From Slavery to Aid: Politics, Labour, and Ecology in the Nigerien Sahel, 1800–2000 Benedetta Rossi Index More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-11905-5 - From Slavery to Aid: Politics, Labour, and Ecology in the Nigerien Sahel, 1800–2000 Benedetta Rossi Index More information

Index

Abalak, 78, 155, 245, 257 Ahmad al-Mustafa, 54 Abdou, village chief of slave descent, 127 Ahmoud, Sultan of Imanan, 152 Abdoussalam, project ﬁshery agent, 268 Ain-Galaka zawiya, 152 Abidjan, 235, 299 Aïr, 38–9, 48 Abou-Bakr son of Attaher-Tachi, 42 Aïr Tuareg, 45, 47 Abuzeidi, Lissawan notable, 156 Akala, 136 Ader al Bakri, Sultan of Agadez, 44, as province of Sokoto, 56 49 Birnin Ader, 57 al Rhimarett, 159 geography of, 3, 13, 20, 37, 58 Alamtey, Lissawan title, 50, 102 Kingdom of Ader (sarauta ta Ader), 47 Albaraka, 99 productivity of region, 2 Alela, 30–1 Ader Doutchi Majiya, 17, 202, 216–21 Algeria, 110, 162 Aderawa, people, 18, 198 Almoumine of Sakole, 31, 122–5 Aderawan Gabas, 177–8 Alojaly, Ghubayd, 159 Aduna lake, 102, 206–10 Amajallad, 28, 154 Afadandan, 123, 150, 153, 155–8 Amattaza, 101, 119, 124–6, 139–40, 142, death of, 155 144 Aga, canton chief of Tamaske, 150 Amin, Samir, 313 Agadez, 8, 12, 33–5, 37, 39, 41, 44–7, Amma of Tegueleguel, 70 49–50, 56–7, 63, 87, 90, 101, 110, Ammuddur Shibo, 49 143, 145, 151, 158, 164–5, 188, Anafaran, man of slave descent, 85–6, 191, 197, 209, 235 100–1 Agadez Chronicles, 42, xxi anagnorisis, 24 Agholla Al Mokhtar, 129 Anglo-French border, 106, 109, 111, 113, Agholla Mallam, 129 142 Agholla Moulloul, 129 Ankourao Galadima, 223 Agouloum, 31, 43, 82, 94, 97, 99–102, Argungu, 111 123–5, 133, 144, 150, 194, 210 Ariste, sergeant, 120 Ahaggaren Tuareg, 44 Arkilla, slave of Kel Denneg, 141 Ahamani Mohamed, Keita Canton Chief, Arlit, 197, 235 223 Arnei of Tamaske, 76 Ahambala of Bagey, 71 Asna, 35, 39

357

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-11905-5 - From Slavery to Aid: Politics, Labour, and Ecology in the Nigerien Sahel, 1800–2000 Benedetta Rossi Index More information

358 Index

Asna (cont.) Bretton Woods institutions, 246 Asna religious beliefs and practices, 32, Brévié, Jules, 166 36, 89–93, 97, 258 Britain, 22 matsafa, 32 Brock, Lina, 69, 79 societies, 6, 42, 53, 67–8, 90, 139, 149 Brooks, George, 4 Assadeck Ghali, 224, 236 Brouin, commandant de cercle, 178, 207–8 Association des Femmes du Niger, 242 Budal ‘Balla’ ag-Katami, Amenokal of the Association Islamique du Niger, 242 Kel Denneg, 53, 57, 70 Association Nationale des Sans-Emploi, 290 Assusun Keita, 277 Cairo, 44, 304 Atiku, Sultan of Sokoto, 54–5 Cameroon, 298 Augustin, forest guard, 95, 135, 233 Caputo, Enzo, 252, 264 Aujila, 49 Carucci, Renato, 263, 265–6, 272, 274–5, Austin, Gareth, 2, 5 286, 301 azalai, 63 Cazemajou, captain, 56, 110, 113, 316 Azao, 56 Ceccaldi, administrator, 179–80 Azawagh, 38, 169 Central Labour Ofﬁce in Niamey, 174 Chareton, head of Tahoua’s agricultural Baba of Karo, 35 services division, 225 Bacheley, lieutenant, 129 Charingue, 181 Badagry, 108 Chédeville, lieutenant, 129 Bagey, 70–1, 97, 100, 115, 124, 208 children, 19, 24, 96 bagzam horses, 76 Chimier, Ekaney, 227 Baier, Stephen, 4, 26 Chinfaran, 182 Bakary, Djibo, 211–12, 236 CILSS. See Permanent Inter-State Bandiougou, sub-lieutenant, 131 Committee for Drought Control in the Bardon, major, 143 Sahel Barmou, 119, 154 citizenship, 203, 205, 212 Barth, Heinrich, 39, 47, 55–7, 63, 108 Clapperton, Hugh, 55, 57, 108 Barzanga, 133, 224–6 Club du Sahel, 247–8, 251 Basic Territorial Unit, 219, 260, 282 COLOMIVAL, 225–6 Bayan Tudu. See Iklan Eguef colonial conquest, 31, 104–60, 175, 189 Bayart, J.F., 21, 314–15, 317–18 consequences for slaves, 28, 177 Bazo ag Elkhorer, 71 colonial development initiatives, 202–11 Bermo, 135–6, 196 Colonne Berger, 158 Bernus, Edmond, 4, 26, 61 Colonne Mourin, 158 Bernus, Suzanne, 4, 26 Comité Inter-Etats de Lutte contre la bête apocalyptique, 154 Sécheresse au Sahel. See Permanent Betrix, commandant, 63 Inter-State Committee for Drought Bilma, 63 Control in the Sahel Birnin Ader, 44, 48, 50, 304 committees Boilley, Pierre, 4 function of, 216 Bonte, Pierre, 26, 61–2 Committee of the Ader Doutchi Majiya, bori, 31, 77, 123, 258 216–20 Borkou, 152 concubinage, 24, 306 Borno, 108 concubine, 23, 65, 189, 237, 285, 306 Boubaker ag Elegwi, 152 Congo, 112, 298 Bourgeot, André, 4 Conklin, Alice, 163 Bouthel, sergeant, 112 connectivity, 8–9 Bouza, 245, 257 Cooper, Frederick, 21–2, 203, 312 Braudel, Fernand, 9 Cotonou Congress of PRA, 212 Brazzaville conference, 173, 201, 203 Cotten, lieutenant, 131 Brescon, captain, 7, 40, 304 Cotton Marketing Cooperatives, 227

Index 359

Court, Governor, 190 Eljilani of the Attawari, 45, 50, 53, 55, 77 cowrie shells, 71 Elkhorer ag Arraqqabi, 27, 71, 153–4, 159 crisis of native rule (crise de emancipation, 29 commandement), 175–83 exit, voice, and loyalty options, 23 policies in support of, 23, 150, 172 Dahomey, 192 slaves’ struggle for, 22, 89, 192–200, 286, Dakar, 165, 167–8, 171–2, 190, 248 301 Dakouré, Antoine, 247 Emmawil of the Tamejirt, 69 Dallol Maori, 113 Escobar, Arturo, 311 Damagaram, 112 Espéret, chef du Bureau de Finances, 171 Damboka of Gidan Gorey, 72 Eweiss, 70 Danfan of Sakole, 99, 123 extraversion, 21, 314, 316, 318 de Gaulle, Charles, 212–13 de Loppinot, Adelard, 15, 56, 58, 174–6, Fachi, 63 180–2, 184, 186–7, 190–1, 206 Fagata, 179 de Tessières, 109 FAIL, 302 decolonisation, 33, 211–14 famines, 4, 59, 206, 246 Delestre, captain, 67 FAO, 18, 223–4, 245, 248, 251–2, 256, Dependency Theory, 313 259, 263–5, 273, 275–6, 309 Derkatin, battle of, 81 fatakke, 42 desertiﬁcation, 17, 19, 22, 58, 93, 239, 245, Ferguson, James, 22 247–50, 253–6, 259, 266, 272, 274, Fezzan, 44 277, 279, 282, 300, 309 FIDES, 201, 203, 223 development Figeac, 113, 118–20, 124–5, 128 and gender, 289–95 Filingué, 120, 182 and labour migrations, 295–300, 307–8 Firhun, amenokal of Kel Ataram, 135, 144, consequences for labour, 203, 228–32, 152 245 Flatters Expedition, 109 integrated rural development projects, Foccart, Jacques, 213 246, 254 Fonds d’Aide et Coopération, 17, 223–4, Development Assistance Committee, 246 232, 308 Development Society, 18, 21, 206, 238–46, Fons, lieutenant, 152 249–50, 255, 259, 262, 264, 309 food-for-work, 19, 257, 260, 271, 276–7, developmentalist governance, 24, 33, 216, 280–1, 283, 290, 300, 302, 305, 313 239 forced labour, 14–15, 17, 23, 29, 31, 107, and power, 308–13 163, 166, 171, 173, 183–4, 186, 188, deﬁnition, 203 191–3, 196–7, 201, 203–4, 206, 231, Diara, Badie, 316 255, 275, 311 Djanet, 152 abolition of, 17, 21 Djebari, Messaoud, 109 Forced Labour Convention, 171, 184 Djibalawa, 90, 100 Foucault, Michel, 22 Djibale, village, 41, 53–4, 56, 97, 99, 129, Foureau Lamy Mission, 112 158, 195 Foyer Féminin de Keita, 291–5 Domar, Evsey, 5, 8 France, 18, 22 droughts, 18 French Company for the Development Dubugu, hamlet, 70 of Textiles, 227 Dundaye district, 54 Fuglestad, Finn, 26 Funtua, 198 Echard, Nicole, 25–6, 35, 40, 58, 61, 221 Edelman, M., 312 Gabon, 298 Efellan ag Hawal, 53, 81 Gadamata, 211 Egypt, 26 Gadamer, Hans-Georg, 310 Elistighna ag Lasu, 153 Gadel, commandant, 143

360 Index

Gafﬁ, Manou, 237 Ibn Khaldoun, 10 Galabi, canton chief of Tahoua, 142 Ibohamane, 62, 127, 155, 157, 177–9, 182, Galma, 125, 128, 130 211, 224–5, 227, 232–4, 236, 258, battle, 106, 131, 149 286, 296, 299 Galma Nomade, 79 dam, 222 Gambia, 2 Iboyeran, 85 Gao, 152 Ibra of the Tamezguedda, 45, 50–1, 54–5, Gautier, E.F., 110 85 Gawakuke, 54 Ichaman, 155, 158 Gawalley, 100 Ideoran, neighbourhood of Keita, 93, 95 Gazurawa, 82, 90, 100–1 Idiguini, 129, 132 Ghali, Ibohamane village chief, 179 ighawellan, 88 Ghana, 2, 192, 203, 208 Iklan Eguef, 70, 73, 76 Ghat, 101 Illela, 56, 71, 115 Gidan Bado, 113, 120, 143 Illela lake, 102 Gidan Gorey, 72 In Gall, 63, 101 Gidan Tsofo, 94, 97 Indigénat Code, 15, 146, 161, 163–9, Gidan Tsourout, 224 173–4, 201 giyayye tree, 95 Infaq al Maisur, 45, 49 Gobir, 56, 99–100, 111 informal sector, 22, 297, 308 Gobir Toudou, 143 In-Gadassan, 152 Gobirawa, 44, 74 In-Gall, 188 Gold Coast, 188, 192 Initiative of Italian Cooperation in the Sahel, Gougoufeina, 143 251–5 Gouraud, Charles, 104, 113, 115, 120, 126, Inkinkaran, 118 129, 138 Insafari, 88, 119, 154, 211 Grémont, Charles, 11 Inter-Ministerial Committee of the Ader Group of Tamaske, 119, 149 Doutchi Majiya, 221 Groupe des Enfants des Chefs Coutumiers International Labour Organisation, 162, 171 du Niger, 213 investissement humain. See human Guidan Fako, 181 investment Guinea Coast, 108 Inzebar, 81 Gulbin Birni, 56 Ismaghil, 142–5 Gulbin Rima, 56 Issouf ag-Fouza, 237 Guyon Vernier, 143 Italy, 18, 151, 224, 245–6, 251–2, 254, 260, Gwari, 35 264–5, 271–2, 275, 282, 308 Itesan, 49–51, 55, 63 Hamani, Diori, 18, 206, 234, 236–7 Ivory Coast, 192, 206, 274, 298 Hamani, Djibo, 26, 50, 55 Iwellemmeden of Mali. See Kel Ataram haraji, 50, 71 Izanazzafan, 85, 100 Harmattan, 38 Izeroa, 70, 78 Hassan, project monitoring and evaluation agent, 268 Jameson, Fredric, 25 Henige, David, 30 Jigaudon, lieutenant, 113, 115, 117 hermeneutics in historical analysis, 32 Joalland, captain, 112–13, 118 Hirshman, A., 23 Joly, 120, 136 Hordell, Peregrine, 8 Jos, 196–7, 234 Houphouët-Boigny Law, 203 human investment, 17, 203, 229, 231, 255, Kaduna, 51, 195, 197 311–12 Kalfu, 70, 124 human sacriﬁce, 32, 92, 94–7 Kalfu Rahe, 70 Kano, 87 Ibazawane Agoromorom, 70 Kaocen, 152, 155, 159

Index 361

Karezi, 135 Lamy, Amidy, 154 Karkamatt, 182 Landeroin, M. A., 48 Katsina, 54 Landes, D., 3 Kebbi, 111 Laoudan Kaoura, Alhaji Karim, 270 Keita, 62, 100, 123, 155, 177 League of Nations, 162 canton, 176, 178, 181 Lefebvre, Camille, 108 dam, 222, 234 Libya, 298, 316 Project, 38, 275, 282 Lissawan, 48, 50–1, 83, 93, 99–101, 103, war of (yakin Keita), 155 106, 119, 121–7, 138–9, 141, 144–5, Keita Lake, 7, 32, 43, 45, 97, 117, 178, 207, 149, 153, 155, 176, 178, 193, 208, 209, 222 223–4, 233, 236, 265, 294 and Asna sacriﬁces, 97 Loi Cadre, 211 Keita Project, 18, 33, 218, 245, 250, 256–302 long distance trade, 8, 20, 42, 65 femme de Keita, 272–7, 307, 312 longue durée, 4 garage, 281 Loudou, 77, 155, 182, 193, 264 intervention strategies, 260–2 Lougou, 112 labour on worksites, 272–82 Lovejoy, Paul, 4, 26 management, 262–7 Lugard, Frederick, 316 Keitawa, 88, 90, 93, 97 Kel Ajjer, 44, 154 MacNamara, Robert, 246 Kel Ataram, 47, 81 Madaoua, 45, 65, 130, 158, 211–12, 296 Kel Azar, 129 madugu, 194 Kel Denneg, 11–12, 26–7, 40, 47, 49, 51, Magorawa, 90 53, 55, 57–8 Magori, 50, 90 Kel Eghlel, 119, 160 Maguzawa, 35 Kel Eghlel Ennigger, 77, 86, 127 Mahamane Bako, 213 Kel Ewey, 55, 133 Mai Dawa of Tamaske, 72 Kel Gress, 12, 14, 26, 40–1, 45, 47, 49–51, Mai Ziza, 99 54, 56, 58 Maiduguri, 197 Kel Nan, 57, 69, 143, 155, 159 Majaji, 198 Kel Unwar, 129 Majiya Valley, 38–9 Khamed Ibrahim of the Kel Eghlel, 69 Makhammad ag Ghabdessalam ‘Elkumati’, Khammad-Alamin ag-Sayd-Elbakka, 160 amenokal of the Kel Denneg, 14, 101, Khettutu ag-Muda, 50 119, 128, 134, 303 Killo, 70 Malam Agali, 46 kinetocracy, 11–12, 14, 58, 61 Malam Jibril of the Watsakkawa, 45, 53 Kirarawa, 90, 93 Malam Manzo, Hamissou, 264, 270 Klobb, captain, 112 Mallamawa, village, 181 Konni, 56, 110, 112, 117, 124, 143, 211, Malumfashi, 198 296, 306 Mambe, 50 Kountché, Seyni, 18, 21, 206, 224, 236–7, Manga, Boulama, 248 239, 241–2, 244, 248–9, 255, 259, Mani, Hadijatou, 306 263–4, 273–4, 291, 309 Manit, 155, 159 Kurfey, 83 Mansala Kel Gress groupement, 294 Kurmi, 87 Mansala Kel Gress, village, 265 Maradi, 25, 61, 90, 164, 212–13, 250 Laba Maradi Engagement for the Fight Against canton, 176 Desertiﬁcation, 250 Labanda, 182 Marafa, 57 Laham route, 143 Marshall Plan, 240, 251 Lake Bosomtwe, 32 Marty, Paul, 147, 171 Lake Chad, 113, 120 Mashidawa, 150 Lamine Guèye Law, 203 Mashidi, 97, 99–100, 124

362 Index

Mashidi (cont.) National Assembly of Niger, 210 iska, 99 National Development Council, 241, 243, Masshaghar, plateau, 81 250 Matankari, 112, 115 Niamey, 120, 142, 164, 167, 181, 212, Mati, Lawali, 267 222–4, 230, 236, 238, 243, 262, Mawri, 56 274–5, 290, 292 Mayayi, 124 Nicolaisen, Ida, 4 Mbembe, A., 315 Nicolaisen, Johannes, 4 McCaskie, Thomas, 32 Nieboer, Herman, 5, 8 Mediterranean, 8 Niger, 17–18, 26 Meynier, A., 112 Military Territory of Niger, 13 microstoria, 317 river, 108, 120 Midou, Souley, 224, 236, 262–3 Nigeria, 2, 15–16, 35, 38–9, 106, 133, 152, migration 162, 167–8, 177–8, 181, 184–5, 187–92, and Dependency Theory, 314 195–6, 198–201, 203, 208, 212, 234, as strategy of emancipation, 29 274, 280–1, 315 migration question (question des exodes), Nkrumah, Kwame, 317 188–92 Noel, lieutenant colonel, 142 professional migrations, 236 remittances, 307–8 OECD, 246, 248, 251–2 seasonal labour migrations, 15, 23, Ofﬁce du Niger, 21 192–200, 234–5, 295–300 Olivier de Sardan, Jean-Pierre, 21 Military Territory of Niger, 165 Ouaoua, messenger of Makhammad, 140 administrative subdivisions, 164 Ouarzagane Tambari of the Kel Gress, Military Territory of Zinder, 115 139 mise en valeur, 165, 170, 175, 200, 202, Ould Daddah, Moktar, 248 206, 217, 220, 228 Ousmane Bako, 225 Mission Afrique Centrale, 111–17 Mission Cazemajou, 109 pagan practices, 44 Mission Gentil, 112 Paris, 170 Mission Monteil, 109 PDR/ADM. See Keita Project Mitchell, 26 Peignol, André Maurice, 145 Modernisation Theory, 313 peneplain, 38–9 Mohamadu dan Mustafa, 49 Permanent Inter-State Committee for Mohamed ag Budal, 70 Drought Control in the Sahel, 18, Mohamed ag Chaﬁrou, 205 247–8, 251, 254, 259 Mohamed Alkumati, 70 Peroz, lieutenant colonel, 14, 113, 115, 120, Mohamed El Moumin, 119 126, 129 Mohammed ‘mai cinoni’, 49 perspectival history, 25–33, 37, 104–8 Moll, 112, 115, 117 pilgrimage to Mecca, 44, 188 Monteil, Parfait Louis, 109, 113 politique d’association, 163, 165, 170 Morey, village, 299 Portelli, Alessandro, 122 Moullela, village, 181, 223 poverty Moussa Baba, 101, 124 discourse of, 23 Moussa, Zakou, 265–6, 301 prestations, 14–15, 172, 183–7 Mouvement Socialiste d’Action, 212 Purcell, Nicholas, 8 Muhammad Bello, 45–6, 49–51, 55 Musa ag-Budal, amenokal of the Kel Quirk, Joel, 11 Denneg, 57 Mussolini, Benito, 264 Rabo, Keita Canton Chief, 180 Mutual Assistance Groups, 18 Rabo, Moha, 156, 178, 180, 210, 223, 236

Index 363

Raulin, Henri, 7, 221 abolition of, 15, 20 Reeb, captain, 173 Advisory Committee of Experts on Referendum of 1958, 211–15 Slavery, 172 Rejou, commandant, 110 colonial reports, 171 Rhezi, 142–4, 155 colonial tolerance of, 15 Rhissa, Hadiza, 267–8 persistence of slavery after abolition, 16 Rima province of Sokoto, 57 ransom, 86, 89 Rima river, 39 slavery question (question bellah), 169–74, Rodney, Walter, 313 205–6 route of Laham, 120 slavery questions (question bellah), 17 Smith, M.G., 61 Sabatié, 152 Société de Prévoyance, 185, 210 Sabon Birni, 143 SOGETHA, 220–1 Sadou, captain, 158 Sokoto, 6, 8, 26, 32–3, 108, 143 Saibou, Ali, 19 Caliph of, 111 Sakho, Sibiri, 216–17 jihad, 6 Sakole, 30, 74, 76, 99–100, 122, 124 Sokoto Caliphate, 12, 35, 39, 41, 48, 55, salt cure, 63, 133 94, 99, 316 Samba, interpreter, 152 relations with Ader in the nineteenth Sambo Betty, 226 century, 34–58 Sambo, project driver, 263 Sokoto river, 39 Sambo, village, 56 St Francis of Assisi, 176 Samori of Wasulu, 121 Supreme Military Council, 19, 238–9 Sansanne Hausa, 111 Sanusiyya, 151 Tabalak, 118 Sarkin Ader, 48–51, 54, 57 Tabancour, 136 Sarkin Ader Hamidin, 49 Tabofat, 179, 193 Sarkin Ader Hamidu, 44, 56 Tadela, as other name of Ader, 55 Sarkin Ader Mallam, 56 Tagorom, 224–6 Sarkin Gobir Ali, 54 Tahoua, 14–15, 17–18, 56, 109, 113, 118, Sarkin Magori, 49–50 120 Sarkin Mambe, 49 Cercle, 163, 174 Sawaba party, 212, 217, 236 Cercle, administrative subdivisions of, 174 Say, 115 Commandant de Cercle of, 27 Say-Barruwa line, 109 Nomad Subdivision, 16 Second World War, 16, 172 Regional Development Council, 18 Seetzen, Ulrich, 7, 44, 46, 48, 54, 304 tamasadak, 70 self-managed markets (marchés autogérés), Tamaske, 7, 58, 62, 71–2, 76, 88, 99–101, 227 113, 115, 118–21, 123–6, 133, 135–6, Senegal, 2 138, 144, 149–50, 153–5, 176–7, 179, sensibilisation. See sensitisation 207–8, 232–4, 258, 296, 299, 304 sensitisation, 202, 222, 255–6, 267–72, Canton, 71, 176, 179 309, 311 convention, 133, 139 Séré de Rivières, Edmond, 26 Djibalawa, 99 Seyte, 127 iska, 99 Sheikh Wasshar, 49–50 Magorawa, 99 Sherif, Sarkin Ader, 56 Sabon Gari, 99 Sidi Labed, 152 sarkin Tamaske, 77 Sierra Leone, 21 town, 72 Simonelli, Giovanni, 265 Tamejirt, 69, 79 slavery Tandja, Mamadou, 18, 245, 262, 264

364 Index

Tanout, 159, 161, 182, 189 slavery and dependence, 62–7, 89 massacre of, 28, 158–60 warrior elites, 12 Tarimawa, 90, 100 Tuba dan Aga of Tamaske, 76, 150, 153, 156 Tauzamawa, 56 Tawantakat, 49–50, 79 UNCC, 222, 227, 229 Tchibiri, 99 United Nations, 201 Tchiga, 198 Urvoy, Yves, 34, 36, 42 Tchintabaraden, 71 Usman dan Fodio, 45, 49 Technical Departmental Committee of the Ader Doutchi Majiya, 221 van Beusekom, Monica, 21, 200 Tegama, Sultan of Agadez, 152 Vigneswaran, Darshan, 11 Tegidda n’Adrar, 63 Village Development Councils, 18 Tegidda n’Taguei, 63 Vilmin, Maurice, 16, 172, 177, 207 Tegidda n’Tesemt, 63 Voulet, Paul, 111–12 Tegueleguel, 65, 70, 179, 192–3 Ten-Year Perspectives, 220, 230 Waddey, 193, 274, 276 Territoire du Niger, 142 Waldheim, Kurt, 247 Tessack, 133 Wallerstein, Immanuel, 188, 313 Tessaoua, 115 Warsaw, 176 Thiellement, commandant de cercle, 179, Webb, James, 4 191 Weber, Max, 13, 310 Thill, inspector, 206 Western Union, 297, 307 Third Military Territory, 13, 142 Whyte, Christine, 21 Thompson, E.P., 318 Williams, Maurice, 248 Three-Year Programme, 217 World Bank, 246 Tidjani-Alou, Mahaman, 271 World Food Programme, 19, 245, 257, 260, Tiggirmat, 159 275, 290, 303, 309, 313 Tilho, 48 Tillimidis, 60, 136, 144, 155 Yakoba, Sarkin Ader, 56 Timbuktu, 110 Y-Tarichi, 48, 51 Tinkirana, 65, 193, 273–4, 279, 282, 284 Tirima, 70, 97 ZAI, 232, 234 Toronkawa, 45 zakat, 49–50 Toudounni, village, 207 Zamfara, 45 trafﬁcking in persons, 306 Zanguebe, 128 Tricoli, Dario, 265, 282 Zaria, 61, 195, 198–9 Truman, Harry, 240 zegui, 157 Tsaunaye, 79 Zinder, 111–13, 115, 117–18, 120, 133, Tuareg 135, 142, 151, 158, 164, 209, 316 chieﬂy drum, 36, 78 Zinder Seminar on Rural Development political organisation, 4, 93 Intervention Strategies, 249 resistance, 13–14, 107, 151 Zurmi, 49