INFORMATION TO USERS
This manuscript has been reproduced trom the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly trom the original or copy submitted. Thus, sorne thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer.
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the cOPY submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. ln the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.
Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand corner and continuing from left ta right in equal sections with small overlaps.
ProOuest Information and Leaming 300 North Zeeb Raad, Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600
•
"A cboking gall and a preserving sweet": Gender and Genre in Campion's First Booke ofAyres and Wilbye's First Set ofEng/ish Madrigals
Annette Campbell. Faculty of Music McGili University. Montreal • December 2000
A thesis submitted to the Faculty ofGraduate Studies and Research in partial tulfilment ofthe requirements ofthe degree ofMaster ofArts. • © Annette Campbell. 2000 National Ubrary Bibliothèque nationale 1+1 of Canada du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographie Services services bibliographiques 395 Welington Street 395. rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 canada canada
The author has granted a non L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence a1lowing the exclusive permettant à la National Library ofCanada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or sell reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies ofthis thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la forme de microfiche/film, de reproduction sur papier ou sur fannat électronique.
The author retains ownership ofthe L'auteur conselVe la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis Dor substantial extracts from it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels May be printed or otherwise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son penmsslon. autorisation.
0-612-70274-X
Canada • Table ofContents
Abstract in English and French .ii
Acknowledgments iii
Introduction iv
Chapter One: ""Though Vou Are Young and 1am Gld'": A History ofGenres 1
Chapter Two: Music as Social Text: Building a Foundation 14
Chapter Three: Gender Issues in the Elizabethan Madrigal and Lute Song 27
Chapter Four: Blending Black and White Into Grey .42 • Summary and Conclusions 66 Appendix One Tilles ofpieces in each collection 70
Bibliography 71
• ii
• Abstract
Recently, musicologists Linda Austern and Suzanne Cusick have examined the socio-cultural implications ofgender issues in Renaissance music. Drawing on Cusick's research on gender-based binary oppositions in Italy and Austern's studies ofwomen and music in England., 1propose a related set ofgender binary oppositions in English society. 1apply these oppositions in detail to two specifie works from the Elizabethan madrigal and lute song repertoire, then examine the remaining pieces from these collections as a whole and find that an overlap offour particular oppositions better captures the contradictory nature ofthe music. Examining pieces that fall into each category, 1observe how the composer manipulates each to complicate the piece's gender character. 1conclude that while binary oppositions grasp the artistic and political trends ofan em. a closer look at the tensions at work between them provides a more nuanced view ofthe music's gender character.
Résumé
Récemment.. les musicologues Linda Austern et Suzanne Cusick ont • examiné les implications socioculturelles de la problématique reliée aux sexes féminin et masculin dans la musique de la renaissance. En s'aidant de la recherche de Cusick sur les oppositions binaires des sexes en Italie et des études d'Austern portant sur les femmes et la musique en Angleterre. je propose un ensemble relié d'oppositions binaires dans la société anglaise. rapplique en détail ces oppositions à deux œuvres spécifiques provenant des madrigaux de la période élizabéthaine et du répertoire de pièces pour lute. J'examine, par la suite, les pièces restantes de ces collections en tant qu'entité et découvre qu'un chevauchement de quatre oppositions particulières saisit mieux la nature contradictoire de la musique. En examinant des pièces qui correspondent à chacune des catégories, j"observe la manière avec laquelle le compositeur manipule chacune d'elles afin de rendre plus complexe le caractère relié aux sexes féminin et masculin de la pièce. Je conclue que lorsque les oppositions binaires saisissent les tendances artistiques et politiques d'une ère. un regard plus minutieux sur les tensions enjeux entre elles pourvoit une vue plus nuancée du caractère relié aux sexes masculin et féminin de la musique. • • iii
Acknowledgments
First and foremost.. 1would like to thank my thesis adviser~ Dr. Julie Cumming. Without her guiding impetus and patient questioning, this thesis simply would not exist. 1 woufd also like to thank those friends and family members who put up with my lengthy and continued grappling with thoughts and words. A special thanks to Fran Farrell~ who discussed the image ofthe "virtuous vixen" with me late into the night at Nickles, and to Aunt Ruth, who asked me incisive questions from outside ofthe world ofmusicology. Thanks also goes to Joana Ali who provided reliable translation services and to my brother Trevor~ for his scanning expertise. Finally 1would like to thank my mother and father who stood by me throughout an ordeal 1 • would not have overcome without them.
• IV • Introduction Why such is love's transgression. Griefs ofmine own lie heavy in my breast'!' Which thou will propagate~ to have it prest With more ofthine: this love that thou hast shown Doth add more griefto too much ofmine own. Love is a smoke raised with the fume ofsighs: Being purged~ a tire sparkling in lovers" eyes; Seing vex"d. a sea nourish"d with lovers· tears: What is it else? A madness most discreet.. A choking gall and a preserving sweet.
("'Romeo and Juliet,," Act I. Scene II .. lines 191-200)1
1first came into contact with Elizabethan madrigals and lute songs during my
undergraduate years in the University ofPrince Edward Island Chamber Chorus. An
amateur English scholar as weil as a musician. 1was immediately intrigued by the mix of • the sacred and the vulgar. the melancholy and the merriment found in these works. How was this dichotomy received by the people of its time? Why were such conflicting forces
present in this music at ail?
It was not until 1 began searching for a thesis topie that 1retumed to these
questions. As [ researched the musical and societal forces at work in the Elizabethan
madrigal and lute song. [ began to discover thal many ofthe conflicting oppositions [ tirsl
noticed were a result ofthe gender issues al work at that time. in Elizabethan society. and
within the music itsel( This thesis is an examination ofthese issues.
ln chapter one. ''''Though you are young and [am old": A History ofGenres. 1
1 William Shakespeare, "Romeo and Juliet:' The Unabridged William Shakespeare. ed. William George Clark and William Aldis Wright (Philadelphia: • Running Press, 1989) 884-885. v • examine the origins ofthe Elizabethan madrigal and lute song. Although the Italian madrigal in many ways gave birth to the English madrigal., the English form ofthis genre
does exhibit unique tendencies ofits own. 1outline these differences. The lute song's
origins are not quite as clear. as references to lute manuscripts from France., and native
English consort songs demonstrate. 1underscore the solo-voice-and-instrumental
accompanying fonn ofthe lute song, as weil as its reverence for the accurate meaning and
expression ofits text.
Chapter two. ··Music as Social Text: Building a Foundation.." is a review of
literature conceming gender issues surrounding the arts.. in particular, music .. in
Elizabethan England and ltaly. Beginning with the visual arts and moving into music.. 1
trace how the arts can express the political., religious., social and gender trends ofa • society. Through the work ofSuzanne Cusiek. 1eonsider how well-known gender-based binary oppositions were often used by crities when condemning or praising a musical
work. 1then examine Linda Austem's work conceming women and music and [eam how
the two were often linked together in Elizabethan England as intense intlammers of
passion and viewed as a danger to mortal man. Through this examination ofprevious
seholarship.. 1observe how this gender-charged environment affeeted the composition.
performance.. and reception ofthe music ofthe time.
ln chapter three. 1examine these gender associations in the context ofthe
Elizabethan madrigal and lute song repertoire. Combining the ideas ofCusick and
Austem with the differences in genre diseussed in ehapter one. 1propose a related set of • gender-based binary opposition in English society. 1then apply these binary oppositions VI • to two specifie works from the Elizabethan madrigal and lute song repertoire: Wilbye~s ~~Cruel Behold My Heavy Ending4~' and Campion~s ~'When Thou Must Home."
ln chapter four~ 1ascertain how the gender oppositions play out in the remaining
pieces in Campion's Firsl Booke ofAyres and Wilbye's Firsl Sel ofEng/ish Madrigllis. 1
suggest that an overlap ofbinary oppositions might better capture the often-contradictory
nature ofthe music and find overlap in four particular oppositions: spiritual versus
earthly love, substance versus ornament monody versus polyphony. and supremacy of
text versus supremacy ofmusic. Looking at the results in table form4 1examine pieces
that fall into each overlap category and see how the composer plays with this overlap to
complicate the gender character ofthe piece. In the Firsl Booke ofAyres. 1find eight of
the remaining twenty pieces (or 40%) are similar to the lute song example in chapter • three. ln the Firsl Sel ofEnglish Madrigals4 sixteen ofthe remaining twenty-nine pieces (or 55%) are similar to the madrigal example in chapter three. In the tinal analysis4 1
draw two conclusions: one. the lute song tends to lend itself more readily to oppositional
overlap: and two. the text is olten used as a portal ofchange away from one opposition
and toward the other.
[n the concluding pages4 1suggest possibilities lor this outcome and caution the
reader not to assume that the gender-based binary oppositions ofthe Elizabethan era are
the same today as they were then. Betore dealing \Vith gender issues4 however. let us first
examine the origins ofthe Elizabethan madrigal and lute song. • Chapter One • "Though Vou Are Young and 1am Old": A History ofGenres To better understand the examination ofgender issues ofthe music presented in
this thesis. one must understand from where this music came. The origins ofthe
Elizabethan madrigal and lute song are complex and.. like the works themselves. are
connected to the social and political trends ofthe time. Understanding the conditions in
which these genres arose will enable us to better understand the society that this music
retlects.
The origins ofthe Elizabethan madrigal can be traced to Italy. Despite England"s
opposition to the Pope. Jesuits and Catholicism.. the country was enamored with Italian
culture. particularly music. 1 The madrigal began ta appear in ltaly around 1530. and was
a generic term used to describe various poetic polyphonie vocal works.. such as the • ··...musical settings ofsonnets. ballate. canzoni.. lyric and narrative ottava stanza.. pastoral verse. and popular and dialect poems.··1 Musicologist James Haar explains the
traditional view ofthe [taHans· growing interest in the fonn:
...changes in literary taste in the early 16th century led composers away trom the half-serious texts. closed forros and soprano-dominated texture of the frouola.... The new use ofPetrarchan and Petrarchistic texts calied for musical forms as free as the verse.. and for a fully vocal, declamatory polyphonie texture as serious as the melancholy love-poems newly in tàshion. 3
1 Joseph Kennan.. ··An ItaHan Musician in Elizabethan England....· Write Al! These Down: Essays on Music (Berkeley: University ofCalifomia Press. 1994) 104.
th 2 James Haar.. ··Madrigal.. § Il, (taly .. 16 century. Origins...· The New Grove Diclionary ofMusic and Musicians 11. ed. Stanley Sadie (London: Macmillan Publishers.. (980) 463. [t is important to note that the sixteenth-century Italian madrigal has no connection to the fourteen-century use ofthe same lerm. • 3 Ibid. 2 • Haar emphasizes that this explanation is not complete: "The turn away from frottolistic verse~· was a graduai process and the older ways were not completely
abandoned. As Haar sees it~ the early. multi-voieed madrigal could he seen as a mirror
image ofthe more soloistie frottola.-4 These madrigals were primarily written for three to
six voÎces. but solo perfonnances with various instruments taking the place ofthe other
voices did occur. They were sung in aIl sort ofsocial settings, both formai and infonnat
and the performers used what voices or instruments were al hand.5
The Italian madrigal is generally charaeterized as music with a variety oftextures
whose overlapping and often repeated sections are based on a single phrase oftext.
Polyphony is the rule. although sorne homophonie sections do appear~ usually to better
express the meaning ofthe text. The illustration ofthe emotions ofthe text was • paramount lor Italian madrigal composers and they often used chromaticism and word- painting to accomplish this goal.
The texts ofthe Italian madrigal were usually a single stanza in a free rhYming
pattern. with lines ofseven- and eleven-syllables (endecasyllabic)~ ending with ·"an
epigrammatic climax.'-6 Subjects were often sentimental or erotic and poets frequently
used pastoral allusions. Musicologist Donald J. Grout summed up the text-music relation
succinctly when he said that ""a composer ofa madrigal ainled to match the seriousness,
nobility, and artfulness ofthe poetry and to reach the listener with its ideas and
-llbid.
5 Ibid. 463,467, & 473.
tl Donald 1. Grout and Claude Palisca.. A History ofWestern Music (New York: • W.W. Norton & Company, 1988) 261. 3 • passions.·..7 The ItaJian madrigal tirst found its way to England in the 1560s. most notably
through the influence ofAlfonso Ferrabosco. an Italian composer in the court ofQueen
Elizabeth I. Ail cultural trappings ofthe royal court soon became popular in households
across England and tondness for the madrigal grew. Englishmen and women first sang
these madrigals with their original [talian texts. but it became clear that the works would
he better enjoyed ifone could understand the meaning ofthe words.8 So in 1588.
Nicholas Yonge published a collection ofmadrigals entitled Musica Transalpina. The
volume's full tide is Mac/rigoles translated offoures,five and sixe parts, chosen out of
divers excellent Au/hors. with the jirs/ andsecondpart ofLa Verginella, made hy maL'der
Byrd, upon Iwo s/anzas ofArios/o, and brough/ 10 speake English with Ihe rest. This was • an anthology of Italian madrigals. written by Palestrina. Marenzio. Ferrabosco and others. translated into English. Yet an offering by English composer William Byrd was also
included. Byrd had composed music to the Italian text of La Verginella a tèw months
earlier. Yonge added the next stanza.. in English. to the work and included it in the
coliection.1J The English penchant for aIl things Italian now encompassed the Italian
madrigal as weil. Curiously. the English \vere most drawn to the lighter. less serious side
ofthe Italian madrigal. Joseph Kennan explains:
7 Ibid.
8 Allan W. Atlas. "Elizabethan England." Renaissance Music: Music in Western Europe 1-100 - 1600 (New York: W. W. Norton & Company. 1998) 680.
9 Alfred Einstein. "'The Elizabethan Madrigal and Ml/sica Transalpina."" Music • and Le/lers 25 (1944): 66-67. 4
AIl the same~ for ail the serious tone ofMusica Transalpina~ and for aIl the • modemity ofthe essential body ofits contents, one looks in vain for a single striking pathetic passage, a bold dramatic stroke, a chromaticism (however mild), or any kind ofdaring experiment. It was probably by no accident that Yonge by-passed ··Dolorosi martir, ~~a madrigal from Marenzio's 1 a 5 which was quite as celebrated as those that he did select. This is the most ··extreme" composition in that [Marenzio's] popular book, and apparently English taste at the time was a little too conservative for it. 'O
The English continued to sing Italian madrigals that were nenglished"ll until English
texts comparable in form and content to the Italian model were developed. '1
The English madrigal difTers from its ltalian cousin in subtle yet significant ways.
English madrigal composers maintained the lyric, pastoral. and word-painting elements of
the Italian madrigal and discarded the darker parts, the Italianate ··drama...[with] its • sudden contrasts and chromaticisms."13 The English also placed more emphasis on musical structure and devices: they would not "·split up compositions mercurially at the
whim ofthe text:~I" As Joseph Kerman observes: ··the English madrigalist is tirst ofail a
10 Joseph Kerman~ The Elizabethan Aladrigal: A Comparative Study (Ne\\! York: American Musicological Society, 1962) 56.
Il A verb used at the time to denote an English translation. Laura Macy has written an article that examines translation issues with Yonge·s Musica Transalpina and Watson's ltalian Madrigals Englished entitled '·The Due Decorum Kept: Elizabethan Translation and the Madrigals Englished ofNicholas Yonge and Thomas Watson'~ The Journal oflvlusicological Research 17.1 (1998): 1-21. She notes that whereas Vonge's translations were true and accurate to the literai text~ Watson's attempted to translate the musical affect directly. without recourse to the original text.
I:! Joseph Kennan. ·'Madrigal. § IV: English:~ The New Grove Dictionary ofMusic and J\1usicians 11. ed. Stanley Sadie (London: Macmillan Publishers. 1980) 478.
13 Ibid. 681.
• 1.. Joseph Kennan~ The Elizabethan Madrigal 254. 5 • musician: his Italian colleague is often more ofa dramatist.~·15 The English madrigal is commonly further divided into two veins. a serious one
and a lighter one. [6 Thomas Morley, in his treatise A Plain and Easy Introduction 10
Practical Music. explained the various secular vocal genres on a scale ofseriousness,
beginning with the madrigal and moving through the lighter canzonet. villanella., and
ballett. 17 The madrigal could be somber or light, depending on the moment. Morley
advises the madrigal composer ta:
possess yourself with an amorous humour,...so that you must in your music be wavering like the wind. sometimes wanton, sometimes drooping. sometimes grave and staid. otherwhile effeminate.... 18
Like love, the madrigal could be joyous or downcast. • While the serious madrigal could explore the weightier side of life~ the so-called light madrigal borrowed fanciful themes and devices from the dance-oriented Italian
canzonets and balletts. One ofMorley's most famous balletts. "Sing we and chant it"
was hased on GastoIdi's A lietll vi/a. Morley expanded the original "fa-la-la" refrain. a
15 Ibid.
lb Allan Atlas. "Elizahethan England.·' Renaissance Music: Music in Western Europe /-100 - 1600. 680.
17 Thomas Morley. A Plain and Easy Introduction 10 Praclical Music. ed. Alec Harman. forward by Thurston Dart (New York: W. W. Norton & Company. 1952) 294 295.
18 Ibid. 294. As we shaH see, the association ofbetween the madrigal and • effeminacy had long-lasting repercussions. 6 • playful device that would become a staple ofthe lighter secular vein. 19 Because Morley held a monopoly on English music publishing after 1596~ he profited from the popularity
ofthese simple~ entertaining works that could be performed with whatever voices or
instruments were at hand in the typical English household.
One ofthe most famous collections ofthe more serious English madrigals is The
Triumphs ofOriana. Published in 1601 by Morley, these twenty-six madrigals were a
tribute to Queen Elizabeth l. who was commonly identified with mythical Oriana. Each
madrigal ended with the refrain: ""Then sang the shepherds and the nymphs ofDiana:
Long live fair Oriana:~:w Morley modelled this work on the Italian Il Trionfa di Dari. yet
these compositions further defined the English madrigal tradition by using pastoral
images and word-painting, while avoiding the sudden dramatic contrasts and • chromaticisms ofthe Italian tradition. ~ 1 John Wilbye (1574 - 1638).. focused on the serious side ofthe madrigal.
Intluenced by both the Italian Alfonso Ferrabosco and the English Thomas Morley..
Wilbye~s works have been characterized by Kerman as ··quiet self-conscious~never
sensationaL and always concemed with an elegance ofexpression."n The composer
Iq Allan Atlas~ ""Elizabethan England:' Renaissance Music: Music in Western Europe 1-100 - 1600. 680.
~o Joseph Kerman .. ""Morley and "The Triumphs ofOriana..... Music: and LeI/ers 34. 3 (July 1953): 185.
~I Allan Atlas.. ·"Elizahethan England~~~ Renaissance Music: Music in Western Europe 1-100 - 1600. 683 . • 22 Joseph Kerman~ The Elizahethan Madrigal.. 234. 7 • spent most ofhis working life in the service ofthe Kytson family at Hengrave Hall.23 It was there that in 1598 he published his Firsl Set ofEnglish Madrigals to 3. -1, 5 and 6
Voices~ which~ according to Kerman.. showed him already as a ""finished master:~24
While considered less Italianate than most English madrigal composers.. Wilbye was
nonetheless influenced by Italian modeIs. A number oftranslated (taHan madrigal poems
appear in this collection (see table 1.1).
Table 1.1
No. 10 & 24 '''Lady when 1behold the roses sprouting'" C"Quand"io miro la rose:' by Angelo Grillo.. set by Marenzio in 1598)
No. Il ""Thus saith my Chions bright" C"Dice la mia belissima Licori:" by Guarini- set by Domenico in 1585)
No. 18 '''Lady your words do spite me'" from Musica Transa/pina.. 1588 ('''Donna se voi m'odiate~" by Rina/di.. set by Ferrabosco in 1587)
• '''Alas~ No. 19 what a wretched litè is this" from Watson.. 1590 C"Ahi dispietata morte.. " by Petrarch. set by Marenzio in 1585)
No. 20 "·Unkind.. 0 stay thy flying" from Watson, 1590 C"Crudel perche mi fuggi." by Guarini. set by Marenzio in 1594)25
Yet only in ""Lady yoUf words do spite me" did Wilbye make use ofany music from the
original model.26 Although Wilbye avoided directly borrowing musical material from
n David Brown" hWilbye, John.." The New Grove Dictionary ofMusic and N/usicians 20" ed. Stanley Sadie (London: Macmillan Publishers" 1980) 410.
24 Joseph Kennan" The E/izabelhan Madriga/, 234.
25 Ibid. Names and dates in italics (except Ml/sica Transa/pina) were missing from Kennan"s text and were found in Harry B. Lincoln's The [talian Madrigal and Related Repertoires (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988). • 26 Joseph Kennan.. The Elizabethan Madrigal" 234. 8 • the ltalians~ their influence is still obvious. As Kerman notes: ...he [Wilbye] takes less from the Italian spirit ofthe time than Weelkes, and characteristically native tendencies inspire sorne ofhis most impressive compositions.... [yet] the ltalian style does enter Wilbye-s music by way ofthe canzonet. His compositions employ this style with such taste and distinction that it may not be far-fetched to imagine that they transcend the original assumptions and limitations ofcanzonet writing.27
Therefore Wilbye indeed used subtle elements ofthe canzonet in his madrigals. In fac!.
thirteen pieces in Wilbye's Firsl Sel ofEng/ish Madriga/s have canzonet-like opening
repetitions. Even so. the inclusion oflighter canzonet elements does not overshadow
Wilbye"s '1aste and distinction'" and his serious approach to the music creates a more
serious madrigal style. • Even though many English composers ofthis time were entranced by the madrigal. its popularity would not last. The first English madrigal collection appeared in
1588 and the last. in 1604. 28 The death of Elizabeth 1in 1603 and "a growing mood of
pessimism.. realism, and discipline brought with it a literary and musical reaction against
Petrarchism,-N and the Italian-born madrigal. The pastoral" pleasant sounding works did
not fit this new world view. Composers tumed instead to a simpler.. more direct fonn that
allowed for the melancholy_ wit and drama so often neglected by the madrigal: they
tumed to the lute song.
27 Ibid_ 234-235.
28 Li lIian M. Ruffand D. Arnold Wilson_ '''The MadrigaL the Lute Song and Elizabethan Politics.'· Past and Present, Canada 44 (August 1969): 6. • 2Q Joseph Kerman. ··Madrigal. § IV: English:' The New Grove Dictionary 11.480. 9 • Although the burgeoning ofthe lute song or ayre coincided with the decline ofthe madrigal at the turn ofthe century,30 the genre may have originated long before that.
Manuscripts oflute tablature firsl began to appear in England during the reign ofHenry
VIII. around 1540. Soon~ instructional lexts emerged. The first~ The Sequence ofthe
Lutynge~ dated 1565, is now lost. The three earHest surviving English instructional texts
were ail derived From the same French source~ Le Roy's Tres breve et tresfamilière
instruction From 1568.31
Musicologists such as David Greer and Philip Brett have suggested that the lute
song might have grown out ofthe native English consort song tradition~ citing the similar
solo-voice-with-instrumental-accompaniment texture.31 The first anthology of English
lute songs~ A New Booke ofTablature by William Barley. appeared in 1596. John • Dowland~ the best-known lutenist ofthe time. published his Firs/ Booke ofSonges in 1597. and the lute song truly began to blossom~ often collections oftwenty or more were
printed in large songbooks. Sadly, like the madrigaL the lute song's popularity would last
for only a quarter ofa century: the final collection. John Attey"s First Booke ofAyres,
was published in 1622.33
The lute song's style is markedly different From the madrigal. Whereas the latter
JO Donald J. Grout A His/ory ofWestern Music 282.
31 Diana Poulton. ·''Lute. § 7: Repertory:' The New Grove Diclionary ofMusic and l\fusic:ians Il. ed. Stanley Sadie (London: MacMillan Publishers. 1980) 361.
32 Philip Brett, "Consort Song," The New Grove Dic:/ionary ofMusic and Musicians 4~ ed. Stanley Sadie (London: Macmillan Publishers. 1980) 676.
3J Diana Poullon. "~Lute. § 7: Repertory~" The New Grove Dictionary 11. 362 and • Allan Atlas. Renaissance Music 684. 10 • espoused polyphony and the tlorid portrayal ofthe emotions ofa text the lute song was generally conceived '~for solo voice with accompanimenf' and expressed the actual
3 meaning ofthe text. " Musicologist Donald Grout compares the two genres:
The poetry ofthe English airs is considerably bener than that ofthe madrigals. The music as a rule lacks the madrigalesque pictoral touches and the mood is uniformly lyricaL but the airs - especially those of Dowland - are remarkable for sensitive text declamation and melodic subtlety. The lute accompaniments, while always carefully subordinate to the voice~ have a certain amount ofrhythmic and melodic independence.35
Grout goes on to point out that although in most manuscripts the parts were laid out
vertically so that the perfonner could see both easily and thus accompany himlherselt:
sorne collections allowed for voices to replace the instrumentallines and had each part
written separately.36 By doing so, lute song comPOsers gained access to the once • lucrative madrigal market. Thomas Campion.. one ofthe "most prolific ofthe English lute-song writers~U
was born in London in early 1567.37 He was the son ofJohn and Lucy Campion~ a couple
ofsorne refinemenl who sent hirn to study at Peterhouse.. Cambridge in 1581. He left
without a degree in 1584 and two years later was adrnitted to Gray"s [nn~ an establishment
tor young men ofnobility. Here~ he learned the legaI profession~ along with "other
necessary accomplishments~~" including music and dance.. important tor a young man at
3.. Allan Atlas~ Renaissance Music 684.
35 Donald Grout.. A His/ory oj·Western Music 283.
36 Ibid.
37 Diana Poulton~ "'Thomas Campion.." The New Grove Dictionary ofMusic and • Alusic:ians 3. ed. Stanley Sadie. (London: Macmillan Publishers. 1980) 656-657. 11 • court. It is believed that he spent sorne time abroad in the early 1590s~ possibly with the Earl ofEssex.38 By 1600~ good friend and colleague Phillip Rosseter was attempting to
convince Campion to make more ofhis compositions available to the public and in 1601.
Rossetter succeeded. The two men published A Booke ofAyres which contained twenty-
one ofCampion~s lute songs.
Campion's next publication was Observations in the Art ofEnglish Poesie (1602) ..
where he outlined his strong convictions regarding English verse.. arguing against the use
ofrhyme and caHing instead for a classically-derived. quantitative.. metered approach.
This stance provoked a good deal ofcontroversy. and prompted a reply From poet Samuel
Daniel. A Dejènse ofRhyme Against a Pamphlet enlit/ed: Observation in the Art of
Eng/ish Poesie. Campion"s quantitative theory was put to use in his own poems and lute • song texts.. including ··Come let us sound with melody." the last song in A Booke of Ayres. written in the classical Sapphic verse.J9 The definition ofthe Sapphic verse found
in Campion·s Ohservations is somewhat confusing. As Campion states: ·•...our English
Saphiek are meerley those Trochaieks [five feet} .... excepting only that the tirst foote of
either ofthem must euer ofnecessity be a Spondee. to make the number more graue:~o
Erik Ryding attempts to clarifY this by explaining that ·1he music tollows the supposed
38 Ibid. 657 and see chapter 2~ footnote 18.
3lJ Walter R. Davis. The Works ofThomas Campion (London: Faber and Faber~ 1969) 48.
~o Thomas Campion.. ()hservations in the Art ofEnglish Poesie (Great Britain: • Curwen Press) 29. 12 • long and short syllables with half-notes and quarters:~1 Fortunately. Campion limited his use ofthis approach in this collection to the tinal piece.
Mention should he made about the differences between Campion and John
Dowland~ the most famous lute song composer ofthis time. While Dowland did allow
tor the possibility a multi-voice performance ofhis works. Campion was more ofa purist
preferring the solo voice and lute accompaniment texture. The tide ofhis first collection
ofayres is evidence ofthis: A Booke ofAyres. Sel forth 10 he song to the Lute, Orpherian.
and Baj's Violl~ there is no mention ofpossible vocal substitution.42 In addition.
Campion's lute accompaniments were more subordinate to the voice than Dowland's~
with less rhythmic and motivic activity. In facto while Campion~s early lute parts can be
compared to Dowland's~ his later ones become more and more spare and rhythmically • unpretentious.·B The result ofthis texture was a strong~ declamatory presentation ofthe
text. which toreshadowed the development ofthe continuo song. oH
Not surprisingly. these first lute accompaniments ofCampion's stand out when
compared to his [ater works. Sorne believe that Rosscter. a professionallutenist~ wrote
the lute parts to Campion's tirst melodies and basses. because ofthe texturai differences
~I For more infonnation from the English scho[ar's point ofview. see Erik Ryding. In Harmony Framed: Musical Humanism. Thomas Campion and Ihe Two Daniels Vol. 21, Sixleenth Centllry Essays and Studies (Northeast Missouri State University: Sixteenth Century Journal Publishers. 1993) 104.
42 Walter R. Davis. The Works ofThomas Campion Il. Campion does allow for vocal substitution in his [ater works.
43 Erik S. Ryding~ "'Collaboration Between Campion and RosseterT" Journal of the Lute Society ofAmerica 19 (1986): 16.
• 44 Diana Poulton, "-Lute. § 7: Repertoire:~ New Grove Dictionary Il.. 362. 13 • between this book and Campion~s later works.45 However~ this is a matter oftexture and fingering; the guiding musical impetus was still Campion's.
Another distinction between Dowland and Campioo is the evidence ofthe men's
opinions on the state ofthe genre. Whereas Dowland~s ooly words on the subject ofhis
music appear in his son's Robert instruction book on the lute~ Varietie ofLule-fessons
( 1610).46 documentation ofCampion's opinions abound. Besides his Observations. he
contributed several texts and music for the masques for James [and also wrote A lVew
Way ofMaking Fowre Paris in Coun/er-point. bya Most Fami/iar and Infallibfe Rule.
[n addition to these~ the introductions to his four books ofairs are veritable gold mines of
Campion's convictions on texts and music. As we shaH see. Campion himselfused
gendered narrative when declaring his dislike ofmadrigalisms and implicitly affirming • the superiority his own lute song genre. The rise ofthe middle class in England and the desire to imitate the
entertainments ofthe court led to the rise ofboth the madrigal and the lute song."? Both
genres allowed for performance in the intimate setting ofthe tàmily household and both
helped to express. in their own way. the prevailing social and political mood ofthe
country. As we shaH see next. the madrigal and lute song cao also open a window into
the gender situation ofthe Elizabethan era.
45 See Erik S. Ryding, ··Collaboration Between Campion and Rosseter?" 13-26 and Richard McGrady, ~~Campion and the Lute:· Music Review 47 (1986/87) 1-]5.
46 Diana Poulton. "Lute. § 7: Repertoire."' New Grove Dictionary 11. 362.
th H James Haar~ ~~Madrigat§ IL 4: Italy, 16 century:" New Grove Dictianary 1L • 473 and Diana Poulton. '''Lute, § 7: Repertory.... New Grave Dictionary II. 361. ChapterTwo • Music as Social Text: Building a Foundation ft is certainly not a new approach to examine the artistic products ofa given era to
better understand the politicaL religious and social circumstances ofthat time. Indeed.
many scholar5 have done 50 to comprehend the trends that pervaded England during the
Renaissance. Roy Strong. Lillian Ruff. D. Arnold Wilson and others have demonstrated
that ail facets of lifè in Elizabethan England were integrated and that social, religious and
political issues were often used as subject matter for works ofart. In the musicological
domaine Suzanne Cusick and Linda Austern have focused on gender issues ofthe
Renaissance, dealing with questions ranging from the music-making possibilities open to
women to the use ofparallel terms to describe the corrupting influences ofboth women
and music. 1 Their studies help to build a pIatform from which one may dive into an • examination the gender issues present in selections from the Elizabethan lute song and madrigal repertoire.
Il is perhaps in the visuaI arts where one cao most easily identit)r symbols that
stand for socio-political points-of-view. Roy Strong has spent a significant portion ofhis
career examining Tudor paintings. portraits and pageantry. highlighting the underlying
political sub-texts. In several ofhis books. such as The Elizahethan Image. The Cult of
Elizahelh: Elizahethan Portraiture and Pageantry. and Gloriana: the Portraits ofQueen
Elizaheth 1. Strong explores the many ways in which Elizabeth 1used images ofherself
to affinn her legitimacy to the throne. Early portrayals of Princess Elizabeth show a
1 Laura Macy is another musicologist who has begun to explore gender issues. primarily in Italian works. many ofwhich are beyond the scope ofthis thesis. Please refer • to the bibliography at the end for references to Macy's articles. 15 • pretty, young., upper-class woman., typical ofthe royal aristocracy. Vet once Elizabeth became queen, her portraits changed drastically. They became more symbolic. "Iess the
image ofa person than the portraiture ofthe office."2 Often portrayed with elaborate
symbols ofpower such as the sieve., the crescent moon. the phoenix and the sword of
justice. Elizabeth was seen as more ofa mythic goddess than a human female. 3 That
Elizabeth was aware ofthe influence such portraya.ls could have was obvious. She
disliked many attempts ofher likeness and once a suitable representation was tound. it
was generally copied and unauthorized portraits were destroyed. As she advanced in
years.. she and her supporters used her portraits to belie her increased frailty and maintain
her image as the Virgin Queen.4
European royals also used other artistic devices for political means. Strong's Art • and Power.5 and Jean Wilson's Enlerlainmentsfor Elizabeth 1 6 both explore the ways in which European monarchs used pageantry and later., masques to reinforce the validity of
their rule. The royal pageants ofElizabeth's court were a "mingling ofclassicism
~ Roy Strong. The Elizabethan Image (London: Tate Gallery Publications. 1969) 81.
:; Strong identifies and explains the significance ofseveral ofthese symbols in The Elizahelhan Image, where he quotes William Camden. saying "it would take a whole book to describe the devices she uses." Image 46.
.. Roy Strong, The Cult o.lElizahelh: Elizahethan Portraiture and Pageantry (Great Britain: Thames and Hudson.. 1977) and Image.
5 Roy Strong. Art and Power: Renaissance Festivals 1-150-1650 (Suffolk. England: Boydell Press. 1973). • 6 Jean Wilson. Enterlainmentsfor Elizabeth 1(Great Britain: O.S. Brewer. 1980). 16 • [characters used] and medievalism [conventions ofromance. love and despair].·"7 Commonly. Elizabeth would publicly identify herselfas one ofthe characters in a
pageant, conversing with the other mythical beings on issues oftruth and virtue. By
doing so. she would overcome the political problems ofbeing a female monarch and
....translate her[seUl into a goddess." whose power was unquestionable.8
While Elizabethan portraits and pageants are laden with social and political
symbols. they are by no means the only arts ofthe time that were used to advance a given
agenda. Music played a vital role in the day-to-day activities ofthe typical Elizabethan
household. Naturally. an art that had such a wide audience was ideal for those who
wished to express opinions. For instance, the politically-desired royal affiliation with
mythology did not go unnoticed by the musicians ofthe time. As we have seen.. The • Triumphs ofOriana. ') published in 1601 by Thomas Morley. drew directly from the mythologicallegacy of portraits and pageeants. Each ending refrain ofo"Then sang the
shepherds and the nymphs of Diana: Long live fair Oriana" helped to further the
association between Elizabeth and the mvthical and constant Queen ürïana.
An article by Lillian Ruffand D. Arnold Wilson.. "·The Madrigal.. the Lute Song
7 Ibid. 17. Square brackets are mine.
8 Ibid.
q Further discussion conceming the advent ofthe Triumphs. including its connection to the Italian Il Trionfo di Dari can be found in Joseph Kennan. '''Morley and "The Triumphs ofOriana...,. Music and Letlers 34.3 (July 1953): 185-191. as weil as in Roy Strong. '''Queen Elizabeth 1as üriana.·· Studies ofthe Renaissance 6 (1959): 251 • 260. 17 • and Elizabethan Politics."10 also demonstrates how composers who were aligned with a particular political patron used their compositions to communicale that benefactor' s
position. Not dealing merely with texts. these scholars show how the '''changing moods
ofthe madrigal fonns" and the emergence ofthe lute song could he linked to the rise and
faIl ofcertain politicaI figures in the Elizabethan court. namely Sir Robert Cecil and the
second Earl of Essex. who were at opposite ends ofthe political spectrum. Il The Earl of
Essex was known as honourable and courteous. but could also he haughty and impatient.
traits that often angered the Queen. Ruffand Wilson daim that hit is with the meteoric
rise and fall ofthe young earl ofEssex that the course taken by the Elizahethan madrigal
displays such a remarkable correlation:'!:! [n its early years, the time during which Essex
was in favour with the Queen. the madrigal was lively and cheerfuL but shortly after • Essex's tàll from grace and execution. the form took on a distinctly sombre mood. RutT and Wilson do not think it a coincidence that the chiefpatrons ofmany ofthe madrigal's
foremost composers were Essex supporters. They point out that in a lime when open
disillusionment with the roler was seditious. music provided a subtle yet effective means
ofcommunication. As the authors state:
The nobility who looked towards Essex would recognize political pressure in certain madrigals; and singers could express incanlatory sympathy and loyalty in them al a time when open expression ofpolitical sympathies was treason. 13
10 Lillian M. RutT and D. Arnold Wilson, ....The Madrigal, the Lute Song and Elizabethan Politics,,. Past and Present, Canada 44 (August 1969): 3-51.
Il Ibid. 4. • 12 Ibid. 13 Ibid. 19. 18 • This comment does seem convincing, but unfortunately, Ruffand Wilson do not cite many specifie examples ofmadrigals to support their daims. They rely on the annual
number ofmadrigals published and refer only to the general trend ofthe earlier pastoral
madrigal (such as the numerous ""Bonny Boots'~ madrigals) versus the larer, more sombre
ones (such as Orlando Gibbons' ·"Silver Swan"). 14
The lute song, wilh ils ·"preponderant melancholy,""s also mirrors the fall of
Essex. Whereas the peak period ofpopularity for the madrigal (1597-1598) coincides
wirh the triumphs ofEssex. the peak period ofthe lute song ( 1600-(601) shadowed his
dO\\'llfall and execution. '6 [n contrast to the madrigal.. sorne lute songs seem to explicitly
bemoan Essex's tàte. For example. only one book of lute songs was published in the two
years following Essex's (and also Queen Elizabeth·s) death. It is Dowland's Third and • Lasl Booke ofSongs Or Ayres ( 1603). Sorne songs found in the collection speak ofa "poor man condemned:' sorne are mourning songs: ·"Flow not so fast. ye fountains":
"Weep you no more. sad fountains"; and ··Lend your ears to my sorrow."' while still
others are songs of farewell. Ruffand Wilson suggest that the reference is not to sorne
'''Everyman'' 17 figure. but to Essex. Again they show strong politicallinks between lute
song composers and Essex. including the fact Essex wrote sorne ofthe poems himselt:
14 Ibid. 10-11. Il should be noted that ""The Silver Swan" is technically a consort song. However. RutTand Wilson state that for the purposes oftheir study. they use ·"the word ·madrigal' as an omnibus teern and include ail the vocal music published in the madrigal collections." 5-6.
15 Ibid. 26. • 16 Ibid. 26-27. These peaks refer to the annual number ofpublished works. 17 A common figure from medieval morality plays. 19 • aiong with Dyer~ Campion and Breton. lx [n aIL the authors find political relationships in the lute songs of Dowland~ Morley, Rosseter, Campion and DanieL stating that 'lhey
belonged to the same circle ofpatronage and they drew upon the same group ofPOets~'~I~
but again, they do not cite specifie examples from the repertoire ofeach ofthese
composers. Although [ find the generality ofRutrs and Wilson's c1aims a bit extreme
(every madrigal and lute song written at this time did not deal with Essex), they do
demonstrate that the music ofthe era can open a portaJ to understanding the political
climate ofElizabeth's regime.
[fmusic can be examined to understand the poiiticallandscape ofa given time, it
can aiso he analysed to comprehend the social nonns ofa society, such as issues of
gender~ sexuality and love. As Plato stated in his Banquet, music is "a science oflove • matters occupied in harmonie and rhythmos.",20 The works ofSuzanne Cusick and Linda Austern deal with how music relates to matters ofgender and love.
ln her recent article "Gendering Modem Music: Thoughts on the Monteverdi-
Artusi Controversy.,,21 Cusick delves directly into gender issues in music in the Italian
context. She examines 'lhe presence ofgender metaphors in the documents ofthe
18 Ibid. 42. Il should be noted that there are sorne political tics between Campion and Essex. For instance, it is possible that Campion took part in Essex's expedition to (reland in the 1590s. See Richard McGrady~ "Campion and the Lute.~'
19 (bid~ 46.
20 Thomas Morley~ A Plain and Easy Introduction 10 Praclical Music. 101 .
:!I Suzanne Cusick~ ""Gendering Modem Music: Thoughts on the Monteverdi • Artusi Controversy~" Journal ofthe American Musicologica/ Society 42.3 (fall 1993): 1 25. 20 • Monterverdi-Artusi controversy~ ~~22 which deals with Monteverdi's new modem madrigals and Artusi's unbending defence ofthe older ones. Cusick begins by
identif)ring various gender-based binary oppositions that were generally accepted and
considered common knowledge in the early modem world (see table 2.1). She then
shows how Artusi used gendered rhetoric when examining ....Cruda Amarillï~ and "0
MirtilIo" in an etIort to discredit and condemn Monteverdrs new modem music. Artusi
described modern music with its ornamentation as a ·"painted whore" (una sfaccia/a
meretrice) and connected the ....new kinds ofmodula/ione (voice leading. or movement of
the parts together. as Artusi describes it)...to the image ofthe singer's wild. eye-rolling.
body-distorting gestures:~ calling this vocal style and specifically ....Cruda ArmariIli:'
··unnaturaI:~.!3 Cusick shows how ""the principal oppositions in Artusïs text would have • evoked in his readers a nearly irresistible association of [Monteverdi's] modem music with the tèminine"l-t and summarizes the gender oppositions used by Artusi (see table
2.2).
22 Ibid~ 25.
!J [bid~ 6-7.
• 24 Ibid~ 8-9. 21
Table 2.1 • Gendered Oppositions in Late Renaissance Tbougbf5
Man-masculine Woman-feminine natural unnatural head and feet body reasoo. mind sensuality, sensibility soul body
virtue sin
substance ornament
The Monteverdi camp contested Artusi's attack by employing the same method •
gendered oppositions. Detènding his brother Claudio Monteverdi. Cesare Monteverdi
invoked "the masculine hierarchy ofpadrone and servo" and placed Monterverdi and • modem music "within the control ofa masculine-ruled order.·· By doing so. he refuted "Anusïs underlying complaint about this music - that it is destabilizing. out ofthe
control ofthe social order:'26
Cusick concludes that:
the focus on these two madrigaJs by both parties to the controversy irresistibly sexualized ··modem music'· and feminized its sonorous traits by associating them with images ofthe sensual and disobedient body rather than the rational and controlling anima....and .. .these gender messages became inextricable trom the style they were used to defend. with consequences for both seventeenth-century practitioners and twentieth-century scholars ofearly '''modem music:·n
:!5 Ibid. excerpted From table. 4.
26 Ibid. 14-15.
• 27 Ibid. 25. 22
Table 2.2 • Gender Oppositions in Artusi according to Cusick 18
Modems Traditionalists
dissonance consonance
7ths octaves
mixed modes single mode governs ail
mixed genera single genus in one work
oratiolle as padrona ora/ione as daughter ofritmo and armonia
unnatural natural
accentÎ (omaments)
effects wrought by grimaces effects wrought by armonia
monstrous binh beauty
scorn~ ridicule delight
movement ofpans causes hannony harmony consists ofunchangeable categories • wee9 dry cold hot
appearance, which can change essence. which is changeless
pagans Christians
··made-up whore" chaste
bitter~ ugly. stinking sweet. beautiful. fragrant
masquerade truth
melancholy cheerful
sick healthy
28 Ibid. 8. Note that Artusi equales modems with the feminine and tradilionalists with the masculine.
29 The relation ofthe terms '''weC' and ··cold'· to the feminine. as opposed to "'dry" and hoC' to the masculine. refers to the Galenic medical theory ofreproduction. See • Laura Macy. '''Speaking ofSex: Metaphor and Performance in the ltalian MadrigaL'" Journal ofMusicology 14.1 (winter 1996): 1-34. 23 • Il is clear that using gendered tenns to describe music is not new and that examining these binary oppositions and how they were used cao shed light on sorne ofthe
social biases ofthe time.
The gendered view ofmusic was by no means exclusive to ltaly. Much ofLinda
Austern"s scholarship deals with English Renaissance texts that discuss music" wornen
and the sirnilarities between the two. As in ltaly. many sixteenth- and seventeenth-
century English attitudes saw feminine nature as ·•...especially disordered. convoluted.
deceptive. changeable and uncontrollable.. a literai inversion ofthe positive. direct
qualities associated with the era's masculine ideaIs.'''30 Similar texts dealing with idea of
love reveal a strong sense ofduality, ofa light and dark side to love. In what Austem
retèrs to as the "predominantly misogynist traditions ofChristianity and Platonism.··31 • love had the capacity to save or doom its servant. to transport the human soul above mundane reality or condemn it to a lifetime ofmelancholic despair. Not surprisingly.
women and music were love's primary messengers. In her article "Music and the English
Controversy Over Women,,,32 Austern explores sorne ofthe literary and social texts that
deal with the virtues and evils ofwomen and music. As she states ··...[it was believed
that] women. like music, have been altemately responsible for the spread ofmoral
30 Linda P. Auslern....Alluring the auditoire to effeminacie': Music and the Idea ofthe Feminine in Early Modern England..·· Music and LeI/ers 74.3 (August 1993): 343.
31 Linda P. Austem. ···Sing Againe Syren': The Female Musician and Sexual Enchantment in Elizabethan Life and Literature:" Renaissance Quarterly 42.3 (FaU 1989): 421.
32 Linda P. Austern:·Music and the English Renaissance Controversy Over Women:' Cecilia Reclaimed: Feminist Perspective on Gender and Music (Urban~ • Illinois: University of Illinois. 1994) 52-69. 24 • decrepitude and for bringing men doser to the divine. ~~j3 Any discussion surrounding women and music at the time invariably ran into the ''"broader cultural issues of
sensuality. morality. control and love:,34 [n ···Sing Againe Syren~: the Female Musician
and Sexual Enchantment in Elizabethan Life and Literature,·.35 Austem aptly sums up the
relationship between women and music as weil as the dangers ofcombining these two
powerful forces. She writes:
Both music and feminine beauty were considered intense inf1amers ofthe passions, and. when used together. resulted in an uncontrollable sensual experience for the masculine listener. Therefore. many leamed writers recommend that women avoid the inherent moral danger ofmusic by limiting ils use to private meditation where it was most capable ofpersonaI spiritual benefit [as opposed to its opposite. morally-corrupting effects].36
Austem finds many pedagogie examples ofthis danger in English literature and
• Late~ drama. She cites Robert Greene's novet Never Too where the protagonist.
Francesco. meets two women during his adventures. IsabelL the chaste young virgin who
Francesco eventuaIly marries. "sings to her lute or cittern alone to dispel melancholy.~·
whereas Insida~ the courtesan. "plays her lute and sings exquisitely to her guests in the
hopes that one passion may lead to another.~·J7 The reader would thus learn to treat
33 Ibid. 52.
34 Ibid. 54.
35 Linda P. Austem. ···Sing Againe Syren': The Female Musician and Sexual Enchantment in Elizabethan Life and Literature~" Renaissance Quarterly 42.3 (fall 1989): 420-448.
36 Ibid~ 447.
• 37 Ibid. 444-445. • certain kinds oflascivious music and women with the utmost caution. ln ···Alluring the Auditorie to EfTeminacie-: Music and the Idea ofthe Feminine in
Early Modern England.~~ Austem explores ··...the early modern English idea ofthe
tèminine [as itJ ...was frequently applied to music on both theoretical and practical levels
by thinkers in a wide variety of tields:'J8 Individuals such as social crilic William Prynne
and music lheorist Charles Butler believed that music that was pleasing to the senses was
effeminate and that ··amorous poems are invariably set to ·effeminate. delicate. lust-
provoking Musike.· in contrast to the more sober. godly. chaste and evidently masculine
music to which psalm texts were set:'J9 As Austern clarifies: "music was labelled
'feminine' or ·etTeminate· because ofits affective resemblance to the early modem
perceptions ofwomen and the passions they induced in men:'40 The worst musically- • etlèminate otTenders were madrigals ··...because ofthe appealing varied delicacy oftheir music. the mastery ofcompositional artifice required to compose them_ and the frequent
textual retèrences to the delights of love which are illustrated through their music.''41
Chromaticism. the use ofomamentation. the falsetto voice. and improvisation were ail
considered e1ements oftruJy effeminate music.
As we have seen. many scholars have examined works ofart to better understand
the politicaL religious and social biases ofthe society in which the works were created.
Roy Strong and Jean Wilson have shown how Elizabeth 1used portraiture and pageantry
JI( Linda Austern.•..Alluring the auditoire:' 354.
39 Ibid. 352.
~() Ibid. 354.
• ~I Ibid. 352. 26 • to overcome the political problem ofbeing a female monarch. Lillian RufT and D. Arnold Wilson demonstrate how music can also he probed to comprehend socio-political trends.
and how composers used their works to communicate a particular political agenda. When
it cornes to issues ofsexuaJity and love in Renaissance music.. Suzanne Cusick and Linda
Austem have led the way in defining the gendered environment which dominated the
composition. perfonnance and reception ofthe music ofthe day. Using these works as a
foundation. 1will examine the gendered narrative present in selections from the
Elizabethan lute song and madrigal repertoires. •
• Chapter Three • Gender Issues in the Elizabethan Madrigal and Lute Song As we have seen in chapter two. there is a documented tradition ofexamining
music to better understand the socio-political trends ofa given era. Musicologists such as
Suzanne Cusick and Linda Austem have c1arified ways in which the people ofthe
Renaissance used gendered language to discuss music. Using their conclusions. 1will
examine possible gender associations in pieces from the Elizabethan madrigal and lute
song repertoire.
ln her article "Gendering Modem Music: Thoughts on the Monteverdi-Artusi
Controversy.,,1 Cusick outlines certain gender-based binary oppositions (see table 2.1 and
2.2) used by Artusi and Monteverdi to describe the modem Italian madrigal. She also
reters to certain musical devices that were seen as etTeminate. most notably • omamentation. so-called new voice Ieading. mixing ofmodes, dissonances. and independent vocal Iines.2 Austem's scholarship outlines the gender-charged environment
surrounding music in Elizabethan England, and finds similar associations between
musical devices and etTeminacy. Not surprisingIy, many ofthe devices discussed in
Cusick's work appear in Austem's research as weIl. In"Alluring the Auditorie to
EtTeminacie: Music and the Idea ofthe Feminine in Early Modem England:' Austern
explains that chromaticisms. omamentation. the use of faisetto voice. and improvisation
\Vere aIl considered etTeminate by the scholars orthe day. Madrigals themselves were
1 Suzanne Cusick. ··Gendering Modem Music: Thoughts on the Monteverdi Artusi Controversy.'· See discussion in chapter two. • 2 Ibid. 4. 6. 11. 8 and 10, respectively. 28 • one ofthe worst offenders in this regard., as William Prynne saw it because they were often hamorous poems invariably set to "etTeminate., delicate" lust-provoking Musick. ',.,J
Austem"s works deal mostly with the writing oftheorists ofthe day, and stops short of
finding similar binary oppositions in the English repertoire ofthat time. Yet she
undoubtedly helps to make the link between Cusick"s Italian effeminate musical devices
and similar ones found in England.
The case for the association ofmasculine traits with the lute song was actually
made by Campion himself. As he states in the preface ofhis Firs/ Booke ofAyres (1601):
But there are sorne" who to appeare the more deepe and singular in their judgement, will admit no Musicke but that ... where the nature ofeverie word is precisely exprest in the Note" like the old exploided action in Comedies, when ifthey did pronounce Memini [1 remember], they would point to the hinder part oftheir heads, if Video [1 see], put their linger to their eye. But such childish observing ofwords is altogether ridiculous. • and we ought to maintaine as weil in Notes., as in action a manly carriage [my emphasis]. gracing no \vord., but that which is eminent and emphaticaII...
By condemning the characteristic madrigalian technique ofword-painting and calling for
the maintenance ofa "'manly carriage.," Campion clearly states his association of
Italianate madrigalisms and effeminacy., and implicitly affiliates his own lute songs with
virtuous" masculine qualities.
As we have seen. Thomas Morley al50 attributed feminine qualities to the
madrigal in his treatise A Plain and Easy Introduction la Practical ~flisic:
3 Linda Austem. ·"Alluring the auditorie:' 352. • .. Walter Davis" ed. The Works ofThomas Campion" 15. • 29 ...possess yourselfwith an amorous humour~...so that you must in your music he wavering like the wind~ sometimes wanton.. sometimes drooping.. sometimes grave and staid.. otherwhile effeminate....5
While Morley does invoke effeminacy to describe the madrigal and mentions that poets
who write madrigal texts would do better to "abstain from sorne obscenities which aIl
honest ears abhor.. ~"6 his comments lack the judgmental tone ofCampion's opinion.
Morley states that the essence ofa good madrigal is 'The very uttennost of... variety,.. 7 and
that using effeminate devices is perfectly acceptable.
By combining the work ofCusick and Austem with Campion's and Morley"s
views and the ditTerences between the madrigal and lute song already discussed.. one can
postulate a related set ofbinary oppositions in England.. as is shown in table 3.1. • Table 3.1
male female
• rcason. mind scnsuaJity
spiritual love carthly love (Iust)
intellectual pursuils cmotional pursuils
• substance omamenl
English consort song intluenct.'S Ilalian madrigal influences
monody polyphony
text suprcme music suprcme
IUle song madrigal • taken from Cuslck tahle 2.1
5 Thomas Morley, A Plain and Easy Introduction 10 Practical Music., 294.
6 Ibid.
7 Ibid. Perhaps this outlook is not surprising in light ofMorley tinancial gain from • such "light" music. 30 • One can almost view this table in a cumulative way: with each feature ofgendered oppositions leading toward the most obvious differences between the madrigal and the
lute song: the balance ofthe relationship between the text and music.
Literary scholar Stephen Ratcliffe deals with the relationship between words and
music in his book. Campion: On Song. 8 He deals with the syntactic.. phonetic., and
rhythmic organizational principals at work in Campion"s song ·'Now winter nights
enlarge." taken l'rom The Third Booke ofAyres. In his book.. Ratcliffe discusses a
principle ofrhyme, or ''the relationship ofidentities unified by a strong but strongly
imperfect likeness" and upholds the idea that words and music together create a dynamic
artistic unit~ that while other scholars might call for the study ofone to the exclusion of
the other. these elements work together and therefore have an important and research- • worthy artistic impact on one another. A Campion song. or any other song:
.. .is the unification oftwo detachable identities. made in two different kinds ofraw material. words and music. A child ofthe union ofthese parents. [note gender implications] the new unit is a unit ofpowerful separable parts, parts that are al once urgently independent and urgently interdependent.9
This last clause. ··parts that are at once urgently independent and...
interdependent.'· is key to comparison ofthe madrigal ta the lute song. RatcIitTe
expounds again and again on the importance ofthis rhyming tug-of-war relationship
between words and music. referring to a ··...multiplicity ofrelationships among parts and
8 Stephen RatclitTe. Campion: On Song (Boston: RoutIedge and Paul. 1981). • [) Ibid. vii. 31 • patterns whose simultaneous likeness and unlikeness pull them simuhaneously together and apart.,,10 This textual/musical give-and-take is yet another way ofexpressing the
above gender-based binary oppositions. The balance between the eftèminate music and
the masculine texts helps to define the gender character ofthe piece. The madrigal. with
its emphasis on sensual. musical elements is seen as effeminate" while the intellectually-
simulating text emphasis ofthe lute song is seen as decidedly masculine.
Let us see how these gendered binary oppositions might play out in the music of
the time. 1 have selected two works to test this hypothesis: a six-voice madrigal from
Wilbye"s First Set ofEnglish Madrigal.fi (1598). ~~Cruel Behold My Heavy Ending" and
··When Thou Must Home·' from Campion·s A Booke ofAyres (1601). Both works are
typical ofthe collections to which they belong, treat the themes of love and death. and fit • the hypothesis weil. Let us begin with Wilbye's madrigal "Cruel Behold my Heavy Ending"(S.[or A.] S.[or A.] A.T.T.B.).
Wilbye's "Cruel Behold my Heavy Ending''tl[
Cruel behold my heavy ending: See what you wrought by your disdaining. Causeless [ die. Love still attending Your hopeless pity ofmy complaining.
Suffer those eyes which thus have slain me With speed to end their killing power: So shaH you prove how Love doth pain me And see me die stiIJ yower. [2
10 Ibid. viii.
[( Edmund H. Fellowes. English Madrigal School. Vol. VI: J. Wilhye: First Set of English Madrigals (London: Stainer and Bell Ltd.• 1920)" 143.
12 '"The word ·yower,· as is printed in the original Edition. cannot he replaced by • ~yours' both the modem without a distinct loss to the words and music in this place:· Ibid. 149. • Upon examining the madrigal text~ one notices a number ofdistinctive elements. The first is that the text is strophic~ although as we shaH see~ the music for it is through-
composed. Another intriguing detail is the oft-repeated ·"-ing'~ verb ending, particularly in
the first stanza. This is teHing, because oiten ltalian madrigal texts translated into English
display this trochee. weak-stressed, -ing ending. An example ofthis is Marenzio's
madrigal ~"Che fa hoggi il mio sole~" which was translated into English. '''What doth my
pretty dearling" for the Musica Transalpina collection:
Marenzio's "What doth my pretty dearling"
What doth my pretie dearling What doth my song and chanting that they sing not of hir~ the praise and vaunting? To hir 1give my violets~ and garland sweetly smelling. • For to crowne hir sweet locks pure gold excelling. 13 So despite the fact that the source ofthe poem is unknown. this evidence suggests that
"Cruel Behold my Heavy Ending'· could be a translation ofan Italian madrigal text.
Turning to the subject ofthe text, we find that the speaker talks ofdeath brought
on by someone he loves 14 - and immediately one must be on guard for double enlendres:
in the Renaissance. death was often used as a metaphor for sexual orgasm. 15 Therefore.
13 Nicolas Yonge, Musica Transalpina (New York: Da Capo Press~ 1972) 26. One cao also compare this text to other known translations in Wilbye·s collection: '~Lady when 1behold the roses sprouting," '~Thus saith my Chloris bright~" "'Lady your words do spite me:· ""Alas what a wretched life is this;· and ~~Unkind. 0 stay thy flying:'
14 Admittedly, the gender ofthe speaker is not c1ear. Yet the majority ofmadrigal lexts trom this period are c1early written from the male perspective. There is nothing to suggest that this is not the case here. Yet we shaH see an exception to this tendency in chapter four~ with the examination ofa song written from the female perspective.
• 15 Laura Macy, '~Speaking ofSex: Metaphor and Performance in the Italian Madrigal;' Journal ofMusicology 14.1 (wioter 1996): 1. 33 • --Cruel Behold my Heavy Ending" could he read in two different ways: in a strictly literai way or a sexually-charged way. Ail could be taken as a tongue-in cheek account ofa
lover who has made the speaker -"sutTer'~ the pangs oflove. in other words. engage in the
act oflove-making: ....See what you wrought by your disdaining, Causeless 1die, Love still
attending." At the end ofthe poem, the speaker has ....died" or reached orgasm and
finishes by declaring his enduring love: '''So shaH you prove how Love doth pain me. and
see me die still yower."
Obviously. on its own a poem can be subject to many different readings and
interpretations. When such poems are set to music. we get a better understanding ofhow
the composer understood the work. Let us now see what Wilbye made ofthis text.
The madrigal is through-composed with emphasis on the music.. not the text. This • reaffinns the notion ofthe madrigal as etTeminate~ with emphasis on oroate.. florid music~ as opposed to the more masculine. intellectually-inspired emphasis on the text. ft begins
with a three-voice texture using G minor sonorities.. progressing in halfand whole notes.
which. as Kerman observes. ··...establish[es] a general morose atmosphere:,16 Longs (tied
whole notes) appear on each entry ofthe word "-Cruel." This.. coupled with the repeated
emphasis ofthe halfstep.. usually between G and f#, and the ponderous suspensions on
the words "heavy ending,'" add to the moumful mood. The other three voices enter in a
similar way at the first cadence on a G final with one flat at measure nine. prolonging the
torlom dirge. Typical madrigalian overlapping repetitions ofthe phrase ....Cruel behold
16 Joseph Kerman.. The Elizahethan Madrigal. 238. Kennan only mentions this piece in passing, referring to "nos. 28-29," stating that both maintain this --morose • atmosphere" throughout the work. Clearly, this is not the case with number twenty eight.. the piece in question here. 34 • my heavy ending" are repeated for a full third ofthe piece (measure one to measure twenty-four out ofa total seventy-seven measures). This desolate opening sets up the
expectation ofa literai interpretation ofthe text; perhaps a true death has occurred.
Then~ in measure twenty-four~ there is a sudden and distinct rhythmic change with the
appearance ofthe phrase "see what you wrought by YOUf disdaining'~(see example 3.1).
Example3.1
~ 1\ ", ;:::l ,., IV """ .. .. -ing:_, ~ .-taat yau '""ld&t. S40e • .... ,,"Uli A . [Cl -y , ~ "'hat 10'1 W'rouPt. 8ft' wIud)'ua noapt br yoa.r difl . A
:eT ... ~ St. ...l1li& ,"oa ~ by- yoar dis - daiD - - i~. A" • --1
IcTiJ 'Ir C"J -in';.:", Srr -:bat ruu ."J'OUfCbt by YOUI" di. daiD - ln«. A A
• ItJtJ . . ~ .",- See wtw 10- WI'OUgbt by,.oar di. - data . ing. S40e ...ut )"Ou -'
~ \ ~ ...·bat JOU .-ro1l{d11 .. ~ . .. - ~-.=l'~ ~ '--J '1 ,- 1 { ..", r r r r , .~ ! l' 1 1 1 ~~~.J d.. _JJ J. --:.I~
1 -
By introducing eighth notes for the tirst time. Wilbye moves the piece forward and
lightens the mood considerably. The listener senses that perhaps the opening was a ruse..
a false interpretive device used to contrast and draw attention to a lighter~ more sexual
reading. The ten stretto-Iike entries of··see what you wrought" imitate a sort ofphysical
c1oseness. the lovers drawing doser and doser to each other. At "causeless 1 die.~' the
texture is eut to the three upper voices. which cadence on G and are immediately echoed • by the three lower voices, singing the same text. Here the upper voices, representing the 35 • female~ and the lower voices~ the male" symbolize a conversation between the two lovers. '''Suifer those eyes which thus have slain me"" is treated in a similar manner to ....see what
you wrought," with multiple, off..the-beat entries on the high 0 ofeach register. This
motive leads directly into the most obvious instance ofword-painting in the piece: "'with
speed to end their killing power'" (see example 3.2).
Example3.2
1 l'J f ..- .... -
- r.rtkllflP~ewlüall ... ka"" liai.';, With ::- ~
...'~ .... me. Witb fPeed- _ SIlI - rn th!*! ~ ::> .. . - rf'rt~ote ~""'''''Idt tllu. banllain .e. Wl1b BpHd ta pnd '''Ir kill - ~ po.- :> :> ,
_ 1 alain Sut - fer tItaNl'1ftàidltha have .IaiD WitJa :;::i- • :> , . Sat .. rertbMe..,.w1lkbthn .ave sh,in me, Vo'lth ;;i l' . ...--...... 1 --.-. 1 1 1 - ~ ---CL....f.r 1 If il, l~''-I . -~ ! 1 .r1"'... J-nTIr~ .fj ~ 1S ) f J .mJ r , r' -
1 11 Il
IIJ _ to ndtheÏJ' kJ.!.1- IlIC po~- n':, Sa " tJ _ to e1ld t ....ir kill-iq plnlV - er: ~ " t.J .. to rnd t,",ir kill- ias po.. - er: So ~ f. -- ..,eJ . tr: ~ Il - 1 J. --.; tJ _ ta nad their kllJ-i.~ paw - .-r: - Il. _ to fDd~r km-'.. pe. - fOr: 50
t~~:rrAJ::~. =~- ~ ._~t! ~--.d~ J~:- u-~j _0 ~ . • -4 .:..=:p: --=:_ .-=: 36 • Here.. on the word ~"speed .. '" Wilbye introduces a rapid.. four-eighth-note ornament-like pattern that faIls on each heat ofthe measure in one voice or another, an example ofthe
pictoraI word-painting, [7 the ....oId exploided action in Comedies" that Campion was so
against (see page 28) where the focus is on the literaI word ""speed," and notjust the
sentiment. This section leads the lovers to a climax and a cadence on Bb, with the words
·"to end their killing power.'" By cadencing on Bb, a note found only in the soft hexachord
(beginning on F). Wilbye is making a dramatic point: the ""killing power" described is
c1early not painful" but enjoyable. the climax ofthe sexuaI encounter.
The next line.. "'So shaH you prove how love doth pain me:" appears in a nearly
homophonie setting and then is repeated" each time with four voices.. in another
conversation-Iike section. At this point.. Wilbye reinstates sorne interpretive ambiguity: • the tirst presentation ofthe line is centered around Bb.. reminding us ofthe sexual encounter that has just taken place. The second presentation.. however. reverts back to G..
reminding us ofthe opening with its more literai references to death. The finalline "And
see me die still yower'" continues to recall the slow opening with suspensions and half
steps. but this lime cadences on a G major sonority.. finally dispelling any remnants ofthe
gloom ofthe opening. The lovers are at res!. happy in each others· company. and
declaring their love.
Evidently. Wilbye has exploited the sexual innuendo present in the text by
17 Gary Tomlinson discusses the difference between affective madrigalisms musical devices that '''constitute a direct translation ofthe emotional charge carried by the text," (ie. dissonance) and pictorial madrigalisms - devices that have a ""visual correlation between the musical gesture and textual meaning'" (ie. a melodic leap with the text ~my • heart leapt.") See Monteverdi and the End ofthe Renaissance (Berkeley: University of California Press. ]987) 63. 37 • emphasizing the Italianate feminizing devices available to him. By beginning in a moumful manner~ he seems to be taking the text at face value, but with the introduction
ofthe second line oftext. Wilbye drastically changes to a playful mood and insinuates
that there is something more to the text than meets the eye. The Italianate characteristics
ofthis madrigal shine through: the fonn ofthe poem is lost in the continuai repetition of
words or segments ofthe text, and contrasting sections.. speeds and textures abound.
Wilbye does not shy away from what Campion would cali effeminate madrigalian
techniques ofword-painting and ornamentation.. but uses them to great effect. The
varying textures and textuai repetition ofthe words reinforce this notion ofeffeminacy
with its earthly.. lusty excesses and ever-changing nature. In short" it fits the hypothesis at
hand. • Now.. on to Campion"s piece: Campion's "When Thou Must Home,,'8
When thou must home to shades ofunderground. And there arriv"d. a new admired guest.. The beauteous spirits do ingirt thee round.. White lope.. blithe Helen and the rest.. To hear the stories ofthy finish·d love From that smooth tongue, whose music hell cao move.
Theo wilt thou speak ofbanqueting delights. Of masks and revels which sweet youth did make.. Oftoumeys and great challenges ofknights.. And ail these triumphs tor thy beauty"s sake. When thou hast told these honours done to thee" Theo tell. 0 tell how thou didst murder me.
Campion·s "When Thou Must Home"" is a two-stanza strophic poem.. in what
rd • 18 & Edmund H. Fellowes, ed.. English LUle-Songs. Series J: Vol 4 J3. 3 editioo.. revised by Thurstson Dart (London: Stainer and Bell Ltd... 1969) 38. 38 • Davis describes as ~"his [Campion~s] favorite two-stanza form [in which] the second stanza answers the first by application or conclusion.·"9 This POetically ambitious fonn is
in essence the two-part format ofthe c1assical epigram, consisting "·ofa situation
(exposilio or narratio) and a closing ·POint' (acumen):' 20 As Campion states in the
pretàce ofA Booke ofAyres: ··What Epigrams are in Poetrie, the same are Ayres in
musicke. then in their chiefe perfection when they are short and weil seasoned..,21
Consequently both the poetic and musical fonn here contrasts drastically with Wilbye's
madrigal; the lute song·s emphasis is unquestionably the succinct and effective
expression ofthe form and text., not the free-fonn omate excesses ofmusic.
Seing the poet as weil as the composer ofthis work was an added advantage for
Campion; he could use this two-stanza. strophic fonn to reinforce the meaning ofthe text. • As Ratcliffe points out hearing the same music to different words draws a subconscious comparison between the two stanzas in the mind ofthe listener. and enhances the
coherence ofthe work: ··though the two stanzas ... are clearly different they are set to and
accompanied by the same piece ofmusic....they rhyme. .,. thereby persuading the listener
to compare and contrast the stanzas in hislher mind. 22
The piece begins with the poet setting the scene and situation ofthe poem. Unlike
19 Walter Davis. The Works ofThomas Campion. xvii.
20 As described by Gary Tomlinson. Monteverdi and the Endofthe Renaissance. 85.
21 Edmund Horace Fellowes. ed. The English LUle-Sangs. Seris J: Vol./ and 13. 3rd edition. Revised by Thurston Dart. (London: Stainer and Bell Ltd.. 1969) 1.
2~ Stephen Ratcliffe. Campion: On Song. 78. In discussing this piece in particular. • Ratcliffe also points out that phonetic nasals and dentals conversely expand and contract various sound patterns and add to the overall tension and intrigue ofthe work (see page 163). 39 • "'Cruel Sehold my Heavy Ending." here the author presents no play-on-words and refers immediately to the ··underground." bringing to mind the image ofa grave and even the
underworld ofc1assical times. Campion, Iike most men ofthis era was a great admirer of
the c1assical period,2J something that was a direct result ofthe male-dominated
intellectual education system ofthe time, and this classical illusion. the mention ofthe
mythical [ope and Helen. and even the use ofthis particular form itselfaIl serve to
reinforce the masculine. intellectual nature ofthis work. The text is very flattering al this
point in the POem: the "new admired guest" is surrounded by mythical characters who are
raptly listening to ·'stories ofthy finished love:' The mention of"'hell" at the end ofthe
tirst stanza alludes to the grimmer aspects ofdeath. but it is a fleeting glimpse at best.
The second stanza begins with references to "banqueting delights" and ··masques • and revels:' This text is set to the same music as the opening, reminding the listener of the complimentary and mild-mannered nature ofthe work. Here we also encounter
reterences to "toumeys" and "great challenges," which bring to mind life at court in
England. a contrast to the classical references in the first stanza. The line ...... aIl these
triumphs for thy beauty's sake" continues to build on the tlattering spirit ofthe work.
leaving the listener completely unprepared tor the epigrammatic final punch-line. "Then
tell. 0 tell how thou didst murder me," when the poet finally reveals his true feelings
toward the lady and her dastardly homicidal actions.
Musically. Campion's "When Thou Must Home'" is sparse in comparison to
Wilbye's madrigal. holding to the aforementioned tradition ofmasculine text emphasis. • The music is strophically set. reinforcing the form ofthe original poem. Lines three and :!3 Ibid, xix. 40 • four are set to the same music as lines one and two.. and as mentioned before. this musical repetition helps to tied the mood ofthe two stanzas together subconsciously in the mind
ofthe listener. To round out the musical form into two equal sections ofsixteen
measures. both the music and text oflines five and six are repeated as weIl.
The melody is simple and unadorned. moving in halfnotes with occasional
dotted-half/quarter note combinations thrown in. As mentioned earlier, Campion was
concerned with preserving poetic accent patterns. and here. as in many ofhis works. he
arranges the music in this standard pattern to emphasize the iambic pentameter pattern of
2 the poem. -1 The lute accompaniment tills out the G minor sonorities hinted at in the
vocalline and does provide sorne musical interest with passing eighth notes. but it never
overshadows the vocal line. The simple pace ofthe piece and complimentary rhyming • text is used to luH the listener into complacency before Campion"s piéce de résistance, the setting ofthe finalline (see example 3.3).
Example 3.3
nvn .ril. f,~'~ ---~~\: ~ ~ ?~?-k, J i:~7;J ~l , c.'f B-- -' -~--_. - •. (') ",~" -:;."" >• -~tf7---;...... \ , ..~ ~-' .'~ ,.' 1 i
~, ' . . ~ .. ~~. __ .. - -... . 1;.):; ,; _::----=-D·-~_.-=·~~ - -.:r~~~~~_~-: : _:
~ "'- ~ ..... l '
• 2-1 Most notably in this collection. ~~Though Thou art Young." ·"The Cypress Curtain ofthe Night.,. "'Follow your Saint;' ....Thou art not Fair:' '''See Where She Flies:" and "Biarne Not My Cheeks.'· 41 • Unlike aIl the other lines. Campion here begins with a rest. then uses two whole notes acting as hemiolas to dramatically draw attention to the text. First the long whole
notes emphasize the ~'1hat smooth" of"from that smooth tongue," a less than tlattering
description as we learn.. for the music and text rush forward from that place with '-whose
music heU can move." This final Hne is even more bitter in the second stanza. The
whole notes fall on "1e1L 0 telL" and the listener senses the urgency and anger ofthe poet.
Tell ofwhat? "How thou didst murder me!" This ending brings the listener up short and
casts a paIl over the preceding false praise.
In this work. Campion has maintained h •••a manly carriage'·25 and uses the music
to support and reinforce the text as embodied in the structure. He has avoided any
effeminate omaments and word-painting and has delivered the cIassicaIly inspired text • cIearlyand forcefully. In the end.. "'When Thou Must Home" conclusively demonstrates the aforementioned masculine qualities ofthe lute song.
As we have seen. it is possible to apply the gender-based binary oppositions to
representative pieces from the repertoire. Yet how do entire collections stand up to these
binary oppositions? Do ail the pieces fall into these two gender camps or is there
something more complex at hand? Only by examining each collection as a whole.
comparing textual themes and the musical devices chosen to express them.. cao one be
comfortable with a systematic gendered reading ofthese works. • 25 Walter Davis, ed. The Works ofThomas Campion.. 15. Chapter Four • Blending Black and White into Grey In her book Passion Made Public: Elizahelhan Lyric, Gender and Performance.
Diana Henderson discusses the shared origin ofthe words gender and genre. stating that
[they] share the same etymology, from the Latin for "kind,· "class,' '"birth.· or "origin'~ although they thus assert their naturalness (and hence their inevitability). both words refer to ways we c:hoose 10 divide up our world in order 10 make sense ofil [emphasis mineJ. 1
This is precisely what 1have done thus far; 1have used known gender biases and genre
characteristics ofthe time to better the understand the forces at work in select musical
pieces. Yet as we shaH see, few ofthe pieces in these collections fit the gendered binary
oppositions point by point. Indeed, no work ofart is merely the sum total ofthe tenns
used to describe il. One must examine works individually to ascertain how these terros.
or as in this case. these gendered oppositions, overlap to produce a work that is not
• merely X or Y. but a combination or melding ofX-ness and Y-ness. It is time to
examine the binary oppositions again. observing how they might overlap. and how this
overlap can better capture the nature ofthe often-contradictory forces at work in the
musIc.
1 Diana Henderson. Passion Made Public: Elizabelhan Lyric, Gender and Performance (Chicago: University ofIllinois Press. 1995) 7. Henderson's book is a wonderful resource on the use oflyric poetry on the Elizabethan stage and the gender issues that arise from that use. She also raises another possible binary opposition present in lyric poetry ofthis time: the private versus the social realm. ie. certain works were expressly for private amusement, others for public ones. She discusses how the relationship between these two uses ofpoetry changed throughout the century, stating that
the overemphasis ofthis binary opposition as static and irrevocable has until recently impeded, and in the particular case oflyric poetry still impedes, exploration ofsome ofthe most interesting questions about • Elizabethan literature. Ibid, 23. 43 • Table 3.1 (from page 29) male female
• reason. mind sensuality spiritual love earthly love (Iust)
intellectual pursuits emotional pursuits
• substance omament English consort song Italian madrigal influences influences monody polyphony
text supreme music supreme
lute song madrigal • taken from Cusick table 2.1
Reviewing the binary oppositions outlined in table 3.1 and reealling RatclitTe's
point about oppositions that pull '"simultaneously together and apart~·..2 one can identit)r • certain pairs that lend themselves more readily to overlap in text and music~ namely, the distinctions between spiritual/earthly love, substance/omament~ monody/polyphony, and
supremacy oftextlmusic. As the relationship between these oppositions fluctuates. the
gender associations also shift, giving the work in question more depth ofgender
character. [n other words. it is possible for a piece in a genre with a masculine charaeter..
such as the lute song.. to exhibit "'feminine" qualities as defined by our earlier discussion.
Let us begin with an overview ofpossible overlaps found in Campion's Firsi
Booke ofAyres. Then we will examine eaeh area ofoverlap in the context ofthe pieces
and observe how this overlap complieates the gender character ofthe work. Below is a
table outlining whether individual pieees best fit the discussion ofthe last chapter.. or • whether there is overlap, and ifso.. in which binary oppositions. 2 Stephen RatclitTe, viii. • • •
Table 4.1
-. - -
Sona Similu 10 n.mpl~ "\\'h~n Thou MUII tlom~" Spirilu.1I E.rthly Ion o~~rl.p Subll.nef! Orn.ment o\·erl.p Monod)'1 Polyphony o\'trl.p SuprrtnlC)' of Inl! mllsle o~erl.p
1. My S"'eclesl Lcsbia x x
2. Though You Arc Young x Je
3 1Care Nol for Thesc Ladies x
4. Follow Thy Fair Sun JI
S. My Lo\'c Ifalh Vow'd x
6. Whcn 10 Uer lUle Comna Sings li: x
7 Tum Back, Vou Wanlon Flycr x x
8. Il Feil On a Summer's Day x x x
9 The ('ypress Curtain ofthe Night x
10 Follow Vour Saint x
Il FaiT If You Expccl Admiring x
12. 'llIou An NOl FaiT x
13. Sec Where Shc Flics x
14 BIarne SOl My Checks x
1S Whcn the God of Merry 1.0\·c x
16 ~hstrcss. sinee You So Mueh Desire x \' x x
17 YOUT Fair Looks x \' x x
18. The Man ofl.lfe Upright l(
19 Um Ali Vou Ladies '1 Jo.
10 When Thou musl Home -
21 Come LeI Us Sound ","h ~lc:lody - x, ~ slmilar, nol e"Rell)' the same as cxamplc PIC:CC Sec lIiscussll1n bclO\\ •Numbcr 21 is an anomal)'. sec foolnole 2 t 45 • Observing table 4.1" one finds that several pieces fall into the same patterns as ·"When Thou Must Home." ·"The Cypress Curtain ofthe Night:" ·"Follow YOUf Saint..··
·"Thou Art Not Fair,," "·Blarne Not My Cheeks," and ....Follow Thy Fair Sun:" all follow the
rhythmic dotted-half-note-quarter-note pattern used in ""When Thou Must Home" and
almost mimic its musical style. Each ofthem" along with ""When the God ofMerry Love"
and ·"The Man of Life Upright..,,3 deal with the dark side ofdeath and love. Mentions of
the c1assical hel!. saints. distress. deceit.. black night and sober thoughts ail point to a
strictly literaI interpretation ofthe text. These are selections that follow the hypothesis
examined in the last chapter and readily support to the predicted gender reading.
Yet table 4.1 also reveals that many pieces fall outside the parameters outlined in
the examination of""When Thou Must Home."· ln the second column is found the most • common overlapping opposition: spiritual love versus earthly love. [n several instances, the poet. presumably Campion.. eases in less intellectual. more earthly references to love;
in others. he completely abandons the high ideals ofspiritual. Platonic love for a more
earthly. sexually-explicit one. As demonstrated in table 4.1. this subtle change in subject
often leads to other oppositional overlaps. Therefore.. the choice ofsubject matter can
have important musical ramifications. A good example ofthis relationship is ··It Feil On
a Summer"s Day." a song with a quite explicit text and varying degrees ofoverlap in
tenns ofmonody versus polyphony and the supremacy oftext versus the supremacy of
music.
3 These are bath in t (cut) time, whereas the previous songs with the similar rhythmic pattern are in 3. The last song in the collection. ""Come Let Us Sound with • Melody," is unique in that it is religious and is Campion"s attempt to adhere to the rule of classical Sapphic verse. Even so, it leans more toward the previously-discussed lute song attributes because it is. in essence, a mental exercise in the intricacies ofClassical verse. 46 • Campion's ..ft Feil On A Summer's Day"4 Il fell on a summer's day While sweet Bessy sleeping lay ln her bow-r, on her bed, Light with curtains shadowed, Jamie came, She him spies., Op'ning halfher heavy eyes.
Jamie stole in through the door; She lay slumb'ring as before. Softly to her he drew near; She heard him, yet would not hear. Bessy vow'd not to speak; He resolved that dump to break.
First a soft kiss he doth take: She lay still, and would not wake. Then ms hands learn'd to woo; She dreamt not what he would do_ But still slept, while he smil"d • To see love by sleep beguil'd. Jamie then began to play; Bessy as one buried lay, Gladly still through this sleight Deceiv'd in her own deceit. And since this trance begun. She sleeps ev'ry aftemoon.
Textually, this is not a song ofdeath and dread; the aforementioned emphasis on
the intellect is gone and has been replaced by more earthly pursuits: love in the aftemoon.
Like intellectually-based lute songs_ the composer allows a simple line-by-line
presentation ofthe text until the end: the last two lines ofeach stanza are repeated. Here_
however. Campion uses this typical lute song device to further the sensual interpretation • ofthe work. By repeating the last two lines ofeach stanza. the composer halts the 4 Edmund H. Fellowes, The English Lure-Songs_ t4. 47 • forward momentum ofthe unfolding story and frustrates the listener eager for the next bit ofaction. Rather than rushing on to the next s~ the composer backs offand abruptly
stops the action, drawing attention away from the story line and back to the music in a
dramatic way. The sudden switch to a musical emphasis or supremacy could he the
essence ofBessy herseIfas she slyly withholds her enjoyment from Jamie.
As expected there is also a marked departure in style. After the tirst two Iines of
the poem, the lute part ceases to mereIy accompany the vocalline. playing a more
assertive role by sometimes anticipating, other times irnitating the vocalline. Again this
playfuIness embodies the action in the text, as Jamie and Bessie tease one another. Here
not only the supremacy ofthe text is challenged but these imitative passages aIso lend a
more polyphonic texture to the work (example 4.1). • Example 4.1
t,;~:;J;;J:-?;~~-==;;~.:-~~--t-l~__ •.-= ..f,-..~=~!.-· i ~_f_ ~.~ ~.... ; 1. ,.....; _,. _ ... t\.Jr.~ .. r: ... . J.,.... . ~. "'l-...... ------
~ 1 ê~ ___4 _<.__
What effect do these overlaps have on the gender character ofthe piece? Instead
ofthe expected solemn. stately. inteliectually-focused examination ofthe nature of
spiritual love. the listener is presented with a fun-Ioving. bouncy. entertaining look at
earthly love. This emphatic change leads away from the masculine side oftable 3. 1 back
• ioto the realm ofthe feminine. This work certainly cannot he called a madrigal. but it 48 • does exhibit sorne ofthe qualities associated with the feminine side ofElizabethan music. Another work that deals with earthly love but does not exhibit overlap in other
areas is number five. "'My Love Hath Vow'd.·' A surprising selection, it examines the
consequences ofearthly love from the feminine perspective.
Campion's 66My Love Hath Vow'd"s
My love hath vow'd he will forsake me, And 1am already sped. Far other promise he did make me. When he had my maidenhead. Ifsuch danger be in playing, And sport must to earnest turn. [ will go no more a-maying.
Had 1 foreseen what is ensued, And what now with pain 1prove, Unhappy then 1had eschewed This unkind event oflove. • Maids foreknow their own undoing, But fear nought till ail is done When a man alone is wooing.
Dissembling wretch, to gain thy pleasure. What didst thou not vow and swear? So didst thou rob me ofthe treasure Which so long [ held so dear. Now thou prov'st to me a stranger. Such is the vile guise ofmen When a woman is in danger.
That heart is nearest to misfortune That wiIl trust a feigned tongue. When flattr'ing men our loves importune, They intend us deepest wrong. [fthis shame oflove's betraying But this once [ c1eanly shun, • [ will go no more a-maying. 5 Edmund H. Fellowes, The Eng/ish Lute-Songs, 8. 49 • The poet could not be clearer: this is a poem about a woman. who. upon losing her virginity to a man. is left aJone and disgraced.6 Although he is dealing with earthly lust"
Campion does not use the so-called -feminine' techniques found in "'ft FeIl On a
Summer's Day." However, neither does he completely retum to the more somber
"masculine" textually-dominated style of"When Thou Must Home." Instead" there is a
melding ofthe two. The fonn ofthe work is similar to --When Thou Must Home,"" with
two repeated sections ofnearly equal length. Yet the characteristic dotted-half-note-
quarter-note rhythm is abandoned for a more fluid combination ofquarter and halfnotes.
The somber mood is again reinforced with the G minor sonorities" but unlike --When
Thou Must Home:" the accompaniment does not play a mere supPOrting role. Its
suspensions and omaments add a great deal ofmusical interest to the work without taking • away from the clarity ofthe text. Our binary oppositions have been made to work together here. Perhaps it should not be surprising that this combination ofgender
oppositions is used to present a poem whose aim is to represent a more realistic view ofa
female experience ofthe time.
Returning to table 4.1. let us focus on the third column: the overlap between
substance and ornament. How could this overlap manifest itself? As was observed in the
last chapter. the lute song often times deals with intellectual matters ofsubstance. clearly
presenting the text for the listener's consideration. The madrigal, on the other hand. tends
to play with words.. repeating and ornamenting parts ofphrases.. obscuring the fonn ofthe
6 Indeed. the poem is so realistic.. one cannot help but wonder, despite the evidence that overwhelmingly maintains Campion to he the author ofail these poems. whether the poet was a women. This comment is not meant to take away from • Campion"s position on the subject as he did chose to set such an unusual poem and include it in his tirst published collection ofmusic. 50 • text. The composer therefore could use elements ofone genre in the other, complicating the gender nature ofthe work. While this overlap often occurs in conjunction with the
overlap between spiritual and earthly love~ there is one instance where it does not:
number six.. Campion"s '~When to her Lute Corrina Sings."
Campion's "Wben to ber Lute Corrina Sings"7
When to her lute Corrina sings~ Her voice revives the leaden strings~ And doth in highest notes appear As any challeng ~ d echo c1ear. But when she doth ofmourning speak.. Ev'n with her sighs the strings do break.
And as her lute doth live or die; Led by her passions~ so must 1. For when ofpleasure she doth sing~ My thoughts enjoy a sudden spring; But ifshe doth ofsorrow speak, • Ev'n from my heart the strings do break. The text ofthis work exhibits less reliance on earthly love for its gender character.
While the image ofa women playing a lute could raise issues oflicentiousness, the fact
that Corrina seems to playing in private to relieve her melancholy makes the notion an
acceptable one. Linda Austem discusses at length the appropriateness ofwomen playing
music and the related sexual undertones in her article ··~Sing Againe SYren': the Female
Musician and Sexual Enchantment in Elizabethan Litè and Literature." As she states:
• 7 Edmund H. Fellowes, The English Lute-Songs. 10. 51
... Many leamed writers recommend that women avoid the inherent moral • danger ofmusic by limiting its use to private meditation where it was most capable ofpersonal spiritual benefit. ft is clear that many well-to-do English women did learn musical skiIls., particularly stringed and keyboard instruments. And it is equally clear that the most proper normally kept these inflammatory skiIls to themselves lest they inadvertently excite masculine passion.8
It appears that this is the situation in "When to her Lute Corinna Sings."" Corrina is
singing to her lute., not to an audience and she appears to be doing so to '''revive the leaden
strings'" and to cope with her ··mouming.,·" ail ofwhich is perfectly acceptable in the
Elizabethan context. Even the faet that the text is set as a lute song., conceived for a lone
lutenist and singer., reinforces the sense ofprivacy. The second stanza., however.
introduces the problem: the poet has overheard Corrina's private moment and his • passions have been aroused. He identifies with the lute: as the strings break at the sound ofCorrina's sighs. so does the poet's heart.
Musically., Campion embraces this moral dilemma. After a simple presentation of
the first line. both the vocal and lute parts become more omately interwoven. Subtle
word-painting occurs on '''and doth in highest notes appear;' but the composer saves the
most dramatic word-painting and omamentation until the phrase '''ev'n with her sighs the
strings do break.'" "With her sighs'" is repeated three limes. each at a higher pitch..
whereas the strings break only after a dramatic pause in a flurry ofsixteenth notes. [n the
end. Carnpion has not so much portrayed Corinna"s solitary lute playing, rather than the
poet's passionate response to it (see example 4.2). • 8 Linda Austem. "'Sing Againe Syren.," 448. • Example 4.2
... -•- :1 • . ,.J. __',_-=-=-~
.. ~ • ~ -~ "When to her Lute Corrina Sings" is not grouped with "When Thou Must Home"
for a subtle reason: by introducing the controversial image ofa female musician and the
subsequent moral danger to the eavesdropping poet, Campion moves away from the
strictly intellectual lute song and applies more "feminine" techniques in the eyes ofthe
Elizabethan audience. to complicate the gender nature ofthe work.
A good example ofthe piece whose context leads to a blending ofmonody and
polyphony is. "Mistress, Since Vou So Much Desire."' Here. as in "It Feil On A
Summer's Day;" the textual emphasis on earthly love allows for overlap ofmusical • oppositions. 53 • Campion's "Mistress, Since You So Much Desire"9 Mistress. since you so much desire To know the place ofCupid's fire. ln your fair shrine the f1ame doth res~ Yet never harbour'd in your breast. It bides not in your lips so sweet, Nor where the rose and tilies meet But a littte higher, There, 0 there lies Cupid's fire.
Ev'n in those starry piercing eyes, There Cupid's sacred fires lies. Tbose eyes 1strive not to enjoy, For they have power to destroy. Nor woo 1 tor a smile or kiss, So meanly triumphs not my bliss, But a tittle higher 1climb to crown my chaste desire.
This text is somewhat less risqué tban that of··lt FeIl On A Summer's Day:' • Examining the first stanza in isolation, one could easily allow for a bawdy interpretation as the poet endeavors to answer his mistress' question as to where the fire ofCupid lies.
[t lies in the lady's "fair shrine," which is not her breast, her Iips, nor '''where the rose and
lilies meet." No. it lies .... but a little higher." One cao only imagine the seemingly more
experienced poet pedantically explaining this fact oflife to a young, naive lady. Yet the
second stanza backs away from this sensual scene. The poet refers ta Cupid's "sacred
tire" and the chilling tàct that the lady's eyes have power enough to destroy a man.
Rather than wooing for a ....smile or kiss." the poet concludes to climb "but a little
higher/...to crown [bis] chaste desire" [emphasis mine]. Did the reader misjudge the poor
fellow based on the tirst stanza alone? Not quite~ the two stanzas together paint a more
• q Edmund H. Fellowes, The English Lute-Songs. 30. 54 • aceurate picture. Elizabethan men often were tom between their private~ natural earthly desires and society"s demanding for a more elevated~ spiritually-based love. lo The
ambiguity expressed in the text perhaps articulates the true feelings ofa man ofthe time..
at once privately sexual and publically noble. It is left up to the composer to decide how
to reconcile these oppositions. Il
Musically~ Campion appears to side with the more sensual interpretation. The
opening.. which centers around a G major sonority~ is fairly strictly monodic. reflecting
the pedantic. almost intellectual posturing ofthe first four Hnes ofverse. As the poet
begins to describe where Cupid~s tire may not he found, the lute accompaniment becomes
more omate. 12 With the first occurrence ofthe words "but a linle higher:' the composer
breaks into a polyphonie.. imitative sequence which reiterates the phrase over and over. • each time rising one pitch level. This c1imbing progression culminates on 0 .. the highest pitch in the piece. The resultant D major sonorities act in an almost dominant-function
capacityand bring back monody and a satisfying conclusion (see example 4.3). While
the second stanza is still less suggestive than the first, the musical setting takes
prominence and detracts from its more austere message. The listener's ear c1ings to the
obvious word painting of "but a linle higher'" and forgels the cautionary tone ofthe
ID See Linda Austem. ·"Love~ Death and Ideas ofMusic in the English Renaissance'" and '''Music and the English Renaissance Controversy over Women" for a more in-depth discussion ofthe damning potential ofsexuality. women and feminine music. as weil as the male"s ambivalence conceming them.
Il Refer again to footnote one ofthis chapter and Henderson's discussion ofthe private versus the public in Elizabethan lYric poetry.
12 This pattern ofmonody moving toward a more polyphonic texture is also • apparent in number nineteen: ~·Hark.. Ail Vou Ladies." 55 • second stanza. The piece's gender character therefore leans toward the feminine in the Elizabethan context. both in terms ofmusic and societaJ trends.
Example4.3
~ ~ ~ ~. ~ ~ " J .. .------: '" .! I~~=~~..:::iç==J~!~' •
A fine example ofhow Campion wrestles with the supremacy oftext or ofmusic
appears as number two in Campion's collection. "~Though You Are Young."
Campion's "Tbough You Are Young" 13
Though you are young and 1am old. Though your veins hot and my blood cold, Though youth is moist and age is dry, Yet embers live when flames do die.
The tender graft is eas'Iy broke. But who shaH shake the study oak? You are more fresh and fair than I. • Yet stubs do live, when flow'rs do die. 13 Edmund H. Fellowes. English LUle-Songs, 4. 56
Thou.. that thy youth dost vainly boast.. • Know. buds are soonest oipped with frost, Think that thy fortune still dost cry: Thou fool, to-morrow thou must die.
Here Campion"s text features an older person describing the virtues and foibles of
youth to a younger person. Although the gender ofthe two individuals is not outwardly
addressed, the use ofgender-charged binary terms such as '~moist" vs. --dry." the "sturdy
oak" vs. "'flowers'" and '-buds'" suggests that a older gentleman is speaking to a somewhat
naive female youth. The speaker's message is that although the young one has youth and
beauty on her side. nothing can substitute the value ofexperience. The textual gender
opposition between feminine youth and masculine, aged wisdom is clearly articulated.
Musically, Campion embraces this age/gender opposition by adding one ofhis • own.. supremacy oftext versus music. The vocalline proclaims the text clearly. moving steadily along in halfnotes, where the lute accompaniment is overflowing with quarter
and even eighth notes. It is as though the supremacy ofthe vocal line., and thus the text.
or the male.. is being challenged by the active and inconstant accompaniment.. or the
female. The feminine musical element overtakes the masculine intellectual
aUlhoritativeness ofthe text. The youthful female. without the benefit oflearned wisdom.
challenges the older male advisor in purely musical tenns.. in a subtext ooly discovered
upon hearing the words and music together (see example 4.4). The gender binary
oppositions meet head-to-head here.. competing for attention. • 57 • Example 4.4 u JOU are young' and
- .... (~. --: ) ~. - • ~t r .u ) ~-&- ~~ ,------...-.. rE~~·J~· ~~d~r;~~~~~~~~~~~~:e~~§~~~::~~:~--~~-----=--=-_-=~--d. - - =l ~~~.~ 1 .'
t :;:. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ "-
~.'.~.' =-~iJ----c a*~~.il ~r -.1 > -L.. __' ,_c~-- ~__c~ -- ~---~~=-::; -- ~--~------1 ------.L. _ _ ___ .
--~ l.:: -+
-~---- • -_.~-~- ==__=_~_~_~~ ·1
...
~, LI '>---1 r J 1
1
As we have observed. the lute song seems to lend itselfquite readily to gendered
oppositional overlap. Il appears that the opening for musical overlap is often provided
either by a less-intellectually determined text. or a compose{s less serious take on a given
text. Will the mirror result occur with the madrigal? Will more weighty intellectual texts
• lead to more straightforward. ~"masculine" music? 58 • Let us now examine an overview ofpossible overlaps found in Wilbye's First Set ofEnglish Madriga/s. Then we will address each area ofoverlap in the context ofthe
pieces and observe how this overlap complicates the gendered character ofthe work.
Below is a table outlining whether individual pieees best fit the discussion ofthe last
chapter. or whether there is overlap, and ifso, in whieh binary oppositions.
Upon observing table 4.2, one immediately notices that the majority ofpieees in
Wilbye's collection are similar to -'Cruel Sehold My Heavy Ending'": they deal with the
more earthly side oflove4 they abound in omaments, word-painting and other madrigalian
devices discussed earlier. they are polyphonie and their musical devices are more
prominent than the form ofthe text. Again the overlap between earthly love and spiritual
[ove is the most eommon one. but as this table shows4these pieces often discuss the more • spiritual side oflove without otherwise deviating from the madrigal norm. Indeed, only six selections exhibit oppositional overlap in a musical sense. Let us examine sorne of
these works. addressing the significance ofeach column, and determining how the
overlaps complicated the piece's gender character.
• • • •
Table 4.2
Song SlmUlr to"Crurllkhold Splrltulll EarChl)' SubsranctlOrnlmrnc l\Ionod)'/ Pol)'phony Suprrmlc)' of tnt/music My Ilri")' [ndlng" Ion overllp ovrrllp onrllp onrllp
1. Fly Love Alon 10 Beuven X X
2. Away. Thou Shah Nol Love Mc X
3. Ay Me. Can Evcry Rumour X
4. Weep, 0 Mine Eycs X X
5. Dear Pity. How. Ah 1I0\\'? X X
6. Ye Restlcss Thoughts X
7. Whal NLocdeth Allthis Travail (1 ") X
nJ 8.0 fools Can Nol You Sec (2 ) X X
9. Alac;, Whal flope ofSpecding'? X X
10. Lady. When 1Bchold X X
Il. Thus Sailh My ('loris Bright X
12. Adieu Swcct Amarillis X
Il Oie Ilaplcss Man X
14.1 Fall. 0 Stay Mc (l") X
15. And Though My Love Abounding X (2n.!,
v. \0 •• •
Table 4.2 continued Wilbve's Firsl Sel ofEni!/ish MadJ '1, Song Simllar to ··Crurl Bthold Spirituall E.rthly Subst.ntt/Orn.mtnt Monod)'1 Polyphony Suprrmacy oftrlt M)' lIu,')' Endlng" love onrl.p onrl.p onrl.p Imusit ovulap
16 1Always Beg (1") X
17. Thus Love Commands (2r>J) X
18. Lady, Your Words Do Spilc me X
19. Alas, Whal Il Wretched Life X X X X
20. Unkind, 0 Slay Thy Flying X
21. 1Sung Somctimcs My Thoughts X
22. Flora Gave Me Fairest Flowers X
23. Swecl Love. IfThou Will Guin X
24. Lady, Whcn 1Bchold X
25. Whcn Shall My Wretchcd Life X
26. OfJoys and Pleasing Pains (1 ") X
27. My Throat ls Sore (21).1) X
28. Cruel Behold My Beavy Ending - - - - -
29. Thou An bUI Young Thou Sayesl X
30. Why Dost Thou Shoot? X
o0"1 61 • Number four in Wilbye's collection~ -"Weep~ 0 Mine Eyes~'" exhibits oppositiona] overlap in two ways: spiritual versus earthly love, and substance versus omament.
Wilbye's "Weep, 0 Mine Eyes,,14
Weep, 0 mine eyes, and cease not: Your spring-tides. out alas. methinks increase not. o when~ 0 when begin you To swell 50 high that 1may drown me in you?
How does this piece differ from --Cruel, Sehold?" The text is similarly short and
phrases are repeated in a through-composed setting. Although written for three voices.
the music still features voice imitation~ suspensions. and many ofthe features ofthe other
madrigal. yet ""Weep. 0 Mine Eyes" stands apart. It is the seriousness ofthe subject
matter that distinguishes from the other; the grieffelt by the poet is reat not a thinly-
veiled discussion ofsex. Rather than dealing with the light side of love. the poet grapples
• substance~ with a topic oftrue the pain of love.
Here we find that seriousness is no! only found in so-called masculine works~ but
that a borrowing ofthe reality ofexperience trom the male side oftahle 3.1 allows the
madrigal to explore more weighty topics. Indeed~ the composer does not contradict the
poet in his use ofmadrigalian techniques in this work. In fact as the opening bars
illustrate. Wilbye embraces the pain with long half-step intervals (see example 4.5).
• 14 Edmund H. Fellowes.. English Madrigal School. 15. 62 • Example 4.5 =
w....p __ ---- 0 rulne I!YI!5, Wc.-f'p -- 0 mine -p--==:= =
Wt-t:p - 0 Cl:!lt:" t'~·~S. Weep _ 1) mlnt'
0 _
"j"'_'~ .Id ce~:.~ not: Ycur sprLa~t1des,
• ~. not. Yow-
The resultant gender character ofthis work forces the Elizabethan listener re-
examine his or her notions about so-called frivolous. feminine madrigals; this piece has
many typically madrigalian features~ yet ponders a weighty, mournful subject.
A selection that illustrates the pull ofmonody over polyphony is number ten~ a
translation ofthe (taHan poem hQuand-io miro la rose_·"'~Lady. When ( Behold."'5
• 15 Please note that number twenty-four is also ~·Lady, When 1 Behold"~ although the text is the same. the sening is for six voices and much more polyphonie. • 63 Wilbye's "Lady, When 1 Behold,,16
Lady~ when 1behold the Roses sprouting Whieh clad in damask mantles deek the arbours~ And then behold your lips where sweet Love harbours, Myeyes present me with a double doubting. For viewing both alike, hardly my rnind supposes Whether the Roses be your lips. or your lips the Roses.
As is expressed in table 4.2, this piece too is quite similar to the madrigal standard
set up in the previous ehapter. ft difters only in one respect: several portions ofthis pieee
are homophonie. Whether three or four voices at a time, the text is clearly pronounced
(see example 4.6)
Example 4.6 ,. ~-
~ • d,·,· ... 11-.1' .Ir-!.' Ir~. ,,"t,TI; d ..d il. ri •• -m3:'1.. mlL~ rl"~ _...... - ._-~------<:i':,,-,u:·;x.~. \\n.rh «;Id ln da-ma!'k rr.aJ;·l1'·lI J..cL. tll~ ;\f • I",u:-~_ \\hh Il d.lli ln dOl.-mil~t m.aL-tlt·~
:;:f!.UI·;n~. \\ïlirt! dola 1'1 da-masK man-t!,·" ,: ..d;. th.. ar . boLn-.... hl, h rl.ui in da-ma.slL man-Hes
t - -., 1
Il is important to note that despite the homophonie passages~ the balance between
the supremacy oftext and music is not greatly afTected. Wilbye still repeats phrases and • words~ thereby obscuring the torm ofthe poem and allowing the music to reign supreme. 16 Edmund H. Fellowes. English Madrigal Schoo/. 116. 64 • A selection that demonstrates three ofthe possible four oppositional overlaps and thereby provides more content for discussion is number nineteen., ••Alas, what a wretched
life."
Wilbye's "Alas Wbat A Wretehed Life"17
Alas. what a wretched life is this, Nay what a death. Where the tyrant.. Love, commandeth.
My flowering days are in their prime declining.. Ali my proud hope, quite fallen, and life untwining; My joys each after other in haste are tlying And leave me dying for her that scorn my erying. o she from hence departs, my Love refraining, For whom. aIl heartless, alas 1die complaining.
Upon reading first stanza ofthis poem, one might he learl to look for double • enlendres conceming the death metaphor.. indeed the poet is dying at Love's commando Ali thoughts ofthis vanish, however.. as the poem continues. The poet is in no way
enjoying this death~ he is forced to watch as ail ofhis youth. hopes and joys leave him.
Even the object ofhis unrequited love scoms his crying and heartlessly leave him to die.
This is not a casuallook at flirting and games; the pain here is palpable and real.
Wilbye recognizes the seriousness ofthe text and expresses it in the music. The
piece as a whole can be viewed as homophonie, at times even homorhythmic. with
passages ofpolyphony intertwined. Such a setting, along with linle text repetition.
allows for the substance ofthe text to come through. In a five voice arrangement, the
etTect ofthis homophony is quite striking; the pain embodied in the text bursts forth with
• 17 Edmund H. Fellowes. English Madrigal School., 80. 65 • great intensity (see example 4.7). The result is a "'ferninine"madrigal ofgreat '~masculine" strength.
Example 4.7 ff~-~---: !-r-~~i,nSIf1~~_~~~~~=1_I~-~o-~-~-3~'~~4~-1 \ b..... rt - • Jess. A- lai, r di,. ln~. l _ __ -~~ -"~j-±{ 1~ ft) H __ l " ~----_-=:E if --s-. ! ~ -
i :) .. art le:;s. A- 1.1!'!, / 1 ~h~~=--~-L~ -- l~ I-~- --t::-- -+- i81--' ... -+ -- - ;\ ~a!', 1 dIe rrlm plou!: :r.~ ~~, __ ~~~- ~- -~-~_i-~-;-~!~ __î-=-~l W;~r:-~ __;.--; '%~ /a.... 1 dl" rom - pla:n in~ •
By examining the binary oppositions in terms ofpossible overlap in both the lute
song and the madrigat we have observed how the gender balance ofa given piece can be
manipulated by the degree ofoppositional overlap permitted by the composer. By
comparing tables 4.1 and 4.2, we also notice that the lute songs seems to be more inclined
to overlap that than the madrigal. What implications does this have? Let us summarize
the discussion to date and venture to draw sorne conclusions. • Summary and Conclusions • Throughout the course ofthis thesis, 1have examined the possible gender implications oftwo specifie Elizabethan genres: the madrigal and the lute song. In
chapter one, ·.. ·Though you are young and 1am old': A History ofGenres," 1examined the
ongins ofthe Elizabethan madrigal and lute song. Although the ltalian madrigal in many
ways gave birth to the English madrigal, the English discarded the darker, dramatic
tendencies ofthe ltaHan and embraced its musical devices ofword-painting and
omamentation. Wilbye was known as one ofthe most masterful composers ofthe
madrigal.
[ found that the lute song's ongins were not quite as c1ear. While the earliest
examples oflute manuscripts come from France, there is aIso an association between the
lute song and the earlier, English native consort song. Nevertheless, the lute song is • known for its solo-voice-and-instrumental-accompanying fonn, as well as its reverence for the accurate meaning and expression ofits text. Campion, while not as weB known as
Dowland. was one ofthe most prolific composer ofthe lute song and the one ofthe few
to write about compositional issues in the lute song.
Chapter two, "'Music as Social Text: Building a Foundation:' is in essence a
review of literature concerning gender issues surrounding the arts, in particular. music, in
Elizabethan England and [taly. Beginning with the visual arts and moving into music, 1
traced how the arts can express the political, religious, social and gender trends ofa
society. Through the work ofSuzanne Cusick, 1discovered that well-known gendered
binary oppositions were often used by critics when condemning or praising a musical • work. Linda Austem's work revealed how music and women were often linked together 67 • in Elizabethan England as intense inflammers ofpassion and viewed as a danger to mortal man. By examining the works ofCusick and Austem.. 1discovered that this
gender-eharged environment affected the composition.. performance.. and reception ofthe
music ofthe time.
[n chapter three~ 1examined these gender associations in the context ofthe
Elizabethan madrigal and lute song repertoire. 1combined the ideas ofCusick and
Austem with the music/gender associations ofboth Campion and Morley and the
differences in genre diseussed in chapter one.. and proposed a related set ofbinary
oppositions in England. 1applied these binary oppositions to two specifie works from
the Elizabethan madrigal and lute song repertoire: Wilbye"s ""Cruel Behold My Heavy
Ending.." and Campion"s .... When Thou Must Home..... These works are typical oftheir • genre and deal with the same thernes oflove and death. Not surprisingly. they each fall obligingly ioto the expeeted end ofthe binary-opposition spectrum.
In chapter four.. [ questioned the seemiog simplieity ofthis result and suggested an
overlap of binary oppositions might better capture the often-contradictory nature ofthe
music. Returning to the remaining pieees ofCampion's First Booke ofAyres and
Wilbye"s First Set ofEnglish Madriga/s. [ looked at overlap in four particular oppositions
and examined the results in table form. [n the First Booke ofAyres.. eight ofthe
remaining twenty pieces (or 40%) are similar to the lute song example in chapter three.
[n the First Set ofEng/ish Madriga/s.. sixteen ofthe remaining twenty-nine pieces (or
55%) are similar to the madrigal example in chapter three. In the final anaJysis. two • conclusions are clear: one. in the collections observed.. the lute song tends to lend itself 68 • more readily to oppositional overlap; and two. the text is often used as a portal ofchange away from one opposition and toward the other.
What implications do these conclusions hold? Why might the lute song exhibit
more oppositional overlap than the madrigal? One possibility lies in the Elizabethan
view ofthe art ofmusic. As we observed in Austern's works. music and women were
inexplicablyand undeniably linked. Music was almost always referred to in the feminine
sense. tor example.. as the sister art to poetry. Perhaps this subconscious concept guided
the composer's hand: one could add feminine elements to a more masculine work.. but
one could not overshadow feminine elements in a feminine work with overtly masculine
components. One could allow for the more direct masculine expression oftext.. for
example. but as one was dealing with an inherently feminine art form. one could not • overcome the feminine fluidity ofa musical work. Fortunately, the text then provided the composer with a tool. a means ofallowing oppositions to overlap more frequently. The
composer was free to choose and interpret the ambiguous texts. and this allowed him to
play with the gender oppositional balance. resulting.. as we have seen. in works ofdeeper.
more complicated gender character.
A word ofcaution: throughout this work.. 1have strived to discuss these pieces in
terms ofthe gendered binary oppositions present in Elizabethan society: 1do not daim
that the madrigal is a feminine work by today's standards. One would hope that as our
society evolved, the notion ofwhat was considered feminine or masculine evolved as
weil. [examined these works in terms of Elizabethan gender oppositions to better • understand the Elizabethan gender environment as a \vhole. The ramification ofthese 69 • binary oppositions on how we view these works today is fodder for another study. However. il is clear that by examining the societal origins ofa genre, then considering it
in relation to broad gendered binary oppositions ofthe e~ and finally anaJysing how
those oppositions push and pull each other in specifie works, one cao more fully grasp the
socio-polilicat gender-charged associations ofa given musicaJ work. art form or society
al a particular point in history.
•
• 70 Appendix 1 • Campion's First Booke ofAy,es Wilbye's FinI Sel ofEnglish Mad,igals (1681) (1598)
1. My Sweetest Lesbia 1. Fly Love Aloft to Heaven 2. Though You Are Young 2. Away, Thou Shah Not Love Me 3. [ Care Not for These Ladies 3. Ay Me.. Can Every Rumour? 4. Follow Thy Faire Sun 4. Weep 0 Mine Eyes 5. My Love Hath Vow'd 5. Dear Pity. How, Ah How? 6. When to Her Lute Corinna Sings 6. Ye Restless Thoughts 7. Turn Back.. Vou Wanton Flyer 7. What Needeth AlI this Travail? 8. Il Feil On a Summer's Day (1 st Part) 9. The Cypress Curtain ofthe Night 8. 0 Fools Can You Not See? (2nd Part) 10. Follow Your Saint 9. Alas.. What Hope ofSpeeding? 11. Faire IfYou Expect Admiring 10. Lady. When l Behold 12. Thou Art Not Fair Il. Thus Saith My Cloris Bright 13. See Where She Flies 12. Adieu Sweet Amarillis 14. Biarne Not My Cheeks 13. Die Hapless Man 15. When the God ofMerry Love 14. [ Fal!. 0 Stay Me (1 st Part) 16. Mistress'! Since You So Much Desire 15. And Though My Love Abounding 17. YoUf Fair Looks (2nd Part) 18. The Man of Life Upright 16. [ Always Beg (1st Part) 19. Hark Ali You Ladies 17. Thus Love Commands (2nd Part) • 20. When Thou Must Home 18. Lady. Youe Words Do Spite Me 21. Come Let Us Sound with Melody 19. Alas. What a Wretched Li tè 20. Unkind.. 0 Stay Thy Flying 21. 1Sung Sometimes My Thoughts 22. Flora Gave Me Fairest Flowers 23. Sweet Love. [l'Thou Will Gain 24. Lady, When 18ehold 25. When ShaH My Wretched Life? 26. OfJoys and Pleasing Pains ( 1sI Part) 27. My Throat Is Sore (2nd Part) 28. Cruel Behold My Heavy Ending 29. Thou Art but Young Thou Sayest 30. Why Oost Thou Shoot? • Bibliography • Arnold. Denis. ··Croce and the English Madrigal." Music and Lelters 35 (1954): 309 319.
Atlas. Allan W. Renaissance Music: Music in Western Europe 1-100 - 1600. New York:
w. W. Norton & Company. 1998.
Austem.. Linda P.....Alluring the auditoire to effeminacie": Music and the Idea ofthe
Feminine in Early Modem England." Music and Lellers 74.3 (August 1993): 343
354.
..• Art to enchanf: Musical Magic and its Practitioners in English Renaissance • Drama:· Journal ofthe Royal Musical Association 115.2 (1990): 191-206.
.HThe conceit ofthe minde·: Music. Medicine and Mental Process in Early Modem
England:" Irish All/sical Studies 4 (1996): 133-151.
··Love. Death and Ideas ofMusic in the English Renaissance:· Love and Dearh in the
Renaissance. Ed. Kenneth R. Bartlett. Ottawa: Dovehouse. 1991. 17-36.
·'Music and the English Renaissance Controversy Over Women." Cecilia
Reclaimed: Feminisl Perspective on Gender and Music. Urbana. Illinois: • University of Illinois" 1994. 52-69. 72 • -. '''Nature~ Culture. Myth" and the Musician in Early Modem England.·' Journal ofthe American Musicological Society 51.1 (spring 1998): 1-47.
'''No women are indeed''': The Boy Actor as Vocal Seductress in Late Sixteenth and
Early Seventeenth-Century English Drama." Embodied Voices: Representing
Female Vocality in Weslern Culture. New York: Cambridge University Press..
1994. 83-102.
-. ·· .. Sing Againe Syren': The Female Musician and Sexual Enchantment in Elizabethan
Life and Literature.·· Renaissance Quarterly 42.3 (fall 1989): 420-448.
• -. "The Siren~ the Muse. and the God of Love: Music and Gender in Seventeenth Century English Emblem Books:' Journal ofMusicological Research 18.2
(1999): 95-138.
"Sweet Meats With Sour Sauce: The Genesis ofMusical [rony in English Drama
after 1600." Journal of}vfusicology 4.4 (FaU 1985-86): 472-490.
Boyd. Morrison Comegys. Elizahethan Music and Alusic Crilicism. 2nd ed. Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press. 1962. • 73 • Brett. Philip. ~"Consort Song:· The New Grove Dictionary ofMusic and Musicians. 4. Ed. Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan Publishers. 1980. 675-677.
Brown. David. '''Wilbye~ John." The New Grove Dictionary ofMusic and Music:ians. 20.
Ed. Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan Publishers. 1980. 410-412.
Campion. Thomas. A Booke ofAyres. London. 1601.
Cusick. Suzanne. ·"Gendering Modem Music: Thoughts on the Monteverdi-Artusi
Controversy:' Journal afthe American Music:ological Society 42.3 (faIl1993): 1 • 25. Daniel. Samuel and Thomas Campion. A Dejènce ofRime (1603) and Observations on
the Art ofEnglish Poesie (/602). Great Britain: Curwen Press. 1925.
Davis. Walter R. ed. The Worh' ofThomas Campion. London: Faber and Faber. 1969.
Dowland. John. Ayresjor Four Voices. London: Stainer and Bell. 1953.
Edwards. Warwick A.....The Sources of Elizabethan Consort Music."~ PhD diss. • Musicology: Cambridge University, 1974. 74 • Einstein. Alfred. '''The Elizabethan Madrigal and Musica Transa/pina:~ Music and Let/ers 25 (1944): 66-76.
Fellowes~ Edmund Horace, ed. The English Lute-Sangs. Series 1: Vol-I and 13. 3rd
edition. Revised by Thurston Dart. London: Stainer and Bell Ltd.~ 1969.
The English Madrigal Composers. Oxford: Oxford University Press~ 1963.
English Madrigal School. Vol. VI J. Wilhye: First Set ofEnglish Madrigals. London:
Stainer and Bell Ltd._ 1920.
• English Madrigal Verse 1588-/632. yd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press_ 1967.
Greenburg, Noah. An Anlh%gy ofElizabelhan LUle Songs. Madrigals and Rounds. Ed.
W.H. Auden and Chester Kallman. New York: W. W. Norton and Company.
1955.
Greer. David. "Air. 2. The English 'Ayre":- The New Grove Dictionary oj'!vlusic and
Musicians 1. Ed. Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan Publishers. 1980. 181 - 182.
Grout. Donald Jay and Claude V. Palisca. A History ofWestern Music. 4lh edition. New • York: W. W. Norton & Company. 1988. 75 • Haar. James. '·Madrigal. § Il: Italy. 1- 6." The New Grove Dietionary ofMusic and Ivlusicians Il. Ed. Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan Publishers, 1980. 463
82.
Hedley. Jane. "·Historical Context: Poesy and the Cult ofElizabeth.'· Power in Verse:
Metaphor and Metonymy in the Renaissance Lyric. Pennsylvania State University
Press. 1988. 15-28.
Henderson. Diana E. Passion Made Puhlic: Elizabethan Lyric. Gender. and
Performance. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. 1995.
• Humphreys~ D. ·"Aspects ofthe Elizabethan and Jacobean Polyphonie Motets. with Particular Reference to the Influence ofAlfonso Ferrabosco the Eider and William
Byrd.'· PhD diss. Musicology: Cambridge University. 1976.
Jones. Ann Rosalind and Peter Stallybrass. '''Fetishizing Gender: Constructing the
Hennaphrodite in Renaissance Europe:' Body Guards: the Cultural Po/ilies of
Gender Ambiguity. New York: Routledge. 1991.
Kennan. Joseph.....Byrd. Tallis, and the Art of Imitation:" Write Ali These Down: Essays • on Music. Berkeley: University ofCalifomia Press. 1994. 90-105. 76 • The Elizabethan Madrigal: a Comparative Study. Berkeley: American Musicological Society.. loc.. 1962.
"The Elizabethan Motet: a Study ofTexts for Music." Studies of·the Renaissance 9
(1962): 273-305.
'''An ltalian Musician in Elizabethan England:" Write Ali These Down: Essays on
Music. Berkeley: University ofCalifomia Press.. 1994. 139-151.
-. "Madrigal, § IV: English Madrigal.·· The New Grove Dictionary ofMusic and
lvlusicians Il. Ed. Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan Publishers. 1980. 463 • 482.
"Morleyand 'The Triumphs ofOriana...... Music and Let/ers 34.3 (July 1953): 185
191.
"William Byrd and Elizabethan Catholicism.·· Write Ail These Down: ES!t"ays on
Music. Berkeley: University ofCalitornia Press.. 1994. 77-89.
"Write Ali These Down: Notes on a Song by Byrd:' Write Ail These Down: Essays • on Music. Berkeley: University ofCalifomia Press. 1994. 106-124. 77 • Ledger~ Philip~ ed. The Oxford Book ofEnglish Madrigals. London. England: Oxford University Press. 1978.
Lincoln. Harry B. The ltalian Madrigal and Related Repertoires. New Haven: Yale
University Press~ 1988.
Macy. Laura. --The Due Decorum kept: Elizabethan Translation and the Madrigals
Englished ofNicholas Younge and Thomas Watson.~" Journal ofMusicological
Research 17.1 (1998): 1-21.
'~The Late Madrigals ofLuca Marenzio: Studies in the Interaction ofMusic. • Literature. and Patronage at the End ofthe Sixteenth Century.~· PhD diss. University ofNorth Carolina. 1991.
nSpeaking ofSex: Metaphor and Perfonnance in the Italian Madrigal.'· Journal of
Musicology 14.1 (winter (996): 1-34.
"Women's History and Early Music:' Companion 10 Medieval and Renaissance
Music. Ed. Tess Knighton and David Fallows. London: J. M. Dent and Sons Ltd..
1992. 93-97. • 78 • Mason~ Dorothy. Music in Elizabethan England. Virginia: Foiger Shakespeare Library~ 1969.
McGrady. Richard. '''Campion and the Lute." Music Review 47 (1986/87): 1-15.
Mellers~ Wilfred Howard. '''Words and Music in Elizabethan England." The New
Pelican Guide 10 English Litera/ure II: The Age ofShakespeare. London:
Penguin. 1982. 165-194.
Monson. Craig. '''Elizabethan London:~ The Renaissance: From the J-I70s to the End of
the J6'11 Century. Ed. Iain Fenlon. Series: Man and Music. New Jersey: Prentice • HalL 1989. 304-340.
Morley. Thomas. A Plain and Easy Introduction to Practical Music. Ed. Alec Hannan.
Forward by Thurston Dart. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. 1952.
Pilkington. Michael. Campion, Dowland. and the Lutenist Songwrilers. Indianapolis:
Indiana University Press. 1989.
Poulton. Diana. ··Campion. Thomas.~~ The New Grave Dictionary ofMusic and
Mlisicians 3. Ed. Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan Publishers~ 1980. 657 • 660. 79 • -. ·"Lute. § 7: Repertory." The New Grove Dictionary ofMusic and Musicians Il. Ed. Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan Publishers, 1980. 357 - 365.
Ratcliffe, Stephen. Campion: On Song. Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul. 1981.
Roche. Elizabeth.....Elizabethan Fever: A 1920's 'Early-Music Boom':' Leading Notes:
Journal ofthe National Early Music Association 4.1:7 (spring (994): 5-9.
Ruff. Lillian M. and D. Arnold Wilson. "'The Madrigal. the Lute Song and Elizabethan
Politics." Past and Presenl. Canada 44 (August 1969): 3-51 .
• Ryding. Erik S. ··Campion's Ayres.'· ln Harmony Framed: J'vIusical Humanism, Thomas Campion and Ihe Two Daniels Vo/. 21, Sixteenlh Cenlury Essays andSiudies.
Northeast Missouri State University: Sixteenth Century Journal Publishers, 1993.
93-121.
-. ··Campion·s Lyric Poetry:' ln Harmony Frllmed: Musical Humanism, Thomas
Campion andthe Two Daniels Vol. 21, Sixteenth Century Essays and Studies.
Northeast Missouri State University: Sixteenth Century Journal Publishers. 1993.
174-194. • 80 • '''Campions's Obsen'ations and Daniers Defence."" ln Harmony Framed: Musical Humanism, Thomas Campion andthe Two Daniels Vol. 21, Sixteenth Century
Essays andStudies. Northeast Missouri State University: Sixteenth Century
Journal Publishers.. 1993. 83-92.
'''Collaboration Between Campion and Rosseter?'" Journal ofthe Lute Society of
America 19 (1986): 13-26.
Shakespeare., William. ~'Romeo and Juliet:" The Unabridged William Shakespeare. Ed.
William George Clark and William Aldis Wright. Philadelphia: Running Press. • 1989. 882-919. Strong.. Roy. Art and Power: Renaissance Festivals 1-150-1650. Suffolk.. England:
Boydell Press.. 1973.
The Cult ofElizabeth: E/izahethan Portraiture and Pageantry. Great Britain:
Thames and Hudson.. 1977.
The Elizahethan Image. London: Tate Gallery Publications. 1969. • Gloriana: the Portrails ofQueen Elizabeth 1. Gennany: Thames and Hudson. 1987. 81 • -. "Queen Elizabeth 1as ûriana.'" Sludies in the Renaissance 6 (1959): 251-260.
Toft. Robert. ·r.Musicke a sister to Poetrie: RhetoricaJ Artifice in the Passionate Airs of
John Dowland."" Eor/y Music 12 ( 1984): 190-199.
Tune Thy Ailusicke to Thy Hart: The Art ofEloquent Singing in Eng/and 1597-/622.
Toronto: University ofToronto Press.. 1993.
Tomlinson. Gary. J\;[onteverdi andthe End ofthe Renaissance. Berkeley: University of
Calitornia Press.. 1987.
• Ungerer. Gustav.... The Viola da Gamba as a Sexual Metaphor in Elizabethan Music and Literature.'" Renaissance and Reformation/Renaissance et Réforme 8.20 (May
1984): 79-90.
WalIs .. Peter. Music in the English COllrt/y Masque 160-1- /6-10. Oxford: Clarendon
Press: 1996.
·..·Music and Sweet Poetry'? Verse for English Lute Song and Continuo Song."~
J'Alisic and LeI/ers 65 (1984): 237-254. • 82 • Wells. Robin Headlam. ~~The Art ofPersuasion.,., Lute Society Journal.. Greai Britain 16 (1974): 67-69.
Elizabethan Mythologies: Studies in Poetry. Drama and Music. Great Britain:
Cambridge University Press. 1994.
-. ··The Ladder ofLove: Verbal and Musical Rhetoric in the Elizabeth Lute-Song."
Ear(v Music: 12 (1984): 173-190.
"John Dowland and Elizabethan Melancholy:' Early Music. United Kingdom 13.4 • (November 1993): 514-528. Wilbye. John. Firsl Sel ofEnglish Madrigals. London, 1598.
Wilson. Jean. Enterlainmentsfor Elizabeth /. Great Britain: D.S. Brewer. 1980.
Wulstan. David. Tudor Music. London: J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd.. 1985.
Yonge. Nicolas. Ml/sica Transalpina. New York: Da Capo Press. 1972.
Young. Alan R. ··Henry Peacham, Ben Jonson and the Cult of El izabeth-Oriana." Music • and Lellers 60.3 (1979): 305-311.