinants other to it remains open some ofWestern part as governance ofgood political schema current inthe but also humanism, Chinese oftraditional part as idealConfucian ofhumane governance the in merely not relevance its finds governance efficient This human-heartedness. or humaneness thoughtful with governance ofefficient construction the encourages authority, and of inadequate brought over-centralised about by governance reform adeepened inChina. dangers requires and This potentialissues or alleviate dissolve and management, to meant social enhance that is ofgovernance a mode ofdeveloping possibility the to explore necessary Under itis circumstances, such many others. among development, economic versus environmental and pollution rights, civil equity,justice, participation, transparency, political stability, distribution, power domains inthe ofsocial to there handled be arestill challenges March, biggest the for Long the of step often and enough, compared first to the from far is achieved been public. general from the support winningextensive what far and so has Yet, effectively

two dimensions, one is intended to overcome the self or overcome egoist desires in desires egoist orovercome intended self to the is overcome one dimensions, two zheng ji ren ge zheng . It can be examined from the perspectives of both Confucian humanism humanism Confucian ofboth . It perspectives the from examined canbe xian ming ling dao ling ming xian ), integrative use of laws and rites ( oflaws rites and use ), integrative Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences ). ren aide xing) hao huai fen ming hao huaifen , self-disciplined personality of the ofthe personality , self-disciplined xing li bing yong libing xing ), and worthy and wise wise and worthy ), and ), distinction ), distinction  efficient governance through synthetic transformation wang keping 95 By means of such capability By with mingled humaneness, one who exercises 1 treat men of breeding with mentreat of breeding respect. he desires If win to fame and merit, the best do is for promote him to the thing worthy to and employ men of ability. These are the three great obligationsIf of thehe meets theseruler. three, then and assist and then the common the poor, people will feel safe, then the ruler occupy This hismay text the is what old post means when it says, in safety. “The It water is the ruler is the boat and the common peoplewater. are the Therefore, if the bears capsizesruler that that and the the water it.” boat up, the best do isdesires for govern him to thing to fairly and safety, love the he desirespeople. If the best do is glory, for honor him to ritual thing to and If the horsesIf are frightened of the carriage, the do is best quiet to to thing them; if the common people are frightened of the government, the best thing Select men who are worthy and do is them humanely treat kindly. or to to good for government office, promote those who are kind and respectful, encourage filial piety and brotherly affection,after look andorphans widows Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives affairs And in everyday properly and effectively. life, it observeswhat is morally Xunzi intriguingly, decent and sets More a good example for others follow. to describes the essential features of worthy and wise leadership in the following figurative at quoted language, some length: enough notenough between tell merely to the good and bad practices, the right make but to choice discrepant among and confusing alternatives. all,After it should do governance humane to do what would withoutbe unable worthy and wise leadership leadership. Such is characterised by persons of and virtue. political talent outstanding practice, In this leadership can conduct state Being able clearly to distinguish clearly able to Being between the good and thebad, it concerns actual performance there an is expectation the in politics. leader that will Specifically, “honor the five excellent practices as is emphasised and banish the four by bad ones”, Confucius. government will win be to able willing support from the people as he isobservant against the law. It relies upon the sense It of fear imposed from without it may such that the law. against prevent people from doing wrong. The rule by rites is morality-based and provides a kind of complementary counterpart, thus helping people distinguish between iswhat right is and what wrong, and guiding foster them to a sense against of shame wrong doings. a bypath for actions wrong misguided ensue run subordinates to Consequently, along. and wrong-doers multiply. As regards the integrative use and ritesof laws administration, in state it aims to social forachieve long-term more stability advantages conditions, under favorable for the rule works by punishment law through as people it makes is afraid do what to subordinates particular in cases many when the and the populace in general. In ruler be politically to happens and morallycorrect, he produces something more positive and constructive by virtue of effective government and helpful subordinates. Otherwise, he falls a difficult into to do and situation becomes either inadequate things right would open is that up right do act then or to prone to in a way things. He 96 efficient governance through synthetic transformation  wang keping The Notion ofChinesePragmatism inthe portrayed is as sense in anidealistic ( ruler” to a“sage- produce assumed is dimensions two ofthese utility cooperative and organic integration An expertise. governing and wisdom to political refers without” “kingliness whereas to inward perfection, moral and within” refers cultivation ( without” kingliness and within sageliness Dao “the of with associated capable.which man as is Hence, intrinsically itis of ofachievement form to highest the be conceived itis and competent, politically and excellent It ofhumane governance. to morally be obliged operation in the is role to play adecisive asserted is leadership wise and worthy the account, this On recommended. strongly and highlyworshiped consistently is type superior ofwhichthe of rulers threecategories between distinction the arises there According logic, toneeds. this public and interest common the that prioritises administration ideal of people-based a political itreveals and ruled the and ruling the relationship between interactive motto Xunzi. inChina apolitical since has become ever It and asubtle implies In water-boat then. the and now allegory addition, maneuvers to political relevance much bears as it thought and provoking significant as us strikes thesis whole the circumstances, ofstate governing With regard fair the all, affairs. to present-day ofhuman relations, above and norms moral ofthe observance the vulnerable, the of care-taking good the officials, worthy ofthe employment right the people, ought tohumane governance do. It common treatmentofthe engages kind inthe ofwhat summary out be animpressive to turns description metaphorical This the Confucian notion of pragmatic reason ( reason ofpragmatic notion Confucian the in grounded is pragmatism This pragmatism. lightof Chinese inthe revisited also be can ofhumane governance pursuit historical the humanism, Confucian from Apart affective-cum-rational synthesis ( synthesis affective-cum-rational ( usefulness principles: four by characterised time. of alongpassage the modification In Li’snature to open further is it opinion, developed”. canbe necessity universal and ofobjective norms or moral “absolute whichcertain values from sedimentation psychological and formation inadynamic process” “aas principle creative conceived canbe reason pragmatic LiZehou, philosopher, Chinese contemporary inthe outlined is as sense inarealistic ruler” good of“the conception any benefit to him. Confucius has said, “If he meets both his major and minor minor major and his both “Ifmeets he said, has any benefit to him. Confucius of be scarcely itwill obligations, although other manages he then, to his meet three, these meet not does ifhe met; be likewise will obligations other all correctly enough, I do not care to see any careto see ofhim Idonot more enough, correctly ones though may minor major he obligations, to his his meet meet If fails he ruler. amediocre is he obligations, minor his inmeeting inconsistent but is major obligations his If ruler. meets he correctly,obligations asuperior is he shengwang ), partly similar to Plato’s conception of “the philosopher-king” to Plato’s similar ), partly philosopher-king” of“the conception Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences qing libufen qing Republic nei sheng wai wang dao zhi sheng nei shiyong lixing youyongxing 3 of historical accumulation, cultural accumulation, ofhistorical ), and historical awareness ( historical ), and , and partly similar to Aristotle’s similar partly , and ) in particular. According to) inparticular. ), ethicalness ( ), ethicalness . ” 2 ). “Sageliness Politics 4 lunlixing It by is lishi lishi . ),  efficient governance through synthetic transformation wang keping 97 ) in socio-political matters. shen shi duo shi in China and the This world alike. in China largely is status quo status It is most procure to a world It liable outlook by which 5 ), due to its relevance), due to social to reality. shiyingxing ). I personally think it necessary add one more principle, to situational of that Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives owing such openness to Chinese and has benefited culture that been enriched ever since Buddhism around the first as religion an alien China camecentury to and BC, civilization in the early twentiethWestern century. due to the currentdue to context of either globalisation or glocalisation in which no nation- to confine can afford itself to state its own traditions and alone. cultures The Chief Conditions for Good Governance is common senseIt a modern that society is be open the outside to to ought world. It policies and decisions by the government, notwithstanding the Confucian that dynamic becausetradition static rather than for being is it attacked gives often On such an account,more credit stability the to rediscovery changeability. than of governancehumane can be meaningful only when it is exposed modification to and transformation in view of the In addition, the principleIn adaptability of situational is conscious highly of the need to observe timing, judge the occasion and to ( is by so a correct doingIt that assessment situation is changing rendered of any possible, and a solution can be found and appropriate action This taken. type of strategy is frequently socio-political applied to matters when it comes making to investigation, consideration, and of things and calculation events from a long-term, systematic perspective, and is less in transient interested and losses gains or successes and failures of the present. things are perceived and appraised with particular reference the past, to the present and the future. by harmoniously satisfying emotional and rational needs. The emotional needs and directed reciprocalare mainly the towards equitable enhancement of human relationships, whereas the rational ones are in principle directed doing towards justice activities human to the established according to rules and regulations. When it comes the principle to historical of it purports awareness, focus to on objective individual cultivation, but also collective to effort.naturally leadsIt to the sacrifice of personal interest for of the family the sake and community good. As for the principle of affective-cum-reasonable synthesis,to ensure attemptsalmost it always a kind between of balance the two The balance keyis dimensions nature. of human undertake to claimed actions all in a fair and treat and humans acceptable manner purposes. Then, the principle of ethicalness can be to correspond seen loosely with for both of them emphasise conception the of “practical need of reason”, Kant’s moral cultivation and conduct, and commend the building of a refined personality and even the pursuit with perfection of human regard lived experience. through Yet, the Chinese expectation,to the principle of ethicalness is applied not merely to yishi adaptability ( brief,In the principle of usefulness represents a measurement of truth resembles that the core concern of American is pragmatism. deep-rooted It in the Chinese mentality asplaces it often much stress on pragmatic wisdom and knowledge for practical 98 efficient governance through synthetic transformation  wang keping may need to undergo some modifications and even compromises in China during compromises even and may modifications to some need undergo conditions These governance. good for conditions fundamental the into practice its oughtincorporate governance to ofefficient sayingIt that structure the without goes populace. the control and state affairs to run powerful by the latter the whereas often utilised is inparticular, powerful ofthe a supervision ensures and alike members to social applied all equally is that extent former the the to another from one by rule lawrule of lawdistinguished are and speaking, Briefly above instead law. the ofunder is thoughleadership the as constraints, legislative the beyond power full with or unconsciously, government to the bestow seem they to reinforce government the areasking they when which at atime is why Thatis many remain which unclear about people being obscured. distinction Kong. It was organised and supervised by Prof. by Tianjian in University Shi Duke from Kong. It supervised and was organised including regions, and countries Asian infive was conducted and Taiwan and Hong the out to find designed was survey in2002.The survey inalarge-scale revealed ofdemocracy conception Chinese onthe observations ofdemocracy, mode Chinese to the Iwould like share some to discussing Prior The ChineseModeofDemocracy dream”. Chinese “the to realise as so society paveto the civil way a for building serve will like the and modifications such Nevertheless, development. ofinstitutional social renovationand process the proper. What is required is the integrative use of what is exercised in the political political inthe exercised ofwhat is use integrative the requiredis is proper. What of culturalsetting heritage and social China the within governance recreate efficient suffice to not does in ofhumane governance Confucianism legacy the being true, This as as Incidentally, content. into truth rendered Chinese light ofits in the is oflaw” “rule proved been historically and has constitutional spirit the motto embodies This ends. oflaw rule wherever begins tyranny because priority law maximum assume must of rule the acknowledged, globally As independence. respective their with accord in powers executive and judicial legislative, separating for constitutional basis the oflaw as rule the adopting as characterised is society anopen Noteworthy itis, as kind. endogenic ofany cultural settings given and political social, toaccording particular the transformed creatively and China reconceived nowadays. arethere be learnt, to They of ideology inthe ofhumankind” treated advanced culture orcivilization “the as is ofwhat part asignificant representing large and values,thus shared key are by as life. They political orderand social ofsecuring inrespect than others functional and have dignity, ofthese provedto appropriate all more be like. Historically the and individual and rights equity, and liberty, and civil justice social transparency rule of law, to arethe referred conditions particular constitutionalThe democracy, features. reliable oftheir universal and because governance good for conditions chief West. ofthe inthe consideration due encourages societies This ofopen cultures fazhi , yet “rule by law” is also rendered as as rendered also is law” by , yet “rule Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences fazhi, fazhi, often leading to their essential often leadingessential to their status quo of democracy, fazhi. Consciously Consciously  efficient governance through synthetic transformation wang keping 99 According to Prof. Shi’s analysis based the on collected the data, Shi’s Prof. to According 6 Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives some constructive bring alternatives to democracy the right back to instead channel it flow of letting with thelaissez-faire tide in a fashion. it as they enjoy freedom of speech, and on the other it as they hand, they downplay observe its less constructive for in reality partisan tendency, political passions in can even reach the point affecting of negatively This government efficiency. Taiwan economic well-being and quality of life impact a strong upon an individual’s can have people are deeply it becomesas well. one Hence of the Taiwanese chief reasons why concerned the about problem They of excessive are therefore looking democracy. for there is no reason to exaggerate or gloat over the negative reactions to the Taiwan there is reactions over the or gloat negative no the reason Taiwan exaggerate to to mode of democracy is that by a bold and large experiment in Chinese history in its case, their any “excessive democracy” complaint about In is not be taken entirety. to as it needs a few a careful quite people re-examination. in Taiwan literally, Actually, On the one hand, they give credit democracy. hold about a paradoxical to attitude Taiwan (1987 to 2002). In their cynical turn of phrase, 2002). In (1987 to democracy is not something Taiwan can eat. you democracyIf is be perceived either a process to of political of development or a way seems me that to life, it will It time secure to take its improvement and maturity. constraint; nearly 50% define democracy as liberty and equality; and 33.7% think of opinionsdemocracy and serve government in terms collect of having people’s the reflects interests, which again the people-basedConfucianism. mentality of people’s the feel level that to of democracy tend is worthIt people mentioning that in Taiwan is its more than needed and therefore they the complain about phenomenon of excessive democracyyears 15 after of introducing democracy constitutional to decisions and policies. Apart from that, a democratic serve government to ought these twothe people categories all the time. Apparently, of feedback demonstrate a perception of substantive democracy reflects that the ideas of people-based in the case of the people governance prevailing in Confucianism. interestingly, More 14% identifysurveyed democracy with in Taiwan, government elections and power regions. For instance, 12% of them identify instance, democracyregions. For with governmental elections; and 6.3% consider democracy as a constraint on dictators. These two categories of feedback democracy show a perception 22.9% equate of procedural democracy. with liberty; democracy that 55% maintain and approximately put people’s means to opinions or suggestions when it comesmaking to interest firstto to listenpeople’s and counterparts the in other fourcountries of those Most and regions involved. surveyed the level the feeling that democracy of have in their of China countryin the mainland the level of democracyis pretty sufficient, in theirsay, viewthat to is is ranked second Yet,their terms,highest of all the five in percentage countries and regions involved. understanding of democracy varies from those surveyed in the other countries and the United States. the United responses from those surveyed following led to fruitful findings. Over 80% of those surveyed commonly hold that from China of the mainland democracy is tyranny than or despotism, better China. andsuits definitely their positive view of democracyInterestingly, is of their that than higher 100 efficient governance through synthetic transformation  wang keping comprehensive reform. China is the largest developing country with the largest largest the with country China developing largest the reform. is comprehensive of scheme indeepening the of China helpful culture, and realm inthe ofpolitical constitutional democracy. In my view, context suitable to current both the itseems of ofamature development kind pathto onthe further measure a transitional as power. ofexecutive utilised and deployed canbe Such amixture distribution to according aninstitutionalised kind ofacontrollable authoritarianism moderate with ofahealthy kind democracy modern combining by that nurtured canbe mixture to applicable and China relevant to fairly be seems today. It however, a new be must, inthe democracy corrupt and theatrocracy ofvulgar critique sharp inhis revealed is as life ofhis end the until freedom excessive He anindividual. negative as attitudeto retains death his the of Socrates towards itwas inhastening ofAthens decline acommunity, the as leading and destructive unhealthy and and democracy, saw he for harmful how clearly at corrupt solely Plato’s because largely lopsided directed But is is say Imust averdict such hostility now. himself defend and Its Enemies Popper, Karl as such in noted thinkers, is as some by to democracy kallipolis attacked and itinthe exposed Plato freedom, ofexcessive aconsequence as corrupt grew Athenian democracy democracy in either a constitutional or an institutional sense is absent inChina’s absent is aconstitutional oraninstitutional ineither sense democracy of historically, stage exercise because, the elementary at pragmatic its and modest be to assumed is ofdemocracy mode the being case, Chinese the This obstacles. having to despite encountered develop, manycontinue institutional ideological and to ago, expected years is afew and just tentatively commenced reform political contrast, In term. ofthis striking economy amarket puresense inthe upgrading way onthe to still itis than more threedecades, launched for has been reform ofmainlandWith context China, regard though to economic on-going the even to and deal globe humanity. agreat to whole the contribute will reform political and ineconomic success her And revolution. than radical rather the world’s afifthof for that population counts reform total. progressive needs She “the school of Hellas” as Pericles once announced in his famous funeral oration in oration funeral famous ofHellas” inhis announced Periclesonce school as “the age golden become her and Athens helped experience that successfully of democracy praxis inthe inhuman Athenians pioneers recorded the history, as arerenowned As In my view, Plato by depicted inthe as constitution to approach the amixed of to doctrine the corresponds ofhaving too little”. “never never too much, virtue by of principle This of toaccording Greek the principle freedom checked and administration sake the ofefficient for ofconstitution modes anoligarchy to degree. two the agreat Eventuallythat onto resembles mix goes he monarchy Spartan ofthe merits the for high praise tendering while democracy ofAthenian function positive inthe pride Platorelated his prologue, inthe manifests city-state. As best second the for Plato outaconstitutional blueprint draws thereby the during fallen Peloponnesian had who first ofthose honor War. (just city). (just . With regard to such a verdict, Plato cannot get out of his grave Plato and outofhis . With get regard cannot to averdict, such 8 It is basically for this reason that he is labeled as being hostile labeled being that as hostile is he reason this for It basically is Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences Republic Republic zhong yong mesos with , a principle that balance aimsto agood hold , aprinciple or golden mean in the Chinese heritage. Chinese in the mean orgolden Laws

an ambitious intention toupa build an ambitious , purportedly his last dialogue. his , purportedly 7 However, when The Open Society Society Open The mesos loosely loosely Laws 9

efficient governance through synthetic transformation  wang keping 101 shan min min yi lin wei ), but also ) through win-win) through jiangou hexie shehui hexie jiangou jiangou hexie shijie hexie jiangou ), taking good), taking of the care seniors ( so provide as to the majority with just and

) yi min wei ben min xiang ) so as to attain the willing) so attain as to support The second of the majority. ), treating neighboring), treating countries as partners of cooperation ( min xin min ) and constructing a harmonious society ( ), and working a harmonious towards world ( ) so as to take into due consideration due into ) so the take well-being as of the general to public when yu lin wei shan Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives practice, risks and instead misguided being follow to track thenegative of beaten conformism. This need is consistent with pragmatic reasonterms in of practical usefulness, historical adaptability and situational awareness in particular. push forward all-round and reform. deepening Chinese pragmatism to According in political the culture, traditional heritage of governancehumane needs be reconsidered to with reference the search to for good governance, by means and synthetic of thus renovated transformation. Otherwise, such heritage can hardly be revitalised with new functionality and efficiency in Nowadays in China, social realities in China, are rapidly changing,Nowadays public demands are diversified,becoming varied and challenges arise These exertall successively. increasing pressure and social improve the political to management culture, something which has become a focus priorities of national view, my in recent years. In all this accelerates search the heated for efficient governance as a critical necessity to in such foreign policies as developing sound relationships with neighboring countries ( ban collaboration and so forth. practical. It remains appealing in its appealing teleological remains sense, in practical. but somewhat It unattainable its spite operational of all this, sense. it has been In a shadowy structure throughout traces, hidden Its Chinese history continues be so in the political to today. It arena. for seem be instance, embodied to not simply in such domestic policies as operating a people-based administration ( yang lao ren working to lay down a solidworking foundation lay of efficient China. to governance in in Question Transformation The Synthetic The traditional pursuit governance of humane more idealisticis nature by than of people’s sense of sharing ( of people’s chances of needs meetequal their in order to hierarchy ranging from the physical theat bottom via the social, the cognitive and the aesthetic in the middle the to self-fulfillmentaltruistic of the top. at theAll thisan interaction involves between traditional and modern components political of home at culture and abroad, thus practically, the first principlepractically, is derived from the genuine concern with people’s expectations ( principle is grounded of people-based in the awareness high administration ( ben it comes policies. making to The third principle is devotedto the steadfast assurance tradition and political of except culture for the regional experiments in Taiwan Hong Kong. propose it relevant I think to Hence, three principles in this They are intended regard. vouchsafe the constructionto of efficient governance under the condition of healthy democracy based on the motivation fulfill to the common good. Theoretically and 102 efficient governance through synthetic transformation  wang keping yong directed to all citizens alike. to citizens directed all fairness and independence judicial for legislate above all, and abuse, power restrict and powers separate capable, redundant remove positions, most the select resources, ofhuman use to appropriate the ensure to system plan aworking needs reform such law-abiding Moreover, and democracy, reinforcement. accountable transparency oflaw, rule via performed be should healthy this All main arethe targets. bigwigs the among whom levels different at and money-makers officials lawless towards corrupt directed indignation the resolve and vulnerable, the and powerful the between poor, the and tension the reduce rich the gap to the narrow between expected is which inparticular, limitationanti-corruption and power duties, and rights civil equity, and justice social specifying for intended legal tothe reinforce system One is areas. crucial two in exercised is be to institutional reform speaking, Briefly education. democracy and adjustment, ideological institutional reform, including ofpractice, kinds three to at least pertain will actions These transformation. to to take synthetic facilitate involved, actions relevant Ithinkitadvisable reality social the regards As ofChina context glocalising ofthe atin terms present. transformation through going asynthetic without separately orapplied molded formulated be earlier. as not determinants, itcould In words, indispensable other other some upon dependent also is that inmind governance however, such kept be It sense. inapractical must, plausible become and foundation legislative its secure oflaw, rule will the by Being preconditioned governance ofefficient form the conventionally absent. is arena historically, where, political so ina democracy especially is This begins. tyranny to anyone. oflaw Hence ends tending that rule where privileges weareconvinced equally, power, citizens all ofpolitical treats and above any itis as type without life of walks to all control oflaw designed is rule whilst privileged, the favors particularly and thus inauthority officials by exercised is as inparticular, people common the by rule lawis intended control to another.from one different fundamentally In brief, oflaw, above. law noted by as Now rule ought by to substituted rule be are they since officials of less temperance but more power fall into the pit of corruption. pitof into the power fall more but temperance less of officials through whichthe ofregulations preceding setup inthe toas holes stitch upthe help so ofabetter system to institutionalisation the conducive is this All temptation. illegal of into from falling theabyss officials to prevent butalso corrupt, the punish and only to inspect not network systematic and effective 2013, aiming a more to establish regard of atend the inthis ofChina leadership hastaken step new the forward abig Fortunately, aremeted out. punishments severe areenacted and regulations drastic though even rather than decreasing increasing keeps officials ofcorrupt number the aresult, As structure. power the coming mainly from interferences and obstacles ofinstitutional China existence ofthe butitremains inadequate before, years because in was launched campaign This campaign. anti-corruption instance, to on-going the for importance, Needless to ofparamount say, is ofinstitutional reform sort this valid to different degrees except for the integrative use of laws and rites ( rites of laws and use integrative for the except valid degrees to different To remain ofhumane governance factors afore-mentioned ofthe my most mind, ). This integrative practice used to be divided into rule by law and rule by rites rites by rule by rule law and into divided be to used practice integrative ). This Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences xing li bing libing xing efficient governance through synthetic transformation  wang keping 103 Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives civil rights, social commitment, public ethics and the like, and in the end they will understandcome to the proper sense Second, they of citizenship in a open society. will the probe possibility be into led to of creative transformation of democratic polity This in accordance with naturally Chineseis political and culture social reality. democracy, they do not knowdemocracy, normal a democratic what much about polity expects from the citizens of a civil This true, being society. it is necessaryto introduce a nation-wide program of democracy education for all an Chinese citizens. Such exercise would be very fruitful. and foremost, First this through exercise, people will be exposed a holistic to picture democracy of what offers and demandsterms in of democratic reform in the political domain. This is surely the most difficult of all the projects be carried to out, because the actualisation of democracy is a complex process, and it is especially so in the Chinese social addition, context.democracy In in tradition,its and fundamentally sense constitutional absent is the peculiar Western to for constitutional long in the people Chinese heritage. Although in China many be part the of kernel of socialism values with Chinese characteristics. This historic not merelychange expands system, the value but also enhances socio-political life. The outsetmarked a historic of 2014 when theChina new authorities event in organised six groups task promote the all-round to and deepened reform in varied sectors. Among them, one is design to a top-down framework drive to forward publicised by the state-owned media. They grow more and more individualised as think on their own,they to tend see with their own eyes, and choose as they please. All this the diverse heightens public demands for civil rights, universal free values, has announced for the Xi Jinping first such timespeech that and so on. recently, Quite justice, equity democracy, assistance liberty, and mutual are to values as rule of law, of value systemsof value in bothdiversity and universality in accord with domestic and global tendencies. in the computerised breaks culture the Internet down age, Nowadays the rigid netizens ideological can obtain informationapproach Most to propaganda. from different sources. They are thusskeptical about the old-fashioned political rhetoric Ideological adjustment is intended to pave the way for a more open discourse the way adjustment is pave Ideological to intended that should be constructive and critical it demands do so, order to the at same In time. gradually to a continuous broaden the space, cultural endeavor the thinking space, spaceand so the value meet as the to needs this of the Chinese citizens as In a whole. respect, it will give rise the collective to wisdom helps that explore the truth content a fair and equally just open state-owned market economy to enterprises and their private counterparts. This is feasible only when good legislation codes of legal and close supervision of executive power are specifiedall and authorised. this Certainly, must be done before the schemes of the privileged become entrenched networks that and even economy governmental administration. the national highjack aim to The other reform area of the institutional is directedat demolishing the power-base of the bigwigs or tycoons, because it is usually more detrimental social to stability and this respect, In governmental credibility. it must find itsto approachdismantling the scaffolds of the bigwigs in such steps ownership as strengthening state by off cutting the bigwigs’ connections or exchange-channels to with the powerful, and by creating 104 efficient governance through synthetic transformation  wang keping 6 2 5 4 3 democracy from elsewhere without considering its suitability and applicability in the inthe applicability and suitability its considering without elsewhere from democracy out ofwater to only have of amechanical model transplantation ofaready-made afish like be ofhealthy model anew democracy, itwill indeveloping for helpful Confucius, 1 Confucius, lip service. sounding orfine- rather than any catchphrase political actions areeffective expect public watch abroad and everyday. onat home going onwhat Chinese the is a close What who keep public the general of eyes observant oftenthe in reflected is ofthis all for time come.to The inthe touchstone through painstaking achieved efforts reality functional become itwill butwehope promising, to theoretically be appears reform ofcomprehensive blueprint Now issued newly among the others. eco-environment, ofthe rate, pollution and crime inthe increase structure, social ofthe fragmentation oflaw, rule ofthe poor, the and vitality, retrogression rich the the gap the between ofreform decline the as problems severe such control under able to be then bring oflife. It walks all will for equity and justice social reinforcing while bigwigs of the schemes the institutional on crack down to governance efficient by bolstered be time atsame and the awhole, as setting social Chinese the with inaccord properly “only canmake abreakthrough”. reform and However, holistic be must reform this inlate 1970s,is, policy open-door ofthe introduction the since ever popular phrase, catchother The characteristics. Chinese with socialism ofpragmatic model anew by replaced hasbeen and past, ofthe Yet astory is socialism ofidealistic model old this to inMao popular be cansaveused Zedong’s “only that China”. is, regime, socialism One reflection. To further for catchphrases two to Iwouldlike mention conclude, development. cooperative for world ofthe to more rest the contribute and life, and happy to make adignified live enable China people governance, the prosperous, intendedis efficient above all to produce This traits. own its with ofdemocracy model aworking develop will China transformation creative means of by nations. Third, other insome reforms political drawnradical from bitterlessons the by evidenced is as into chaos liable be to plunge country the will case inthis Any blunder soil. new of interview on the widely read Chinese newspaper newspaper read Chinese widely onthe of interview xifang yu (Beijing: People’sThought) pp.Publishing 1986), 305–306. House, Li Zehou, of “Shitan dezhihui” Zhongguo Thought 2004–2006), (Tianjin: Tianjin 2006,p. Academy Press, 206. ofSocial Sciences Joint Company, Publishing SXD A Culture (Beijing: ofOptimism) 2005),p. 329. Li Zehou, Columbia University Press, 1963),pp. Press, Columbia 36–37. University Some of the findings are cited in an article under the title “ the under cited inanarticle are findings Some ofthe Hsun Tzu, ofa Regulations King”, “The in Li Zehou, “SomeTentativeLi Zehou, onChina’s Remarks in Wisdom” (excerpts), Li Zehou, “GuanyuLi Zehou, ‘shiyong lixing’” , Winter 1999–2000(Vol. text original the see 31No. 2000),p. 49.Also E.Sharpe, 2,M. ” (Chinese People’s” (Chinese from That of form ina Differs Westerners) View of Democracy Zhongguo gudai sixiang shilun sixiang gudai Zhongguo Li Zehou jinnian dawenlu dawenlu Li Zehou jinnian legan yu Shiyong lixing wenhua The AnalectsThe ¶ Australian AcademyAustralian Humanities& Chinese Academy ofthe ofSocialSciences ,

trans. by D. C. Lau (London: Penguin Books, 1983),20:2. D. by Penguintrans. C. Lau Books, (London: 试谈中国的智慧 李泽厚近年答问录 关于实用理性

中国古代思想史论

实用理性与乐感文化 Basic WritingsBasic Cankao xiaoxi (A Discussion of Chinese Wisdom), in Wisdom), ofChinese Discussion (A (About “Pragmatic Reason”; 1993),in “Pragmatic (About , trans. by Burton Watson Burton by , trans. York: (New Zhongguoren de minzhuguan butong de minzhuguan Zhongguoren (Interviews with Li Zehou LiZehou with (Interviews (Essays on Ancient Chinese Chinese onAncient (Essays ( Reference News Reference (Pragmatic Reason and and Reason (Pragmatic Contemporary Chinese ) 6May efficient governance through synthetic transformation  wang keping 105 (Cambridge: (Cambridge: 21, 4 (2010), 123–29. , trans. by Joseph Gavorse (New York: Random House, , trans. by Joseph (New York: Gavorse trans. by Trevor J. Sounders (London: Books, J. Penguin 1994). trans. by Trevor

, The Logic of Politics in Mainland China and Taiwan China and Mainland Politics Logicin The of . The Laws Journal of Democracy, 560–563, trans. by Paul Shorey (Cambridge MA: (Cambridge Shorey Harvard 560–563, trans. University by Press Paul The Laws The Peloponnesian War Peloponnesian The 700a–701b, trans. by R. 700a–701b, Bury G. MA: (Cambridge Harvard University Press 1994); Republic Laws 199); also see Plato, 199); also see Plato, also see Plato, 2014, p. 11. Also see T. Shi, 11. Also Shi, 2014, p. see T. of Democracy: “TheMeaning Lu, Shadow & Jie The Shi University Press,Cambridge T. 2011); of Confucianism”, 1934), Book II, VI, 102–6. pp. Learning from the Other:Learning from on Philosophy Australian and Chinese Perspectives Plato, 9 Plato, 7 Thucydides, 8 Plato,