Bravery Sacrifice Freedom

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ANNIVERSARY The Falkland Islands

In 1940 the Falkland Islands seized their chance to contribute in a material 70 years later the Government and people of the Falkland Islands continue way to the war effort, by donating over £70,000 to the British Government. to cherish our close ties with the United Kingdom, and to support the work of The money was used for the purchase of ten Spitfire aircraft, which bore the the British Armed Forces. We will always be grateful for the sacrifices made name ‘Falkland Islands’ on each side of the fuselage beneath the cockpit. in 1982, and cherish ‘the sound of freedom’ as Royal Air Force jets traverse our skies. The Falkland Islands contribute to A message of thanks and a formal citation their defence by building quarters for married was received by the Falkland Islands personnel and constructing a large swimming Government from Lord Beaverbrook, Minister pool for the garrison. of Aircraft Production: ‘In the hour of peril the Legislative Council for the Falkland Islands Today the Falklands economy is prospering: earned the gratitude of the British Nations, it is based on fishing, tourism and agriculture, sustaining the valour of the Royal Air Force but diversification is strongly encouraged, for and fortifying the cause of freedom by the gift example into aquaculture and web-based of ten fighter aircraft.’ business. Potential off-shore oil reserves may provide an additional source of income and Islanders also played their part by welcoming employment in the future. and working with the naval squadrons and army garrisons based in the Falkland Islands during both world wars, and by enlisting (then and since) Falkland Islanders are united in our desire to continue to exercise our right to fight alongside their British peers. Each year Remembrance Sunday is of self-determination by choosing internal self government as an Overseas commemorated in Stanley, as it is in every town and village throughout the Territory of the United Kingdom, and through our way of life to reflect our British Isles. British origins.

Remembering the Battle of Britain, supporting and celebrating the achievements of the British Armed Forces

F.I. Government Air Service 1982 Liberation Monument Gathering in sheep

Visiting cruise ship Ocean Guardian Fishing for squid Stanley waterfront 70th Anniversary of the Battle of Britain

Editor Richard Morris Printed by Headley Brothers Group Editorial Director Claire Manuel ISBN: 978-1-906940-19-5 Managing Editor Lauren Rose-Smith Editorial Consultants Wg Cdr Paul Owens Published in association with Royal Air Force Media and Jay Myers Communications, Headquarters Air Command Robert Owen www.raf.mod.uk Dr Michael Fopp Sub-Editors Nick Gordon Samantha Guerrini Group Art Director David Cooper Art Editors Zac Casey Nicky Macro James White By Newsdesk Communications Ltd Group Sales Director Andrew Howard 5th Floor, 130 City Road, London EC1V 2NW Sales Manager, Defence Peter Barron Tel: +44 (0) 20 7650 1600 Sales Executives Duncan Green Fax: +44 (0) 20 7650 1609 John Radley www.newsdeskmedia.com Julian Taylor Richard Verden Client Relations Director Natalie Cleur Deputy Chief Executive Hugh Robinson Publisher and Chief Executive Alan Spence Newsdesk Communications Ltd publishes a wide range of business and customer publications. For further information Acknowledgements please contact Natalie Cleur, Client Relations Director, or Estate of David G Collyer and The History Press for material derived from Deal & Alan Spence, Chief Executive. District at War; Val Horsler; Mrs Edith Kup for quotations from the copy of the diary of Denis Wissler in Leeds University Archive; the words of Denis Robinson are Newsdesk Communications Ltd is quoted from his typescript recollections in Leeds University Archive. a Newsdesk Media Group company.

© 2010. The entire contents of this publication are protected by copyright. All rights Images reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, Air Historical Branch (RAF); Bundesarchiv; Corbis; English Heritage/National or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, mechanical, photocopying, Monuments Record; Estate of Christopher Currant; William Foot; Getty; recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. The views and Imperial War Museum; Mrs Edith Kup; Luton Museums/The Luton; Pathé News; opinions expressed by independent authors and contributors in this publication are provided in the writers’ personal capacities and are their sole responsibility. Their Royal Air Force Air Defence Radar Museum; Royal Air Force Museum; publication does not imply that they represent the views or opinions of the Royal Air Dr Mary Stopes-Roe. Photographs on pages 29, 160 and 184 by permission Force or Newsdesk Communications Ltd and must neither be regarded as constituting of Leeds University Archive. advice on any matter whatsoever, nor be interpreted as such. The reproduction of advertisements in this publication does not in any way imply endorsement by the Royal Air Force or Newsdesk Communications Ltd of products or services referred to therein.

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Contents

BRAVERY - SACRIFICE - FREEDOM

FOREWORDS EDITORIAL

11 HM the Queen 29 Introduction Richard Holmes 13 We will remember Air Chief Marshal Sir Stephen Dalton KCB ADC BSc FRAeS 32 Things to come CCMI RAF, Chief of the Air Staff Clive Richards

19 Editor’s preface 38 To conquer Britain? Richard Morris Clive Richards

23 Lessons from history 44 Spirit of the age Dr Michael Fopp, Richard Morris Director General of the RAF Museum from 1988 to 2010 49 Britain observed Clive Richards

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 5 70 YEARS ON AND WE’RE STILL SERVING OUR COUNTRY

The Marksman, a Mark Vb Spitfi re, purchased for the RAF with £5,000 donated by Marks & Spencer. www.marksandspencer.com 56 Wednesday 10 July Robert Owen

62 The Luftwaffe Clive Richards

68 Britain’s air defence system Clive Richards

76 Aerial creatures Robert Owen

82 Leaders and leadership Clive Richards

86 Thursday 8 August Robert Owen

93 Airfields Colin Dobinson

96 Searching the skies Colin Dobinson

100 Thursday 15 August Robert Owen

109 Barricading Britain William Foot

114 Twisting roads and making ready Richard Morris

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 7 SITUATIONAL AWARENESS. THE POWER OF THE NETWORK.

Enabling real-time decision making Today’s war-fi ghter needs real-time situational awareness. Our network control software and wideband radios bring the power of the network to you, signifi cantly reducing your decision cycle. On the battlefi eld, many sensors stream video to operation centers at various places. By networking these data together, an individual has access to the sum total of the information available to use in his decision-making processes. No matter where you are, you can pull information from any sensor. When it comes to facilitating fast, comprehensive data delivery, count on L-3 to give you real situational awareness.

C 3ISR > GOVERNMENT SERVICES > AM&M > SPECIALIZED PRODUCTS L-3com.com/csw Communication Systems–West 117 Friday 30 August Robert Owen

122 Carrying on Richard Morris

128 Paddle-steamers, pies and peppermint rock Neil Hanson

132 The golden thread of hope Sir Martin Gilbert

137 Against invasion Robert Owen

142 Weathers Robert Owen

145 Saturday 7 September Robert Owen

150 Around the edges Clive Richards

154 Sunday 15 September Robert Owen

158 October Robert Owen

163 Eagles in the burning blue John Michaelson

166 On into the night Clive Richards

171 Commemoration Hazel Crozier

177 Landscape and memory Hazel Crozier, William Foot and Richard Morris

180 Burning bright Richard Holmes

184 Shot down

185 Glossary

186 Index of advertisers

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WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 11

Air Chief Marshal Sir Stephen Dalton KCB ADC BSc FRAeS CCMI RAF, Chief of the Air Staff We will remember

THE BATTLE OF Britain was that rarest Britain and ultimately laid the of events, a battle named before it had foundation to free Europe from the begun and commemorated almost scourge of Nazism. before it was over. Seventy years on, In this truly epic struggle, Fighter the importance of it shows no sign of Command bore the brunt of the lessening. Rather the opposite: hardly fighting. As you will read in the pages a year goes by without the publication that follow, the Battle was won as of some new perspective on the much by technology as in the air: events of 1940. through the devoted efforts of ground Reviewing great events of the past crew, the men and women who is part of the historian’s invaluable operated Radio Direction Finding (RDF business and the summer of 1940 – the original name for radar) stations, certainly saw an epic clash. Given operations rooms and airfields, and Germany’s naval weakness it was the work of the Observer Corps. only through the exercise of air Yet Fighter Command did not fight power that the Nazis could bring alone. Coastal Command ceaselessly pressure to bear and either force patrolled the approaches to our shores Britain to make peace, or bypass and the sea-lanes beyond, and Britain’s sea power and mount an photographed German activity day by In this truly epic struggle, invasion. Whichever of these paths day. At large cost, Bomber Command Hitler took, air superiority over attacked and sank some 10 per cent of Fighter Command bore southern England and the Channel Germany’s invasion shipping and was the prerequisite. By denying that harassed the Luftwaffe’s aerodromes. the brunt of the fighting supremacy, the Royal Air Force saved Training Command, the aircraft industry

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 13 and the civilian repair facilities provided during the Battle of Britain the front British; in all about one-fifth of them a steady stream of pilots and aircraft to line was everywhere and involved were from countries in the replace the often heavy losses. Medical everyone – Glasgow as well as Croydon, Commonwealth and Occupied Europe, staff cared for those injured or dying. Swansea as much as Plymouth, deep or neutral nations. They hailed from On the ground, Anti-Aircraft and countryside as well as smoky cities. By New Zealand, Canada, Australia, South Balloon Commands played an the Battle’s end, indeed, the number of Africa and other Commonwealth important part, while anti-invasion civilian casualties far outnumbered Nations, as well as Poland, preparations of huge variety and extent those of the airmen who had been Czechoslovakia, Belgium, France, the were put in place. defending them. United States and Ireland. In national memory the heartland of The airmen prepared to fight tyranny It is with a sense of sorrow that we the Battle of Britain lies somewhere in in a just cause were by no means all find that one in five of the ‘Few’ died south-east England, less a specific area during the Battle, and that of those still than a network of neighbourhoods: living in November 1940, close on half the Weald, the Medway towns, During the Battle of Britain did not survive to see the final victory downland, dockland, Kentish orchards, for which they fought. London’s approaches, ‘Hellfire corner’ the front line was everywhere For their bravery and sacrifice in in east Kent. defence of our freedom, we will never Those memories are true, but what and involved everyone forget them – indeed, we will you will read in following pages is that remember them.

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14 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK

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+XUULFDQHVXQGHUUHSDLUGXULQJWKH %DWWOHRI%ULWDLQDW5ROOV5R\FH+XFNQDOO Commemorating the 70th anniversary of the Battle of Britain.

This memorial window was designed by Hugh Easton and unveiled by Marshall of the RAF Lord Tedder on 11 January 1949 at the Rolls-Royce factory in Derby.

Dedicated to the Royal Air Force pilots in the Battle of Britain, ‘who turned the work of our hands into the salvation of our country’. Trusted to deliver excellence

Hindsight allows us to know the kind of depravity that would have followed if Britain had not stood her ground that summer. Seventy years on, when fewer than 90 of the nearly 3,000 pilots who flew to parry the Luftwaffe are still living, how should we mark such an anniversary? Many books tell the story. Our aim, in the pages that follow, is to evoke time, place and circumstance, to inform, and to juxtapose aspects of life during the Battle of Britain that have become historically compartmentalised. Interspersed with these essays are the micro-histories of six days at different stages in the Battle. That battle was something more than a contest of airpower. By September 1940, with the entire population braced for invasion, the front line ran through front rooms and airing cupboards, down sooty streets, across farms, into factories, AT ABOUT 11 minutes to four on the as well as along beaches mined and afternoon of 18 June 1940, Prime wired against seaborne assault. Those Editor’s preface Minister Winston Churchill stood up to who lived through the “finest hour” address the House of Commons. His remember it as a struggle in which subject was the war situation. Thirty- everyone mattered. ‘Everyone’ included five minutes later he reached the the grandparents who cared for the beginning of the last paragraph: infant while mother worked in a factory, “What General Weygand called the the musicians who toured canteens, the ‘Battle of France’ is over. I expect that the builder’s labourer who mixed concrete, battle of Britain is about to begin… the local defence volunteer, and “…the Hitler knows that he will have to break girl that makes the thing that drills the us in this island or lose the war. If we can hole that holds the spring that works stand up to him all Europe may be free, the thingummybob that makes the and the life of the world may move engines roar”. forward into broad, sunlit uplands; but if Gordon Thompson’s lyric, written we fail then the whole world… will sink shortly after the Battle and sung by into the abyss of a new dark age… ” Gracie Fields in 1942, evokes a time That evening Churchill repeated the when the mundane and the heroic speech in a broadcast, and with it were not opposites, but points along a those last words: “This was their finest single line. We have been looking to Those who lived through hour.” The public who heard them for rekindle that sense of unconditional the first time were divided in their fellowship ever since. This small book the “finest hour” remember reactions. Many were stirred, but some is offered in salute to those who knew found his delivery unimpressive, and what it meant, and in knowing it saved it as a struggle in which not all were convinced by the speech us from the abyss. as a whole. For the rest of us since, the everyone mattered prophetic words ring on. Richard Morris

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 19 TECHNOLOGY BUILT ON TRADITION

ITP is pleased to lend its support to the Royal Air Force in commemorating this important landmark in British history. This 70th anniversary has particular resonance with ITP Engines UK Ltd as it prepares to celebrate its own 70th anniversary to mark the birth of the Whetstone factory for Sir Frank Whittle’s company, Power Jets Ltd.

During the period 1937 - 1945 the pioneering work carried out by Power Jets Ltd marked a step change in aeronautical engineering which revolutionised air transport. Today Sir Frank’s gas turbine legacy lives on at Whetstone through its direct descendant, ITP, Engines UK Ltd. Our commitment to leading edge technology built on experience enables us to design and manufacture core engine components and associated test rigs for the world’s major aerospace companies including Rolls-Royce, General Electric, Honeywell, Pratt and Whitney and Goodrich.

ITP Repair UK is a well established engine component process and repair shop, which has grown steadily over the last twenty years. Our facility in Bognor Regis supports the RAF fleet through MRO base workshops and second tier service organisations on a wide range of platforms including Hercules, Hawk, Harrier and more recently Typhoon. We have a wide range of in-house processes, associated with the strip, inspection and repair of high integrity engine components.

ITP has been proud to provide engineering and logistics support for the Royal Air Force’s Tucano engine fleet since 1995. From its facilities at Ajalvir in Spain and York, England, direct support has been provided to the Tucano operating bases covering engine maintenance, repair, overhaul, testing, component life tracking and reliability reporting. Spares are available on demand, from the smallest washer to complete engines. ITP’s Engineering Logistics Support package for the Tucano’s TPE331-12B engine and its control system provides a vital link in support of the Fast-Jet pilot training for the UK’s armed services. ITP ENGINES UK LTD – WHETSTONE ITP – YORK ITP REPAIR UK – BOGNOR REGIS Cambridge Road Kettlestring Lane Unit 2, Dickinson Place Whetstone Clifton Moor Durban Road Industrial Estate Leicester York Bognor Regis, West Sussex LE8 6LH UK YO30 4XF UK PO22 9QU UK Tel : +44 (0) 116 284 5400 Tel: +44 (0) 1904 690644 Tel: +44 (0) 1243 641861

www.itp-engines.co.uk www.itp.es www.itp-repair.co.uk UKTIUKTI DSODSO ISIS PROUDPROUD TOTO CONGRATULATECONGRATULATE THE RAFRAF ONON THETHE 70TH70TH ANNIVERSARYANNIVERSARY OFOF THETHE BATTLEBATTLE OF BRITAINBRITAIN

WHATWHAT DSO DSO DOES DOES IN IN CONTEXT CONTEXT TO TO “BATTLE “BATTLE OF OF BRITAIN”BRITAIN” UKTIUKTI DSO DSO works works to to promote promote and and support support UK UK industry industry inin exportingexporting battle battle winning winning technology technology and and capabilities. capabilities. TheseThese exportsexports help help nations nations protect protect their their people people and and resources. resources.

BACKGROUNDBACKGROUND INFO INFO TheThe UK UK is is the the world’s world’s second second largest largest exporter exporter of of defencedefence equipmentequipment and and services services contributing contributing significantly significantly toto thethe UK economyeconomy and and maintaining maintaining a a high high technology technology research research andand manufacturingmanufacturing base. base.

UKTI DEFENCE & SECURITY ORGANISATION WWW.UKTI.GOV.UK Dr Michael Fopp, Director General of the RAF Museum from 1988 to 2010 Lessons from history

IT IS EASY to don rose-tinted not be further from the truth. The Readying a Hurricane spectacles and look back to a time economics of the 1930s were dire and for another sortie when summers were warm, beer was after the ‘war to end all wars’ the cheap, and everything in life was good. public’s mood for fighting was indeed No one would pretend that the Battle non-existent. But In spite of this, of Britain conjures up anything to Britain designed and built the most resemble ‘happy memories’, even if effective and integrated early warning that summer was warm and beer was system yet devised. It did so to enable cheap. However, I believe there were the cost-effective use of equally facets of life then, that can provide innovative defensive fighter aircraft. valuable lessons for today. There are They went for quality first and specific lessons about defence, and quantity second. even more important messages for the Initially, Britain measured her younger generation. To this end The defence needs against her oldest Royal Air Force Museum plans a new enemy – France – and only when it learning centre to show people how became clear that Nazi Germany was our grandparents stood alone, yet firm, the real danger did they re-position against tyranny. themselves to counter the new threat. The Battle of Britain has often been Only at the 11th hour did they manage portrayed as a ‘David and Goliath’ fight to produce the quantity necessary. between the plucky amateur and the Such is the influence of the legend seasoned professional bully. This could that the Battle was won mainly by

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Left: Sqn Ldr Peter chance that our predecessors’ foresight those who criticised or brought taken to respond to a certain threat can Townsend, Officer is often forgotten. messages he did not want to hear meant actually be longer than the life of the Commanding 85 Sqn, with The defensive system that was agreed, that intelligence on enemy activities was threat itself. members of his groundcrew. funded, and put in place by successive often weak, or massaged to mollify his These factors together have The Hurricane’s ground starter battery is plugged governments in the 1930s meant that sensibilities. A second lesson, then, is that encouraged the search for multi- in and the gun camera Britain was prepared, just, to fight the leaders are not always right, and that the purpose, ‘one stop shop’ solutions. It is can be seen on the wing tactical battles of 1940. She was, climate in which leadership operates arguable that this has led to over- leading edge incidentally, also gearing up for the should provide for constructive criticism. reliance on versatile equipment, with Right: Spitfires of 610 (County of Chester) Sqn on strategic fight to follow. Germany, on the Third is the need for good analysis of the consequent risk being that when it patrol from Gravesend, other hand, did not provide for such a future threats and the directions from is used in action more will be expected June 1940 follow-through in strategic weapons. where they will come, for without such of it than it may be able to deliver. With The lesson here is the need for forecasting it is not possible to provide this comes the idea – especially well-judged assessment and constancy of purpose over a term of years. As you will read in what follows, even as prime ministers reassured the public that With perfect hindsight it is easy to see that another war was unlikely, and when appeasement was popularly welcomed, more could have been done, but what was huge sums were being invested in defence. With perfect hindsight it is easy accomplished was sufficient to ensure that to see that more could have been done, but what was accomplished was Hitler never gained a foothold in Great Britain sufficient to ensure that Hitler never gained a foothold in Great Britain. Counterattack, and the Allied invasion of appropriate equipment and training to tempting at a time of economic Europe in 1944, were thus made possible. meet them. In recent years we have not hardship – that we can make do with Germany lost the Battle of Britain, and been good at this. This is partly because fewer types of equipment, and less of it. the War itself, inter alia because of Hitler’s the more sophisticated and expensive Linked with all of these aspects is the ideology. Hitler lacked any real strategic equipment becomes, so the time notion that sophisticated equipment vision and had a distinct unwillingness to needed to design, test and produce it can counter any form of threat. listen to generals who disagreed with grows longer. Some readers of this book However, as we see almost every day, him. He surrounded himself with may be amazed to find that radar passed ‘modern warfare’ brings us up against sycophants and allowed his closest from being an idea to a key part of enemies whose technological simplicity retinue to make promises they rarely Britain’s front-line defence in just five enables them to change methods and kept. The culture of fear imposed on years. Nowadays, in contrast, the time tactics more quickly and easily than

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 25 ourselves, and who can operate with become overwhelmingly virtual. Information could be kept to a minimum less back up. Lack of sophistication can Almost everything we see is second because the situation was so grave that actually bring tactical advantage, hand, always shifting, and mostly fed to dwell on anything else would have because development times for new to us by PR or marketing sources. Since opened us to yet greater danger. equipment can be shorter. our retention of their messages is In 1940, adults coming home from Fourthly, lessons for Britain today. In crucial to their profit, our senses are their day jobs and immediately going our technically advanced, networked, bombarded by political, official and out again to complete another eight audiovisual age, with immediate commercial communication. hours of voluntary effort showed a work communications and a constant In 1940, the influences were simpler ethic remembered by many to this day. stream of information, we base our and the messages were passed by radio, The Prime Minister was a man of action, behaviour on models which have newspapers and word of mouth. eloquence and gravitas. The fighter pilot shone, not only as the dashing saviour of the country, but also by illustrating (in Lighting the Beacon the most vivid way) the advantages of education, physical fitness and courage. A 400ft-tall structure dedicated to interpretation of the 37 million travellers who each year pass along the When a hugely respected Royal Family Battle of Britain is planned to soar above the Royal Air nearby M1 motorway and mainline rail routes. was added to this mix, an intrinsic Force Museum on the site of the former Hendon airfield. Intervisible with central London, the Beacon will confidence and reassurance seemed to The Battle of Britain Beacon will enable the RAF reinforce the historical link between the city and the envelop anyone who might previously Museum fully to share its unparalleled collection of Battle of Britain. Battle of Britain aircraft, artefacts and records with a The Museum intends to open the Battle of Britain have felt ambivalent. widened public, and will be a focus for study of the Beacon while some of those who fought in the Battle are Today, many things in a young Battle, its context, and impact on the world order for alive to see it. It is therefore most appropriate that this person’s life are momentary in character years to come. daring project is launched in the Battle’s 70th Anniver- – a text, a Facebook entry, a tweet – and The RAF Museum is an independent charitable trust sary year. the sedentary life rivals the active. Of with a mission to tell the history and traditions of the course, this over-simplifies: mutual RAF, to encourage interest in science and technology, and to promote good citizenship. The Museum’s criticism between old and young is as audience of national and international visitors comes old as humanity itself, for every couch from all social, demographic and ethnic backgrounds. potato there is a swimmer or runner, The Museum’s London site at Hendon is itself and for some the golden age is always historically important in the history of aviation, as the in the past. Even so, you may recognise place where flying first took place in 1903 and as an airfield that was active during the Battle of Britain. the trend. Meanwhile, bodies such as The Battle of Britain Beacon is the last stage in the the Air Cadet Organisation and Scout Museum’s plan to modernise and develop its presence movement are increasingly hobbled at Hendon. The existing Battle of Britain exhibition both by shortage of adult volunteers, building, opened in 1978, contains an exhibition that is and by risk-averse anxiety and now dated, and offers only restricted access to the box-ticking in which young and old collections. The new structure will be a ‘beacon of freedom’, alike are increasingly discouraged from providing a living witness to the sacrifices made by making decisions for themselves. We pilots and ground crews from more than 13 nations who should be standing up to over- took part in the Battle of Britain. Its presence will help protective culture to restore adventure to reawaken traditional values of citizenship, commit- to growing up. ment, self-sacrifice and community. Revolutionary in design and conceptually remark- In doing this, I believe that hard- able, the Beacon will incorporate the latest energy and pressed fighter pilots, inspirational environmental conservation technology, and it will political leaders and selfless war workers showcase British design and engineering expertise. make more positive role models than Rising into the very air where the battle was fought, some of the ‘celebrities’ of today. If I am supported by advanced technology and formats, the right, the Battle of Britain story can be exhibition will highlight the Battle’s importance for today’s world, and celebrate the diversity of the men used as a catalyst for the young to learn and women who stood together in 1940. As a ‘must see’ about role models, that will provide destination, the Battle of Britain Beacon will expand them with real and valuable examples of the RAF Museum’s audience and further its education- how they could live their lives and of al mission. what they could achieve. Funding for the Beacon Project totalling £85 million will come from the private sector. The project has the support of the Patron of the Museum, HRH The Duke of Dr Michael Fopp, Director General of the Edinburgh, the Trustees of the RAF Museum, as well as RAF Museum from 1988 to 2010, is an the Royal Air Force. internationally recognised expert on the The Beacon will be a landmark to be enjoyed by the Battle of Britain. He is currently Master of the Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators

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VSM Estates is delivering new facilities at RAF Northolt and has refurbished the Offi cers’ Mess

DELIVERING A 21ST CENTURY RAF ESTATE

VSM Estates – the joint venture between international construction company VINCI PLC and the UK’s leading regeneration specialist St. Modwen Properties PLC – is delivering one of the most innovative and exciting development projects in the UK today. Project MoDEL is providing world class facilities and housing for the UK’s servicemen and women at RAF Northolt. Hundreds of airmen and women, soldiers and sailors are being re-housed in high quality accommodation at RAF Northolt through a £180 million redevelopment. Th is pioneering scheme is funded by providing thousands of much- needed new homes and other mixed-use development on sites now surplus to Ministry of Defence requirements. VSM Estates is giving a new lease of life to more than 100 hectares of ex-military land across London. At RAF Uxbridge, VSM Estates is reintegrating the site back into the local community, as well as helping to preserve its historic features, including the Th e outstanding sacrifi ces and achievements of the men and women who Grade-I listed bunker. fought in World War Two must be remembered. Both VINCI PLC and St. Modwen RAF Bentley Priory, also part of the MoDEL portfolio, was the Headquarters are proud to be playing such a key role in securing the future of heritage facilities of Fighter Command during the Battle of Britain. VSM Estates has worked across these sites. closely with the Bentley Priory Battle of Britain Trust to develop a solution to ensure that Bentley Priory is retained as a permanent living memorial to those who served in the Battle. Th is includes a museum within the Mansion House For further details about Project MoDEL, please visit www.vsmestates.co.uk. dedicated to the memory of “the Few”. www.stmodwen.co.uk. By permission of The Imperial War Museum CNA 2102/CH2929/E(MOS) 1348 SAFEGUARDING THE WELFARE OF THOSE WHO SAFEGUARD US.

It is fitting that during the 70th Anniversary of the Battle of Britain we remember the immense skill, dedication and bravery of those who have served and those who continue to serve in the RAF.

The Royal British Legion salutes and supports the heroes of the air today (and their families), just as we did during the Battle of Britain and are always there to help with support, advice and representation.

Registered Charity No: 219279 08457 725 725 britishlegion.org.uk Introduction

I AM A ‘baby boomer’, born into a Battle of Britain – it was the campaign (above whose battlefield RAF and 20 May 1940: as Allied world overshadowed by a war that that made all others possible. Without Luftwaffe fighters grappled in 1940) resistance in France collapses, members of the had ended less than a year before I victory there would have been no and the Battle of the Atlantic have Air Component of the British put in my appearance. future, save for a grim descent into the quite the same status. Expeditionary Force are I grew up in a landscape marked night and fog of occupation. It was Indeed, we could have lost it. And evacuated to Britain. The by conflict, from the Land Army hard not to take an apocalyptic view of winning involved not just the collision aircraft collecting them is a Bristol Bombay of 271 Sqn. hostel just across the field from my a confrontation between a German of men and machines, but making The Battle of Britain will house to a scattering of airfields with army – fresh from its victories in France crucial command decisions, difficult soon begin evocative names such as Chipping and the Low Countries – and the enough at the time – and endlessly Ongar, Stapleford Tawney, and North under-equipped survivors of the debated since. Those speculative ‘ifs’ Weald. We lived in Essex, just beyond British Expeditionary Force, assisted, abound: if the Germans had pursued the suburbs of a capital all-too probably with more courage than a consistent strategy, or had launched liberally pitted by bomb sites with effect, by the Home Guard. their attack with a single clear their dusting of pink-flowered Although I had no family objective, or if the weather had been ‘London Pride’. connection with the Royal Air Force, different, then thingsmight indeed In retrospect, it seems irredeemably my parents were quite clear about the have turned out otherwise. grey and austere, but to my parents, debt that they owed it. During my But ultimately there is no appeal who had known much worse, it was childhood, my father always against history’s verdict. The Battle of infinitely better than what might have employed several Poles (charming, Britain was won by tired, sometimes been. On Sundays our drawing-room brilliantined and cravated, though inexperienced, young men. The was invaded by men of my father’s never wholly reliable with ladies or Germans did not proceed with their age. I called them ‘uncles’, though I drink) because they had fought with a invasion plans, but turned east to soon came to realise that we were not wild and careless valour that made open a Pandora’s box of new horrors. blood relatives and although they them remarkable, even among other Britain, battered and sullenly never consciously shut me out of their remarkable men. defiant, and just a little surprised, conversation, it was clear that there On the 70th anniversary of the lived on, and we shall see something, were things I could never understand. Battle of Britain it seems to me that in the pages that follow, of why this To that generation, reflecting on the there is very good reason to recognise was so. war in its immediate aftermath, there that it was one of the decisive battles was no questioning the status of the of our history: perhaps only Hastings Richard Holmes

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 29 Shell has a proud history of involvement with The timing was significant as the late 1930’s was developing the turbine engine and facing aviation; a record that stretches back to the brought war to Europe. Engine modification one of his greatest challenges: combustion. pioneering days of the Blériot Channel allowed the RAF to take advantage of the The Whittle engine required combustion crossing which gave Shell a centenary to higher octane fuel in the search for more intensities 24 times greater than had celebrate in 2009. power. Initially, with 87 Octane fuel, the previously been achieved and in an Gasoline supply, or Spirit as it was then Rolls-Royce Merlin produced 1,030 horse environment where the gas speeds were so known, was in its infancy at the start of the power (HP); however the move to 100 high that simply maintaining a flame at all First World War, but the commitment of Octane enabled an increase in supercharging appeared impossible. Whittle contacted Shell Shell’s founder, Marcus Samuel, to supply allowing the same engine to produce 1,310 scientists to help with the combustion aviation fuel at cost resulted in Shell HP. Further octane increases to 115/145 in the problem. Isaac Lubbock of Shell eventually becoming the sole supplier of Allied late war allowed the Merlin 66 to produce pioneered a unique combustion chamber aviation fuel for the entire conflict. 2,060 HP – more than doubling the power design, prompting Frank Whittle to note The 1920’s saw the development of octane possible on the pre-war fuel. The Axis powers that, “The introduction of the Shell system ratings: a measurement of a fuel’s resistance to were limited to 87 Octane aviation fuel may be said to mark the point where detonation. High-octane fuels enabled high throughout the conflict. combustion ceased to be an obstacle of power, light engines to be developed and so the Whilst there is no doubt that the skill of development”. search was on for improved fuel formulations. pilots, the tactics used and the aircraft all had Shell is proud of its continued The aviation world standardised on 87 a significant influence on the outcome of the contributions to aviation - its most recent Octane fuel in the 1930’s, but by late the air war, both fuel quality and continuation of being the world’s first commercial flight on same decade Shell had pioneered a way of supply from production facilities in the USA synthetic GTL jet fuel - and looks forward to synthesising fuel to reach 100 Octane and, also played a real part. the next 100 years of innovation. even though there was little demand, Shell At the same time as the conflict raged, Sir decided to put this fuel into production. Frank Whittle, then a serving RAF officer,

Today Shell Aviation is proud to be able to produce a range of high quality fuels and lubricants, Group Capt Douglas Bader, who flew in some of which allow aircraft that took part in the Battle Of Britain to be kept airworthy and remain the Battle of Britain, went on to become the on display to the public. Managing Director of Shell Aircraft after he left the RAF in 1946.

   
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Things to come Clive Richards asks what people expected of air power before the Battle of Britain, and examines assumptions that politicians and military planners had made

32 BRAVERY, SACRIFICE, FREEDOM IN HIS recent study of British society had been no more than Moors, or Opposite page: Hawker went on to caution that the German during the interwar period, The Morbid Zulus, or Chinese. Lower New York was Hurricanes of No 111 attacks were only a portent: “The air Squadron, 1938: the RAF’s Age, Richard Overy reflected that soon a furnace of crimson flames, from new monoplane fighter war was fought out on the Continent “Nothing provoked greater public which there was no escape. Cars, aircraft on show of Europe, and the bombing of Britain anxiety in Britain in the 1920s and railways, ferries, all had ceased, and was episodic. It is not difficult to 1930s than the fear of war. More than never a light lit the way of the imagine circumstances in which we slow economic decline, or the distracted fugitives in that dusky might have been called upon to meet unpredictable workings of genes and confusion but the light of burning. He the full force of Germany’s air strength instincts, war threatened sudden and had glimpses of what it must mean to over this country. Unless the reader certain catastrophe.” A key component be down there – glimpses. And it came ponders what that implies, the air raids of this angst was the fear that any to him suddenly as an incredible will not be viewed in their proper future conflict would be characterised discovery, that such disasters were not perspective, nor will the potentialities by a devastating air assault. only possible now in this strange, of air attack be made clear.” Such fears were deeply rooted. The gigantic, foreign New York, but also in During the 1930s, Britain’s mood birth of air power had undermined the London – in Bun Hill! That the little with regard to the threat of air attack confidence hitherto felt by the British island in the silver seas was at the end was caught by the then-Lord President about the security of their islands. The of its immunity, that nowhere in the of the Council, Stanley Baldwin. Channel, until then safeguarded by the world any more was there a place left Speaking during a debate on Royal Navy, no longer promised to be where a Smallways might lift his head disarmament in the House of a barrier to the effects of war in proudly and vote for war and a spirited Commons on 10 November 1932, continental Europe. foreign policy, and go secure from such Baldwin reflected on his belief that The risk of aerial invasion had horrible things.” “What the world suffers from is a sense figured in public imagination since Such fears were reinforced by the of fear, a want of confidence… fear Napoleonic days. To it had since been appearance of enemy airships and held instinctively and without added the possibility of urban areas aircraft in British skies during the First knowledge very often.” The root cause being subjected to attack from the World War. Despite being limited in of this fear, he said, was “fear of the air”. skies. In his 1908 novel, The War in the both scope and effect, according to the “Up to the time of the last War,” Air, HG Wells’s central character, Bert third volume of the official history of Baldwin noted, “civilians were exempt Smallways, witnesses the destruction the Royal Flying Corps, Royal Naval Air from the worst perils of war. They of New York by German airships: Service and Royal Air Force during the Below left: 28 September suffered sometimes from hunger, “As the airships sailed along they First World War, first published in 1931 1938. A mother and son are sometimes from the loss of sons and fitted with gas masks at smashed up the city as a child will (and also called The War in the Air): “The Holborn Town Hall, London, relatives serving in the Army. But now, shatter its cities of brick and card. air-raid menace, more, perhaps, than during the Munich Crisis in addition to this, they suffered from Below, they left ruins and blazing any other aspect of the war, was the constant fear not only of being conflagrations and heaped and responsible for a temporary revolution Below right: 6 September killed themselves, but, what is perhaps 1938. A barrage balloon is scattered dead; men, women, and in English social and general life.” taken out of its hangar in worse for a man, of seeing his wife and children mixed together as though they The author of this history, HA Jones, Kidbrooke, London children killed from the air.”

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 33 Despite these fears, only modest the Chief of the Air Staff, Air Chief response, a reluctant British government efforts were made to defend the Marshal Sir Hugh Trenchard, described was forced to put in train the expansion United Kingdom against air attack the aeroplane as “the most offensive and re-equipment of Britain’s armed during the 1920s and early 1930s. In weapon that has even been invented” forces. During the later 1930s, Britain part this was due to the financial and “a shockingly bad weapon of would follow a twin-track policy of strictures that hobbled British defence defence”. Victory in any future conflict, rearmament and appeasement. for much of the interwar period – in the view of the Air Staff, would be Initially, and in line with longstanding notably, the ‘Ten Year Rule’, introduced achieved by the nation that could policy, expansion favoured offensive in 1919 and maintained until 1932, strike most effectively at targets vital bombers over defensive fighters. which stipulated that “it should be to the enemy. However, in the autumn of 1938 the assumed… that the British Empire will This doctrine was largely based on Secretary of State for Air, Sir Kingsley not be engaged in any great war the almost insurmountable difficulties Wood, acting on the advice of the during the next ten years”. However, it experienced by the defender when Minister for the Co-ordination of also reflected the prevailing Royal Air attempting to detect and intercept Defence, Sir Thomas Inskip, announced Force doctrine that aircraft were incoming air raids in the era before the that this priority was to be reversed. essentially offensive, rather than development of radar. In his speech to This change in emphasis, combined defensive, weapons. Speaking at the House of Commons on 10 with the development of new Cambridge University in April 1925, November 1932, Baldwin addressed technologies (notably Radio Direction “There is no power on earth that can protect him from being bombed, whatever people may tell him. The Left: the Winter War between the Soviet Union and Finland, November bomber will always get through” 1940-March 1941, saw repeated raids by the Soviet Air Force against Helsinki these difficulties, arguing that the Finding, aka RDF, later known as and other cities and towns location of hostile bombers “cannot be radar), made possible the across Finland. This Finnish done, and there is no expert in Europe establishment of the world’s first civil defence poster warns: who will say that it can”. In addition, integrated air defence system. “Danger threatens from the sky! Every citizen is Baldwin cautioned “the man in the Efforts to avoid war by appeasing responsible for our defence” street… that there is no power on earth German territorial demands are that can protect him from being nowadays identified with Neville Below: a Mitsubishi Ki 21 bombed, whatever people may tell him. Chamberlain (Prime Minister 1937- bomber of the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force The bomber will always get through”. 1940). But Chamberlain was not alone over Chungking, China He went on: “The only defence is in either in his advocacy of appeasement offence, which means that you have got or in his reluctance to re-arm. In the to kill more women and children more official history of rearmament policy, quickly than the enemy if you want to NH Gibbs wrote: “Appeasement was not save yourselves. I mention that so that an unpopular policy. The prejudices and people may realise what is waiting for deep-rooted desires of most of the them when the next war comes.” British coincided very closely with those Baldwin’s assertion that “the bomber of the prime minister. Like him, they will always get through” came to were not at heart greatly concerned epitomise the belief that any future about the affairs of other nations, like conflict between European nations him they accepted the rearmament must inevitably lead to a devastating programmes more in the letter than the aerial exchange that would result not spirit, like him, most of all, they simply only in mass casualties and the did not want another war.” Gibbs destruction of cities, but also the ruin concluded: “The general mood of of the warring societies themselves. September 1939 was one of Following Hitler’s appointment as disappointed resignation; there was no Chancellor of Germany in 1933, the sense of crusade, as in August 1914. spectre of German rearmament – That did not come until Dunkirk and hitherto covert – broke into the open. In the Battle of Britain a year later.”

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Britain’s refusal to stop fighting after the defeat of France caused Hitler and his service heads to consider what further steps would be needed to put Britain out of the war. Clive Richards looks at the evolution of their thinking

To conquer Britain?

HITLER’S DESIRE TO create a new six weeks, German forces overran the To many German senior officers, it German empire resulted in the steady neutral Low Countries and swept appeared that for practical purposes the expansion of Germany’s borders. into France. fall of France must also mark the defeat Using coercion and naked force as Faced with disaster, from 21 May, of Britain. When interviewed by the required, these efforts led inexorably British air and ground forces began to United States Strategic Bombing Survey in to the German invasion of Poland on 1 withdraw. Between 26 May and 4 June, June 1945, Generalfeldmarschall (Field September 1939. Although Britain and the bulk of the British Expeditionary Marshal) Wilhelm Keitel, formerly Hitler’s France had previously tried to avoid Force’s (BEF) combat units were Chief-of-Staff, recalled: “The opinion was war by appeasing German territorial evacuated from the port of Dunkirk to the very last that the English were not demands, for both nations, the and the surrounding beaches; the successful in their Dunkirk evacuation, invasion of Poland was the last straw. BEF’s logistical and support units, and inasmuch as they only saved lives, but Demands that German forces be the RAF’s Advanced Air Striking Force, lost all their equipment.” Following withdrawn went unheeded. In line embarked subsequently from ports France’s surrender, “The [German] armed with prior undertakings to the Polish further south. forces more or less thought that the war Government, on 3 September, France With the collapse of the French had come to an end.” and Britain declared war on Germany. Army, on 16 June the Prime Minister of In reality, however, the Western Allies France, Paul Reynaud, resigned. were powerless to prevent Germany’s President Lebrun appointed Marshal “The peoples of the British occupation of Poland. Philippe Pétain, then a national hero, The outbreak of war did not result in in his place. On the same day, the Commonwealth, along with the massive aerial bombardment, the French Cabinet agreed to seek an ‘knock-out blow’, that had previously armistice. Shortly after 18:30 on 22 those who love truth and been feared. Instead, sporadic air June, representatives of Germany and fighting took place over the Franco- France signed such an agreement at freedom, will never accept German border during the winter of Compiègne, in the same railway 1939-40. Forays by the German air carriage in which the German force, the Luftwaffe, into UK airspace surrender had been signed in 1918. this new world of Hitler’s” were limited largely to reconnaissance Hostilities ended on 25 June. While sorties and attacks against shipping French patriots overseas fought on, Hitler agreed. At Compiègne, prior – an approach mirrored by RAF France as a nation had been defeated. to the French surrender, Hitler told his Bomber Command, which carried Chief-of-Operations, Generaloberst propaganda leaflets rather than “The British have lost the war, (Colonel-General) Alfred Jodl: “The bombs to German cities. but they don’t know it” British have lost the war, but they This uneasy calm – dubbed in Directive No 9: Instructions for warfare don’t know it” and that “one must give Britain the ‘Phoney War’; in Germany, against the economy of the enemy, them time, and they will come ‘Sitzkrieg’ (sitting war) – came to an issued by Hitler’s Supreme around”. It appeared to be only a abrupt end on 9 April 1940 when Headquarters – the Oberkommando matter of time before the stubborn German forces invaded Norway and der Wehrmacht (OKW) – on 29 British came to their senses and Denmark. Just over a month later, November 1939, had noted: “In our recognised Germany as the new Germany struck westwards. The fight against the Western powers master of Europe. armies of Holland, Belgium, France England [sic] has shown herself to be Belief in the inevitability of German and Britain were ill-prepared to resist the animator of the fighting spirit and hegemony was not shared by Britain’s the Blitzkrieg (lightning war) that the leading enemy power. The defeat Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, or by followed. In a campaign lasting only of England is essential to final victory.” his government. The possibility of a

38 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK De Panne near Dunkirk after the British retreat

negotiated peace had first arisen in May 1940. Between 24 and 28 May, the War Cabinet discussed proposals, advanced by then-neutral Italy for peace negotiations between the Allies and Germany, with the Italian leader, Benito Mussolini, serving as an intermediary. Throughout, Churchill stood firm against an accommodation with Germany. On the evening of 28 May, he declared to 25 senior government ministers: “I am convinced that every man of you would rise up and tear me down from my place if I were for one military power the Reich is stronger Churchill reacted in characteristic Above left: German troops moment to contemplate parley or today than ever before.” Hitler style. When asked by a member of his roll through ruins of Rotterdam surrender. If this long island story of predicted: “This struggle, if it continues, staff whether he intended to respond ours is to end at last, let it end only can end only with the complete to Hitler’s offer, Churchill replied: “I do Above right: Dutch boy when each one of us lies choking in his annihilation of one or other of the two not propose to say anything in reply to (right) looks on as victors own blood upon the ground.” adversaries. Mr Churchill may believe Herr Hitler’s speech, not being on confer, May 1940 According to Hugh Dalton, then that this will be Germany. I know it will speaking terms with him.” It therefore Minister of Economic Warfare, be Britain.” In light of this, Hitler sought fell to the Foreign Secretary, Lord Churchill’s words were greeted by “loud to appeal “once more to reason and Halifax – who was known in Germany cries of approval all round the table”. commonsense in Britain… I consider to have previously argued in the War In the face of this defiance, all myself in a position to make such an Cabinet in favour of considering a German attempts to gain British appeal since I am not a vanquished foe negotiated peace – to rebuff Hitler. On acceptance of the new status quo begging favours, but the victor, 22 July, Lord Halifax used a BBC foundered. Hitler’s efforts culminated speaking in the name of reason. I can broadcast to declare that “the peoples with a speech delivered on 19 July: “As a see no reason why this war must go on”. of the British Commonwealth, along

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www.saabgroup.com with those who love truth and The other way to tackle Britain was Below, top: Hitler and days. On 2 July 1940, an OKW directive freedom, will never accept this new to launch an amphibious assault with Admiral Erich Raeder in stated Hitler’s decision that a landing discussion at a map table. world of Hitler’s”. Halifax noted that “for the aim of invading and occupying the Also present are (from left) was possible, “provided that air Hitler, force has become the final rule UK. Although the question of an Field Marshal Walther von superiority can be obtained and certain for the destinies of men and nations” invasion had been examined by the Brauchitsch, General Alfred other necessary conditions fulfilled”. and reflected that “in their hearts the high command staffs of the German Jodl, Field Marshal Wilhelm More concrete instructions were Keitel and an unidentified peoples that he has beaten down Army, Navy and Air Force during the Kriegsmarine staff officer issued three days before Hitler’s curse him and pray that his attacks winter of 1939-40, the possibility of a speech of 19 July. Directive No 16: On may be broken on the defences of our cross-Channel assault was only first Below: German air preparations for a landing operation island fortress. They long for the day raised as a matter for serious reconnaissance photograph against England began: “Since England of Newhaven, Sussex, that we shall sally forth and return consideration during a private annotated with conventions [sic], in spite of her hopeless military blow for blow” and pointed to “the day meeting between Hitler and the indicating the presence situation, shows no signs of being of final reckoning when Hitler’s mad commander of the German Navy, of different kinds of ready to come to an understanding, I plans for Europe will be shattered by Großadmiral (Grand Admiral) Erich anti-invasion defences have decided to prepare a landing the unconquerable passion of man Raeder, on 21 May 1940. operation against England, and if for freedom”. Of the three German armed forces, necessary, to carry it out.” only the Army viewed such an assault The assault was to take “the form of To blockade or invade? with any enthusiasm; the Navy, in a surprise crossing on a wide front Alongside these diplomatic exchanges, particular, was opposed to an from about Ramsgate to the area west the German High Command had begun operation that would pit its limited to consider how to deal with Britain. surface fleet – recently depleted by Two avenues lay open. One was to serious losses incurred during the mount a campaign of economic invasion of Norway – against the attrition, using a combination of strength of the Royal Navy. seaborne blockade and air attacks against ports and industries to destroy A “serious and important both the ability and the will of the element in Hitler’s strategy” British to fight on. The idea of such a The question of invading Britain had campaign was of long standing. As lain in abeyance pending the early as 9 October 1939, in his Directive conclusion of the Battle of France. No 6 for the Conduct of the War, Hitler However, on the day that fighting in had laid down that one of the purposes France ceased, Hitler directed OKW’s of a future German offensive “on the Operations Staff to draw up studies for northern flank of the Western front, such an operation within the next few through Luxembourg, Belgium and Holland” would be “to serve as a base for the successful prosecution of the air and sea war against England [sic]”. Directive No 9 of November 1939 stated that “the most effective means” of defeating the UK would be “to cripple the English economy by attacking it at decisive points” and that “should the Army succeed in defeating the Anglo-French Armies in the field and in seizing and holding a sector of the coast of the Continent opposite England, the task of the Navy and Air Force to carry the war to English [sic] industry becomes paramount”. On 26 May 1940, Keitel issued a supplement to this directive ordering attacks on the UK’s food supplies, on public utilities, and on the aircraft industry “in order to deprive the English [sic] Air Force, the last weapon which can be directly used against us, of the basis of existence”.

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 41 of the Isle of Wight”, and to make the Halifax’s speech, made on the operation possible “the English [sic] Air same day as Halder’s diary entry, Force, must be so reduced morally and would appear finally to have physically that it is unable to deliver dispelled any lingering hope among any significant attack against the Germany’s leaders that Britain would German crossing”. Preparations for the buckle to German pressure without operation – which was to be given the further military action. In a letter codename Unternehmen ‘Seelöwe’ written on 24 July, Außenminister (Operation ‘Sealion’) – were to be in (Foreign Minister) Ribbentrop’s place by mid-August 1940. representative on Hitler’s staff, A study of German invasion Walther Hewel, informed Prince Max planning prepared by the Historical of Hohenlohe-Langenburg (who had Branch of the Cabinet Office in 1954 been host to Walter Runciman during concluded: “With the signing of this his mission to the Sudentanland for directive, the invasion plan became a Neville Chamberlain in 1938) that serious and important element in “Halifax’s speech has finally Hitler’s strategy. No longer a tentative destroyed our belief in a party scheme, the landing was to be favouring an understanding over prepared as a major operation, ready there” and that “if the English for launching, if necessary, at the wish their destruction they can appointed time.” have it”.

“If the English wish their “Air warfare will start now” destruction they can have it” The Luftwaffe’s air offensive against Hitler’s attitude towards Sealion Britain lay at the heart of German remained equivocal. On the one hand, preparations for Sealion. On 31 July he recognised the need to avoid a 1940, a conference took place two-front war by neutralising Britain between Hitler and his senior before pressing on to his next key commanders at the former’s Bavarian objective – the invasion of the Soviet mountain retreat, the Berghof. One of Union. On the other, he feared that an those attending was Franz Halder. In attempt to invade Britain would be his diary, Halder noted Hitler’s costly. On 22 July 1940, Generaloberst direction that “air warfare will start (Colonel General) Franz Halder, now. Its results will determine our recorded in his diary his meeting ultimate relative strength: earlier that day with the Obersten “If the results of air warfare are Befehlshabers des Heers (Commander- unsatisfactory, invasion preparations in-Chief of the Army), Feldmarschall will be stopped. If we have the (Field Marshal) Walther von impression that the British are Brauchitsch. Halder opened the crumbling and that the effects will meeting by reporting the status of the soon begin to tell, we shall proceed Army’s preparations for an invasion, with the attack.” after which von Brauchitsch Despite this, many senior Luftwaffe summarised the conference he had officers evaded playing any direct role attended with Hitler in Berlin on the in Sealion-planning whenever previous day. possible. This lack of participation According to Halder, von would appear to have reflected their Brauchitsch reported that while Hitler inability to take the proposed believed that “Britain’s position is invasion seriously. Instead, according hopeless. The war is won by us. A to A Survey of German Air Operations Above, top: map showing reversal in the prospects of success is 1939-1944 prepared by the Branch distribution of German forces for Operation Sealion, impossible,” it was nevertheless the VIII of the Luftwaffe’s Air Staff in the proposed invasion case that the “crossing of [the] September 1944, the Luftwaffe of Britain Channel appears very hazardous to entered the Battle of Britain with a the Führer. On that account, [the] double objective: “To destroy the RAF Above: RAF reconnaissance photograph of invasion invasion is to be undertaken only if no and its ground organisation, and also barges massing in the other means is left to come to terms the economic war potential, and harbour at Boulogne with Britain.” therefore the resistance, of Britain.”

42 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 17-18 July RAF Fairford, Nr Swindon

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Richard Morris asks: on the eve of the battle – what is it like, this Britain?

IN LONDON, THE centre of an empire, not yet cluttered by vast sheds or the the Thames is busy with barges. St mess of agro-industry. Few people own Spirit of the age Paul’s overlooks a low-rise city cars and bulk goods go by rail, so the thronged with steeples. To the east are roads are clear, just as the provincial docks with warehouses storing sugar towns and cities being by-passed are and tea, tobacco and brandy, steam- still on a human scale. You can walk into powered industries, timber yards and Oxford or Truro, pass through and be oil depots. out again in under an hour. Further out, terraces give way to Rural Britain is often simplified to semis, then to villas with large gardens, village greens, manor houses and eventually to semi-rural factories that vicarage elms. The reality is more produce up-to-the-minute things such interesting: a mosaic of contrasts in as wireless valves, pre-packaged which localities differ according to the breakfast cereal and camera film. texture of stone; the word for a London typifies the whole: a nexus starling; the thickness of bricks; shapes of far-flung interests and new-old of fields; forms of gates; or the cultivar juxtapositions. In the Britain of the of plum that grows in the orchard. Spitfire, horses still do much of the Industrial Britain is similarly intricate. work in fields below. While the coal-fired industries of iron, Outside London, new trunk roads steel, ceramics and textiles hold in have been ruled through countryside common their ability to stain

Left: Hawker Hind bombers over London docklands 1937/38

Above: Hanley, the Potteries, Staffordshire, from a German gazetteer of potential industrial targets

44 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK buildings, soot the air and lay waste to with shops that sell different things. surroundings, the tenements of On Sundays and Bank Holidays Glasgow differ from those in everything closes, except at the Mixed up with town and Sunderland, and devotional habits in seaside to which day-trippers flock on Manchester have produced a pattern crowded trains. country alike is post- of chapels quite unlike those you will Local bodies bring people together see in Swansea. Coventry and – church, guild or club. For everyday war Britain, full of brash Birmingham are honeycombed by entertainment there is the wireless, businesses to do with engines, metal, cinema, or (for men and male- advertising hoardings glass, cars and aircraft, but neither city accompanied women) an evening in a exactly resembles the other – and both pub that might recently have been differ from nearby Wolverhampton rebuilt to resemble a Tudor manor and Derby. house in order to attract a better class Mixed up with town and country of customer. alike is post-war Britain, full of brash Preoccupation with appearances is advertising hoardings, recently grist to the mill of those who sneer at conjured by JB Priestley in English Britain’s public taste. In fact, the modern Journey (1934) as a realm of new-built movement in architecture flourishes “filling stations and factories that look here. So does its relationship with social like exhibition buildings, of giant improvement and altruism. But such is cinemas and dance halls… Britain’s cultural breadth that it is easy bungalows with tiny garages, cocktail to downplay the progressive while bars, Woolworths, motor coaches, emphasising problems. wireless, hiking…” Hence, for some Britain is The homes whence hikers set forth characterised by cultural philistinism, range from 100-year-old terraces inequality, class deference, rude without bathrooms or indoor landlords, poor service and greedy lavatories, to recent semis built along manufacturers of goods that do not new roads that meander in curves and last. EM Forster thinks of inter-war loops. Wherever they are, coal heats Britain as someone elderly “who has them, and the front room is a shrine to folded her hands and stands waiting”; appearances, ‘kept for best’, displaying Cyril Connolly calls her “stuffy and china that is never used. comatose”; WH Auden is in America. Everyone writes letters and, except A few go so far as to say that the in the remotest places, they are freedoms Britain stands for are no delivered twice each weekday. longer worth defending. In just under Shopping is done on foot, almost a year’s time, everyone will come always by women, along streets lined together and prove them wrong.

This page, clockwise from top: Ludlow, 1930; Honington, Lincolnshire,1940 (Hallam Ashley); The Barn, Barnet bypass, 1935; Cardiff docks, 1933

46 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK This page, clockwise from top left: Weston-super-Mare lido, 1937; Odeon, Leicester Square, 1937 (John Maltby); New Corporation flats, Manchester, 1939

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 47 Endurance, made by EADS.

At EADS, we design technologies with the strength to endure, to get the job done even when the going gets tough. For example, EADS is central to groundbreaking tanker aircraft programmes that will help armed forces to get where theyÓre needed, non-stop. And at Airbus, aircraft have a Ònervous systemÓ that detects even the smallest maintenance requirements, helping minimise downtime. Exploring the far reaches of space demands durability Î the Rosetta spacecraft has been built by EADS Astrium to survive a 10-year journey to monitor a comet at close quarters. At EADS, endurance is key to achievement. And weÓre here for the long run. | www.eads.com/madebyeads In 1940, what did Germany’s military planners know about Britain? Clive Richards describes the organisation and work of German intelligence Britain observed

SEVERAL METHODS WERE employed intelligence network within the UK by Germany in its attempt to construct before the outbreak of war. The limited a picture of Britain’s defences before, amount of classified intelligence that and during, the Battle of Britain. One trickled into Germany from Britain was the traditional method of placing during 1939-40 was gathered mostly by agents on the ground. This was the British residents who had pro-German primary responsibility of German sympathies, and was passed to Berlin military intelligence, the Abwehr via nations friendly to Germany. (Defence), under the command of the To support Unternehmen Seelöwe enigmatic Admiral Wilhelm Canaris. (Operation Sealion, Germany’s planned Abwehr activities in Britain during the invasion of Britain via the Channel) Right: Admiral Wilhelm 1930s were inhibited by a moratorium Canaris and his staff were therefore Canaris, head of the Abwehr on intelligence operations imposed by obliged to assemble an intelligence Above: German Hitler in 1935, in an effort to secure network in Britain, virtually from scratch. reconnaissance photograph, Anglo-German relations. Although this Abwehr operations in support of Seelöwe annotated by intelligence ban was lifted two years later, it analysts, of the balloon/ were given the blanket codename airship station at Cardington, nevertheless hobbled the Abwehr’s Operation Lena, while those aimed Bedfordshire attempts to develop a viable directly at infiltrating agents into the UK

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 49 were codenamed Operation Hummer branches, capable of monitoring British (Lobster). During the autumn of 1940 signals traffic. Within theLuftwaffe , this several agents were sent to Britain or task was performed by the neutral Eire, rowing ashore from small Funkhorchdienst, which formed part of vessels, submarines or flying boats, or the Signals Service under Generalmajor landing by parachute. These methods (Major General) Wolfgang Martini. were also used to insert personnel from Martini was also responsible for the the Abwehr’s own Special Forces unit, the collection of electronic intelligence, and Lehr-Regiment Brandenburg zbV 800, in 1939 he employed the German rigid which had been tasked with conducting airship LZ 130 Graf Zeppelin II to monitor AufKlGr Rowehl’s full attention was The Germans also culled sabotage in support of the invasion. the signals being emitted by the forest turned towards Britain. Lacking the images from the wartime press (left, where Boy Scouts Abwehr efforts, however, were to be in of aerials then springing up at regular speed and ceiling to evade defending and a horse-drawn cart vain. In Britain, officers of the Security intervals along Britain’s eastern fighters, the unpressurised photographic assist at an anti-invasion Service (known more commonly by its coastline (see page 97). This reconnaissance aircraft operated by the roadblock) and pre-war earlier designation, MI5) proved adept at investigation led Martini to conclude Gruppe ran the constant risk of being images such as that of the newly constructed A3 rounding up German agents and that the aerials were associated with intercepted by the RAF while in UK Kingston by-pass. The road saboteurs, when necessary working in some form of aircraft detection system. airspace. On 1 July 1940, two Dornier block picture has been close co-operation with their Irish The most versatile and reliable source Do-215s belonging to AufKlGr Rowehl fell annotated in the cursive counterparts. Many of theses agents of intelligence available to German to the guns of defending fighters, and handwriting which was taught in German schools up were then recruited (‘turned’) to work for planners in 1940 was Luftwaffe during the next five weeks the number to the Second World War the British against their former German photographic reconnaissance imagery. of aircraft lost by the Gruppe would rise employers. British counter-intelligence The Luftwaffe had been covertly to 26. officers were often aided by theAbwehr’s gathering strategic intelligence The answer to this problem lay with idiosyncratic approach to the selection imagery since 1935. While ostensibly the Junkers Ju-86 P-1 and P-2 high- and preparation of agents. Many of tasked with flying route-proving flights altitude aircraft operated by the them were obviously unsuitable for such as part of the German state airline, Gruppe’s second Staffel. The pressurised work, and in a number of cases they Lufthansa, a special unit under Göring’s cabins fitted to these aircraft enabled arrived in the UK and Ireland direct control, the zbv Staffeln beim RLM them to fly up to 41,000ft (12,500 inappropriately (and at times bizarrely) – also known as Kommando Rowehl metres), well above the maximum attired, poorly equipped and badly after its commander, Oberstleutnant (Lt altitude of standard RAF Spitfires and briefed. It is believed that from all of the Col.)Theodore Rowehl – was actually Hurricanes. Rowehl’s Ju-86 crews were agents sent to the UK by the Abwehr at conducting covert photographic sorties therefore able to go about their work this time, only one – Werner Mikkelsen, a over Germany’s European neighbours, unhindered, gathering copious images Czech intelligence officer who worked including Britain. With the coming of of British military, industrial and urban for the Germans under the name war, Kommando Rowehl was expanded targets. According to Andrew Brookes, ‘Wilhelm Moerz’ – evaded capture. to become the Aufklärungsgruppe der author of Photo Reconnaissance, “While The paucity of reliable information Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (AufKlGr the British were taking down signposts available from the Abwehr obliged ObdL, the Reconnaissance Group of the to confuse a possible German invasion German planners to rely on technical Luftwaffe High Command), or force, the PIs [photographic sources. Each of the German armed Aufklärungsgruppe Rowehl. interpreters] of the Luftwaffe were forces maintained signals intelligence In the aftermath of the fall of France, marking everything of interest in, for

50 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK Free Images and Records from The Battle of Britain

Access our free online resources www.pastscape.org.uk Discover England’s archaeological and architectural heritage Pastscape, www.pastscape.org.uk, contains a set of records for World War II military airfields in England, including those that played such a vital role in defending the country against the Luftwaffe 70 years ago in The Battle of Britain. Our records give a brief history of each relevant airfield and its development and indicate the level of survival of its features. < (&13'4
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The National Monuments Record (NMR), the public archive www.english-heritage.org.uk/viewfinder of English Heritage, holds over 10 million photographs, plans, Historic Images of England drawings, records and publications covering England’s Viewfinder holds historic images of England dating back architecture, archaeology, social and local history. from the 1850s to the present day. The photographs cover the industrial age, architecture and archaeology, as well as social and local history. To view some of our images from The Battle of Britain go to www.english-heritage.org.uk/viewfinder

A Hurricane aircraft. These Peace Garden Slate Memorial at RAF The Battle of Britain Memorial Haresfield Airfield, Gloucestershire. aircraft were used during Lakenheath is dedicated to the airmen at Capel-le-Ferne opened in 1993. This airfield was used for training The Battle of Britain. who died during The Battle of Britain. 258H/27 and testing during WWII. DP035688 Aa98/12301 Haw/9436/01 example, Leeds on enlarged Abteilung (branch) of the Luftwaffe Poland and the UK and their photographs with Indian ink.” General Staff. This branch was an supporting aviation industries. The offshoot of the operations staff, and document relating to the RAF – Studie Building a picture was not regarded as a prize posting; ‘Blau’ (Study Blue) – was updated in The gathering of information is not an indeed, many within the General Staff the aftermath of the Battle of France end in itself; it only becomes of use to regarded intelligence as being and guided Luftwaffe assessments of military leaders and planners when it is something of a backwater. the strength and capability of the RAF sifted to form a coherent picture of the In 1938, the then-Major Josef ‘Beppo’ during the course of the Battle of capabilities and intentions of the (‘Boy’) Schmid was appointed head of Britain. It contained a number of errors enemy. However, the higher political the 5th Abteilung. According to the and omissions. and administrative structures of the historian ER Hooton, Schmid’s selection Notably, despite Martini’s Third Reich were based upon rival for this post “owed much to his investigations in 1939 and groups all competing for Hitler’s friendship with Göring, for Schmid was subsequent discoveries in France, blessing. Such an environment no airman, spoke no foreign languages Studie ‘Blau’ failed to acknowledge rendered impossible any form of and had no experience of intelligence”. the importance of Fighter Command’s centralised intelligence analysis below His subsequent performance left much radar-based control and reporting that of the Führer himself. to be desired. Described by another system. Schmid would continue Consequently, in 1940 no one body historian as a “shrewd and ambitious seriously to underestimate the within the Oberkommando der officer”, Schmid tended to shy away importance and flexibility of this Wehrmacht (OKW, German Supreme from providing his master with system throughout the air fighting of Command) was responsible for the unbiased analysis and “soon gained a 1940. Consequently, no concerted evaluation of military intelligence reputation within the Luftwaffe for effort was made by theLuftwaffe to relating to the UK. Instead, this task was garnishing his reports to make them suppress the RDF chain, or to target divided between the three German more palatable to Göring”. systematically the RAF’s command armed forces. Drawing upon a variety of sources, and control system – a mistake that Within the Luftwaffe, intelligence in 1939 Schmid and his staff prepared would prove crucial to the outcome analysis was conducted by the 5th major studies of the air arms of France, of the campaign.

52 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK

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TO INVADE, THE Luftwaffe needed to of Kent. At first, raids involved relatively and reported on convoy movements. close the Channel to British shipping. small numbers. On 10 July the stakes Three hours later, a convoy steaming From early July the Luftwaffe mounted were raised. southwards 15 miles off Lowestoft was a dozen or so raids on coastal convoys That Wednesday dawned with thick attacked by two Heinkel He-111s, one and ports, testing the ability of the RAF cloud and rain over most of the British of which was shot down by one of a to defend them. Isles. This did not deter RAF patrols over Hurricane patrol from 242 Sqn that Air Chief Marshal Dowding was well the eight convoys that were navigating was mounting guard against such an aware that standing patrols would coastal waters. The Luftwaffe likewise eventuality. Later, two more Heinkels make heavy demands on men and sent forth its usual early morning located the Canadian steamship machines. In addition, given the short meteorological and reconnaissance Waterloo, which was alone, just off distance between Luftwaffe airfields on flights. One of these, a Dornier Do 215, shore from Yarmouth, on its way to the the Pas de Calais and their targets, RDF was engaged and damaged by Tyne. This time there was no fighter could not always give sufficient Hurricanes of 145 Sqn south of the Isle protection. The Waterloo was hit by warning of an approaching attack. of Wight. The Dornier escaped to two bombs, and sank 15 minutes later. Hence, a convoy’s small fighter escort crash-land near Le Havre. These attacks were similar to others might find itself outnumbered before At 07:30 the Chain Home (CH) that had been mounted by the reinforcements could arrive. To reduce station at West Beckham detected Luftwaffe from the start. Compared to reaction time, Dowding instructed that another reconnaissance Dornier, this what was to follow, they were minor. units based inland should send daily time off the Suffolk coast. Intercepted As the morning wore on the weather detachments to airfields nearer the by three Spitfires of 66 Sqn from improved. At 10:00 the convoy Bread, coast. One such unit was 56 Sqn, based Coltishall, it was shot down into the steaming out of the Thames Estuary at North Weald, but operating daily sea some 40 minutes later, although and rounding North Foreland, was from Manston, at the eastern extremity apparently not before it had observed spotted by a Do-17, escorted by a

Once enemy aircraft crossed the coast their progress was tracked by the Observer Corps Gruppe of 20+ Bf-109s from I/JG51. The aircraft were detected by Dover CH and Foreness CHL and as this formation approached the convoy it was set upon by six Spitfires from 74 Sqn. Outnumbered, two of the defenders were damaged and had to force land, but not before they had damaged a 109 and killed two of the Dornier’s crew, leaving it to limp back across the Channel and crash-land east of Boulogne. A short while later a Staffel of 109s carried out a sweep to the west of Dover. Despite being intercepted by nine of 610 Sqn’s Spitfires, one of which they caused to force land at Hawkinge, they strafed a train near Newhaven killing the driver and injuring the guard, at no loss to themselves. This free chase was an attempt to draw up RAF fighters in the hope that they would still be refuelling when the day’s main attack took place. Convoy attack - the view from Dover

The purpose of the earlier reconnaissance and free chase soon became clear. At 13:00 RDF operators Some of the Hurricane squadrons noted aircraft gathering over the Pas de Calais; a flight of 32 Sqn’s Hurricanes that had seen action in France was sent aloft to patrol Convoy Bread. Half an hour later the attackers were were beginning to develop their seen approaching the convoy: 26 Do-17s of KG2, flying in vics, escorted own, more effective tactics above by 3 Staffeln of Bf-110s from ZG26 and 2 Staffeln of 109s. Mistaking On this day the Dorniers were at least spoil their bombing run, after the 110s for Dorniers, 32 Sqn called for 4,000ft, the 110s at 8,000ft, and the which the Hurricanes would pass reinforcements. Seven 56 Sqn 109s at 12,000. The attack was astern of the enemy and swing back Hurricanes and eight Spitfires from 74 opened by 32 Sqn, whose pilots to attack from behind. Meanwhile, the Sqn were sent forth from Manston, with found the Dorniers to be partly other defenders, headed by 56 Sqn, 111 Sqn providing a further nine concealed by patchy cloud, defended set about the German fighter escort. Hurricanes from Croydon. individually by fighters, and The 110s formed themselves into As was often the case in this period, correspondingly difficult to engage. defensive circles, covering each other the Luftwaffe’s advantage lay not only Spitfires from 74 Sqn fared better, rather than their charges. The tactic in numbers, but also in height. To gain destroying a Dornier and damaging a was not a success and after being the advantage the defenders needed 109. As the Dover ground defences broken up by RAF fighters they to be above the 109s, but to achieve opened up, 111 Sqn arrived to bolster formed small sections and headed for this they needed time and a correct the defenders. home. As battle continued, six 64 Sqn height estimation from Controllers. While many Fighter Command units Spitfires arrived from Kenley and Often they had neither. Controllers were still wedded to the pre-war, set evened the odds further. would delay despatching squadrons piece area attacks, some of the 111 Squadron’s head-on attack until they were certain that the plot Hurricane squadrons that had seen broke the bomber formation, making was not a feint for a larger attack. In action in France were beginning to pursuit of the Dorniers easier in the many cases, the height passed from develop their own, more flexible and ensuing dog fight. One Hurricane the RDF plot turned out to be less than effective tactics. Though unofficial, collided with a Dornier, each aircraft the actual interception height. At first these were beginning to percolate to losing a wing and plummeting into this was believed to be an error with other squadrons in the Command. the Channel. the equipment, or interpretation, but No. 111’s leader brought his pilots in Two Hurricanes force landed, and later thinking surmised that often the head-on, flying almost abreast towards two more were badly damaged, one enemy was still climbing when the the Dorniers. The tactic was designed to by friendly fire from a Spitfire. One original instructions were issued. break up the enemy formation, or at Spitfire had to crash land at Lympne;

58 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK Afghanistan à %eli]e à %runei à Canada à Cyprus à )alNlands *iEraltar à *ermany à 0iddle East à 1epal à 1orthern ,reland

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Text us on: Online: Also on: 07740 377 377 www.bfbs.com Sky Guide 0211, Start your message with ops and a space Freesat channel 786 three more force landed. For their The clifftops part the enemy had lost three Dorniers, three 110s and a 109, with An old railway which formed a spur indignant when he found himself being others damaged. As for Convoy Bread, from the main Dover-London line was machine-gunned. although it was showered with 150 extended to serve the gun emplace- An observation point at St Margaret’s bombs only one vessel was lost – the ments on the cliffs above Dover; a was a house in a road running parallel to 466 ton Dutch steamer Bill S. Overall, company of the Royal Engineers was the coast; its back garden ended at the this was a favourable outcome for the posted to the area to operate it. Among cliff edge, and there was a nearby the large guns stationed there, was a allotment where the vegetables were RAF, but not one that could be 14in gun nicknamed ‘Winnie’ – a scattered everywhere when a shell landed assured on every occasion. companion, ‘Pooh’, was nearby – which in it. A serviceman stationed in the house There was more to come. In south- fired the first round to cross the recalled, “The upstairs bay window west England the air defence structure Channel from England towards the end looked over towards the French coast, had still to be fully established. No 10 of August 1940. providing an excellent view. With our Dummy gun emplacements were also special instruments we could pick out the Group was in the process of formation built here. One of them, a little movement on Cap Gris Nez, the clock face but not fully operational, and the reinforced concrete hut, doubled as a and docks at Calais and the coastal warning organisation as yet unproven. block post used for signalling on the railway. The window sill was extended to Both were about to be put to the test railway. A blocksman working in it saw provide fixtures for our instruments and by 70 Junker Ju-88s of KG 51, part of Royal Marine carpenters fitting a the room fitted with tables, wireless sets, Hugo Sperrle’s Luftflotte 3, targeting cylindrical extension on to the hut, but telephones, wall-maps etc, while the he was too close to recognise it as a owner’s furniture was stored away in Falmouth and Swansea. simulated gun barrel. He was most locked rooms.” Later, an approach from the west confused radar at the Lizard; at Falmouth the sirens sounded only two minutes A Hurricane pilot bales out before bombs began to fall. There was after his aircraft loses a wing. His parachute can be seen no fighter opposition. In the harbour the opening top centre 6,500 ton Tascalusa was sunk and the Greek steamer Mari Chandaris set on fire, as was the tanker British Chancellor sailing off shore. Spitfires of 92 Sqn from Pembrey were scrambled to intercept the Swansea raiders, but too late. Three heavy bombs hit the Royal Ordnance Factory at Bridgend. Railway facilities and a power station were also hit. All told, 12 people were killed and 26 seriously injured. Ironically, the Luftwaffe’s only engagement with the RAF on this occasion was with an unarmed Hawker Henley target tug, flown by a former First World War veteran. Making contact with a Ju-88 he fired the only weapon at his disposal, a Verey pistol. The Junkers responded by making a quick turn for the open sea. There were other minor actions: 17 bombs fell on the airfield at Martlesham Heath and a He-111 was spotted reconnoitring off the north- east coast. A message from the Heinkel about the convoy was intercepted, but weather conditions were such that no follow-up attack materialised. Over the next month tactics were to be evolved, honed and countered as each side sought to dominate.

Robert Owen

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Military Engines BRAVERY - SACRIFICE - FREEDOM The Luftwaffe What were the origins of Germany’s Air Force, and what was it designed to do? Clive Richards looks at the emergence of the Luftwaffe

ALTHOUGH THE AIR arms of both the agreement negotiated between was transferred to a newly created German Army and German Navy had Germany and the Soviet Union in 1925, German Air Ministry (the played a major role in the First World which permitted the German Army to Reichsluftministerium, or RLM). The War, the German Air Force (the conduct training and aircraft trials at an establishment of the RLM led in turn to Luftwaffe) was itself a young force. This airfield near Lipetsk, 300 miles the de facto creation of the Luftwaffe, was due in large part to the settlement southwest of Moscow. By the late although it was not until 26 February that brought the First World War to an 1920s, both the Army and Navy had 1935 that a formal decree recognising end – the Treaty of Versailles. developed embryonic air arms as part the existence of the latter was signed Under the terms of that treaty, all of covert re-armament programmes. by Hitler, Göring and Defence Minister German military and naval aviation After the appointment of Adolf General Werner von Blomberg. was banned. Existing aircraft, spares Hitler as Chancellor in January 1933, Building on plans laid by the Army and support equipment had to be German re-armament accelerated before 1933, Göring’s deputy, handed over for supervised dramatically. One of Hitler’s first acts as Staatssekretär de Luftfahrt (State destruction and the design and Chancellor was to appoint Nazi Party Secretary for Aviation) Erhard Milch, production of new combat aircraft was stalwart and First World War fighter quickly set in train a massive (but then prohibited. An international pilot Hermann Göring to the post of still secret) programme encompassing monitoring group – the Inter-Allied Reichskommissar für die Luftfahrt the procurement of aircraft and Aeronautical Commission of Control – (National Minister for Aviation). Taking equipment, airfield construction, and was established to ensure that the Britain’s Air Ministry and Royal Air the recruitment and training of provisions of the Treaty were observed. Force as his model, Göring’s aim was to personnel. Initially, the German Despite these efforts, the General establish a new ministry responsible General Vuilleman (left), government continued to pretend that Staff of the German Army almost for both civil and military aviation and head of the French Air its policy was aimed at bolstering civil immediately began to search for ways an independent air force. Staff, with Generalleutnant rather than military aviation, using Stumpf and Erhard Milch, to circumvent the terms imposed at On 15 May 1933 the German Army inspecting pilots and organisations such as the German state Versailles. In this they were aided by an office responsible for military aviation Bf-109s of JG2, August 1938 airline Lufthansa, the Deutsche

62 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK Verkehrsflieger-Schule (German Air service, he was not alone in shaping its Transport School) and the doctrine. The need for experienced Reichsverband der Deutschen professionals to fill senior staff posts Luftfahrtindustrie (National German within the Luftwaffe was met in Aviation Manufacturers’ Association) as 1933-34 by the simple expedient of cover for its activities. Despite these transferring 182 German Army and 42 disguises, intelligence to the contrary Navy officers to the RLM. Despite their soon began to circulate in other Europe backgrounds, many of these officers capitals; bowing to the inevitable, in recognised that the Luftwaffe should March 1935 the existence of the not simply be bound to the role of a Luftwaffe was officially acknowledged. supporting air arm but should also be Between 1935 and 1939 the Luftwaffe capable of waging strategic air emerged as one of the most powerful warfare. One of those most committed

Clockwise from top In this they reflected not only the work left: Göring (second of foreign theorists and air force leaders Between 1935 and 1939 the from left) and Milch such as the Italy’s General Giulio (fourth from left) at Reichsluftfahrtministerium Douhet, Britain’s Marshal of the RAF Luftwaffe emerged as one of the display, October 1935; Lord Trenchard and the US’s Brigadier- German airborne troops General William Mitchell, but also the most powerful air forces in Europe during the invasion of Norway, April 1940; Ju-52 ideas of the German writer on airpower, transports at Rotterdam, Dr Robert Knauss. A veteran aviator air forces in Europe. It also gained to the development of a strategic 10 May 1940, when German from the First World War and former priceless combat experience. Between capability was the Lieutenant General losses of such aircraft colleague of Milch’s at Lufthansa, were high 1936 and 1939, an air expeditionary Walther Wever. On 1 September Knauss submitted proposals for the force composed of ‘volunteers’ – the 1933, the then-Colonel Wever was future Luftwaffe based on a nucleus of Condor Legion – was despatched from appointed as head of the RLM’s heavy bombers in May 1933. He joined Germany to Spain to assist the Luftkommandoamt (Air Command the Service in the same year and in Nationalist forces under General Directorate). As such, he was in 1940 became Head of the Air Force’s Francisco Franco. For the Luftwaffe, the essence the Luftwaffe’s Chief of Staff War Academy. tragedy of the Spanish Civil War and when the new air force formally A heavy bomber programme started provided a laboratory in which new came into being in March 1935, Wever by Wever and Milch in 1934 produced aircraft, weapons and techniques could was confirmed in this post. two prototype long-range ‘Uralbombers’: be trialled and a cadre of battle- While recognising the need to the Junkers Ju-89 and the Dornier Do-19. hardened aircrew developed. provide the Army with the air support Neither fulfilled the specification issued it needed, Wever and Milch sought to by RLM, and following Wever’s death in What sort of air force? create a balanced air force that was an air accident in 1936 his successor, While Milch was instrumental in also capable of conducting a long- Lieutenant-General Albert Kesselring, creating the infrastructure of the new range strategic bombing campaign. cancelled the programme. In 1938, a

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 63 specification for a replacement aircraft simply a question of transferring flying parachute (fallschirmjäger) formations (‘Projekt 1041’ or ‘Bomber A’) was units to places within striking distance themselves. issued to Heinkel by the RLM, but in of their next target – Britain; the Although airborne units had Wever’s absence development of the communications, maintenance and participated in the invasions of resulting aircraft – the Heinkel He-177 supply systems that were needed to Norway and the Low Countries with Greif (Griffin) – was allowed to drift. support the coming air offensive also conspicuous success, they had also This lack of urgency, combined with had to be moved forward. suffered significant casualties. severe technical problems, meant that By July 1940 the Luftwaffe was German airlift capability had also the first examples of the He-177 did ready to begin preliminary air been seriously eroded; for example, not reach the front line until 1942. operations against Britain. Altogether, two-thirds of the 430 Junkers Ju-52 at the beginning of that month the transport aircraft used during the To the Channel coast Luftwaffe could put into the front line invasion of the Netherlands were Operations against Poland, the Low a total of 1,107 Bf-109s; 357 either destroyed or were so badly Countries and France all began with a Messerschmitt Bf-110 Zerstörer damaged that they were co-ordinated series of attacks against (Destroyer) twin-engine fighters; and subsequently written-off. Hence – and airfields and installations, aimed at 1,380 medium bombers. Also in marked contrast to expectations in destroying or disabling the enemy’s air available were 428 Stukas, 569 Britain – although Seelöwe planners force on the ground. This is because reconnaissance aircraft and 233 did assign 7th Fliegerdivision the task the Luftwaffe’s first priority was to maritime aircraft. Germany’s grand of seizing gun emplacements and dominate the airspace over a battle so total of available machines at the start airfields near Dover and Folkestone, it is unlikely that parachute forces would have played more than a During the war’s opening stages, limited role in support of any landing. Luftwaffe personnel had shown The air assault on Britain During the war’s opening stages, themselves to be skilled aviators Luftwaffe personnel had shown themselves to be skilled and dedicated aviators, and most of their that the enemy would be unable to of the Battle of Britain thus stood at a aircraft and equipment had proved to prevent it operating as it wished. little more than 4,000. be more than adequate. However, in Subsequently, as the German Army The primary forces on hand for this 1939-40 the Luftwaffe was not fully unleashed its Blitzkrieg (lightning war) task were divided between two prepared for the war that it was about spearheaded by a relatively small Luftflotten (Air Fleets); Luftflotte 2, to fight. number of fast-moving panzer under the command of General The unsuccessful Junkers The original timetable used to guide (armoured) units, the Luftwaffe Field-Marshal Albert Kesselring, and Ju-89 ‘Uralbomber’, German rearmament had assumed deployed its large fighter force – and Luftflotte 3, commanded by General c.1937-38, top; Robert that a war in Europe would begin in Knauss, during his in particular the potent (but short- Field-Marshal Hugo Sperrle. A third Air tenure as head of the 1942. In result, all Germany’s ranged) Messerschmitt Bf-109 Fleet – Luftflotte 5, commanded by Luftkriegsakademie rearmament programmes were single-seat fighter – to dominate the Colonel-General Hans-Jurgen Stumpff incomplete at the time of the invasion air over the battlefield. Under this air – could play a supporting role from of Poland. This was to have serious umbrella, units equipped with the airfields in Norway. implications for the strategic air war Junkers Ju-87 Sturzkampfflugzeug (dive If Unternehmen Seelöwe (Operation against Britain. While the Luftwaffe’s bomber) – the Stuka – would attack Sealion) had gone ahead, the role of existing organisation and equipment targets on or close to the battlefield, the Luftwaffe would have been not were eminently suited to supporting often being employed as ‘flying only to establish air superiority over the German Army during its drive artillery’ in support of the ground the landing area, and so help across Western Europe, it was not the battle. Meanwhile, the medium safeguard assault craft from air and balanced force envisaged by Wever. bomber force would strike targets sea attack, but also to play an active The air campaign against Britain further towards the enemy’s rear with role in the assault itself. The most exposed the problems caused by the the aim of isolating the defenders. obvious contribution to the invasion failure of the Uralbomber programme The Luftwaffe used the respite that would have been in the provision of and the delayed development of the followed the fall of France to replace airborne forces. In contrast to British He-177. Although medium bombers personnel and aircraft lost during the and American practice, during the (the Heinkel He-111, Dornier Do-17 campaigns in France and the Low Second World War the Luftwaffe was and Junkers Ju-88) had done well on Countries. Existing airfields along the responsible not only for the transport the Continent, they lacked the range Channel coast were occupied, and new aircraft that were used in airborne and payload required for the task that ones established. However, it was not assaults, but also for providing the was now at hand.

64 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK Giving Them a Fighting Chance

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The fighters that protected Britain in 1940 were part of an integrated system of defence against air attack. Clive Richards looks at the system’s parts, and how they fitted together

Britain’s air defence system

THE THREAT POSED by aerial attack By the outbreak of war in 1939 The fighters had been a cause of concern in Britain these efforts had produced what is The most obvious component was the from the first decade of the 20th century. today widely known as the ‘Dowding fighter force itself. In early 1940, Fighter During the First World War, raids by System’. At its core was RAF Fighter Command consisted of three Groups. German airships and aircraft had led to Command, which was led from its According to Fighter Command’s Battle the creation of an air defence system, establishment on 14 July 1936 by Air Orders, the oldest of these Groups, masterminded in its final, most Marshal (later, Air Chief Marshal Number 11, was in May 1940 charged sophisticated form by Major General Sir [ACM]) Sir Hugh Dowding. The with safeguarding “the Southern group Edward Ashmore. During the interwar headquarters of RAF Fighter of vital areas – LONDON: THAMES period, despite both the paucity of Command was located at RAF Bentley ESTUARY: PORTSMOUTH AND BRISTOL resources and the central role that British Priory, outside Stanmore in London’s AREAS [sic]”. From 20 April 1940 the strategy afforded to the bomber, work northern suburbs. Group was commanded by Air nevertheless continued on the According to the ‘Battle Orders’ Vice-Marshal Keith Park, and its development of effective air defences, disseminated by the Command in May headquarters was later RAF Uxbridge. based in large part on the structures and 1940, “The primary object of Fighter Number 12 Group was commanded principles that Major General Ashmore Command is to establish and maintain by Air Vice-Marshal Trafford Leigh- had first laid down. In the later 1930s, air superiority over the home land [sic] Mallory from a headquarters at Watnall, this work was given added impetus by by inflicting the maximum casualties on near Nottingham. Its primary role in the emergence of a new technology that enemy bombers that fly over or May 1940 was defined as being to promised to overcome one of the most approach Great Britain.” To achieve this, protect “the Midland industrial area; serious difficulties faced by air defence ACM Dowding exercised control over also the East and West coast Ports [sic] Pilots run to their commanders – how to detect and track an integrated air defence system made Hurricanes at the South of the HUMBER”. Number 13 incoming attacks. up of five main components. approach of another raid Group, under the command of Air Vice-Marshal Richard Saul, had its 15 June Number 10 Group formed the strength of the Command had Steel helmet, respirator and headquarters at Newcastle-upon-Tyne under the command of Air Vice-Marshal grown to 61 squadrons; although the binoculars: a civilian spotter searches the sky for the and was “responsible for the air defence Sir Quintin Brand. number of Spitfire squadrons remained approaching enemy of the Industrial Areas North of the Fighter Command’s groups were at 19, those equipped with Hurricanes HUMBER and in SCOTLAND from the divided in turn into sectors, each of had increased to 33. Forth to the ORKNEYS [sic]”. In addition which consisted of a main fighter In 1940 the standard establishment of to their primary tasks, all of the groups station (the ‘sector station’, at which the a single-seat fighter squadron in RAF were to be prepared to reinforce their sector HQ was located and after which Fighter Command consisted of 26 pilots neighbouring group should the sector was named) and possibly and 16 aircraft, with a further three to circumstances demand. one or more other associated RAF five aircraft held as an immediate However, it was clear that the area stations or airfields. reserve. Squadrons would normally aim allotted to Number 11 Group was too Each station or airfield housed one or to make 12 aircraft and pilots available great for one headquarters to cover more squadrons. On 9 July 1940, for operations each day, divided into two adequately. Steps were already being Fighter Command could muster 54 flights, each of which in turn consisted of taken to establish a new Group HQ that operational squadrons. Of these, 19 two sections of three aircraft. would relieve HQ Number 11 Group of were equipped with the Supermarine During the initial stages of the the responsibility for the southwest of Spitfire and a further 27 with the campaign, fighter squadrons were kept England, thereby enabling it to Hawker Hurricane. Two squadrons in the front line until their operational concentrate on the defence of London operated the ill-fated Boulton-Paul strength fell below nine aircraft, at and the southeast. Construction of a Defiant two-seat turret fighter, while six which point they were relieved and new Group HQ at Rudloe Manor, near flew the twin-engine Bristol Blenheim replaced by a fresh squadron Bath, began in February 1940, and on in the nightfighter role. By 7 September, transferred from a quieter sector. By

69 September 1940 this procedure was no new pilots before being required to sectors, a few (the ‘B’ Squadrons) were longer sustainable. The skies over return to the fray. also to be kept up to strength, to southeastern England had become so Instead, in September 1940 HQ provide replacement units for those dangerous that when squadrons Fighter Command resorted to in Number 11 Group should the lacking air combat experience were dividing its fighter squadrons into situation demand it. The remaining ‘C’ transferred into Number 11 Group they three categories. Those in and on the Squadrons were required to surrender tended to suffer heavy casualties. flanks of Number 11 Group were all but a handful of their experienced Moreover, the increasing tempo of the classed as ‘A’ Squadrons and were to pilots to the ‘A’ and ‘B’ Squadrons and fighting robbed battle-weary units of be maintained at full strength. Of the to concentrate on training and the time necessary to absorb and train remaining squadrons in quieter routine patrol duties. Here it should be noted that not all of the fighters that flew operationally Who were the ‘Few’? in defence of the UK during the Battle of Britain were drawn from Fighter The ‘Few’ of Churchill’s speech to the House of the Czechs, many possessed pre-war flying experience, Command. Two Royal Navy Fleet Air Commons on 20 August recollect Henry V’s ‘band of albeit usually on older types of lesser performance, a Arm fighter squadrons – Numbers 804 brothers’ on the eve of Agincourt. The Air Ministry lack for which they compensated with spectacular afterwards defined them more prosaically, as those who dynamism and resolve. Although serving under RAF and 808 Squadrons – also flew fighter had flown at least one sortie with an eligible unit command and given RAF ranks, Allied personnel patrols in defence of the Home Fleet between 10 July and 31 October 1940. Today, the RAF nevertheless remained members of their respective air anchorage at Scapa Flow, Orkney, lists 2,927 of them. forces. The bulk of the Polish and Czech personnel who during the course of the Battle. participated in the Battle of Britain flew as members of However, they were not engaged in WHO WERE THEY? two Polish Air Force and two Czech Air Force fighter Legend depicts a type: public school, middle- or squadrons formed in July and August 1940. the heavy air fighting that took place upper-middle-class, a carefree son of ‘deep England’. Collectively, then, the external contribution was further south. In addition, at a number Numbers say otherwise. One-fifth of those who flew in substantial, and its effect was out of proportion to of RAF stations and other airfields the Battle were from overseas, while of the its number. Station Defence Flights were formed approximately 2,353 born in Britain, nearly half were Looking to those born in Britain, together with a on something of an ad hoc basis. non-commissioned officers (NCOs). nucleus of pre-war Regular officers, it was NCOs who We are McIndoe’s Army, the ironic anthem sung by formed Fighter Command’s professional core. Some, burned pilots who underwent reconstructive surgery at such as Jim Hallowes, George Bennions or George Keeping watch the hands of Sir Archibald McIndoe, contained a verse Unwin, had joined the RAF as apprentices and came to The next two components of the about Fighter Command’s internationalism: flying from earlier careers as specialised tradesmen. ‘Dowding System’ were devoted to the “We’ve had some mad Australians, Others, such as James Lacey, had entered through the gathering of information required to Some French, some Czechs, some Poles. Volunteer Reserve (VR) that had been formed in 1936. ensure that the fighter squadrons were We’ve even had some Yankees, The Reserve augmented the part-time Auxiliary Air God bless their precious souls. Force, of whose 21 squadrons – each with its own used effectively. One of these was the While as for the Canadians – hinterland (County of Nottingham, City of Glasgow, RDF chain. The operation of the RDF Ah! That’s a different thing. South Yorkshire and so on) – 14 operated in a fighter network was the responsibility of They couldn’t stand our accent capacity during the Battle. Fighter Command, and on 23 March And built a separate Wing.” The air fighting over Britain during 1940 had a 1940 Number 60 (Signals) Group was To which could be added significant contingents of profound effect on the composition of RAF Fighter formed within the Command in order Belgian, South African and neutral Eire pilots, together Command. The growing number of casualties, and the with others from Barbados, Jamaica, Newfoundland, need to ensure that the most talented were promoted to to oversee the functioning and and what today we would call Zimbabwe. leadership positions, undermined the pre-war barriers administration of what at the time McIndoe himself, like Keith Park, 11 Group’s AOC, that existed between Regulars and members of ‘VR’. It were called ‘Air Ministry Experimental was a New Zealander. Nearly 11 per cent of those who also proved increasingly difficult to maintain the Stations’. flew during the Battle of Britain were from distinctive status of the Auxiliary Air Force squadrons. The other was the network of civilian Commonwealth countries. It is notable how many of By the end of the Battle, Regular, RAFVR and Auxiliary them became prominent: New Zealanders such as Al Air Force officers and NCOs were mixed throughout the observers used to locate and track Deere and Brian Carbury; Albert Lewis and Adolph Command’s squadrons. enemy aircraft over the UK by sight ‘Sailor’ Malan from South Africa; Pat Hughes from Two Fleet Air Arm (FAA) squadrons flew with Fighter – the Observer Corps. While the RDF Australia; or Canadians such as HC Upton and Johnny Command during the Battle, and a number of individual chain could detect and track aircraft Kent. With them flew a small but distinguished FAA pilots were loaned to Fighter Command and approaching the UK coast, it could not contingent from neutral Eire, among them Victor dispersed among its squadrons. work inland. Once an enemy force Beamish and Brendan ‘Paddy’ Finucane, and a The ‘Few’ were predominantly, but not entirely handful of US citizens. While most of those from the youthful. Leaders such as Douglas Bader and Harry crossed the coastline, responsibility for Commonwealth flew as members of the RAF, the Royal Broadhurst were in their 30s; some of the Poles are said monitoring its progress was therefore Canadian Air Force (RCAF) provided a complete to have been over 40. transferred to the Observer Corps. squadron – No 1 Squadron RCAF – which arrived in the Wherever they came from, by November 1940 one in With origins in a system of observer UK with its Hurricane fighters in June 1940. five had been killed or fatally injured. By the war’s end a posts that had been developed during Aircrew from the Commonwealth were also joined by further 791 had lost their lives. Put another way, if you personnel from Allied nations that had been occupied were a 21-year-old fighter pilot in August 1940, your the First World War, the Observer Corps by the Germans. The largest single overseas grouping chances of living beyond 26 were not much better than came into being on 29 October 1925. came from Poland, of whom some 145 took part. Like one in two. The Corps was operated initially by

70 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK Be ready.

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© 3/2010 Jefferies International Limited. Jefferies International Limited is authorised and regulated by the Financial Services Authority. All Jefferies logos, trademarks and service marks appearing herein are property of Jefferies International Limited. county police constabularies and Ground defences ACM Dowding – a man noted for his although operational control of the The final elements of the air defence reserve – and the General Officer Observer Corps was transferred to the system were ground-based. The first of Commanding Anti-Aircraft Command, Air Ministry in 1929, volunteers them was passive – the barrages of General Sir Frederick (‘Tim’) Pile. continued to be enrolled as special tethered balloons flown around many On 26 June 1940, AA Command constables for another decade. In a UK urban centres and vital points to was able to deploy 1,200 heavy and message passed as the Battle of Britain deter attackers. On 31 July 1940, RAF 587 light anti-aircraft guns, was in full swing, Sir Archibald Sinclair, Balloon Command mustered more than distributed between seven AA Secretary of State for Air, played 2,000 balloons, divided between 63 Divisions, to protect urban and tribute to the vital contribution to squadrons. While the deterrent effect of industrial centres and other key Britain’s defence then being made by the balloon barrages could be points across Britain. The guns its army of civilian volunteers: considerable, it posed danger to friend contributed to the work of the “The work of the Observer Corps, and foe alike, while the ability to fly fighter squadrons not only by always exacting, becomes ever more them depended greatly upon the wind destroying or disabling enemy arduous as the air fighting becomes conditions on a given day. aircraft, but also by helping to break more intense. In all weathers, night Active ground defence came under up attacking formations. The dense and day, you keep unceasing watch the purview of Anti-Aircraft (AA) barrages thrown up by the guns and by your vigilance and faithful Command. In contrast to German forced bombers to climb and take devotion to duty you are making an defence, where AA guns and their evasive action during their bombing indispensable contribution to the associated searchlight batteries were runs, so reducing their accuracy achievements of our fighter pilots. part of the Luftwaffe, AA Command while helping to guide RAF fighters Their victories are your victories too, so was an Army formation. For to their targets. I send you this message of thanks and operational purposes, however, AA By 21 August AA Command’s congratulations on your successful Command came under the control of strength had increased to 1,320 performance of the task which has RAF Fighter Command, and the heavy and 763 light AA guns. Despite been entrusted to you.” headquarters of the two were located this, its effectiveness would continue In recognition of the sterling work side-by-side at Bentley Priory. to be limited by shortages of guns done in 1940, the Observer Corps was Co-operation was further assisted by (and in particular the 40mm Bofors granted the prefix ‘Royal’ by King the good working relationship and light anti-aircraft guns used to George VI in April of the following year. personal rapport that existed between defend airfields and other vital

72 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 


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   ( points against low-level attack) and identification of approaching formations whenever possible to place their Balloons flown from their supporting predictors. and for the allotment of enemy raids to fighters in a favourable tactical position. barges helped protect the Thames approaches Groups where any doubt existed. Group Further squadrons on ground alert (‘at “Tally Ho!” Commanders decided which Sector readiness’) would also be scrambled to In 1940 the strength of RAF Fighter should meet any specified raid and the reinforce them or to take up patrol lines Command lay not in any one of its strength of the Fighter force which as necessary. Squadron commanders individual components, but in the way should be employed. Sector followed instructions passed to them that HQ Fighter Command integrated Commanders detailed the Fighter Units from the ground until they could see its resources. to be employed, and operated the the enemy for themselves, whereupon Information from Number 60 Group’s machinery of Interception.” the foxhunting call “Tally Ho!” would tell RDF stations and the Observer Corps In Group operations rooms, the Group the sector controller that the enemy was passed to HQ Fighter Command. commanders and their controllers would was in sight and that no further vectors Here, the information was first ‘filtered’ watch from the gallery as incoming raids were needed. – that is, evaluated and combined to were plotted on the operations table. form a coherent picture – and then Guided both by this plot and by displays Making the system work plotted on the plotting table in the that showed the status of all of the This structure depended on secure Command’s operations room. However, squadrons in the Group (the ‘tote and reliable means of communication, ACM Dowding did not use these data to board’), they would assess the enemy’s both on the ground and in the air. micro-manage the air battle from intentions and how best to respond. Ground communications were Bentley Priory. A wonderfully succinct They would then issue instructions to provided by a landline telephone description of the way in which Fighter the controllers on duty in the sector system developed and maintained for Command functioned was provided by headquarters within the Group. the RAF by the General Post Office ACM Dowding himself in his official Sector controllers directed any (GPO). Without the efforts of civilian despatch on the Battle: squadrons already on patrol to GPO engineers, particularly those “The system was that the Command positions from which they could charged with repairing lines damaged should be responsible for the intercept Luftwaffe formations, seeking during attacks on RAF airfields, Fighter

   


    Command’s control and reporting system could not have continued to function efficiently during the Battle. Ground-to-air and air-to-air communications were facilitated by another technological advance – very high frequency (VHF) radio. In 1939 Fighter Command aircraft were still equipped with TR 9D high frequency (HF) radios. An operational trial undertaken with the new TR 1133 VHF radio by No 11 Group in October 1939 showed it to be “infinitely superior to the TR 9D (HF) from an operational point of view”. Despite its improved performance, delays in production forced Fighter Command to withdraw the TR 1133 from service in May 1940. Although the new set was reintroduced from August 1940, the limited number of VHF radios available nevertheless meant that the majority of squadrons would be forced to continue with the earlier TR 9D HF radio for the remainder of the Battle.

                                    

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     Robert Owen considers some of the developments that made the Battle of Britain a contest of technology as well as courage

DURING THE 1930S, developments 1936, private venture designs had in aircraft design, construction and resulted in two monoplane fighters, the Aerial creatures powerplants ran parallel to European Hurricane and Spitfire, both powered rearmament. Sleek monoplanes by the Rolls-Royce Merlin, and each replaced the descendants of the carrying the then unmatched biplanes flown by Mannock and armament of eight machine guns. Richthofen. Refinements such as The Hurricane retained the fabric- enclosed cockpits, retractable covered metal airframe of the earlier undercarriages, flaps, and slots Hawker Fury biplane, and was thus combined with high-powered more tolerant of battle damage and engines to promise ever-higher easier to repair. By contrast, the Spitfire’s performance and the carriage of innovative aluminium-clad monocoque heavier armament. airframe required new techniques of British fighter development was at construction and repair. Boulton Paul first retarded by appeasement, but by offered a different concept, the Defiant,

17 Sqn pilots with Hurricane which was a fighter with a power- its pilot. In the Hurricane, the reserve ingress of dirt – until shot-through by Outclasssed by day, operated, four-gun rotating-turret in fuel tank was aft of the bulkhead, the opening burst. the Defiant would be transferred to countering place of fixed forward armament. immediately in front of the pilot who The crude ring-and-bead gun-sight night attacks By the summer of 1940, sat in a wood-framed cockpit. These fitted on early production aircraft was modifications had improved the shortcomings would be corrected replaced by a sophisticated reflector performance of the Spitfire and gradually. Armour plate to protect the sight that was better suited to fast Hurricane. The Spitfire’s original pilot was developed through both combat. Experienced pilots had their two-blade wooden propeller was officially sponsored work and guns harmonised to converge at 250 replaced, first by variable pitch improvisation at squadron level, as yards (c.229m) instead of the official three-blade units, and then by a were rear view mirrors to give warning 400 yards (c.366m). This improved the constant-speed unit. This significantly of surprise attack. Browning’s penetration, especially improved take-off performance and the ‘Two-step’ rudder pedals, fitted to vital rate of climb. From May 1940 the Spitfires just before the Battle, raised use of 100-octane fuel, as used in the the pilot’s feet, so reducing his 1931 Schneider Trophy races, increased tendency to blackout under high The use of 100-octane the Merlin’s performance from 1,000 to g-forces in the course of extreme some 1,300hp. manoeuvres and allowing tighter fuel increased the Early Spitfires had manual sustained turns. However, British pilots undercarriage hydraulics, responsible wanting to follow Messerschmitt Merlin’s performance for skinned ‘Spitfire knuckle’ as pilots Bf-109s into a dive had to half-roll and pumped vigorously with one hand, pull back on the stick to prevent while controlling the climb out with the negative-g from starving their following the introduction of de Wilde other. Installation of a mechanical carburettor-fed Merlin engines of fuel. incendiary ammunition. Six cannon- pump saw an end to the resulting The Hurricane’s guns were closely armed Spitfires and one Hurricane porpoise take offs. A bulged cockpit grouped. Compared with the Spitfire’s were flown during the Battle, but at canopy was fitted for the benefit of more widely-spaced guns, this gave this stage cannon stoppages were taller pilots. greater concentration and a more all-too frequent. From September 1939 a laminated, stable firing platform. Heating The Defiant lacked single-seater toughened windscreen gave better prevented the Browning machine guns performance. With the pilot having to protection against return fire. A from freezing up at altitude and gun position the aircraft for his gunner, it fireproof bulkhead separated the ports were sealed with doped-fabric was ill-suited for daylight combat – Spitfire’s non-self-sealing fuel tank from strips to reduce drag and prevent a weakness that was magnified once

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 77 70th Anniversary Celebration of the Battle of Britain.

It is with deep and humble pride that Flight Support Services of together with the large loss of life, persuaded the German High Canada have been given an opportunity to express our company, it’s Command to abandon the invasion of the British Isles. employees and indeed the civilized world our thoughts on this most momentous of occasions. As Sir Winston Churchill so superbly stated: “Never in the field of human conflict, has so much been owed by so many to so few.” During Britain’s deepest hours of need, isolated even from the Commonwealth at that time in our glorious history, there came boys, May the good Lord look over their wings and keep them soaring in young men, seasoned pilots and a handful of Lancaster, Hawker our spirits and value for freedom for all eternity. Hurricanes, Spitfires and other assorted aircraft. Faced with odds of almost three to one, the young boys became men, men became Thank you from Flight Support Services of Canada, Flight Support seasoned pilots and the seasoned pilots became mentors. Services (UK),

With the development of radar, together with aircraft spotters and Mr Tony Martin, President and Mrs Christine Bevan-Stewart, superb communication, the implementation of Fighter Wings, the Chief Executive Officer. tide of the battle turned. The dedication, bravery and selflessness,

Flight Support Services of Canada Ltd., 69 Huron Street, Guelph, Ontario Canada N1E 5L5 opponents realised that the Defiant was the Bf-109’s armament with the especially if caught when recovering from defenceless against head-on attack. addition of a cannon. The slower rate its dive attack. The Treaty of Versailles forbade of fire, better suited against bombers Early German bomber designs were German production of military aircraft. than RAF fighters, demanded higher reconfigured to provide more space for their Initially, manufacturers developed civil marksmanship. Heavier on the crews. Rubber-and-leather-covered self- airliners and transports, fast air taxis controls than the Spitfire and with a sealing fuel tanks were developed before the and sporting single seaters. Covertly, smaller cockpit restricting pilot war, together with armour for critical areas. these were troop transports, bombers movement, the Bf-109’s fuel-injection However, the nucleation of crew in the and fighters. No such pretence was nonetheless gave the ability to enter He-111’s Perspex nose left them vulnerable to applied to later types, such as the Ju-87 directly into a dive and so evade a gunfire, while the hand-held defensive and Ju-88. By a quirk, since German pursuer. However, limited fuel armament was never adequate against aero-engine development was initially capacity curtailed the time available determined fighter attack. Lacking the bomb behind that of Britain, a number of for combat in English skies. load of the He-111 or the speed of the Ju-88, German prototypes, including the The twin-engine Bf-110 escort the Do-17 was popular with its crews, Bf-109 and Ju-87, were at first powered fighter was intended to operate at although by the summer of 1940 production by the Rolls-Royce Kestrel, forerunner of longer range. However, while its top was switching to its successor, the Do-217. the Merlin. As with British aircraft, speed exceeded that of the Hurricane, Successful aircraft are defined by their modifications and improvements soon it was slower than the Spitfire; poor ability to meet changing requirements and emerged, many evolved from acceleration and a greater turning accept continuing modification to achieve operational experience gained through circle placed it at significant superior performance. On this basis, the the Condor Legion that supported disadvantage. Attrition of the Bf-110 outright star of the Battle of Britain was the Franco’s forces during the civil war was soon exceeding production. Spitfire. While Hurricane production was in Spain. Likewise, for all its morale-shattering discontinued before the war’s end, the Awareness of the British eight-gun reputation, the cranked-wing Ju-87 Spitfire was still being used more than a designs encouraged the upgrading of Stuka was vulnerable to fighters, decade later.

Slipping the surly bonds

Al Pinner, former Officer Commanding of the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight, to fly, display or, dare I say, fight. Spitfire landings can be quite challenging, compares the Hurricane and Spitfire in flight particularly in a crosswind, as the narrow stance undercarriage brings a tendency to want to groundloop. Many believe that the Spitfire was Britain’s sole saviour in 1940. In fact, it was the Early models – the so-called ‘Baby Spitfires’ – are incredibly light. As armour, Hurricane that bore the brunt of the action. Two-thirds of the assets available to armament and engine power increased so did the Spitfire lose some of its delicate Keith Park were Hurricanes, and it was Hurricanes that accounted for some 60 per flying characteristics, while developing into the supreme fighting machine. cent of the enemy aircraft that were downed. However, in looking at genealogy, it is It is an absolute privilege to have been charged with flying (and landing) these worth remembering that in structural terms the Hurricane was at the end of an priceless pieces of our heritage, and to have experienced the sensations of flying illustrious line of Hawker biplanes, whereas the Spitfire was conceptually new, the them – the smell, the sound of the Merlin, the performance. Yet more special is to first monocoque fighter, and had far more room for development and improvement. know their histories and provenance, and to meet those who fought and main- Having never flown one of these beautiful machines in anger, I am not qualified to tained them. compare their fighting ability. Today, whether they are flown by military pilots, or I have been incredibly lucky flying all sorts of wonderful machines and I would privately on behalf of a benevolent owner, we caress them around the sky at not change anything, but John Gillespie Magee was right: only in the Baby Spitfires moderate power and low g-loadings, to preserve them indefinitely. Objective have “I reached out and touched the face of God”. comparison is difficult. My first warbird experience was in the Hurricane. Solid looking, hunchbacked and foreboding, she looks and feels tough and reliable. For a tall person the cockpit is cramped and the view is limited by metalwork, but the first time you sit in her, savour the smell of leather and avgas, you know that she won’t let you down. Opening up the throttle for take-off, the noise is deafening. She accelerates quite slowly and it takes a very firm push to raise the tail. A fairly positive pull gets her airborne nicely and a steep initial climb is required to get the gear up before 104 knots. Airborne, the Hurricane is not a delicate beast. Indeed, she could be described as being somewhat agricultural. Generally pretty stable and heavy, she stays where you point her and is simple to fly. Probably the most important thing for those of us lucky to enough to fly her, she is an absolute pussy cat on approach and stays pretty straight when put down. The Spitfire is totally different. Elegant, delicate and with the most beautiful wingline ever created, she springs airborne with the deftest of touches. The controls are wonderfully light and well harmonised. Whereas with the Hurricane you have to tell her where to go, in the Spitfire you merely need to think of turning and she will already have done it. The energy package is superb and the Spitfire is far easier

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 79 Seeker Family

Benefi ting from actual operational deployments of UAVs since the 1970s, Denel Dynamics had good export success with its proven Seeker I and II variants.

Besides its military applications, the Seeker system was operated in South Africa in cooperation with the police services and other NGOs. It had been used as a tactical surveillance platform for combating urban crime since before the country’s fi rst democratic elections in 1994. Indeed the system monitored the election process itself at that time. The use of Seeker I contributed signifi cantly to the reduction of the overall crime rate in SEEKER Production facility many areas.

Since most crime prevention operations are conducted in civil controlled airspace, Seeker operated in close cooperation with the South African Air Force (SAAF) and the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA).

Some of its successes include the apprehension of drug smugglers, marine and game poachers, illegal immigrants and retrieval of stolen luxury vehicles.

Denel Dynamics developed a tactical ground station (TGS) for its entire range of Seeker UAV Systems, which Bateleur MALE UAV is deployed separately from the static (Mock up at AAD Show) base station. The TGS is designed to SKUA Driven by its missile development, Denel Dynamics became expert in developing high-speed target drones. Its Skua system, also exported successfully, simulates a fast jet or incoming missile. This is especially useful to air defence crews in training or assessing the capabilities of air defence missiles or gun systems.

SEEKER 400

allow for total control of the UAV and SKUA High Speed Target payloads without the responsibility Drone on Launcher of launch and recovery of the aircraft – the artillery and forward line commander’s answer to an unmanned, Denel Switchboard beyond visual-range (or over-the-
(General Enquiries) horizon – OTH), real-time surveillance Tel: +27 (0) 12 671 2700 and Reconnaissance capability. South Africa’s entire search and rescue Fax: +27 (0) 12 671 2751 area of approximately 5-million square Building on its decades-long miles. Physical Address: experience in tactical UAV’s, Denel Denel (Pty) Ltd, Nellmapius Drive, Dynamics is progressing well with For long-range operations, the existing Irene the development of a MALE (medium ground control station (used for the altitude long endurance) UAV named Seeker II) plus a tactical ground Postal Address: Bateleur. station (TGS) provides line-of-sight PO Box 8322, Centurion, 0046, deployment of the Bateleur with an South Africa It was conceived for long-range action radius of 750 kilometres and up operations, capable of carrying a to 18 hours over the target. Business Development & wide range of surveillance payloads Corporate Affairs and fulfi lling most current, as well as For over-the-horizon (OTH) operations Tel: +27 (0) 12 671 2858 anticipated future requirements of it makes use of the Ku-band satellite to Fax: +27 (0) 12 671 2751 Denel’s domestic and overseas clients. increase its range to 3,500 kilometres. Email: [email protected] The Bateleur was designed to cover Web: www.denel.co.za Members of the ‘Few’ with Clive Richards examines and compares the backgrounds, interactions and Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh roles of the men who led Fighter Command and the Luftwaffe in 1940 Dowding and Flight Officer Elspeth Henderson MM on the eve of the second anniversary of the Leaders and leadership Battle of Britain

THE DEFENCE OF Britain in the spell as AOC Fighting Area in 1930, little time for diplomacy. In autumn of 1940 fell primary to the Air Dowding took a seat on the Air Council combination with his single- Officer Commanding-in-Chief – the senior management body of the mindedness, this meant that his (AOC-in-C) RAF Fighter Command, Air Air Ministry and the wider RAF – initially relationship with other senior RAF Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding, and as the Air Member for Supply and officers – particularly those in the Air to his Group commanders: Air Research, and latterly, following a Ministry – was often awkward. Vice-Marshals (AVM) Sir Quintin Brand, reorganisation in 1935, as Air Member Despite, or perhaps in some ways Keith Park, Trafford Leigh-Mallory and for Research and Development. because of this, Dowding’s Richard Saul, Air Officers Commanding When RAF Fighter Command came contribution would be invaluable. In (AOCs) Numbers 10, 11, 12 and 13 into being on 14 July 1936, Dowding the eyes of one with whom he worked Groups, respectively. left the Air Ministry to become the especially closely during the Battle, Hugh Dowding was 58 at the time of Command’s first AOC-in-C. Although Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick ‘Tim’ the Battle of Britain. His Group AOCs his previous wartime flying Pile (head of Anti-Aircraft Command), were a decade younger, Saul having experience had not been as a fighter Dowding “was the outstanding airman been born in 1891, Park and Leigh- pilot, during his tenure in the Air I met in the war. A difficult man, a Mallory within a month of each other Ministry Dowding had done much to self-opinionated man, a most in 1892, and Brand in 1893. During the bolster the UK air defence system; he determined man, and a man who First World War all had served with was the obvious choice to see this knew more than anybody about all distinction in the Royal Flying Corps work through to fruition. aspects of aerial warfare.” and later the Royal Air Force. Between 1936 and 1940 Dowding Of Dowding’s group commanders, During the interwar years, Dowding strove to expand and improve the the closest to him in approach was alternated between field commands equipment, training and performance arguably Keith Park. Park knew his (both at home and overseas) and senior of his Command. Nicknamed ‘Stuffy’, AOC-in-C well, having been Dowding’s posts in the Air Ministry. After a brief Dowding was an austere man with Senior Air Staff Officer (SASO) before

82 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK Air Marshal Trafford Leigh- Mallory did not lack self-belief, his Dowding “was… a man who knew Mallory, left, pictured later in the war; Air Vice-Marshal outlook on fighter tactics sometimes more than anybody about all Keith Park, right differing from that held both by his AOC-in-C and by Park, commander of his neighbouring Group. During the aspects of aerial warfare” Battle these tensions surfaced in relation to policy on the employment of his appointment as AOC Number 11 ‘hands-on’ experience of the new fighters in multi-squadron formations Group in April 1940. A New Zealander generation of single-seat monoplane (‘Big Wings’). At key stages of the air and son of an émigré Scottish fighters. As AOC he would regularly fighting the differences between Park geologist, Park had served as a fighter use his own personal Hawker and Leigh-Mallory flared into vehement pilot and Squadron Commander Hurricane (marked ‘OK1’) to see things and often unresolved disagreements. during the First World War and had for himself. In contrast, Park was on good terms again commanded a fighter squadron Dowding’s relationship with the with the AOCs of Number 10 and 12 during the later 1920s. An experienced AOC Number 12 Group, Trafford Groups, Sir Quintin Brand and Richard staff officer, he had also held positions Leigh-Mallory, was less close and not Saul. Brand, like Park, was a son of the in HQ Fighting Area and HQ Air so professionally easy. Leigh-Mallory Empire, in his case South Africa. Brand Defence of Great Britain – although it came from a clerical family in had also defended Britain against air is notable that unlike many of his Cheshire, and was the younger attack before, being one of those who contemporaries he avoided a posting brother of George Mallory who died flew to counter raids by German Gotha to the Air Ministry. in 1924 while attempting to climb bombers in the First World War. In 1920, After a brief spell as Station Everest. Before his appointment to Brand and the then-Lieutenant Colonel Commander of RAF Tangmere, in July Fighter Command, he had held a Pierre van Ryneveld had made the first 1938 Park went to Bentley Priory, series of staff posts, interspersed with through flight from the UK to Cape where he spent much of his time as terms at the School of Army Co- Town, a feat for which both were SASO making the RAF’s air defence operation (1921-1923, 1927-1929 (as knighted. While Brand stayed in the system work. In particular, Park was CO)), a period on the staff of the Army RAF, his fellow South African returned widely credited with the introduction Staff College at Camberley, and home and transferred to the South of ‘filtering’. His activities were not service in Iraq (1935-1937). Although African Air Force, rising to be its limited to ‘flying a desk’; Park was one less steeped in the air defence world commander. During the mid-1930s of the few senior commanders to have than Dowding and Park, Leigh- Brand served in Egypt. His close

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 83 co-operation with Park during the air Kesselring became commander of Clockwise from left: Chief of all Axis forces in the fighting of 1940 meant that Park could Luftflotte 2 when his predecessor, Hermann Göring and Mediterranean and later in Italy Albert Kesselring (with rely on Number 10 Group’s squadrons General Helmuth Felmy, was characteristic broad smile) between 1941 and 1945 that to provide fighter cover for the 11 dismissed in disgrace in January 1940. with soldiers preparing for Kesselring fully came into his own. Group airfields when required. Born in Bayreuth, Bavaria, in 1885, Operation Sealion; Hugo The experience of Hugo Sperrle was Richard Saul’s career before taking up Kesselring was a former artillery Sperrle c.1940; Göring closer to that of his RAF adversaries, with Hitler, the supreme post as AOC Number 13 Group in July officer who had served on the commander of the German insofar as he was an ‘Old Eagle’ who 1939 included attendance at the Army Western Front during the First World armed forces, and other had flown as a member of the Staff College, command of the School of War. He continued to serve in the Nazi leaders, November 1938 Luftstreitkräfte (German Army Air Army Co-operation, and stints as the German Army after the war, before Corps) during the First World War. commanding officer of Numbers 7, 12 being transferred to the German Air Nicknamed ‘the Bear’ for his rather and 203 Squadrons. Before his Ministry (somewhat against his will) brutal appearance, Sperrle had appointment as Group commander he in 1933. While his genial nature and continued to serve in the Army before had been the SASO at HQ Number 11 ready grin earned him the nickname transferring to the Luftwaffe in 1935. Group. Saul was therefore well ‘Smiling Albert’, Kesselring He spent 1936-37 in Spain as the first acquainted with how the air defence nevertheless possessed authority; the commander of the Luftwaffe’s ‘Condor system worked. military historian Shelford Bidwell Legion’. Following his return he was noted: “No one disobeyed him twice.” appointed to command The attackers During an interview with members of Luftwaffengruppe 3 (Air Force Group After the death of President Hindenburg the United States Strategic Bombing 3), which was renamed Luftflotte 3 on 2 August 1934, the posts of Reich Survey in June 1945, Göring rated shortly before the outbreak of war. President and Reich Chancellor were Kesselring as one of the Luftwaffe’s Like Kesselring, Sperrle was 55 years combined in one person – Adolf Hitler, two best operational commanders. old when the Battle opened. A now Führer and Reich Chancellor. With For all of his ability, however, competent air commander, he this step Hitler became Supreme Kesselring was by instinct and continued in charge of Luftflotte 3 Commander of the German armed forces training a ground commander. It was until transferred to the reserve in (the Wehrmacht), a position further only while serving as Commander-in- August 1944. reinforced when he took on the role of War Minister in February 1938. In these combined capacities, Hitler held ultimate authority over the Luftwaffe. However, during the early stages of the Second World War the Luftwaffe was spared much of the intense scrutiny that he brought to bear upon the German Army. Instead, Hitler tended to leave responsibility for direction of the Luftwaffe to his deputy Führer and colleague of long standing, Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring. As the historian Stephen Bungay notes, during the autumn of 1940 “Hitler showed little interest in the campaign and, like the army generals, awaited events without intervening”. While Göring did use his opulently- appointed command train (codenamed ‘Asia’) to travel periodically to the French coast during the campaign, to issue instructions to (and berate) his field commanders, in practice he played little constructive part in the conduct of operations. The day-to-day burdens of command fell on the commanders of the two Luftflotten (Air Fleets) at the heart of the German offensive – Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring and Generalfeldmarschall Hugo Sperrle.

84 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK A GREAT RANGE OF MODELS AVAILABLE NOW AND DURING 2010

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www.facebook.com/officialairfix www.youtube.com/officialairfix Thursday 8 August

ON 1 AUGUST, Hitler issued Directive increased the notional strength of Adler Tag (Eagle Day), the Luftwaffe’s 17 ordering the Luftwaffe to overcome each fighter squadron. This astute main offensive, was scheduled for 10 the RAF in the shortest possible time. move not only increased squadron August. After a lull in major operations Since the first week of July, the strength, but also created a shortfall of that was caused by poor weather, Luftwaffe had continued to attack pilots, so strengthening ACM activity resumed on 8 August. The convoys and coastal installations and Dowding’s claim on pilots who would previous evening, 20 vessels of the challenge the RAF to battle. While otherwise have been sent to other coal-carrying convoy CW-9, Peewit, pursuing this war of attrition, the Commands. Already, many squadrons had sailed from the Medway in an Luftwaffe was also tasked with selected had lost some of their most attempt to pass unnoticed through attacks to meet the Kriegsmarine’s (‘war’ experienced pilots – squadron leaders the Dover Straits during the night. navy) requirements for mine-laying to and flight commanders – who were It was not to be. German Freya close ports and restrict the passage of being replaced by pilots with less ship-watching radar detected the British vessels through the English experience, or none at all. convoy, and a flotilla of E-boats was Channel. German estimates of Britain’s A healthy respect was developing despatched. The E-boats sank air strength assumed that only 400-500 for the effectiveness of the Luftwaffe three ships, and damaged another fighters were available to defend bombers’ fighter escort, and the off Newhaven. southern England. This overlooked Air concentrated defensive fire that could By 08:40, Convoy Peewit was Chief Marshal (ACM) Dowding’s ability issue from a disciplined bomber approaching St Catherine’s Point, the to draw on reinforcements from the formation. The Junkers Ju-88 bomber southern tip of the Isle of Wight, north, and thus underestimated the and Messerschmitt Bf-109 fighter beneath a 2,500ft cloud base, escorted RAF’s reserves. were proving to be formidable by a Flight of 145 Sqn’s Hurricanes. As To counter the attrition, Fighter adversaries; the weaknesses of the it did so, Radio Direction Finding (RDF) Command’s response time had been Junkers Ju-87 Stuka dive-bomber and detected 30-plus aircraft approaching reduced by increased use of forward Messerschmitt Bf-110 twin-engine from the direction of Cherbourg. airfields. From the beginning of fighter were likewise becoming Fifteen minutes later, a similar force August, ACM Dowding had also apparent. was plotted approaching from the Seine. The remainder of 145 Sqn steamed on unscathed, many of the Squadrons. One Bf-109 was shot down, were despatched to defend the merchantmen unaware of any four more limped across the Channel convoy, along with 609 Sqn’s Spitfires, immediate threat. to crash-land in France and a sixth was while 615 and 238 Squadrons Between 09:30 and about mid-day badly damaged. However, there was a patrolled the airfields of Shoreham the Luftwaffe launched several fighter price: four Spitfires shot down; three and Middle Wallop. sweeps across the Dover Straits by pilots killed; one force-landed and two The reinforcements from 145 Sqn sections of varying strength from more damaged. A Bristol Blenheim had only just arrived when two Jagdgeschwader 3, 26, 51, 53 and 54. fighter of 600 Sqn, up on an air test separate formations of enemy aircraft The purpose of these sorties was from Manston, was shot down in were spotted at 14,000ft, each made unclear, but may have been to entice flames by a Bf-109 off Ramsgate up of 10 Stukas and 20 Bf-109s. the RAF into the air and stretch when it unwittingly became involved Beneath them, though partly hidden combats back towards France. In this in the battle. by undercast, the convoy’s position they were successful, encountering At 12:10, Convoy Peewit, now was revealed by balloons flying above Spitfires from 41, 64, 65 and 610 patrolled by six Spitfires from 609 Sqn, the cloud tops. Coming out of the sun, the Hurricanes reached the bombers before their escort could react. Several bombers were shot down, while the attack forced others to jettison their bombs before a dogfight developed with the Bf-109s. By 09:30 the combat had ended and 609 Sqn arrived only in A healthy respect was developing time to see the enemy retreat after six Stukas and three Bf-109s had been for the effectiveness of the claimed by 145 Sqn’s pilots, for the loss of two of their own. The convoy Luftwaffe bombers’ fighter escort passed south of the Isle of Wight. The treatment of crashed aircrew Ventnor radar detected 57 Ju-87s with an escort of 50 Bf-109s approaching On 31 August, a Hurricane was shot down over Lt Heinz Mollenbrok, the pilot of a Dornier from north of Cherbourg. Thirty Woodnesbrough. The body of its pilot, Sqn Ldr which was brought down by a Hurricane, found Spitfires and Hurricanes from 145, 257 Harold Starr, OC of 253 Sqn, was found in a himself hanging by his parachute straps from a brickworks there. His death was witnessed by HG tree. His right arm had been badly smashed by and 601 Squadrons were directed to Bennett, who was working as a gardener nearby: bullets during the attack, and he had a shell intercept, joined later by 213, 238 and “It was as I returned to work after going home for splinter in his lung. “I saw the barrel of a 257 Squadrons. Large patches of cloud, breakfast that morning that I saw a parachute shotgun pointed up at me… and then two men including one at 4,000ft directly over coming down. As most of the dogfights took place got me out of my harness and lowered me to the the convoy, gave ideal conditions for at some altitude, I didn’t see or hear the aircraft, ground. They helped me into a farmhouse and but as the parachute came drifting down I saw a the lady there said to put me on the sofa, but I the attackers. number of enemy aircraft circling. Suddenly one was losing a lot of blood and I did not want to The German formation split; one of the Messerschmitts dived towards the pilot on spoil her furniture. So I asked for a chair to sit group of fighters engaging most of the the parachute, and then the rest also piled in – I on. She was so gentle as she attended to me, and defenders in clear sky to the south and could hear the sound of machine-gunning.” I have never forgotten her kindness. After this I east of the convoy; other fighters Les Poupard lived in a cottage on rising ground was taken to Chartham Hospital.” Doris Vickers, escorted the bombers, which dived out looking towards the Isle of Thanet, which gave who cared for Lt Mollenbrok, had been a him an excellent view of the determined efforts of Voluntary Aid Detatchment nurse during the of the cloud above their target, following the Luftwaffe to knock out the airfield at Manston. First World War and was able to draw on her Bf-110s that were shooting down the In August 1940 he saw several Junkers 88s experience to patch him up before handing him balloons ahead of them. The tactics were dive-bombing the airfield and being shot down, over to the Red Cross. Only one other of the four successful. The merchantmen and then one which managed to slip away from members of the Dornier crew survived; the Conquerdale and Empire Crusader were the barrage with its engine on fire and trailing other two baled out too low for their parachutes smoke. As it descended over him, he looked up to open. sunk, while six other vessels were and saw one of the crew standing in the doorway In the early evening of 25 July 1940 a Bf 109, damaged, including the Balmaba, John and then jumping out. He ran to where he brought down by a Spitfire from 610 Sqn, hit M and Scheldt. thought the parachute would land, but found power cables on its way down. Its wings sheared By 13:00 the fight was over. 213 Sqn that the airman had already been spirited away in off and the fuselage crashed into trees at had arrived too late and only 609 a shooting brake to a large nearby house – where, Elvington Court, near the Kent colliery of Squadron was able to engage the he heard later, he was wined and dined that Tilmanstone. A miner witnessed the crash: “The evening before being delivered to a searchlight pilot [Uffz Max Reiss] had a cut forehead but we Stukas, claiming two, along with three post. Another member of the crew had managed would have been ready for him if he had shown Bf-110s, for no loss. Gunners on St to bale out, but was too near the ground and was any sign of putting up a fight – we all kept Catherine’s Point also claimed two. killed when he hit it; the other two died in the sharpened files down our socks in case of any Enjoying a height advantage over the wreckage of the bomber. such encounters.” German fighters to the southeast, the other squadrons claimed 13 destroyed for five of their own. After returning to Crew of an He-111 brought base, 238 Sqn’s Officer Commanding, down during a later stage Squadron Leader Fenton, took off again of the Battle. Note the to carry out a sea search for his two anti-glider/landing pole missing pilots. Returning to the combat right of centre area he encountered a Luftwaffe Heinkel He-59 floatplane engaged on air-sea rescue and reconnaissance duties. His attack sent it into the Channel, but not before the Heinkel’s return fire found its mark, forcing Fenton to ditch and await rescue by a Royal Navy trawler. The early part of the afternoon was quiet, with a few reconnaissance flights over airfields and harbours in preparation for the next stage of attacks, and Luftwaffe fighter patrols over the Pas de Calais. At 15:30, RDF detected three small formations, one of which headed out to cross the coast near Dover before being lost from sight owing to cloud. As a precaution, six Hurricanes of 111 Sqn were sent up to patrol their forward airfield of

88 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 302 Squadron - City of Poznan 303 Squadron - Kosciuszko

The Polish Air Force Association Charitable Trust salutes the 70th Anniversary of the Battle of Britain

In September 1939, the Polish Air Force fought the German invasion of Poland from the west and the Soviet invasion from the east. “It was Poland’s moral, as When Poland fell, many of its Air Force personnel escaped to fly in defence of France in 1940. And when France fell, they came to Britain, where the Polish Air Force re-formed. well as physical support 145 Polish pilots took part in the Battle of Britain. Some formed the which made such a vital first two operational Polish fighter squadrons, Nos. 302 and 303; others were attached to RAF squadrons. 303 Squadron was officially credited with destroying 126 enemy aircraft and became the highest contribution to the victory..” scoring unit of the 66 squadrons which took part in the Battle. In all, Polish pilots accounted for 7.5% of enemy losses. But, as Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding said:

“Poland’s part in the Battle can not be measured only by statistics. During that turning point of history Polish airmen were the first and most numerous among the few Allies – apart from the Commonwealth nations – who fought on the side of Britain. It was Poland’s moral, as well as physical support which made such a vital contribution to the victory when the future of Britain and of the whole Free World hung in the balance.”

Under the Polish Government in Exile in Britain, the Polish Air Force eventually formed 15 squadrons, flying alongside the RAF for the remainder of the war. Over 86,000 combat sorties were flown claiming the lives of 1,903 Polish airmen. The cruellest irony was that at the end of the war Poland, the country they had fought for, was handed over to the control of the same Soviet Union that had invaded it in 1939. NEVER IN THE FIELD OF HUMAN CONFLICT...

Read about one of the defining moments in British history exactly as it was reported in the world’s most famous newspaper at The Times Archive, a unique resource for serious historians, family researchers and anyone who just loves exploring the past. Discover 200 years of history in one place at timesonline.co.uk/archive Hawkinge. The small German Head, and 10 miles south of St By 16:45 the battle was over. formations seem to have been Catherine’s Point, where falling Only four vessels reached Swanage intended as a distraction to divert bombs seen may either have been intact. Several foreign ships in the attention from a force of 18-plus badly aimed at stragglers or convoy were damaged, including the aircraft heading once more from the jettisoned in combat. Dutch Veeneburgh. The Ormlandia, direction of Le Havre towards the now Meanwhile, 145 Sqn had been Surte and Norwegian Tres had to be unescorted Convoy Peewit. scrambled again from Westhampnett towed to port, the last mentioned When RDF noticed this at 15:34, 43 at 16:00 and vectored to join 43 Sqn in damage eventually resulting in her and 152 Squadrons were dispatched intercepting a formation of some 100 sinking in St Helen’s Bay. In its from Tangmere and Warmwell, aircraft comprising Stukas escorted by progress down the Channel, Convoy respectively, to defend Convoy Peewit. Bf-109s and Bf-110s. Once again, this Peewit had lost seven vessels, with six The vessels were still dispersed escort was unable to offer complete others so damaged that they had to following the previous attack, with protection to the dive-bombers. In the seek shelter. Four escort vessels also some making for Southampton, ensuing combat, the RAF pilots suffered damage. others for Poole or Swanage. claimed six fighters and nine dive- The overall cost to the Luftwaffe of Interceptions were made by 152 Sqn bombers for the cost of six of their these Channel combats had been nine between 16:00 and 16:30, above the own and five pilots. On this occasion Bf-109s, one Bf-110 and nine Stukas, main body of ships near St Alban’s the convoy escaped further damage. while eight Bf-109s, five Bf-110s and 10 Stukas were damaged. Thirteen Hurricanes had been lost, one The losses and casualties were force-landed and three damaged, with 12 pilots killed and three injured. Five the highest since the Battle began Spitfires were missing and four damaged, with one pilot lost. There was also the loss of the Blenheim together with all three members of its crew. These losses and casualties were the highest since the Battle began. The attacks on Peewit were made by formations that were disproportionately large in relation to the value of their target. Earlier shipping raids had been made by small, specialised formations, whereas the large forces sent against this convoy used dive-bombers whose crews were more accustomed to operations of tactical support. Taken together with the mid-day fighter incursions from the Pas de Calais, it seems that these attacks were designed to draw up the British fighters, and suggest that RAF fighters themselves were as much a target as the shipping. In this respect the tactic was successful: the larger formations were easier for RDF to detect and for the RAF pilots to locate in the air. Despite the Luftwaffe’s greater numbers and the increased willingness of the fighter escort to engage in battle, Fighter Command had demonstrated that it could inflict heavy casualties, even at large cost to itself. The question was for how long such losses could be sustained?

Robert Owen

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 91 www.eurofighter.com nothing comes close Kenley, Tangmere, Hornchurch, Hawkinge: the names of RAF Fighter Command’s airfields live on in public memory. Colin Dobinson explores the geography and architecture of Britain’s air defence Airfields

THE AIRFIELD PATTERN from which Flying Corps aircraft acceptance park, Construction at North Weald, Germany required thickening in this Royal Air Force Fighter Command Kenley (Surrey) had been one of only late 1937. Note ground crew area, and from 1936 a new sector sitting as ballast on the operated in the summer of 1940 was a two stations designated for fighter Hurricanes’ tails as their station was interpolated between product of nearly 20 years’ adaptation squadrons in the tiny RAF of 1920-22, engines are run up North Weald and Duxford, at Debden and growth. The familiar system of and by 1940 was the sector station for (Essex). And beyond Duxford, the fighter ‘sectors’ began to be delineated London’s southern approaches. fighter layout struck north after 1935, in 1922, when Britain’s notional Neighbours lay at Northolt either by converting stations from other enemy in the air was France. Extended (Middlesex) and Biggin Hill (north Kent), roles or, more rarely, building anew. The during the middle 1920s, it was both servants to First World War air First World War stations at Wittering comprehensively reoriented from defence that re-entered the fighter line (Cambridgeshire) and Digby 1934 towards the North Sea. in the plans of 1922-23. West of London, (Lincolnshire) both received fighter By summer 1940, the sectors ran the fighter sectors of 1940 were served squadrons early in the 1930s expansion from Filton on the Bristol Channel up to by stations of very different origins. programme, following 1920s careers in Wick (Caithness), skirting southeast Tangmere (West Sussex) had been a training roles. London and traversing eastern England training depot station in the late war; Coltishall was a 1930s station originally on the way. Although first conceived as Middle Wallop (Hampshire) was begun designed for bombers, but transferred to a linear, inland barrier of conjoined in 1938 and formally opened only in Fighter Command when a forward sector boxes, by 1940 the sectors ran out to April 1940; while Filton (Bristol) was was needed in Norfolk. Further north, the coast. Each had its own sector shared with the works of the Bristol Kirton-in-Lindsey (Lincolnshire) and station, along with forward airfields Aeroplane Company, founders of the Church Fenton (North Yorkshire) were giving reach over the Channel and site before the First World War. both new-builds of the 1930s, Church North Sea, and a mixed collection Out in London’s eastern approaches, Fenton as the first purpose-built fighter of satellites, drawn both from Essex-based Hornchurch (originally airfield of the decade. requisitioned civil stock and called Sutton’s Farm) and North Weald The next sector station north, by commandeered farmers’ fields. were different again, distinctive – and contrast, was one of the oldest in the One result was that by summer structurally similar – as the very first RAF’s estate. This was Catterick (North 1940, Fighter Command was served by stations after the RAF’s foundation that Yorkshire), first opened as a training a striking diversity of airfields, ranging were purpose-built for fighters. Begun airfield in 1915. By 1940, it retained from modern stations begun in the in the early 1920s for Trenchard’s much of its original historic fabric amid last two or three years, to veterans of Home Defence Expansion scheme, the accretions of the 1920s (when it the First World War. The sector stations both occupied recently cleared served army co-operation) and 1930s typified the whole. Some of the oldest wartime sites. when the fighters arrived. stations with the longest air-defence The limit of the 1920s air The northerly sector stations were as presence lay around London, forming defence network lay at Duxford mixed in origins as those further south. a type of fighter heartland reflecting (Cambridgeshire), a First World War Usworth was a First World War airfield the early 1920s’ need to protect the training depot station given a fighter reacquired for Newcastle’s Auxiliary Air capital, supposedly, from the French. role from 1923. By 1940 the fighter Force units in 1930; Acklington Originally built in 1917-18 as a Royal front in the system ‘reoriented’ upon (Northumberland) began life as an

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 93 Key defensive features are armament training camp in 1932; attacks began in mid-August (though, the guidance of an architectural adviser, marked on this German Turnhouse was another First World War by then, the aircraft were dispersed who was seconded from the Office of photograph of RAF station, peopled by Edinburgh’s around the perimeter, already in Works and appointed on Royal Fine Art Coltishall, with its arc Auxiliaries; Dyce began life in 1934 as rudimentary fighter pens). Commission advice. Battle of Britain of hangars, nucleus of buildings, and effort to Aberdeen Airport (one of many civil sites First World War airfields were also stations exemplifying this period are camouflage the flying field taken over by the Air Ministry from vulnerable to bombing because their chiefly Debden and Church Fenton, as farmland 1939); and at the limit of the 1940 sector straight hangar-lines offered aiming- though buildings from the same station layout, Wick had been opened in marks in themselves – a weakness that repertoire – and its mildly modernised 1939 – also adapted from a civil airfield planners mitigated from the successor of the later 1930s – were predecessor – for Coastal Command. early 1920s, when new sites disposed widely constructed as supplementary This diversity of origins characterised their hangars in an arc. The principle was and renewal-build elsewhere. the whole fighter landscape in summer adopted in bomber and fighter stations The Battle of Britain was fought from 1940, and bred a wide variety in fabric alike, and exemplified in Hornchurch a collection of airfields shaped by and form. One unifying feature, and North Weald from the 1920s and, a tactical assumptions and planning however, lay in a capability gap. Very decade on, at sites such as Church considerations evolved over 25 years of few of Air Chief Marshal (ACM) Fenton, Kirton-in-Lindsey and Debden. building for British air power, though it Dowding’s stations in 1940 were Planners of the 1920s and 1930s also was only on the brink of the Battle that equipped with solid runways, which adopted ‘dispersed’ principles: limiting they began to be transformed into reached the fighter bases in numbers barrack capacities and using wide places even partially fit for war. only in 1941. The scarcity of runways in separations to soften and diffuse the Many preparations were hurried, and 1940 was a concern to some, and effects of a blast; these stations, when the circling rings of pillboxes and weapon especially those mindful that heavy rain had closed many fighter airfields at several points in the late 1930s. By 1940, even the First World War The runway question had been discussed in the Air Ministry for stations had been liberally provided practically a decade by 1940, though resistance to a comprehensive with new inter-war domestic build surfacing programme rested on sounder thinking than might be supposed. Runways canalise aircraft built, had a sparse, roomy feel that later positions, which would have protected movements, thus prohibiting the mass infill has sometimes obscured. the stations from capture had the air simultaneous take-offs necessary to get Protection-by-design grew as the campaign been lost, were not begun until a fighter force into the air together and 1930s advanced, as barracks gained May 1940 – and then according to promptly; they also offer the enemy a reinforced roofs and integral air-raid priorities that were often confused. But in critical vulnerability at which to aim his shelters. Some buildings had always the event, they served the RAF well and, bombs – and advertise the airfield’s been specially protected – notably the for many, the permanent stations of the presence for miles around during aerial operations blocks, key command and 1920s and 1930s formed a reasonably reconnaissance. That they were also control nodes on sector stations, which comfortable refuge from the action expensive to lay, drain and maintain were embraced by sturdy traverses from played out in the summer skies. also played some part in the Air the 1920s onwards. By the late 1930s, Alongside those stations were more Ministry’s thinking; but even without such measures were widespread, as the rudimentary landing grounds and financial considerations, it was not until RAF began readying its stations for war. satellite airfields, and some former civil spring 1939 that ACM Dowding Building styles, too, saw a large airports, to which aircraft and personnel became convinced of their need. measure of change. By 1940, even the were dispersed from early summer. Although none of the First World War First World War stations had been And the Battle itself changed airfield stations remained in their original state liberally provided with new inter-war design fundamentally, for despite many of build, most entered the Battle relying domestic build, partly to replace the stations weathering the attacks of upon suites of technical buildings dating temporary stock of 1914-18, and in part August, it was clear that their assets from 1917-18. Sites such as Duxford or to meet the rising station establishments would be better protected by even Kenley were dominated by blocks of of the 1930s. Their domestic buildings in wider dispersion. Scattering fine, brick-built hangars, with elaborate particular give such places as Northolt, accommodation around the landscape timber-framed Belfast-truss roofing. Biggin Hill, Duxford and North Weald an in small anonymous bunches of huts – Lacking the flexibility of later steel- unmistakeable 1920s feel. ‘clutches’ – duly became Air Ministry framed sheds, these were immensely With the new expansion programme policy in September 1940. In that move vulnerable to high-explosive blast and of the 1930s came further refinement, if – and the steady adoption of runways Kenley’s, for example, were easily greater standardisation. Neo-Georgian – airfields were transformed for the long shattered by bombing when the airfield styles entered the airfield stock, under haul ahead.

94 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 95 BRAVERY - SACRIFICE - FREEDOM

Defence against the bomber called for early warning. Colin Dobinson contextualises the rapid development of radar from its beginnings in 1935 to the Battle of Britain

Searching the skies

WHEN ON 10 July 1940 the Luftwaffe’s equipment and permanent buildings Britain began in 1915. It could bombers intensified their attacks on were becoming more plentiful. The sense approaching aircraft, at Channel shipping – and, by one system for ‘filtering’ and disseminating range, and measure that range; it definition, opened the Battle of Britain raid reports was also firming up, could, with some margin of error, – the radar system that detected them meshing with the larger air defence tell their height; and it could – if had been under development for organisation to create something, in with still greater approximation more than five years. Radar was a ‘son aggregate, which no nation had ever – assess formation strength. of Suffolk’. The first experiments took fielded before. Radar had not been the first place at Orford Ness from spring 1935, Yet, the system was riddled with technology applied to these and moved further down the Suffolk flaws. Government and public alike problems. Great War early warning coast to Bawdsey Manor in the feared that the Second World War was at first visual, though as early summer of the following year. In a would open with an irresistible as 1915 scientists were exploring the potentialities of sound. Acoustic detection prospered in Chain Home radar answered a experiments throughout the 1920s and huge concrete ‘sound need that had been obvious since mirrors’ were poised for adoption as a national strategic early- Germany’s first air offensive warning system in 1936. But radar instantly supplanted acoustics for against Britain began in 1915 long-range detection. In doing so, an infant technology showing no more than promise usurped strategic climate that gave pure air knockout blow from the bomber, another with a 20-year defence a higher priority than some bogey of the 1930s. And, true to experimental lead. It was a risky historians claim, early warning was expectations, on 3 September 1939 bet, if a tribute to the remarkable pushed ahead. The first layout of five radar operators crouched over their advances made by Robert Watson Radio Direction Finding stations was flickering screens at stations on the Watt and his small team in planned to be operational around the south coast began to see masses of 1935-36. Thames Estuary as early as 1936, and echoes at about 60 miles’ range. Some By 1940, the primary ‘East Coast’ while that ambition proved premature, time elapsed before someone realised CH system was in place: 20 by the Munich Crisis in autumn 1938 a that this was the balloon barrage, stations, from southern Scotland lash-up network with interim rising gently over London. In 1939, the down the North Sea and Channel equipment was watching much of the problem of directional discrimination coasts, primarily oriented on the east coast. had yet to be resolved. defence of London, but with A year later, as the war began, the Even in its rudimentary 1940 form, nothing but planning and Home Chain was coming together. Chain Home (CH) radar answered a aspirations west of Ventnor, on the Stations were more numerous. need that had been obvious since Isle of Wight. As France fell in May Operational specification ‘Final’ Germany’s first air offensive against and June, the whole coastline to

96 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK Clockwise from left: Chain Home RX (receiver) Towers on the East Coast; Chain Home TX (transmitter) Towers; Chain Home RX room

All imges © RAF Air Defence Radar Museum WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 97 “Perserverantia Obstinatioque - persistence and determination - is the personal motto of Andrew Cook CBE, Chairman and owner of the industrial group and aerospace component manufacturer William Cook Holdings Limited. These words are a fi tting description of some of the qualities of the men and women who won the Battle of Britain. 70 years on, with western civilisation facing many different threats from many directions, persistence and determination in the cause of peace, justice, truth, decency and democracy are just as important today as they were in 1940.” Cornwall lay yawningly exposed to the many technical obstacles remained first time showed target returns in a Luftwaffe’s bombers. Behind the scenes and even the weather was against the natural sense, reproducing the of the Battle, one of the Air Ministry’s builders over the crucial winter of rotating beam transmissions on a main concerns was to extend the air 1938-39. The worst delays were at radial screen. With turning defence system – including radar – in Pevensey and Rye (East Sussex), both ‘searchlight’ beams feeding PPI, two the west. Interim CH equipment came difficult sites that had been chosen basic elements of modern radar were on the air at Worth Matravers (Dorset) only because land at Fairlight – the in place. They came too late for the on 25 May, and two days later at original choice for the Sussex coast – Battle of Britain, though they Plymouth (Devon); by July, four could not be obtained. There were underpinned the first, improvised further temporary stations had other such instances, where ground-controlled interception sets stretched the chain as far as Fishguard landowners reluctant to sell or the that began to appear during the (Pembrokeshire), and Watt’s team were feared strength of local resistance winter’s Blitz. But already by October looking towards the Irish Sea. But by – and the attendant publicity – forced 1940, the Tizard Mission was on its then, the Battle was underway and the Air Ministry onto compromise way to America with the prototype interim capability in South Wales was sites. The underlying problem was that cavity magnetron valve; and with this less important than what the more CH stations were so manifestly remarkable device in their toolkit, developed stations in southeastern intrusive: technical, modern and large. scientists could now achieve sufficient England might achieve. The Luftwaffe fulfilled Air Ministry power at high frequency to paint the The achievements are well known, expectations when Adlertag (‘Eagle sky with sharp, narrow, far-seeing but seem all the more remarkable in Day’) came, and radar was attacked. beams. CH endured, giving more view of the system’s inherent The bombs on Ventnor, Pevensey, Rye general, longer-range warning. By limitations. CH stations of summer and others opened a new era for air 1943 its technical capability in 1940 were an odd mixture of the campaigns, which henceforth would 1940-form looked ancient; but in obsolescent and the incomplete. The put early-warning radar at the top of 1940 it was enough. eight tall towers of the familiar ‘East the target list. But the Home Chain Coast’ CH station – four for the survived, and although too much transmitter arrays, four for the equipment was still in temporary receivers – belonged to a phase of buildings and cover was lost radar design when hostile jamming intermittently from some battle- was expected to be countered by damaged stations, quick repairs and frequency-switching, multiple the judicious use of reserves frequencies needing separate buttressed the system from collapse. antenna arrays. But the attacks brought lasting By 1940, however, other means had structural effects, and just as airfields THE ROYAL AIR FORCE been found to combat jamming, and became more dispersed as a matter of AIR DEFENCE RADAR MUSEUM in any case most of the stations still policy after September 1940, so radar Nr Horning, Norfolk. Registered Charity 1058887 had only one frequency in use. At the stations followed suit. The Battle’s same time, many of the stations were ramifications for site planning “THE SECRET WAR still relying on stopgap radars and would endure. structures. Although they were The vanguard of radar technology REVEALED” developed incrementally and always soon left CH behind, though many of came on the air with interim the stations continued to serve in History of RADAR and Air Defence equipment, temporary aerials and improved form through the war and PLUS RAF Coltishall Memorial Rooms timber huts, the ‘Final’ standard – the beyond. CH was strongly untypical of Allow at least 3 hours. FREE Guided tours. ‘Crumbs’ Café. eight towers and a suite of strongly what wartime radar would become. Adults £4.50. Concessions £4. Teens £3.50 Under 13 FREE protected buildings – made CH Even by 1940 the radar scientists’ Open Tuesday and Thursday April to October, Second Saturday of every Month and stations sizeable engineering projects toolkit included higher-frequency Bank Holiday Mondays - 10am to 5pm in their own right. ‘beam’ radar – smaller, simpler, and Specifications for towers, buildings, able to track targets by rotating a Gold Award Best Small and even the overall forms of the sites, light, gantry-mounted array. Beam Visitor Attraction 2007 changed repeatedly from 1936-39, transmissions lay at the heart of the adding complexity to a hefty building Air Ministry’s Chain Home Low radar, project at a time when the Air which by summer 1940 was slowly Ministry’s works staff were heavily populating the east and south coasts. committed elsewhere (notably to During the summer, also, the radar airfields). After Munich, particularly, scientists made their first the pressure to bring a primary chain breakthroughs with the Plan Position 01692 631485 www.radarmuseum.co.uk into operation became immense. Yet Indicator (PPI) display, which for the

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 99 ADLERTAG (EAGLE DAY), Germany’s all-out push to gain air superiority, was Thursday launched on 13 August. Two days later, the RAF’s defence showed little sign of weakness. The weather forecast for southern Britain on 15 August was 15 August initially poor, and Reichsmarschall Göring summoned his senior commanders for a post mortem. While they were off the scene, a revised forecast suggested slow improvement. Crews were accordingly briefed for co-ordinated attacks on targets along an 800-mile front between Exeter and Edinburgh. Cloudy conditions over the previous night had hindered the Luftwaffe, which had mounted a number of ineffectual attacks, while RAF Bristol Blenheims (including some equipped with early airborne radar) had made equally ineffectual attempts to intercept them. A Luftwaffe He-115 seaplane, believed to be on a weather reconnaissance, crashed near Montrose, its pilot dazzled by searchlights. As Thursday dawned, six Chain and Denmark thus anticipated little Home (CH) stations were off-air opposition to attacks on targets in German air/sea rescue because of maintenance or the need Scotland and northern England. In for repair following enemy attack. A fact, Air Chief Marshal Dowding had After a skirmish over the officers who arrived to few early-morning reconnaissance resisted the temptation to denude Channel on 9 July 1940 a arrest them, but were aircraft were tracked by the Observer northern defences. Heinkel He-59 seaplane, eventually overpowered. one of a search and At least one of them was Corps using sound detectors. Two Instead, northern airfields were being rescue flotilla sent to temporarily interned in were accurately plotted flying used to rotate squadrons – many of search for German Deal Castle, where a eastwards along the south coast and them experienced veterans from missing aircraft, was carpenter working on six Spitfires on patrol from Dunkirk – resting and re-equipping brought down by a gun emplacements there Westhampnett were directed to them for battle anew. The Germans Spitfire and stranded on acquired a pair of his intercept them. A Dornier was shot were likewise ignorant of the extent of the Goodwin Sands. It flying boots. He had to was towed across to Deal smuggle them out past down into the sea south of Ventnor; a the RDF chain, and unaware that extra and initially anchored off the sentry in his tool bag, Junkers escaped. Anti-aircraft guns in vigilance had been ordered with the the pier. Its crew did not one boot at a time, and the Medway area brought down departure of the convoy Arena from allow themselves to be was amused to discover another reconnoitring Ju-88. Hull at noon on August 15. taken prisoner without a that they bore the All remained quiet for the first part of Activity started at about 09:30, when fight; they fired on the imprint ‘Dunlop – Made the morning, allowing repair of most of two Staffeln (small units) of He-115 boatmen and customs in England.’ the CH stations to be completed. As the seaplanes took off from Norway on a weather cleared, each 11 Group Sector feint attack towards Dundee. This was moved one squadron of fighters a ruse to draw off any fighters that forward to an advanced base to wait at might be defending the Edinburgh Readiness, in anticipation of activity area. Half an hour later, 60-plus Heinkel later in the day. As they did so, action He-111 bombers took off from was brewing in the north. Stavanger, with an escort of 21 Bf-110 Strong resistance to raids on fighters. Their targets were the airfields southern England in recent days had of Usworth, on the outskirts of persuaded Luftwaffe intelligence that Sunderland, and the Yorkshire bomber aircraft had been moved down from station of Dishforth. the north as reinforcements. The three A navigation error by the He-111s Luftflotten (a formation composed of resulted in them flying almost the all types of aircraft) based in Norway same route as the feinting seaplanes, 102 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK thereby suggesting to the RDF Leconfield. As they crossed the coast operators an even greater potential at Flamborough, they were set upon threat, albeit one that they by 12 Spitfires of 616 Sqn and six underestimated at only about 30 Hurricanes from 73 Sqn. Turning south, bandits. By 12:15, 12 Spitfires of 72 the bombers flew instead to attack the Sqn had been scrambled from Drem, RAF Bomber Command airfield at followed shortly afterwards by Driffield, where they destroyed ten Hurricanes from 79 Sqn at Acklington Whitley bombers at a cost of eight and two flights of 605 Sqn, also from Ju-88s (seven to the fighters, one to Drem, all heading on courses that ground fire). converged with the approaching Fighter Command’s strength in the attackers. north, and its effectiveness against Off the Farne Islands at 18,000ft, forces unprotected by Bf-109 escorts, the Spitfires found themselves facing had inflicted a loss of 20 per cent on 100 approaching enemy aircraft Luftflotte 5. No further major daylight 3,000ft below. At 12:30, swinging attacks were launched against round up-sun and behind the northeast England or eastern Scotland attackers they hove in on the escort, for the rest of the Battle. and then through to the bombers The weather was now clearing over below. Two Bf-110s went down, one France, and COS II Fliegerkorps (air of them the escort leader. Taken by corps) decided to launch attacks from

Fighter Command’s strength in the north had inflicted a loss of 20 per cent on Luftflotte 5

surprise, many of the Heinkels the south. There was discussion about jettisoned their bombs and dived for targets. The previous days’ raids on RDF the scant cloud cover. stations had appeared to cause little As they did so, the He-111s broke damage for disproportionately high into smaller groups, one being downed loss. The main attacks on this day were in the process. North of Blyth, a flight of thus aimed against what were believed 605 Sqn’s Hurricanes made contact, to be key Fighter Command airfields. while 13 Spitfires of 41 Sqn and 12 Once again, flawed intelligence would Hurricanes of 79 Sqn, scrambled from result in dissipated effort. Catterick and Acklington, respectively, Since activity on the previous day joined the fray near Newcastle. The had been limited, Fighter Command Bf-110s, handicapped by long-range had managed to catch up on fuel tanks, were the first to turn back. maintenance and repairs. Most The Heinkels pressed on, another six of squadrons thus had 12 serviceable them falling before they reached aircraft. At 11:00, when Kent CH Bridlington. At this point the force stations began to detect a build up of turned for home. A further Heinkel fell Junkers Ju-87s and their escort over to an encounter with a Blenheim out on the Pas de Calais, some were on the a shipping strike. With no losses to ground, either available or being themselves, the RAF had destroyed refuelled and rearmed, with others on eight bombers and eight of their escort. patrol. When the Stukas appeared in At 13:05, the RDF near Scarborough attack-formation over the airfield at reported more incoming raiders. While Hawkinge, the Hurricanes and 11 Defiants of 264 Sqn were sent from Spitfires of Hawkinge’s resident 501 Kirton-in-Lindsey to protect convoy and 54 Squadrons were already Arena, 50 Ju-88s were headed for the airborne, patrolling to the west of airfields of Church Fenton and Dover. As they set about the bombers

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 103 CHL stations; interceptions were few. Interior of the Sector At 17:00, two further heavy raids ‘G’ Operations Room at Duxford, Cambridgeshire. were detected by Sussex and The callsigns of fighter Hampshire RDF. These were soon squadrons controlled by sighted by pilots of 43 and 234 this Sector can be seen on Squadrons, south of the Isle of Wight the wall behind the operator sitting third from left and Portland. 43 Sqn was joined by 249, 601 and 609 Squadrons, who intercepted some 60 Ju-88s with 40 Bf-110 escorts heading for Middle Wallop, Worthy Down and Odiham. 601 Sqn knocked down six of LG 1’s Ju-88s. Meanwhile, as the Hurricanes of 87 and 213 Squadrons battled with some 40 Ju-87s attacking Portland, 14 Spitfires from 234 Sqn tackled their fighter escort. With odds against them, the RAF lost three aircraft. At Middle Wallop, 12 Ju-88s destroyed two hangars and one Blenheim, and damaged five more. Seventy-five German aircraft were Just over an hour later, free chases by Bf-109s over Kent gave cover to missing; and 13 pilots killed. various formations of Dorniers heading for the Sector Station of It had been the most intense day Biggin Hill. Meanwhile, 15 Bf-110s and eight Bf-109s carried bombs for a of air-fighting to date diversionary strike on Kenley, an airfield close to London’s southern the Bf-109 top-cover pounced. Two KG 3 over Belgium together with the fringe. However, this formation Stukas were shot down along with fighter escort from the Pas de Calais attacked Croydon in error, caused two Spitfires and two Hurricanes. caused a complicated RDF plot that considerable damage, and so Hawkinge was saved, although a was further confused by an abrupt accidentally contravened Hitler’s hangar was wrecked and a barrack attack by Bf-109s and 110s against orders against raids on Greater block damaged. Near misses did more Martlesham Heath. They were London. As they attacked, the Bf-110s damage, severing the main power opposed by three Hurricanes of 17 Sqn were set upon by nine Hurricanes of supply to the CH stations at Dover and nine from 1 Sqn, three of which 111 Sqn, while 32 Sqn engaged the and Rye, so putting them out of were shot down without loss to an Bf-109s, pursuing then down to action for the rest of the day. enemy. Martlesham was left out of treetop level as they sought to escape The Stukas had more success action for two days. back to the Channel. Several did not against the satellite airfield at Lympne, By 15:30, 88-plus Do-17s escorted by make it. The Dorniers fared little better, which had been damaged by previous 130 Bf-109s were approaching Deal. mistaking the new, and still non- attacks and was now rendered Simultaneously, a further 60-plus operational, airfield at West Malling for unusable until 17 August. But in Bf-109s swept in either side of Dover. Biggin Hill and causing only minor neither case had aircraft been Twenty-four Hurricanes from 111 and damage and casualties. destroyed on the ground. Bombs also 151 Squadrons and 12 Spitfires of 64 Thus did the day’s action end. In 14 fell in Dover, Hythe and Folkestone. Sqn did their best against formidable hours the RAF had mounted some 974 The Germans turned for home. The odds, but the fighter escort was strong sorties against the Luftwaffe’s 2,199. fighters returned for replenishing and and only two Do-17s were destroyed. Seventy-five German aircraft were a return to Readiness – a status The Dornier (Do-17) force split, one missing; 35 RAF fighters had been lost in compelled by the fact that so many body heading for Rochester, the other the air and 13 pilots killed. It had been RDF stations had been rendered for the airfield at Eastchurch. The the most intense day of air-fighting to inoperable. As they did so, nine Rochester attack hit the Short Brothers date; one in which the Luftwaffe had Bf-110s made a surprise attack on factory, disrupting production of the expended much effort against airfields Manston, damaging installations and Stirling bomber. In a further effort to of varying importance and found, to causing 16 casualties. Two Spitfires stretch the RAF fighters, Staffel- their cost, that British air defences were were destroyed on the ground, for the strength attacks were made by still not yet noticeably weakened. cost of two attackers hit by ground fire. escorted bombers against Hawkinge, At 14:15, the assembly of Do-17s of Maidstone, Dover, Rye and Foreness Robert Owen

104 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK

© FRENCH HISTORICAL SERVICE OF DEFENSE MINISTRY © FRENCH HISTORICAL

French airmen joined the Royal Air Force during World War II to help British pilots protect their territory.

y July 1940, some 500 airmen - pilots, Flight Sergeant Didier Béguin, Warrant B navigators, engineers and ground Officers Pierre Blaize, Henri Bouquillard, Yves support elements - had joined the Free Brière, Maurice Choron, Emile Fayolle, Charles French Forces. The initial reserve forces were Guérin, François de Labouchère, Henri Lafont, Frenchmee used to man the first units of the Free French William Moncur, Xavier de Monbron, René Air Forces in Great Britain, the Middle East Mouchotte and Georges Perrin, as well as " High calibre " fi ghter pilots and Africa; they were called to arms on this Pilot Officer Jean-François Demozay and Sub- continent and in the Eastern Mediterranean. Lieutenant Philippe de Scitivaux, took part in Fifteen of the most experienced English the Battle of Britain. speaking pilots, deemed very "high Through their commitment and bravery they calibre", were assigned to Royal Air Forces’ assisted the British war effort against the operational squadrons by the end of summer Axis. Combatants from the beginning of a 1940, after some hasty training. conflict of which only a few survived. ■ © FRENCH HISTORICAL SERVICE OF DEFENSE MINISTRY © FRENCH HISTORICAL Top left, a Vickers Supermarine Spitfi re Mark, X4474 from 19 Squadron, fl own by Sergeant Bernard Jennings, which was scrambled from Fowlmere airfi eld, Cambridgeshire, at the end of September 1940.

Top right, Henry Lafont was the youngest French pilot to take part in the Battle of Britain. He was MORE THAN 3600 wingman to René Mouchotte at 615 Squadron throughout October. His aircraft is the Hurricane The Free Frenchmen were the first V6580 (KW-U). of a long "lineage" of aviators who Bottom left, a picture of Charles joined to fight side by side with the Guérin (left) and René Mouchotte allies in Great Britain. By the end of (right) taken by Henry Lafont whilst departing Oran for Gibraltar on 1943, the Free French Forces encom- 30 June, onboard passed 3684 aviators including 922 Caudron Goéland N° 192. aircrews. On July 31 1944, almost Bottom right, a Hawker Hurricane half the aircrew recruited between Mark I given to the pilots of the July 1940 and July 1943 had been Royal Air Force. This was the type of aircraft fl own by the 15 French pilots killed or were reported missing.

who fl ew in the Battle of Britain. SERVICE OF DEFENSE MINISTRY © FRENCH HISTORICAL een in the Battle of Britain © FRENCH HISTORICAL SERVICE OF DEFENSE MINISTRY © FRENCH HISTORICAL Search online for RAF Careers

The Royal Air Force values every individual’s unique contribution, irrespective of race, ethnic origin, religion, gender, sexual orientation or social background. MoD/Crown Copyright from www.defenceimages.mod.uk Barricading Britain

While the RAF strove to parry the Luftwaffe, Britain braced itself for invasion. William Foot surveys the scale and range of the measures that were put in place to fortify the United Kingdom

REMAINS OF THE anti-invasion barbed wire, minefields and prepared of these defences have been swept defence systems constructed from cratering charges. away. Recent research, however, has June 1940 through to the spring of Beyond these were roadblocks, shown just how extensive they were. Barnes Wallis is a 1941 can still be seen throughout the passenger in the Wellington railblocks, mined bridges and devices In 1939, little planning had been UK. They stand in fields, by rivers, bomber over Effingham, intended to project burning oil and made for the ground defence of the roads and railways, half-hidden in Surrey, May 1940. The flight petroleum over the enemy. Many UK. Under a plan codenamed ‘Julius woodland, dug into hillsides and cliff was to assess anti-landing machine-gun posts were established Caesar’, the principal safeguard against obstacles that Wallis had tops, or sunk into sand dunes behind improvised across the golf behind the loop-holed walls of houses invasion was judged to be the Royal beaches. Some of them run, one after course adjoining his home and other buildings. The great majority Navy and the RAF. General Kirke, another, like giant stepping-stones along valley floors. What we see today are principally reinforced-concrete pillboxes and anti-tank gun emplacements, many still faced with their brick shuttering. Some 30,000 were built; approximately 7,000 survive. These are just the durable tip – literally, the concrete remnant – of what was actually built. The pillboxes themselves were usually cleverly camouflaged. They were supported by earthworks – trench systems, weapon pits, anti-tank ditches, and buried command posts – and by a plethora of other measures that included concrete and steel obstacles, sandbagged emplacements, tubular steel scaffolding, belts of

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  Concrete pillars enclosing Commander-in-Chief Home Forces, steel girders, right, form a had only nine regular divisions ready roadblock-cum-checkpoint to defend the eastern coastline, which after the German occupation of Below right: old bangers lined up to prevent use of Norway and Denmark in April 1940 the field by enemy troop- was considered to be the most carrying aircraft or gliders likely shore upon which an invasion would fall. Bottom: defenders man anti-tank gun in a Germany’s offensive in the West in recently-erected pillbox May, and the rapid defeat of Allied that shows the impress of forces in the face of the new Blitzkrieg- corrugated iron shuttering type warfare, made invasion seem into which the concrete had been poured imminent and likely. While a large part of the British Army, with many French troops, had escaped through Dunkirk, most of their armaments, ammunition, transport and general equipment had been left behind. The German Army was now poised on the French coast, only 20 miles away. At the end of May, General Sir Edmund Ironside replaced General Kirke. It was onto Ironside’s shoulders, therefore, that the land defence of Britain now devolved. On 4 June Winston Churchill made his famous speech: “…We shall fight on the beaches… in the fields… streets… and hills... ” Ironside’s challenge was to translate rhetoric into practice. His first task was to build a coastal crust of defences along 400 miles of the threatened east and south coasts. These works included pillboxes, field artillery shelters, minefields, beach obstacles and trench systems. With them ran the strengthening of existing defences of ports and harbours, and the protection of open beaches, salt marshes, even the shoreline below cliffs. Some 50 Emergency Coast Defence Batteries had already been rushed into place, armed mainly with six-inch guns stripped from First World War battleships. Defences were also built on the less vulnerable western coasts; the danger of invasion through Ireland could not be discounted. Another priority was to counter airborne landings. All open spaces within five miles of the coast or an airfield – fields, school playing fields, recreation grounds, even stretches of straight roads – were blocked, either by digging trenches or by placing posts and other obstacles across them. The aim was to prevent these areas

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Paid for by the Government of Ontario. shielded Ironside’s mobile reserve – a force that was ready to rush to whatever point the Germans might threaten. In a few short weeks, Ironside created a remarkable framework of defence under very difficult conditions. There was a shortage, for instance, not only of concrete, but also of steel and timber – much improvisation was necessary. Ironside’s main concern remained the lack of weapons, in particular of anti-tank guns and armoured fighting vehicles. While he could call on 15, albeit ill-equipped, infantry divisions, only one armoured division was at anything like battle strength. As the weeks passed, however, Britain was fast building up supplies of arms and ammunition, and the regular army, supplemented by the Home Guard, was being retrained and reorganised. In mid-July, General Alan Brooke, who in Churchill’s eyes represented more exactly the offensive spirit needed to break out from static defence to counter-attack, replaced Ironside. Brooke further strengthened the coastal defences and developed the idea of ‘area defence’, improving what Ironside had begun – a system of all-round defence based on nodal points and German mapping from being used as temporary airfields or as railways and bridleways, even anti-tank islands protecting important air photographs of anti- landing-grounds for gliders. footpaths – were shut off by concrete communication points. By now, Brooke invasion defences in Ironside’s next task was to establish blocks and steel rails. In the Weald of southern England gives only also had a much more powerful mobile a partial picture of their a network of linear anti-tank obstacles Kent and Sussex, the terrain across reserve, which he saw as the key to extent and whereabouts to contain the Panzer (tank) columns which the Germans would have had to defeating an invading army. by October 1940 and prevent them breaking out as they fight in the first phases of the invasion Would it have worked? At the very had done in France. Great use was they had planned, the landscape was least, the defences built in the summer of made of existing topography. Rivers, further divided up by a referenced 1940 would have held up a German canals and streams became anti-tank grid, defended at all its intersections. advance, enabling them to be counter- The German Army might have found attacked under conditions that had been the thickly-forested Weald, with its carefully prepared. By September 1940, Artificial ditches were dug, or steep-sided valleys and thick hedgerows, the British Army was in a vastly improved as difficult to overcome as the Allied situation from that which had prevailed rows of concrete blocks laid to forces were to find Normandy’s bocage after Dunkirk. after D-Day. Tribute should be paid to the troops Behind all these forward stop lines in from overseas who, alongside the British form the frontline obstacle the south and east of the country ran Army, built and manned the anti- the General Headquarters (GHQ) Line, a invasion defences: units of the Canadian ditches, or were ‘improved’ to the fortified belt that, with connecting and New Zealand Armies, the free forces requisite width and steepness of bank. branches, ran from the North Somerset of Poland, France and the other Nazi- In other places, artificial ditches were coast across southern England, passed occupied nations. dug, or rows of concrete blocks laid to south of London, crossed the Thames Thankfully, the defences were never form the frontline obstacle. from Kent into Essex and continued actually put to the test. They played their The result was a series of stop lines, north as far as Richmond in Yorkshire. part, however, in the 1940 victory. The defended by pillboxes and anti-tank Later, the GHQ Line was joined to stop pillboxes and dragon’s teeth that survive, gun emplacements. All lines in Scotland, one of which crossed often overgrown and neglected, form an communication routes – roads, the Fife peninsula. The GHQ Line evocative and important legacy.

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 113 Richard Morris recalls public feeling in the summer of 1940, and some measures to resist an enemy believed by many to be not only on the doorstep, but already in the house

THE CREATION OF the Local Defence selection from “a very large number of Volunteers (LDV, afterwards the Home letters” urging that volunteers be Twisting roads Guard) was announced on 14 May enrolled and armed “for local defence 1940. By the time Sir Edward Grigg, against parachutists and troop- Under-Secretary of State for War, gave carrying aeroplanes”. and making ready more details to the House of One writer recalled his early life Commons eight days later, a quarter of among the Boers, where “practically a million men had already joined. every able-bodied man, whatever his The point of the LDV, said Grigg, was age, could ride and use a rifle”. He to free frontline troops from local continued: “I have spent this Sunday in duties, such as guarding vulnerable my village in Sussex. An air troop- points, and so avoid their dispersal. carrier landing on the Downs – indeed Another task was “to deal with small a handful of German parachutists enemy parties landed from the air”, – could take possession of the village watching and acting locally, blocking and of the lookout posts on the cliffs. roads and denying movement to All we could do would be to obey the airborne troops. Invasion was, so to fatuous official instruction ‘to inform speak, ‘in the air’. the police, who would summon the The decision to form the LDV military’.” reflected local pressure. A few days And what if the British ‘bobby’ before, The Times had published a himself were to be an enemy? The

114 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK The gunner possibility that outwardly ordinary an engagement on 16 August, Flt Lt Counter-invasion preparations and from there by train to holding citizens might be collaborators held Nicolson remained in his burning were going ahead during the areas on the outskirts of London. attraction for those who felt that there Hurricane when he realised that the summer of 1940, when it was Anti-aircraft and anti-tank had to be some special factor to fighter that had attacked him was now believed that the German plans batteries were being manned all explain Germany’s dramatic military presenting itself in his sights. As Flt Lt for invasion would involve a land night, as Gunner Roy Baker success. On the last day of April the Nicolson fired, his left hand on the attack on the coastal strip recalled: “Because it was between Deal and Ramsgate. considered that any invasion War Cabinet was told “that there were throttle began to blister in the heat. Underground bunkers a few would come one hour after dawn many lessons to be learned from the Finally baling out, as Nicolson landed miles inland were made ready or dusk, our duties meant long ruses adopted by the Germans in their he was fired on by an LDV. For his for occupation by Auxiliary periods of ‘standing-to’ at those attack on Norway”, among them “the valour in air combat, Flt Lt Nicolson units, elements who resembled times, with the gun always sending of false messages and the was awarded the Victoria Cross. the Home Guard but whose real manned by a skeleton crew on a cutting of telephone wires”. German occupation of the Channel task was to harry the invader rota. Sleeping on the ground at from the rear through sabotage night in all weathers with only a Nervous of Fifth Columnists and Islands emphasised the vulnerability of and assassination for as long as groundsheet, gas-cape and aliens who might unbolt Britain’s doors Britain’s outlying parts. On 30 August they could hold out. blanket for protection was tough. from within, the government ordered the War Cabinet received news of an Secret plans were drawn up for No tents or other cover were the internment of men of German, air attack on the Scilly Isles, which had the remaining civilians living in allowed in case they showed up Austrian, and later, Italian origin. Alien caused “considerable panic”. The the coastal towns to be evacuated the position to reconnaissance by bus from the railway stations, aircraft.” women followed them into captivity. Scillies, said Churchill, “must be held at Ironically, among them were many all costs. All necessary reinforcements with a better, and more long-standing, of men and materials must rapidly be record of opposition to fascism than made available”. some of the newspapers that now Another exposed area was the howled for their confinement. 50-odd mile stretch of Kent’s coast In June the War Cabinet discussed between North Foreland and “suspicious activities round Dungeness. Churchill noted on 11 aerodromes” and the “widespread September: “If the enemy should belief” that German sympathisers succeed in getting lodgements of were showing lights. The Cabinet troops ashore on this coast, and could was alarmed by exaggerated reports capture the guns deployed there, they of a Fifth Column in Ireland, with would have, not only a bridgehead, whose help, it was said, a small but a sheltered passageway German force could “probably commanded by the coast defence capture the whole island”. guns from both sides of the Channel.” The LDV’s mandate led to turf wars. A Coastal Watching Organisation was Early in July the Metropolitan Police set up. The War Cabinet was assured Commissioner complained that that, “All round the coasts were some over-zealous LDVs were impeding the hundreds of armed trawlers, motor- work of London’s police. In Glasgow, torpedo boars and mine-sweepers the Chief Constable and LDV which would take part in the mêlée, if Commander argued over who was invasion were attempted…” Above ultimately responsible for the city’s them would doubtless be the Tiger security. Elsewhere, LDVs stopped Moths from Flying Training Command neighbours, demanding proof of that had been adapted to carry identity from people they had known anti-personnel bombs. for years. A number of motorists, air If invaders nevertheless gained a raid wardens, civil defence and military foothold, an area around Worcester personnel were fired upon, sometimes was selected to be Britain’s new seat of injured, and occasionally killed, government. Nearby Madresfield because they did not respond to an Court, home of the Earls Beauchamp, of action, new facilities were LDV challenge. was one of several houses earmarked improvised in local shops and country In this edgy atmosphere, RAF pilots for the royal family if London came houses. And on 28 May, Mr Robert who baled out during the Battle of under siege. Byron had written to The Times: Britain were sometimes shot at, and in Experiment flourished. An airborne “Sir, - Under modern invasion several cases actually shot, by device to cut parachute shrouds was conditions, one of the natural defences defenders who mistook them for tested. Blenheim crews bombed hulks of this country is its twisting roads. May enemy parachutists. One such victim to discover the best way to sink I suggest that this advantage should be was Flight Lieutenant James Nicolson. invasion barges. When attacks on reinforced by the removal of all Already injured by cannon fire during sector stations put control rooms out signposts in the East Coast districts?”

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117 Caring for those who also serve

Recognising the unique contribution of animals – in wartime conflict, a naval ship’s cat, and wartime pigeons whose actions and in peace – has been an enduring passion for PDSA, the saved many lives. UK’s leading veterinary charity. The latest Dickin Medal recipient is Treo, Founded in 1917, in response to the an Army search dog, honoured in February appalling plight of animals in London’s 2010 for locating explosive devices East End, PDSA strives to ensure a healthy, designed to kill soldiers in Afghanistan. happy life for all our pets. Today, it seeks to fulfil this mission by providing free In today’s challenging climate, the care veterinary care to the pets of people in and expertise of PDSA’s vets are needed need, through a UK-wide network of PDSA more than ever. Over the last two years PetAid hospitals and practices. alone, the number of pets registered at PDSA PetAid hospitals has risen by Treating sick and injured pets is not PDSA’s 25 per cent. The cost of providing these sole concern. The charity is also desperately needed services this year will committed to promoting responsible pet exceed a staggering £53 million. ownership and elevating the status of animals. Accordingly, PDSA founder, In the absence of any Government or Maria Dickin, CBE, instituted the Dickin lottery finance, PDSA’s vital PetAid services Medal in 1943. This coveted award are funded entirely through public support, recognises the gallantry of animals during in the form of donations, legacies and times of military conflict. through corporate partnerships. Faced with spiralling demand, and with income To date the medal, acknowledged sources under pressure due to economic worldwide as ‘the animals’ Victoria Cross’, circumstances, your help is greatly needed. has been awarded 63 times. Recipients include Rob, the para dog, that completed You can support PDSA in all sorts of ways: more than 20 parachute descents with the by remembering us in your will, by making SAS, and Jet, who served with London’s Civil Defence Services a donation, by taking part in fundraising to rescue people trapped under blitzed buildings. Other activities or by volunteering. To find out more, please animals recognised include horses engaged in the theatre of freephone 0800 917 2509 or visit www.pdsa.org.uk © The People’s Dispensary for Sick Animals 02/10 © The People’s

To discuss a particular commercial or fundraising initiative, you can also contact Mike Crossley, Director of Marketing, on 01952 290999 or [email protected] Patrolling the mouth of the Thames By 11:45, around 48 Observer Posts of Maidstone. With the sun behind were a dozen Hurricanes of 151 Sqn. were reporting raiders overhead as the them, the three Hurricanes turned to Splitting into flights at 11:20, they drove air over Kent and Surrey filled with attack. As they did so, they were into a formation of 70 Heinkels and 30 attackers and defenders. Air Vice- targeted by yet more Bf-109s; the Bf-110s, destroying three bombers for Marshal Park’s squadrons were all now ensuing battle resulted in the loss of a the loss of three of their own. Soon airborne, in two waves, and Hurricane and at least four 109s. afterwards the same enemy formation reinforcements were being Abandoning his usual habit of was attacked head on by 11 Hurricanes summoned. Two of Air Vice-Marshal leaving several hours between attacks, from 85 Sqn. This caused the bombers to Leigh-Mallory’s 12 Group squadrons Generalfeldmarschall Kesselring scatter, some jettisoning their bombs. were detailed to defend Biggin Hill and despatched his next assault shortly Two Bf-110s went down for the loss of Kenley. Their involvement after 13:00. Half an hour later, the first one Hurricane. notwithstanding, a Staffel (squadron) wave crossed the coast between Dover of Ju-88s from the third wave of and Dungeness at about 15,000ft, attackers bombed Biggin Hill followed at 20-minute intervals by aerodrome from high-level at midday. further formations of bombers with Their accuracy was poor and most of their Bf-110 and Bf-109 escorts. Earlier their load fell outside the airfield on that morning a chance bomb had the neighbouring villages of Biggin Hill disrupted the electricity grid, disabling and Keston. seven RDF stations between Beachy 222 Sqn was patrolling over Head and Whitstable, and warning was Gravesend when it was bounced by only given when the formations came 10 Bf-109s, losing one of its number. within sight of observers on the After being scrambled to defend their ground. own base, 14 Hurricanes from 253 Once over land, the formations Sqn were directed south against a subdivided so as to split the defenders third wave of approximately 30 Ju-88s while they made for their different heading for Kenley. The Ju-88s were targets. Only five Squadrons were able already being harried by 43 Sqn, just to engage the enemy in combats that inland from Hove. Three of 253’s lasted until 16:00. Among them was aircraft became separated from their 222 Sqn, which intercepted 15 He-111s comrades and spotted massed rows and their Bf-110 escort near of Bf-109s heading southeast, south Canterbury, despatching two of the

Heinkel: view from within

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The Survitec Group Defence Division, 1-5 Beaufort Road, Birkenhead, Merseyside, CH41 1HQ, United Kingdom Tel : + 44 (0)151 670 9009 Fax: +44 (0)151 652 8276 Email: [email protected] Web: www.survitecgroup.com latter at the cost of one of their own. hit the airfield at Detling. Oil tanks fighters, eight of them from 222 Sqn These attacks were followed almost were fired and power supplies – three quarters of its strength – immediately by a third pulse of activity, disrupted, putting the airfield out of though 15 pilots were safe. More than which was to last for two more hours. action until the following morning. 50 RAF personnel had been killed and Nineteen groups of enemy aircraft were The attack heading for Oxford was nearly 30 seriously injured. Of the ranging over south-east England, repulsed over Surrey. Elsewhere, a attackers, 36 German aircraft littered heading for diverse targets: Vauxhall formation of 30 Heinkels with BF-110 the English countryside or rested on Motors at Luton, the Hawker factory at escort crossed the coast near the bottom of the Channel. Slough, the Handley Page factory and Southend, broke through a defensive That night, enemy aircraft crossed airfield at Radlett, and the fighter-repair cordon of anti-aircraft fire and an the coast at 20:30 bound for the facility of Number 1 Civilian Repair Unit encounter with 26 Hurricanes over Midlands, South Wales and London, at Cowley near Oxford. Also targeted Essex, and succeeded in bombing the with the majority again heading for were the RAF airfields of Detling, North Vauxhall works at 16:40. No public air Liverpool. As they did so, singletons Weald, Kenley and Biggin Hill, and the raid warning was issued and during carried out nuisance raids, causing convoy Bacon. the five-minute attack an estimated 59 little damage but depriving the The morning’s ineffectual attack on high-explosive bombs fell on the population of sleep. ‘Biggin on the Bump’ (Biggin Hill) was factory, killing 40 and injuring another The first week of September saw a redressed at 18:00 as a Staffel of Ju-88s 141. Not all the bombs found their continuation of intense activity against swept in at 1,000ft. Only 16 bombs intended target. Some fell on adjacent the RAF that sought to achieve were released, but they fell accurately housing and a nearby airfield (now attrition in the air and damage on the among the station buildings; Luton Airport) while a number fell ground. Stations and aircraft were kept casualties numbered 39 killed and 26 further away, 18 of them landing in going by the determined, sometimes injured. Scrambled during the attack, Whipsnade Zoo where they caused improvised, work of ground crews, six Hurricanes of 79 Sqn managed to little damage. Three of the escorting Women’s Auxiliary Air Force, repair bring down two of the attackers, but fighters were shot down. workers and civilian contractors. The with essential utilities damaged and This had been one of the hardest pilots, often rising daily around 04:00, unable to function, the Sector Station days of fighting, with 1,054 RAF some exhausted to the point that they was forced to relinquish control sorties and 1,345 by the Luftwaffe. The dozed off as soon as reaching temporarily to Hornchurch. This was morning’s operations had brought dispersal, continued to thwart the the most successful attack to date little success, but three targets had German offensive. against a key RAF airfield. At about the been accurately bombed during the same time, approximately 50 bombs afternoon. The RAF had lost 26 Robert Owen

Cowper Street, Luton after the raid of 30 August 1940

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122 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK The Battle of Britain was fought in the home as well as in the sky. Richard Morris looks at some of its effects on everyday lives

Carrying on

THERE WAS NO August Bank Holiday businesses ailed for want of customers. to other households were expected to in 1940; everyone worked through. In The Phoney War left many families take their ration books with them. any case, much of the seaside was doubtful about the need for new While the simpler diet was shut. Beaches were wired, while resorts evacuation, and by mid-June only nutritionally better, its fairness was such as Margate and Southend had 120,000 children had left London. debated. As the Battle began, the been evacuated. Debate about whether evacuation Labour Party pointed out that while Holidays, bus services, dog food – should be compulsory went in favour many items used in poorer the war permeated everything. It even of voluntarism. On 12 September, the households were both rationed and changed the shape of families, taking authorities made a new appeal to the had gone up in price, “persons who menfolk and children away while parents of 300,000 children who were can use the more expensive bringing in strangers. As JB Priestley still living in the London area. As night restaurants, or those who can afford put it, war had barged “right inside the bombing spread to provincial cities, the more expensive non-rationed home itself, emptying the clothes some 1.2 million people were foods – game, chicken, sweetbreads, cupboards and the larder”. evacuated to safer regions. salmon, cream etc – can eat as much Alerts and overhead battles War’s most widespread effect was as they can pay for”. provided schoolchildren with vivid on food and diet. Food rationing had Rationing was not the only way to diversion, along with opportunities to been introduced at the start of 1940, restrict consumption. Corsets, suits, trade shrapnel in the playground. That thereafter no one was entitled to more carpets, glassware, vacuum flasks, is, if the school was open. Some than 12oz of sugar and 4oz of butter, gramophone records, dog combs and schools had been requisitioned – by bacon or ham each week. In conveying nail files were among hundreds of March 1940, 700,000 children were this news, The Times added that most items on the Board of Trade’s list of being taught part-time. The presence people ate more than they needed goods over which production was of 400,000 evacuees in reception areas anyway, and extolled the “new controlled, the aim being both to save put pressure on schools, and margarine” with its “added vitamins”. shipping space and to ensure that raw sometimes created strains between Meat was added to the ration in materials and labour were channelled locals and outsiders. March, though liver, kidney and oxtail, where most needed. Following this As the ‘Phoney War’ dragged on, together with fish, remained logic, after 30 November the sale of many children had returned to the unrestricted. From time to time, there silk stockings was banned. homes whence they had been were temporary concessions. On 9 evacuated when the war began. In April, for instance, the Ministry of Food April, the London County Council announced: “It will not for the present announced a plan to keep schools be unpatriotic to eat plenty of pork.” open through the summer to make up Tea, margarine and cooking fats were for education time lost, only to about rationed in July. To simplify the work of face a month later “because of bakeries, 45 different shapes and sizes unexpected intensification of the war”. of loaves were reduced to four. Arrangements were now made to Households were encouraged to use remove 1.2 million children from fresh fruits and vegetables in London, together with children, and preference to canned food. Front anyone else whose presence could be gardens, as well as spare ground and spared, from the coastal areas of Kent, allotments, came under cultivation. A Essex and Suffolk where invasion was series of instructional films, A Garden feared. Under the Defence (Evacuated Goes to War, was shown in local Areas) Regulations, up to half of the cinemas. Wasting food – for instance, populations of some coastal towns giving meat to a dog – became a departed. For those who remained, the criminal offence. As a matter of exodus caused new hardship, as courtesy as well as practicality, visitors

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 123 The Ministry of Information looked employees. However, bus and train Time was retained through the tirelessly for ways to convince the services were restricted. To get to following winter. British public that however bad things work, some might need to rise as early Winter added to risk on the roads. might be here, for citizens of Germany as 05:00, with a tiring stand-up return Despite a 20mph speed limit during or Italy they were worse. Thus journey. Hence, some employees the blackout in built-up areas, more restrictions on cotton announced in avoided long-distance commuting by than 400 died in February 1940 and April were accompanied by an staying with friends or relatives near nearly 500 in March. Most of the assurance that families on small the factory, while workers drafted in casualties were pedestrians. incomes had access to “twice as much from far away might find themselves Notwithstanding the lining out of clothing as is allowed to Germans billeted with local households or kerbs and street furniture with black under the Nazi rationing scheme”. In in hostels. and white stripes, accidents in the September, newspapers reported that Clocks went forward on 25 February blackout were commonplace. in Italy there were now four meatless to save “every possible moment of Intensified petrol rationing meant days each week and that the wheat daylight for the conduct of the nation’s that private motoring came close to content of Italian bread had been cut, business”. A month later, The Times being a thing of the past. Emptier while coffee had disappeared. noted first sightings of chiff-chaffs and roads, on the other hand, meant that Alongside shortages ran limitations sand martins – ‘the golden signal’ of for those who did use cars, journeys on public transport. Round-the-clock the turning of the year. Farmers’ could be surprisingly quick. factory working needed transport for grumbles notwithstanding, Summer Tired and apprehensive, but also fitter, families in 1940 took a keen interest in radio, news and entertainment. Mass entertainment Tired and apprehensive, was led by the cinema – 1940 saw premieres of The Roaring Twenties, but also fitter, families in 1940 Rebecca, Charlie Chaplin’s The Great Dictator (admired by critics, less so by took a keen interest in radio, the public) and Walt Disney’s Pinocchio. However, one film outdid news and entertainment them all: shot in colour, accompanied

God bless mummy

“God bless Mummy, God bless Daddy, make me a good the only instance that was never challenged, in my experience of childhood. boy and don’t let the war end. Amen.” The Polish pilot would have been our greatest prize, but we lost him. His I gabbled that prayer every night from the age of six Hurricane was in trouble and he crash-landed. We could not open the cockpit until God let me down in 1945, when I was nearly 11. The enough before the fire reached the ammunition, and we had to leave his goggles three pious requests were taught by my mother, who was and make do with a yellow neckerchief. But the blood was real. enlisting the Holy Trinity as a child-minder, and the last The adult plans for what they called the ‘Home Front’, (there appeared to be bit was my own, because I had worked out that peace no ‘Home Back’), were improvised. My mother concocted her stratagem against would do away with my favourite wireless programmes. invasion, while my father was guarding us from The Hun in Rhyl. The knowing innocence of childhood makes I kept a bag of pepper by the door, next to Mum’s poker. They were for the something peculiar of war. Lack of experience turns it German paratrooper. When he knocked at the door and politely invited us to to a bright game. The child is free to take what he wants surrender, I was going to throw the pepper into his face, Mum would hit him from the mess; and the child is a callous animal, with on his helmet with the poker, and then we would run upstairs and commit little built-in morality. suicide by hurling ourselves head first from the bedroom window. That the For us, the past was something called Pre-war. The future had no name. We window was only some 9ft above the ground, with stone mullions that would lived in a geological period call the ‘Duration’. The nearest I came to under- have made ‘hurling’ a problem, did not make either of us question the efficacy standing was that I was between two moments, of which adults were aware, but of the scheme. I could not be: the ‘Eldorado of Pre-war’, of which I remembered only the vivid Peace, I thought, came when a sailor gave me a banana. But it was green. He yellow and the taste and shape of a banana, and a return to an Elysium: a “once told me that it was not ripe. I put it on the mantelpiece and watched it every and future peace”. I felt no sense of loss. day. When it was the yellow I remembered, and the smell was as I remembered, We lived a rural life on the edge of suburbia, among the anti-aircraft I peeled and ate it in a Proustian orgy. At the instant of biting into the fruit, I batteries, and where bombers jettisoned for the dash home. I lay in bed, knew that the Duration was over. By colour, taste, smell and geometry, a listening. Heinkel? Dornier? It was the ‘wah-wah’ of German engines as the banana, for me, bracketed the Second World War. Then everything changed. planes dragged their weight to Manchester. Then the guns. Out of bed and The Belsen films were shown at our cinema. Although children were into the road to pick up hot shrapnel: a metal with the texture of no other: forbidden entry, we knew the free way in. I saw the films four times. The steel sand. not-dead corpse in the black skullcap, picking over his shirt and grinning at the Next morning we would swap our shrapnel and barter for the sticky bicycle camera that had come too late; the bulldozer ploughing its choreography into pumps that were unexploded incendiary bombs. Shrapnel that had been the mass grave. On the instant, I was violently wise. ‘hot-found’ was worth more than ‘cold-found’, though there was nothing by which we could tell the difference now. It was a matter of unquestioned honour; Alan Garner

124 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK by Max Steiner’s stirring score, Gone war’s tempo quickened, popular Service could cram in programmes as With the Wind resonated with current interest in newsreels was declining, varied as Physical Exercises, News events. When it opened in April it was because so little of what was actually Commentary for Schoolchildren, a shown in three Central London happening was being depicted. As Brahms violin sonata, plays, serials, a cinemas at once. the Battle of Britain unfolded, a radio darts competition, a talk on If cinema was the palace of dreams, typical newsreel schedule might still barrel organs, advice to parish it could also be a haunt of nightmares. begin with elephants in a US zoo and councils, the news in Welsh, and dance Film of the bombing of Rotterdam finish with a duchess visiting an music aplenty. Above them all were showed what might happen in ambulance depot. national favourites such as Children’s Britain, while the four-minute Radio was different, however. There Hour (in reality always something less), newsreel of the Dunkirk evacuation, were frequent news bulletins, and the along with Tommy Handley and depicting patient queues, sunken BBC Home Service and Programme for company in It’s That Man Again. ships and the anvil of smoke, made a the Forces catered for a wide spectrum As 1940 drew to a close, the Radio deep impression. Paradoxically, Mass of tastes. By limiting most programmes Times advertised the start of the Observation discovered that as the to 15 or 20 minutes, in a day the Home Christmas Eve Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols at 2.45pm. King’s College Chapel, like many churches, had Air power decreed that a clergyman windows far too large to blackout. Air power decreed that a clergyman should should be restricted to the light of be restricted to the light of one candle to enable him to read the service. one candle to read the service Four more such Christmases would pass before it was over.

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         BRAVERY - SACRIFICE - FREEDOM

Neil Hanson considers how J B Priestley’s broadcasts connected the everyday with the momentous, raised spirits, and looked towards “a better Britain in a nobler world” Paddle-steamers, pies and peppermint rock

“BY SOME LAW of survival, the voices little steamers, all our lives. We have gave Priestley’s talks such universal are there, as the great fighting men are called them ‘the shilling sicks’. We have appeal, and the BBC at once there, when the need is critical” (Eric watched them load and unload their commissioned him to make a series of Sevareid, All England Listened). crowds of holiday passengers – the Sunday night broadcasts, scheduled as On 4 June 1940, in the immediate gents full of high spirits and bottled ‘postscripts’ to the nine o’clock news. In aftermath of Dunkirk, Winston beer, the ladies eating pork pies, the an era of ‘received pronunciation’ and Churchill made his famous ‘We shall children sticky with peppermint rock.” broadcasting of such formality that fight on the beaches’ speech to He lamented the sinking of the good announcers wore dinner jackets, Parliament. The following night a very ship Gracie Fields on which he used to Priestley’s broad Yorkshire vowels and different speech was broadcast by the travel to the Isle of Wight, but ended: warm, unpretentious manner were a BBC. There were no Churchillian “this little steamer, like all her brave breath of fresh air. His son Tom still phrases, blood-stirring cadences or and battered sisters, is immortal. She’ll remembers listening to “my father’s rhetorical flourishes in J B Priestley’s go sailing down the years in the epic steady voice” on the wireless. “There address. Where Churchill had talked of “the storm of war” and a fight “to the end”, Priestley spoke of paddle- steamers, pork pies and peppermint Priestley’s broad Yorkshire vowels rock. Yet this low-key, almost conversational talk, with its homespun and warm, unpretentious manner subject matter and simple, unadorned prose, arguably played an equally were a breath of fresh air powerful role in boosting public morale in the wake of Dunkirk and transforming perceptions of it from a of Dunkirk. And our great was something wonderfully reassuring catastrophe to an epic, heroic grandchildren, when they learn how about his measured delivery.” turning-point. we began this war by snatching glory Priestley’s own military service in As Priestley told his listeners, it was out of defeat, and then swept on to the Great War, his status as an “so typical of us, so absurd and yet so victory, may also learn how the little ‘outsider’ – not a member of the grand and gallant that you hardly holiday steamers made an excursion to Establishment or a BBC apparatchik know whether to laugh or to cry”, that hell and came back glorious.” – and his empathy with, and ability to a leading role in the evacuation fell to That first broadcast showcased the give voice to the concerns of ordinary little pleasure-steamers. “We’ve known unmatched ability to link great events people, made them feel that their them and laughed at them, these fussy to the minutiae of domestic life that contribution to the war effort was

128 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK XXXX

Above: Priestley at the microphone

Left: the ‘immortal’ pleasure-steamer Gracie Fields www.simplonpc.co.uk

valued and understood, and inconsequential as ducklings as ever, was the great pie, still brown, heightened the feeling that Priestley swimming on a Hampstead pond or a crisp, succulent, and steaming away was ‘one of us’. Some 14 million – 40 “miraculous” steaming pie in a like mad. Every puff and jet of that per cent of the adult population – Bradford pie shop. The shop’s steam defied Hitler, Göring, and the listened to him on Sunday nights and windows had been shattered in a whole gang of them. It was glorious.” his regular overseas broadcasts also bomb-blast, but the celebrated pie “I suppose,” Priestley added, “all my played a significant role in swaying survived. “There was a square more severe listeners are asking each American public opinion in favour of opening in the middle of the painted other why this fellow has to go on support for Britain in the war. boarding and there, seen through the yapping about his pies and nonsense His most popular talks were on opening, framed perhaps a little at a time like this when the whole subjects as apparently narrowly but in itself as magnificent world is in a turmoil, the fate of

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 129 empires is in the balance, and men, Churchill, who vetoed any debate Complaints from what Priestley women and children are dying about ‘Peace Aims’ before the ‘War termed ‘hard-shell’ Tories continued terrible violent deaths; to which I can Aims’ – total victory – had been and on 23 March 1941, he was taken only reply, that we must keep achieved. Right-wing critics off the air. He suspected that it was burnished the bright little thread of demanded that Priestley “get off the at Churchill’s behest, but there is no our common humanity that still runs air” but he remained unrepentant and hard evidence to support that. He through these iron days and black a tribute to RAF aircrew became a continued to broadcast to the nights; and that we are fighting to renewed plea for a better Britain. Empire and the US throughout the preserve and, indeed, I hope to “Obviously, it wouldn’t matter much if remainder of the war but he made enlarge that private and all-important I were taken off the air, but it would no more postscripts. The Labour little world of our own reminiscence matter a great deal, even to these landslide in the ‘Khaki election’ at the and humour and homely poetry in Blimps, if these young men of the RAF end of the war, suggested that which a pie that steamed for 45 years were taken off the air; and so I repeat Priestley, not his critics, had been and successfully defied an air-raid to my question – in return for their skill, more in tune with the sentiments of steam again has its own proper place.” devotion, endurance and self- ordinary Britons. Priestley’s ‘Pie Postscript’ had also sacrifice, what are we civilians During the darkest days of the war hinted at the vision he now began to prepared to do? And surely the Priestley had touched people’s hearts articulate of the war as not merely a answer is that the least we can do is and raised their morale, celebrating means to defeat fascism, but to to give our minds honestly, sincerely ‘Britishness’ and the simple, decent achieve a radical transformation of and without immediate self-interest, human values we were fighting to British society: “a better England in a to the task of preparing a world really preserve. Seven decades later, many nobler world”. His views infuriated fit for them and their kind.” still treasure the memory of those wartime broadcasts. Priestley was a literary giant, but unlike some of his peers and modern successors, he During the darkest days of the war never patronised or ignored those who lived and worked in less rarified Priestley had touched people’s atmospheres, and in him, ordinary Britons never had a more articulate or Pub-goers listen to hearts and raised their morale the broadcast of a more committed champion, in peace Churchill speech or war.

130 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK Combat proven to deliver a reliable tactical advantage.



  

 

 
   

  
 

  
  
 

  
 
 

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Learn more at www.rockwellcollins.com The golden thread of hope Phrases in Churchill’s speeches still catch the throat. Sir Martin Gilbert reflects on Churchill’s awareness of the precariousness of Britain’s position and ways in which his words both caught and reinforced public feeling

132 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK XXXX

ON 18 JUNE 1940, four days after of Number 11 Group, Fighter France capitulated, Britain’s Prime Command, “from which he could Minister, Winston Churchill, warned of follow the whole course of the air the danger of a German invasion of battle”. He was there on 16 August, Britain. In his broadcast Churchill when Manston, Tangmere and West declared: “I look forward confidently to Malling airfields were bombed. the exploits of our fighter pilots – General Ismay later recalled: “There these splendid men, this brilliant youth had been heavy fighting throughout – who will have the glory of saving the afternoon; and at one moment their native land, their island home, every single squadron in the Group and all they love, from the most deadly was engaged; there was nothing in of all attacks.” reserve, and the map table showed On the outcome of those attacks – new waves of attackers crossing the on what we now know as the Battle of coast. I felt sick with fear.” Britain – depended Hitler’s ability to General Ismay added: “As the send his troops across the English evening closed in the fighting died Channel. No one watched it more down, and we left by car for closely than Churchill, who, in the early Chequers. Churchill’s first words were: hours of 15 August, told the US ‘Don’t speak to me; I have never been President, Franklin D Roosevelt, that so moved.’ After about five minutes he Britain’s confidence in surviving was leaned forward and said, ‘Never in the “enormously and legitimately field of human conflict has so much

“I look forward confidently to the exploits of our fighter pilots – these splendid men, this brilliant youth”

strengthened by the severe air fighting been owed by so many to so few.’ The in the past week”. words burned into my brain and I Drawing inspiration from what he repeated them to my wife when I saw each day, during his work and got home.” travels, of the nation’s mood and “Churchill too,” General Ismay morale, Churchill added: “The spirit of reflected, “had evidently our people is splendid. Never have photographed them in his mind.” Four they been so determined.” days later, he was to share them with At Downing Street, Anthony Eden, the nation. Secretary of State for War, recalled When, on 19 August, there was no being in the Cabinet room with German air raid, Churchill told his Churchill “while reports came in of the Private Office: “They are making a big air battle which was developing. mistake in giving us a respite.” Squadron after squadron of the Royal On 20 August, Churchill broadcast to Air Force went up to engage the the nation, inspiring and galvanizing enemy and still the Luftwaffe kept his listeners when he told them: “The coming. The news was scrappy at first gratitude of every home in our Island, and still more squadrons were called in our Empire, and indeed throughout for, until it seemed that they had all the world, except in the abodes of the been committed. As we listened and guilty, goes out to the British airmen conjectured, things looked very stern, who, undaunted by odds, unwearied with the odds heavy against us.” in their constant challenge and mortal As the battle intensified, Churchill’s danger, are turning the tide of war by “favourite port of call”, wrote his their prowess and by their devotion.” Churchill at the microphone Military Secretary, General Hastings Churchill continued, in the phrase early in the war, speaking as ‘Pug’ Ismay, was the Operations Room that had so impressed General Ismay First Lord of the Admiralty

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 133 four days earlier: “Never in the field of On no part of the Royal Air Force, southeast England gained in intensity. human conflict was so much owed by Churchill added, did the “weight of the On the coast of Kent, two airfields, so many to so few.” war” fall more heavily “than on the Manston and Lympne, were for All hearts went out, Churchill daylight bombers who will play a several days made unfit for operating declared, to the fighter pilots “whose valuable part in the case of invasion, fighter aircraft. On the afternoon of 31 brilliant actions we see with our own and whose unflinching zeal it has been August, Churchill returned to the eyes day after day”. But no one should necessary, in the meanwhile, on headquarters of Number 11 Group, forget, he said, “that all the time, night numerous occasions to restrain”. where he witnessed the substantial after night, month after month, our British bombing of German military air battle then in progress and was bomber squadrons travel far into industries and communications, as “deeply moved”, one observer noted, Germany, find their targets in the well as the air bases and storage by what he saw. It had, he said, darkness by the highest navigational depots “from which we are attacked”, “brought the war home to him”. Ten skill, aim their attacks, often under would continue, Churchill warned, days later, Churchill told the War the heaviest fire, often with serious “upon an ever-increasing scale until Cabinet that he found it “very loss, with deliberate, careful the end of the war, and may in another instructive to watch the Officers of discrimination, and inflict shattering year attain dimensions hitherto the Fighter Command deploying their blows upon the whole of the undreamed of”. forces and building up a front at the technical and war-making structure From 25 August, the German air threatened points”. of the Nazi Power.” attacks on the airfields of south and Censorship reports reaching Downing Street showed that public morale was “extremely high”. But the Churchill’s speeches need for secrecy ensured that the public was sheltered from daily intensified the fragments of information that brought a less encouraging picture. widespread sense On 2 September, Group Captain Francis Inglis, Deputy-Director that because of the Intelligence at the Air Ministry, noted that the most recent top secret Battle of Britain, information available showed that accommodation and supplies were survival was possible being prepared at 15 German aerodromes, between the mouth of the Somme and Dunkirk, for the use of German dive-bomber and fighter units, and that all these aerodromes were to be occupied from 4 September. This, Inglis noted, “may indicate… preparation for an invasion of the south and southeast coasts”. For the next two months, the spectre of a German invasion dominated Churchill’s thoughts and preparations. As the German bombing Blitz over Britain intensified, it seemed a prelude to a massive German land assault. But the spirit that had been generated during the Battle of Britain could not be driven away by fear of the future: it was a golden thread of hope for a battered and besieged Britain. The ‘Few’ had inspired the many; Churchill’s speeches reflected and intensified the widespread sense that because of the Battle of Britain, survival was possible, and, after it, whatever the perils – even victory.

134 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK EJ200 – BENCHMARK FOR EXCELLENCE

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In June 1940 German BRITAIN’S ASSESSMENT OF As days passed, a build-up of German trialling of preparations for invasion relied largely watercraft became discernible. On 1 equipment in preparation for seaborne landing forces faced Britain along a on aerial reconnaissance. Initially, this September, 71 barges were seen on 2,000-mile coastal crescent: was done by Fighter Command. the southernmost section of the However, fighter pilots were too South Beverland Canal. Eighty more a coast well provided with pre-occupied by the danger of were moored at Hansweert; the next ports from which to mount Messerschmitts to gather accurate day there were 245. Since mid-August an invasion. Robert Owen information, and their presence 200 barges had been seen moving confused Radio Detection Finding south along 14 miles of the describes how the threat plots that watched Luftwaffe activity. Terneuzen-Ghent canal. was monitored, and some The work was soon transferred to Further south, observations showed Spitfires and Hudsons of the vessels travelling in small groups in of the valiant efforts that Photographic Development Unit, coastal waters and gathering in the were made to counter it supplemented by aircraft of Coastal Channel Ports. On 28 August there and Bomber Command. were no barges at Ostend; by 7 Too few aircraft were available to September there were 270. Over five keep a regular and full watch on the vast days, 100 barges arrived in Flushing. network of north European waterways. Other ports were filling at a rate that Stretches of coast were accordingly demanded two sorties each day just to prioritised. Weather permitting, Den keep count. By 7 September Helder to Cherbourg, and the Skaggerak concentrations of barges had been were reconnoitred daily; coasts north photographed in the Channel ports of and south of these areas were covered Ostend, Dunkirk, Calais, Boulogne and periodically, while longer-range aircraft Le Havre. of Coastal Command intermittently It was not only numbers that visited areas further afield. implied the imminence of invasion.

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 137 performance customers’ long-term responsibilitiesanddeliveroutstandingly reliable %DEFRFNKDVH[WHQVLYHH[SHULHQFHƃH[LELOLW\DQGWKHFRPPLWPHQW our customerstoprovide integratedoperationalandtechnical solutions, with solutionstotheRoyalAirForce.Workinginpartnership critical support trainingandmission andvalue fordeliver bestpractice money military company, services Babcock istheleadingengineeringsupport trustedto Royal AirForce solutionsto the ....training andengineering support For further information, please visitourwebsite For further trusted to deliver TM .... www.babcock.co.uk WRVKDUH babcock Bombs burst on the airfield at Herdla, Norway, during a low-level attack

Observations showed vessels gathering in the Channel Ports

The enemy would not wish to expose Of 12 Blenheims sent to attack Ålborg such assets to air attack for long, while airfield in Denmark on 13 August, 11 the removal of the barges from their were lost to flak or fighters. usual tasks would bring an economic By night, crews of Hampdens, penalty that could not be sustained Wellingtons and Whitleys attacked indefinitely. German targets. On the night of 12/13 In British perception, the invasion August, Flt Lt R A B Learoyd won threat grew as the Luftwaffe attacked Bomber Command’s third Victoria airfields in southern England and then Cross of the war during an attack on turned on London. Churchill the heavily defended Dortmund-Ems sometimes called directly to ask for the Canal. Aircraft from Operational latest photo interpretation reports. Training Units were also sent out, During June, Bomber Command usually to drop leaflets, but sometimes targeted Germany’s aircraft industry by to bomb military installations. In a night, while Blenheims attacked futile attempt to deprive Germany of airfields in France and the Low timber, supplies and ammunition, Countries by day. On 3 July Blenheims quantities of an improvised incendiary were sent to attack barges on the device called the ‘Razzle’ were dropped Rhine approaching Rotterdam. The over crops in fields and forests while next day general orders were issued to transiting to and from other targets. attack ports and shipping, together On 26 August, a force of 81 with oil plants and communications. Wellingtons and Hampdens During the rest of July, Blenheims flew responded to Luftwaffe attacks on nearly 600 sorties, half against airfields, London by targeting Berlin’s the remainder against targets that Tempelhof aerodrome and industrial included barges. Larger bombers flew objectives. Thick cloud left the Barges massed in Dunkirk docks, photographed by 1,826 night sorties, targeting aircraft defences unsighted, but also crew of Bristol Blenheim, plants and shipping in ports that prevented the bombers from September 1940 included Hamburg, Kiel and Bremen. locating their targets. On 23 The cost of daylight raids by September, 129 Hampdens, Blenheim crews could be devastating. Wellingtons and Whitleys attacked

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 139 The South African Air Force and its relationship with the Royal Air Force through the years – a short synopsis

The South African Air Force and the Royal historically the most notable have Air Force share a proud and long-standing been: G.D.L. Haysom, who was relationship. released after the war as a RAF Group Captain. P.H. Hugo, who During the First World War South Africans served with the British retired from the RAF in 1950 as Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service. In fact, 26 Group Captain and was credited Squadron of the Royal Flying Corps consisted almost entirely of with a total of 22 aerial victories South African personnel that previously served with the former during the war. A.G. Lewis, who South African Aviation Corps during the German South West African VKRWGRZQ¿YH0(VLQRQHGD\ campaign of 1915. Most noteworthy amongst these South African during the Battle of France and airmen were Capt Anthony Beauchamp-Proctor VC DSO MC DFC, seven in one day during the Battle Flight Lt S.M. Kenkead DSO DSC DFC, Air Vice Marshal Sir Charles of Britain. He was released after Meredith KBE CB AFC, Maj Gen K.R. van der Spuy CBE MC, Lt Gen the war as Squadron Leader and Sir H.A. Pierre van Ryneveld KBE CB DSO MC, Air Marshal Hugh credited with a total of 18 aerial Saunders CB CBE AFC and Maj Gen C.J. Venter CB DFC. victories during the war. A.G. Malan, F/Lt A.G. “Sailor”Malan released after the war as Group Captain and credited with a total of THE IMPERIAL GIFT & FOUNDING OF THE SAAF DHULDOYLFWRULHVGXULQJWKHZDU+HZDVSUDLVHGIRUKLVXQVHO¿VK In 1919 the Imperial Government in London decided to make a free leadership and his tactical ability. E.J. Morris, who retired from the gift of aircraft, spares and other necessary equipment available to RAF in 1968 as an Air Commodore. enable each dominion of the British Empire to establish its own Air Force. South Africa received 100 aircraft, which included de Havilland IN ALL THEATRES – THE SAAF AT WAR '+JURXQGDWWDFNERPEHUV6(D¿JKWHUVDQG$YUR.WUDLQHUV 7KH 6RXWK $IULFDQ $LU )RUFH FRQWULEXWHG VLJQL¿FDQWO\ WRZDUGV WKH Following this generous bequest Lt Col van Ryneveld was appointed ZDU HIIRUW DQG PDGH KXJH VDFUL¿FHV LQ (DVW DQG 1RUWK$IULFD WKH WKH¿UVW'LUHFWRURI$LU6HUYLFHRIWKH8QLRQ'HIHQFH)RUFHZLWKHIIHFW Mediterranean, the Balkans, Italy and Poland – the latter in support IURP)HEUXDU\DQGWRGD\WKLVGDWHLVDFFHSWHGDVWKHRI¿FLDO of the Polish Resistance during the “Warsaw Concerto”. birthday of the SAAF. Besides its combat role, the SAAF, as part of the Allied Joint Air THE INTER-WAR YEARS Training Scheme, trained more than 33 000 aircrew, of which During the 1920s and 30s the South African Air Force remained 20 800 were for the Royal Air Force. The experience gained by the almost exclusively British, having many former Royal Flying Corps SAAF was tremendous as was the knowledge gained through close SHUVRQQHO QRZ PHPEHUV RI WKH 6RXWK$IULFDQ$LU )RUFH 7KH ¿UVW integration with the RAF’s methods and organisation. aircraft that were purchased to replace some of the obsolete types were the Avro Avians in 1930. Westland Wapitis and Avro Tutors Additionally, the Air Force provided much needed maritime air cover followed shortly thereafter. along the sub-continent’s coast line, to keep the strategic south Atlantic shipping lanes clear of Axis warships and submarines. THE SECOND WORLD WAR The secondment of SAAF personnel to the LONG-STANDING ASSOCIATION WITH THE RAF RAF and vice versa was common practice The military re-equipment programme of the 1950s and 1960s during the Second World War. Many South saw the introduction of many British types such as the Vampire, Africans distinguished themselves while Shackleton, Buccaneer, Canberra and Wasp. Towards the late serving abroad and by the end of the war 1960s international arms embargoes steadily isolated the military, PDQ\VXFKRI¿FHUVZHUHFRPPDQGLQJ5$) including the SAAF, both in terms of international cooperation and XQLWV :LWK WKH 8QLRQ EHLQJ D SDUW RI WKH any subsequent hopes to re-equip itself. By the end of the 1970s Commonwealth, many other South African certain types of equipment such as the Avro Shackleton MkIII were men joined the RAF directly. One such GLI¿FXOWWRUHSODFH South African was the distinguished F.Lt M. T. St.J. Pattle, DFC and Bar, who was the The 1990s heralded a new era of vast political changes, bringing WRSVFRULQJ&RPPRQZHDOWK¿JKWHUDFHRI 249 Squadron group DERXWDQHZSROLWLFDOGLVSHQVDWLRQDQGWKH¿UVWGHPRFUDWLFHOHFWLRQV WKH6HFRQG:RUOG:DUZLWKYLFWRULHV and P/O A.G. Lewis IRU 6RXWK$IULFD LQ  7KHVH KLVWRULF HYHQWV EURXJKW DERXW WKH birth of a new South Africa and the making of the “Rainbow Nation”, SOUTH AFRICANS IN THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN which the South African Air Force is irrevocably a major part of today. Although no SAAF units participated, a total of twenty-three South In its ninetieth year of existence the South African Air Force proudly Africans served in the Royal Air Force and participated in the Battle values the historic association with the Royal Air Force. of Britain during the Second World War. Of these twenty-three, Per Aspera Ad Astra Berlin again. Once more material damage was slight, but the fact that such an attack – the largest yet against Berlin – could be made at all was a blow to German morale. From 5 September Blenheims renewed their attacks on barges massing in the Channel ports. Two days later the government warned that invasion was to be expected within days. That night Bomber Command intensified its efforts against the Channel ports. Almost all of Bomber Command, assisted by Coastal Command, was committed from 13/14 September. During each of the nights of 14/15, 18/19 and 19/20 September, more than 170 bombers attacked the invasion fleet. On 13 September, 80 large barges were sunk Barges assembled at at Britain’s edge, Coastal Command from France, were detached to Coastal at Ostend. Eighty-four were lost at Wilhelmshaven in readiness units were detached to Lossiemouth Command to increase the force’s night for Operation Sealion Dunkirk as the result of another raid to mount daily sweeps to within 200 capability, as were a number of Fleet on 17 September. By 19 September, miles of the Norwegian coast. Air Arm Swordfish and Albacores for almost 200 had been sunk. Sorties were tasked from airfields in mining and bombing sorties. In No 5 Group each Hampden southern England against ports, Between 15 July and 21 September Squadron was allotted a port, and airfields, oil refineries, canals, rail yards the combined offensive sank or each crew a basin. Crews got to know and factories, and to deter U-boats damaged at least 24 transports and their particular target, and as from taking up positions in French 214 barges – approximately 12 per reconnaissance revealed the results of havens. Patrols in search of enemy cent of the 1,865 vessels that made up each attack, so inter-crew rivalry grew. shipping were flown over French and the invasion fleet. The cost was 948 Twenty-two-year-old Fg Off Guy Dutch coastal waters. Avro Ansons, allied airmen. Their effort and sacrifice Gibson reported carrying out attacks from a height low enough to observe “the tanks on board, the guns on mountings at the stern of each invasion craft, the tarpaulins over Bomber Command intensified its sinister objects on the docks”. Fires, flak bursts and tracers caused bomber efforts against the Channel ports crews to dub invasion ports the ‘Blackpool Front’. Attacks were pressed home in the face of fierce defences. Sgt John Hannah’s action in some fitted with extra side guns or was recognised by the Prime Minister extinguishing fires aboard his even a free-mounted 20mm cannon who, in his speech that saluted the Hampden over Antwerp on the night firing through the floor, flew Channel ‘Few’, went on to say: of 15/16 September led to the award patrols. Others attacked E- and U-boats “All hearts go out to the fighter of another Victoria Cross. and bombed shipping in Brest harbour pilots, whose brilliant actions we see Coastal Command played a by night. with our own eyes day after day; but considerable role. The Photographic Bristol Beauforts were restricted to we must never forget that all the time, Development Unit came under its mine laying or bombing sorties until night after night, month after month, remit, and from the earliest days cleared to use torpedoes against a our bomber squadrons travel far into squadrons of Blenheims flew coastal convoy off Ostend on 11 September. Germany, find their targets in the patrols and carried out day and night Six nights later, a night torpedo strike darkness by the highest navigational anti-invasion reconnaissance. Norway was made against shipping in the skill, aim their attacks, often under the was in German hands, and it was not outer harbour at Cherbourg, heaviest fire, often with serious loss, difficult to imagine an attempt to seize accompanied by bomb- and flare- with deliberate careful discrimination, the Shetland Islands that would mirror dropping Blenheims that attacked port and inflict shattering blows upon the the loss of the Channel Islands. To facilities and oil stores. Two squadrons whole of the technical and war- counter further incursions that nibbled of Fairey Battles, recently evacuated making structure of the Nazi power.”

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 141 BRAVERY - SACRIFICE - FREEDOM

The Battle of Britain was fought in clear blue skies with white clouds as a backdrop to the vapour trails and smoke left by combat – or was it? Robert Owen examines how weather influenced the outcome Weathers

“REAL BATTLE OF Britain weather… drizzle and occasional fog. On both A Spitfire Summer… ” We might sides, some grass airfields became believe that every day during those waterlogged and unserviceable. Poor critical months of 1940 was brilliant visibility made it difficult to locate sunshine. It was thus represented by coastal shipping, but such vessels the artist Paul Nash in 1941 (see could be shadowed and bombed by image, right), and much of Guy small formations that used the cloud Hamilton’s 1969 film was shot in the for concealment. RAF patrols over such skies of Spain to replicate such convoys rarely encountered these conditions. Reality, however, was attackers and were unwilling to rather different. venture far from their convoy for fear Accurate weather forecasting was of losing contact. essential for both sides. International Squadrons stood down only in the exchange of meteorological data, and very worst weather. Poor flying daily weather forecasts by the BBC conditions added to the strain on and press, had ceased with the senior and experienced pilots who outbreak of war. Thereafter, even were already suffering fatigue. incidental references to weather Conversely, they restricted the flying conditions – for instance, at sports opportunities of pilots fresh from events – were forbidden. training, for whom such coastal patrols It is said that a British summer With Europe’s prevailing weather would have provided valuable consists of two fine days and a first passing across Britain, the RAF had experience. RAF losses of Squadron thunderstorm, and so it seemed as July the forecasting advantage. The and Flight Commanders during this turned to August. Lightning created its weather over southeast England was period were accordingly heavy, own hazards, striking barrage balloons, easy to predict. The Luftwaffe, seeking depleting skills that would be in aircraft and on one occasion an to forecast conditions over both British increasing demand in months ahead. Observer Corps’ post. Attacks on targets and northern France, relied on Aircraft production was unaffected shipping and ports continued as both limited data gathered during nine- by weather (excepting, in extremis, sides increased their strength. RAF hour flights by theWettererkundungs test flying and deliveries, neither of losses remained half of those of Staffel (long-range weather which were interrupted during July). Luftwaffe casualties. These days were reconnaissance squadron) far out over Fighter Command made good earlier crucial. Without fine weather, the the Atlantic. losses, increasing its operational Luftwaffe could not defeat the RAF, nor Prevailing weather during the strength by 100 aircraft and increasing could Unternehmen Seelöwe opening fortnight of the Battle was its reserves. This opportunity was (Operation Sealion – the invasion via characterised by low-cloud and rain, exploited less by the Germans. the Channel) set sail.

142 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK Battle of Britain (1941), Paul Nash

but cloud and rain between 19 and 23 August gave a breathing space. While this relief was brief, it was sufficient to enable Fighter Command to make replacements before the 17 clear days – the famed ‘Spitfire Summer’– that were to follow. It was during this period that massed attacks against the airfields caused heavy losses. But at the critical moment the attacks switched to London. The fine spell was broken on 10 September with another period of showery days, which extended for nearly a fortnight. In the midst of this the Germans took advantage of the only day of fine weather, September 15 – the day now commemorated as ‘Battle of Britain Day’ – to mount their largest attack on London. Again, the respite had permitted a resurgence of effort, and theLuftwaffe was met with determined opposition. When clear conditions returned, enabling the resumption of massed attacks, the Luftwaffe reverted to strikes against diverse targets. Among these were aircraft factories, but by now production was dispersed and the RAF had sufficient strength to mount significant opposition. The battles were fierce, and casualties high, but it was too late for the Luftwaffe to regain the initiative. Three days into October, the weather deteriorated, with fog, rain and cloud creating conditions that were suitable only for small attacks on widespread targets, with small numbers of fast, high-flying Messerschmitt Bf-109s and Junkers Ju-88s continuing the daylight assault on London on a much By Adlertag (Eagle Day), the RAF reduced scale. Henceforth, the Poor flying conditions had increased its operational Luftwaffe’s major attacks would now strength, just in time for the onset of be made at night. added to the strain on a succession of fine, clear days that Reichsmarschall Göring claimed were ideal for large bomber that the Luftwaffe needed only three senior and experienced operations and mass attacks with days of clear weather to destroy the strong fighter escort. The perfect air defences of southern Britain. Hitler pilots who were already weather also assisted the Observer maintained that Seelöwe needed five Corps, whose members provided the days of calm sea conditions. These suffering fatigue only means of tracking raids once weather criteria were met on occasion they had crossed the coast and were during the Battle, but Göring had moving inland. Despite greater grossly underestimated his activity and higher losses, the RAF requirement. Without German air was still destroying the Luftwaffe at a superiority during those five, fine and rate of at least two-to-one. calm days, the Channel would have The increased losses were worrying, become a killing field.

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 143 Eurofighter Simulation Systems GmbH (ESS)

Eurofighter Simulation Systems (ESS) in partnership with the Prime Networked with other FMS or CT/IPS-E at the same base or dispersed Contractor Eurofighter GmbH, plays a major role in the ASTA project and locations, the CT/IPS-E provides a controlled environment for training in is responsible for the design, development, production and support for all formation flying and air combat against hostile aircraft in tactical of the non weapons systems work content. ASTA devices have been and situations. The CT/IPS-E provides simulation of all aircraft systems in continue to be delivered for the Eurofighter Partner Air Forces of United normal and reversionary modes and alternative aircraft. Kingdom, Germany, Spain and Italy. ASTA was also selected by the Following the delivery and acceptance of the Early Cockpit Trainer Austrian Air Force to train their EF2000 Typhoon Pilots on a Full Mission (ECT) in March 2006 the ASTA programme has continued to move ahead. Simulator based on an Austria-specific national database. Since May 2007, In 2008 the 2nd Tranche of ASTA simulators were ordered by the four this device has been in training. Core Nations. The deployment of an additional 8 FMS’s and 7 CT’s started Other Nations are currently assessing the unique ASTA capabilities and in 2009 and will be finalised as per plan in 2012. To date, ASTA Simulators will be potential Export countries in the future. have been delivered and are in operation in the Main Operating Bases of ESS is based in the Munich area of Germany and is a joint venture five Nations. between the main National Simulation Industries in Europe. These ESS is fully committed to the future of the ASTA programme and will Industries are ARGE comprising (Rheinmetall Defence Electronics and continue to support these training devices delivering high training CAE) in Germany, Selex Galileo in Italy, Indra Sistemas in Spain and Thales capability and value. In the future, ESS will look at ways to further extend Training & Simulation in the UK. and improve the level of service and support for all ASTA devices and The ASTA Full Mission Simulator (FMS) provides a full fidelity, real locations. world environment for the simulation of complex procedural and ESS will play its full part with its partners to ensure ASTA continues to operational scenarios and designed for training in all levels of visibility move successfully forward. covering day, night, dusk and dawn operations. To match the demanding operational requirements of the “Eurofighter Typhoon”, an extensive library of electronic threat scenarios is included in the FMS which can be programmed and updated to include a range of current and future ground and air threats matching training and rehearsal requirements for procedural training, operational planning, mission rehearsal and the development of tactics. The FMS can be fully networked to other devices. Alongside the FMS, the Cockpit Trainer/Interactive Pilot Station (CT/ IPS-E) provides procedural and aircrew familiarisation training. The system features simulated, full fidelity display and control functions including visual and aural cueing. As with the FMS, the CT/IPS-E is also designed to provide simulation of Computer Generated Forces (CGF) in both hostile and allied profiles. When linked to other CT/IPS-E or FMS, the CT/IPS-E provides co-operative tactical training, thus supporting FMS training functions. In terms of fidelity, scenario generation simulation in the CT/IPS-E is comparable to the FMS.

Eurofighter Simulation Systems GmbH Ludwigstrasse 47 D-85339 Hallbergmoos Person of contact: Wolfgang Herrnberger (CD) Tel.: 0049- (0)-811-9996-143 email: [email protected] Saturday 7 September

THE BATTLE HAD reached a critical Events began with the usual German be the largest raid to date. Group and stage. For nearly a month, the reconnaissance flights to collect sector controllers were instructed to Luftwaffe had been targeting the RAF’s meteorological information and assess alert their airfields and squadrons. airfields. Severe damage had been results of the previous night’s attacks. On Across the Channel, Reichsmarschall caused to vital Sector Stations. Biggin this Saturday luck was not with them. A Hermann Göring, personally Hill, for example, had been put out of Junkers Ju-88 crashed into a mountain in commanding the operation, stood action for several days. Since 13 mid-Wales; off the Isle of Wight, Spitfires atop the cliffs of Cap Gris Nez watching August, the Luftwaffe had lost some from 602 Sqn destroyed a lone Bf-110; at as the vanguard of his aerial armada of 670 aircraft, Fighter Command 400. 09:00 a Dornier Do-215 returning from 348 bombers, escorted by 617 fighters, The rate of fighter loss now exceeded Liverpool was shot down after a long circled for height. Stepped in waves production. Seasoned pilots were chase over the North Sea. from 14,000 to 23,000ft, they set becoming fewer. If such attrition But then, despite the fine, warm course for the English coast. continued, Air Chief Marshal Dowding weather, nothing happened. The Over the Channel, the air fleet split would have to consider withdrawal of screens of the Radio Direction Finding into separate formations, each group squadrons north of London to (RDF) stations were empty of plots. of bombers with its shepherding conserve his dwindling resources. By Controllers relaxed their fighter states. fighters spreading to cross the English so doing he would concede the Everyone waited. At mid-morning a coast along a broad front. The move Luftwaffe’s goal – air superiority over dozen Bf-109s slipped in to make a was calculated to confuse observers southern England and the Channel. sneak attack against Hawkinge, but and plotters as to possible targets. As As 7 September dawned, the then once again all was quiet. No fortune would have it, on this day Air forecast was for fine weather. doubt something would happen, but Vice-Marshal Park was visiting Air Chief Concentrated attacks on the when, and where? Marshal Dowding at Bentley Priory. previous day had inflicted further A swift, free chase by a small The two senior officers watched, damage on airfields, including Biggin formation of Bf-109s near New Romney seeking to grasp German intentions as Hill. RAF personnel, aware that the at 15:45 was the harbinger of further tracks appeared, disappeared and Luftwaffe was gaining the upper activity. At 15:54 Bentley Priory received reappeared on the plotting table. hand, prepared for another day of its first plot: a small formation forming The first visual sighting came from onslaught. During the morning, the up over the Pas de Calais. As minutes coastal Observer Corps’ posts at 16:16. Air Ministry told Fighter Command: passed the RDF data grew, and it Many hundreds of aircraft were “Invasion regarded as imminent.” became apparent that this was going to approaching the coast between

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 145 Beachy Head and North Foreland. Command called upon 12 Group’s harried by the Hurricanes of 501 and Almost immediately, Lord Willoughby Duxford Wing (19, 242 and 310 249 Squadrons who, in turn, were set de Broke, Chief Controller 11 Group in Squadrons) to patrol North Weald. upon by the bombers’ escort. At 17:15, Park’s absence, ordered 11 squadrons Aircraft from Hornchurch and Woolwich Arsenal, the Harland and into the air to face the threat. Martlesham would patrol the area Wolff shipyards and the Siemens Bros Six minutes later another 10 until the Wing arrived. electrical works shook as the first squadrons were called to Readiness. Reinforcements were also being bombs exploded. More bombs fell on By 16:30 they were either airborne or called up from Sussex and Hampshire, West Ham and the Thameshaven oil preparing to take off. With the but would take 45 minutes to arrive in depot, which was still aflame from an situation unclear, and with the the combat area. attack the previous night. previous pattern of attacks still The first attackers crossed the coast As the bombers withdrew, they influencing predictions, many aircraft at 16:40, meeting no opposition until were pounced upon by Spitfires of had been ordered to defend the the anti-aircraft (AA) guns of the 603 Sqn and Hurricanes of 1 and 303 Sector Stations and other vulnerable Medway defences opened up as they Squadrons. With the advantage of targets, such as the oil refinery at neared Rochester 20 minutes later. The height and the sun behind them, the Thameshaven. With nearly half of 11 bombers now turned westwards A scene that would soon be RAF fighters dived into the attack, Group in the air at 16:45, Fighter towards their targets at Woolwich, familiar in many urban areas claiming 11 destroyed in a matter of

Counting the cost

On 14 September 1940, one week after the Chamberlain warned, “the position might first heavy air raid on London, and on the well progressively deteriorate and lead to eve of the great air battles that would serious traffic congestion in a short time.” follow next day, Neville Chamberlain, It was noted that the supply of coal to now Lord President of the Council, southern England, already difficult reported to the War Cabinet on the extent “owing to the great reduction in the of air raid damage in the London area. seaborne coal traffic to the South Coast, While “serious damage” had been done is bound to be aggravated.” to the supply of electricity, water and gas The effect on food stocks varied from (water mains had proved “more negligible (bacon and meat) to half a vulnerable than was expected”), in week’s consumption of sugar, and the general this was “neither so serious nor so loss of two days’ consumption of wheat widespread as to involve the impairment and tea. These losses were “less of essential services for any long period”. important than the destruction of flour Damage to drainage was “more serious mills, cold storage plants, margarine and will take longer to repair”. Sewers factories, and oil and cake mills.” had been breached. The northern outfall Reserve milling capacity would be was now discharging into the River Lea brought into use and longer hours instead of the Thames. Pumping worked to increase flour stocks. machinery had been broken. As for raw materials, the main loss minutes. As German aircraft headed Major damage has been done in all the was 20,000 standards of sawn timber in back across Kent they were further London dock areas. Warehouses, transit the Surrey Commercial Docks. The sheds and installations had been badly Minister of Supply was looking at the assailed, first by aircraft of the affected. Only the “great diminution” of dispersal of some other stocks – for Duxford Wing as the bombers passed traffic coming into the port of London – instance of wool, rubber and cotton – east of North Weald, next by 73 Sqn in part a result of the re-routing of ships elsewhere in the country. whose pursuits extended to to avoid air attacks – made this damage The Cabinet was told of arrangements Canterbury, another 18 being claimed “of less consequence than would for homeless people, communal feeding for the cost of four defenders. otherwise had been the case… Unless the where the gas supply had failed, and ports on the West and North-East Coast, local evacuations. Silvertown had been However, the claims were a tad or the inland transport system, are also evacuated because the water supply had erroneous as the bombers had extensively damaged, the situation failed, while at Wapping “there was already achieved the damage that should continue manageable.” danger from fire and falling walls”. they had been sent to cause. The effects of bombing on the railways “Up to the present,” Chamberlain Meanwhile, more formations were were regarded with “some anxiety”. A concluded, “while serious damage has large number of vital points had been hit, been sustained by individual installations heading for the capital. By 17:20, three especially south of the River. “The trouble or services, nothing has happened which formations, each of 20-plus aircraft had here lies, not so much in the severity of points to a continued impairment of crossed the coast, soon to be followed the damage at any particular places, but essential services. But everything turns on by others. The RAF fighters were now in in the number of places hit, and in the whether we get a breathing space to repair position to engage the aggressors as time-lag caused by unexploded bombs.” the damage already done, or whether the they started their track inland. Twenty- If the rate of damage were to increase, rate of damage is intensified…” eight Do-17s approaching over Beachy Head met Spitfires of 602 Sqn, who

146 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK Australians in the Battle of Britain

The Royal Australian Air Force sends fraternal congratulations to Among those who did not survive the the RAF on the 70th anniversary of victory in the Battle of Britain. Battle of Britain was Flight Lieutenant The RAAF itself played no direct part in the battle, as in mid-1940 P. C. (‘Pat’) Hughes, DFC, a 1936 graduate it had only one squadron (a flying boat unit) in England and the of Point Cook whose 15 victories gained first Australian aircrew trained under the Empire Air Training with No 234 Squadron, RAF, made him the highest-scoring Scheme did not begin arriving to bolster the RAF until December. Australian and the third-highest ace of the battle (a distinction Yet Australia did have a part in this famous defensive air battle, he shared with four others). He was killed on 7 September when by virtue of a small number of its nationals who were serving his crippled Spitfire crashed after engaging a Dornier bomber as members of the RAF. Many of these were pilots who had over Kent. received their ‘wings’ from the RAAF’s flying school at Point Cook, Three Australians who served as Flight Lieutenants during the outside Melbourne, in the years between 1926 and 1938, before battle survived to reach Wing Commander rank. Of these, Gordon accepting short service commissions with the RAF and often then Olive in 1941 took command of No 456 Squadron, the first RAAF transferring to the British service. Others were men who simply air unit trained for night fighting. Desmond Sheen received a Bar joined the RAF while working or studying in Britain when the war to his DFC and held various station commands; he retired from began. the RAF in 1971 and returned to Australia. As many as 37 of the 1500 or so pilots in Fighter Command Because of the battle’s central place in world history―both for during the battle have been described as ‘Australian’, although averting invasion and ensuring Britain’s survival in World War II, the number who identified themselves as such was apparently and as the classic example of an air campaign―Australians have only 29. Thirteen were killed in action. Eight had become ‘aces’ long held it in high regard. Annual commemorations still held in by the end of October 1940, though some had opened their many places around Australia proudly recall the Battle of Britain, score of aerial victories during the earlier Battle of France. Seven and especially the small contingent of Australians who took part. of these aces were awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC). The RAAF of today is geared to working with allies to achieve shared strategic goals and objectives, just as occurred in World War II. In recent years Australian Defence Force personnel, including RAAF, have served in common theatres with British forces, in Iraq and Afghanistan. Maintaining that capacity to cooperate with friends is the ‘tomorrow’ towards which the RAAF still strives.

RAAF Hornet flying alongside a Spitfire Mk VIII of the type used in the Pacific theatre in WWII, pictured during a flying display in recent years. (Photo by Rob Fox) Copyright BAE Systems Copyright BAE Systems We deliver essential skills. Where and when you need them.

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Solutions Through Understanding destroyed one before being set upon As the formations headed for home delivered a heavier weight of attack by the previously unobserved escort. they were intercepted by three against a single target. However, Further bombers followed, turning over squadrons, two of which had already success for the attacking force also southwest London to head for their seen combat earlier in the afternoon. facilitated defence. With the bombers targets in the East End. Having landed, refuelled and re-armed, converging on a single target it was Near Folkestone, 20 fighter-escorted they returned to the air to harry the possible to anticipate their tracks and Do-215s were set upon by nine withdrawal. By 18:30 the last of the improve the interception rate. Hurricanes of 43 Sqn; the odds against German machines that had taken part Of the 23 squadrons scrambled, 21 them were overwhelming, and three during the afternoon were back over engaged the enemy, although only six Hurricanes were lost for the cost of the sea. had made contact before the bombers only one Bf-109 escort. It was not over. At 20:25, before reached their target, and in many As these combats were taking place, darkness had fallen, more bombers were cases these interceptions had been more bombers were seen streaming heading north over Sussex to add to the insufficient to prevent effective towards the capital. Some drew the damage caused by the afternoon’s raids. bombing, often because of superior attention of fitful anti-aircraft (AA) fire. Only two Hurricanes from Tangmere enemy numbers. Forty-one enemy Rattled by combat before reaching their were patrolling at the time, and they aircraft were claimed destroyed. The designated targets, or in attempts to were not directed to intercept. On increased fighter escort had outrun the fighters, some bombers reaching London the bombers dropped succeeded in protecting the bombers, jettisoned their loads prematurely, their loads on Hammersmith, Battersea but at a high cost to themselves. causing incidents as far apart as and Paddington, then returned via The defending fighters had also Tottenham and Croydon. But many Selsey Bill. suffered badly – 28 being lost and 16 pressed on toward their targets. Individual bombers and small groups badly damaged, with 12 pilots killed Between 17:15 and 18:10, bombs of aircraft continued to intrude until and five seriously injured. Despite this, found their mark, hitting warehouses 03:45, the only opposition being however, the RAF had cause to be and moored vessels in the Millwall spasmodic AA fire and unco-ordinated grateful. Had the Luftwaffe continued and Commercial Docks, at West Ham searchlights. Four night fighters were its campaign against the airfields, the and Barking, also causing damage at patrolling, two of them equipped with objective of air superiority might well Purfleet, Thurrock and Thameshaven. early airborne radar, but the ground have been achieved. The switch of The fires acted as a beacon for further defences appear to have hindered target meant that the vital Sector attacks during the night. Among the rather than assisted their efforts. There Stations could remain operational, and industrial targets were commercial were no interceptions. so able to direct their aircraft for properties and the working-class The Luftwaffe’s change of tactics London’s defence in coming weeks. 7 September 1940: a typical tenements of East Ham, West Ham, heralded a new phase in the Battle. By ‘Made in Germany, finished Barking and Silvertown. concentrating on London they had in Britain’ propaganda shot Robert Owen

The collector

Souvenir hunting was an obsession with He built up a museum in his bedroom, most of the young boys who lived under and swapped with the other boys – but the action in the skies during the Battle all the time he was planning his own of Britain. Pieces of shrapnel, parts of offensive against the invading enemy. He downed planes, even live ammunition spent hours in the library swotting up on – all were fair game, and the aim was to ammunition and explosives, and reach a crash site or a bomb crater studying guerrilla warfare in the Spanish before the authorities arrived to seal it Civil War. He emptied out the cartridge off. But for Harold Chapman the shells he’d found and used the contents collecting had another purpose. to make his own rudimentary grenades Harold seemed to have an inner which he would set off in his garden. He direction-finder which led him, experimented with Molotov cocktails, pedalling madly, to the site. Once he pin- collected boxes full of broken bottles to pointed a field on the road to Dover scatter over the roads, listened carefully – and there were the unexploded bombs, to boys whose fathers were in the Home their tailfins pointing up out of the soil Guard and had weapons hidden in their at an angle of 45˚, clear evidence that homes. these bombs at least had had no targets, The police found out about his but had been jettisoned by an aircraft on activities and came to interview him. But its way back over the Channel. Another then the threat of invasion receded and time he found a downed aircraft all went quiet along the Kent coast – the surrounded by live ammunition, which dogfights ceased and the nightly droning he carefully collected up and took home. overhead was heading elsewhere.

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 149 BRAVERY - SACRIFICE - FREEDOM

The Battle of Britain extended far out into the Atlantic. Clive Richards looks at the threat posed by German airpower to coastal shipping, and the attempt to cut Britain’s Atlantic lifeline Around the edge

LUFTWAFFE OPERATIONS IN the To strike effectively at protected Following the Luftwaffe’s failure to Right: Short Sunderland I of 210 Sqn shepherding a summer and autumn of 1940 had two shipping, bomber units were needed, destroy the RAF and the postponement convoy carrying Canadian complementary aims. One was to and these remained firmly under of Unternehmen Seelöwe (Operation troops to the UK, July 1940 establish air superiority over the UK; Luftwaffe control. On 5 September Sealion), a brief return was made to air Below: Heinkel He-115s were the other was to destroy “the 1939 Fliegerdivision (Air Division) 10 attacks on merchant vessels, as part of used for minelaying and economic war potential, and therefore was formed to control the Luftwaffe’s an economic blockade aimed at forcing patrol duties. An Arado Ar- the resistance, of Britain”. One way of specialist maritime attack units. In the Britain to surrender. This change was 196 is in the background achieving the second was to cut off following month this was expanded to not lost on the British air staff, whose the flow of food, raw materials, become Fliegerkorps X. Fliegerkorps X note on the subject prepared on 11 machine tools and arms reaching played a major role in the German November 1940 stated: “It appears that Britain by sea. invasion of Norway, and afterwards Germany has at present relinquished At the outbreak of war Germany continued to operate from Norwegian her effort to attain air superiority over possessed a modest maritime airfields against British shipping in the this country. The scale of attack is much reconnaissance capability. This was North Sea. reduced and it is mostly localised in the operated by the Luftwaffe but since Further south, during July and South Eastern area taking the form of February 1939 had been placed under August 1940, both conventional fighter sweeps. With this change in air the tactical control of the German Navy. bombers and Junkers Ju-87 dive strategy the enemy has recommenced The seaplanes and flying boats bombers belonging to Luftflotten 2 and her attacks on shipping. Convoys have operated by these Kustenfliegergruppe 3 attacked shipping in British coastal been attacked in the Straits of Dover, the Thames Estuary and on the East Coast, while the air attack on our shipping in the North Western The Luftwaffe could for the first Approaches necessitates immediate consideration [sic].” time reach into the North Atlantic Into the Atlantic The air staff’s concern about the north-western approaches reflected the (Maritime Aviation Wings) were capable waters. Merchant convoys along changed strategic positions in which of carrying bombs and torpedoes in the Britain’s east coast were particularly both Germany and Britain found anti-shipping role. Many of the aircrew targeted. Despite the best efforts of themselves after the fall of France. had already gained operational Fighter Command to protect these Germany’s success in May and June experience during the Spanish Civil convoys, so many vessels were lost to 1940 gained airfields in France, War. Between 1937 and 1939, seaplanes air attack that on 11 August the Royal Denmark and Norway, from which the of the Condor Legion’s AS/88 operating Navy was forced to suspend them. Luftwaffe could for the first time reach over the Mediterranean had sunk more The opening of the German air into the North Atlantic. than 55,000 gross registered tonnes offensive against the RAF in August The mainstay of Luftwaffe long- of shipping. 1940 was accompanied by a range maritime reconnaissance was Most of the maritime units were slackening of attacks against coastal the Focke-Wulf Fw-200 Condor. equipped with Heinkel He-59 and shipping. This change was authorised Designed originally by Kurt Tank as a He-115 seaplanes and Dornier Do-18 by Directive No 17 For the conduct of four-engined, long-range airliner for flying boats. These were used for patrol, air and sea warfare against England, Lufthansa, the first six examples of the minelaying and air-sea rescue duties, but issued by Hitler’s supreme armed version – the Focke-Wulf they were cumbersome and unsuited to headquarters (OKW) on 1 August 200C-0 – were delivered to a specialist anti-shipping operations against 1940, which decreed that “air attacks Fernaufklärungsstaffel (long-range defended targets. The firstLuftwaffe on enemy warships and merchant reconnaissance Staffel) under the aircraft to fall to the British was a Do-18, ships may be reduced except where command of Oberstleutnant shot down by a Blackburn Skua of the some particular target happens to (Lieutenant Colonel) Edgar Petersen in Fleet Air Arm on 26 September 1939. present itself”. November 1939.

150 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK Fear and excitement

All along the Kent coast, during those early months of the war, the fear of invasion was palpable. The schools, which had been crammed to the gills with children evacuated from London, emptied as the London children went home and the local children followed them to the comparative safety of Wales and the rural Midlands. Those who could leave did. And for those who stayed – particularly if they lived close to the railway line which seemed to be a constant target of German bombers – the drone overhead was a daily call to anxious sky-watching. The parishioners of St Saviour’s church, on the Strand at Walmer overlooking the Channel, felt particularly vulnerable. They fitted the church out with blackout curtains and shutters so that they could continue with evening worship – but the nights there, on the edge of the Channel, were full of foreboding: the empty streets, the empty beach where danger could erupt out of the night. Approaching peril could announce itself in many ways. The local doctors had organised themselves into rotas to cover emergencies, and those carrying out this service were given telephone lines to the local exchanges, which would switch over some of their lines when an alert was due. The son of one of the doctors on the rota recalls his father telling him that he had an early warning of an alert because his telephone would give a faint ‘ting’ when the lines were switched over. But the war was fascinating too. The grassy tops of the chalk cliffs between St Margaret’s and Dover offered a grand- stand view of the Battle of Britain – though they did not call it that at the time – to those of the local residents for whom the action in the skies was more exciting than frightening. Families would take picnics out on to the clifftops to watch the dogfights over the Channel and the convoys of bombers droning their way to their targets. The activity over Calais was also a draw, particularly on clear days when the white cliffs of the French coast looked as if they were merely the other side of a lake. Death and danger could be ignored as if they were part of a play on the stage in front of them.

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 151 Operating as part of the other tasks. A third factor was Focke-Wulf Condor of KG40, apprehension was shared by Churchill, Aufklärungsgruppe der Oberkommando structural: because of the Condor’s November 1940 who described the Fw-200 as the der Luftwaffe (AufKlGr ObdL, the airliner pedigree, its airframe was “scourge of the Atlantic”. Reconnaissance Group of the Luftwaffe insufficiently robust for a combat One of the largest targets to fall prey High Command), Petersen’s crews began aircraft and failures were frequent. to a Condor was the former Canadian to fly long-range maritime patrols in A fourth limitation lay in I/KG40’s Pacific liner Empress of Britain, then support of the German Navy’s U-Boat chain of command. The refusal of requisitioned for war service as a (submarine) fleet, ranging as far as Iceland Luftwaffe leaders to cede control of the troopship. On 26 October 1940 she and the Faroes. In April 1940 the Condors to the Navy meant that the was attacked by an Fw-200 off the Fernaufklärungsstaffel was designated the sighting reports of their crews were northwestern coast of Ireland. Bombs firstStaffel of Kampfgeschwader (bomber passed to the headquarters of the from the Condor ignited fires and the Geschwader) 40 (1/KG40), and in June it Commander-in-Chief of Submarines by ship was abandoned. Although was raised to the status of a Gruppe (I/ such a circuitous route that the delay subsequently taken under tow, the KG40). Following the French surrender, I/ hindered effectiveness. Empress of Britain was later struck by KG40 relocated to the airfield at Brest, These drawbacks not withstanding, two torpedoes fired by the German later moving to Bordeaux-Mérignac. during its heyday, between June 1940 submarine U-32, and on 28 October she sank. Spurred on by Churchill, the Air Ministry and Admiralty together forged a rapid response to the Condor threat. Coastal Command’s long-range fighter squadrons were redeployed to maximise the chances of intercepting the Condors en route to their patrol areas, and considerable efforts were made to equip merchant vessels with some form of anti-aircraft armament. Additionally, a number of merchant vessels were fitted with catapults capable of launching Sea Hurricane fighters in the event of a Condor sighting. Flight decks were not fitted, so the fighters launched by these catapult aircraft merchant ships could not be recovered. If no airfield was within reach, the only hope for the RAF and Royal Naval pilots who I/KG40 made its first operational and December 1941, the Fw-200 volunteered for this perilous duty was maritime reconnaissance sortie from posed a significant danger to Britain’s to abandon or ditch their aircraft Bordeaux-Mérignac on 8 August 1940. trans-Atlantic lifeline. During near a vessel from the convoy and Three days later it began to fly shuttle operational sorties, Condors were await rescue. sorties between its home airfield and the usually armed with between six and More significantly, in 1941 the Navy Luftwaffe station at Ålborg in Denmark, eight 250kg bombs, and their crews received the escort carrier HMS each leg lasting up to 13.5 hours and proved adept at using them to sink or Audacity, which was originally a covering up to 3,500km. By May the disable merchantmen. Writing to the German merchant ship. Captured by following year the airfields at Under-Secretary of State for Air on 10 the Royal Navy and re-named several Gardermoen (outside Oslo) and December 1940, the Air Officer times, Audacity paved the way for the Stavanger in Norway were also being Commanding-in-Chief Coastal use of converted merchantmen fitted used by the Condor crews. Command, Air Chief Marshal (ACM) Sir with full flight decks as aircraft carriers, The potential of the Condors to act as Frederick Bowhill, noted: “The capable of both launching and the eyes of the German Navy’s U-Boat depredations of hostile aircraft, and recovering fighters and anti-submarine fleet was immense, but never fully particularly the Focke-Wulf, in the aircraft. Although Audacity was sunk realised. One reason for this was the slow Atlantic has been causing me great by a U-Boat on 21 December 1941, rate of Fw-200 production, which meant concern. During the past five months, escort carriers and the merchant that the number of machines available July-November, these aircraft sank aircraft carriers were to prove a vital to I/KG40 was never large. Another was over 122,000 tons of shipping in the step towards the provision of fighter the Fw-200’s transport capability, which Atlantic, besides causing damage to a protection for convoys crossing led to aircraft being drawn away for number of other ships”. ACM Bowhill’s the Atlantic.

152 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK BRAVERY - SACRIFICE - FREEDOM

The Battle of Britain extended far out into the Atlantic. Clive Richards looks at the threat posed by German airpower to coastal shipping, and the attempt to cut Britain’s Atlantic lifeline Around the edge

LUFTWAFFE OPERATIONS IN the To strike effectively at protected Following the Luftwaffe’s failure to Right: Short Sunderland I of 210 Sqn shepherding a summer and autumn of 1940 had two shipping, bomber units were needed, destroy the RAF and the postponement convoy carrying Canadian complementary aims. One was to and these remained firmly under of Unternehmen Seelöwe (Operation troops to the UK, July 1940 establish air superiority over the UK; Luftwaffe control. On 5 September Sealion), a brief return was made to air Below: Heinkel He-115s were the other was to destroy “the 1939 Fliegerdivision (Air Division) 10 attacks on merchant vessels, as part of used for minelaying and economic war potential, and therefore was formed to control the Luftwaffe’s an economic blockade aimed at forcing patrol duties. An Arado Ar- the resistance, of Britain”. One way of specialist maritime attack units. In the Britain to surrender. This change was 196 is in the background achieving the second was to cut off following month this was expanded to not lost on the British air staff, whose the flow of food, raw materials, become Fliegerkorps X. Fliegerkorps X note on the subject prepared on 11 machine tools and arms reaching played a major role in the German November 1940 stated: “It appears that Britain by sea. invasion of Norway, and afterwards Germany has at present relinquished At the outbreak of war Germany continued to operate from Norwegian her effort to attain air superiority over possessed a modest maritime airfields against British shipping in the this country. The scale of attack is much reconnaissance capability. This was North Sea. reduced and it is mostly localised in the operated by the Luftwaffe but since Further south, during July and South Eastern area taking the form of February 1939 had been placed under August 1940, both conventional fighter sweeps. With this change in air the tactical control of the German Navy. bombers and Junkers Ju-87 dive strategy the enemy has recommenced The seaplanes and flying boats bombers belonging to Luftflotten 2 and her attacks on shipping. Convoys have operated by these Kustenfliegergruppe 3 attacked shipping in British coastal been attacked in the Straits of Dover, the Thames Estuary and on the East Coast, while the air attack on our shipping in the North Western The Luftwaffe could for the first Approaches necessitates immediate consideration [sic].” time reach into the North Atlantic Into the Atlantic The air staff’s concern about the north-western approaches reflected the (Maritime Aviation Wings) were capable waters. Merchant convoys along changed strategic positions in which of carrying bombs and torpedoes in the Britain’s east coast were particularly both Germany and Britain found anti-shipping role. Many of the aircrew targeted. Despite the best efforts of themselves after the fall of France. had already gained operational Fighter Command to protect these Germany’s success in May and June experience during the Spanish Civil convoys, so many vessels were lost to 1940 gained airfields in France, War. Between 1937 and 1939, seaplanes air attack that on 11 August the Royal Denmark and Norway, from which the of the Condor Legion’s AS/88 operating Navy was forced to suspend them. Luftwaffe could for the first time reach over the Mediterranean had sunk more The opening of the German air into the North Atlantic. than 55,000 gross registered tonnes offensive against the RAF in August The mainstay of Luftwaffe long- of shipping. 1940 was accompanied by a range maritime reconnaissance was Most of the maritime units were slackening of attacks against coastal the Focke-Wulf Fw-200 Condor. equipped with Heinkel He-59 and shipping. This change was authorised Designed originally by Kurt Tank as a He-115 seaplanes and Dornier Do-18 by Directive No 17 For the conduct of four-engined, long-range airliner for flying boats. These were used for patrol, air and sea warfare against England, Lufthansa, the first six examples of the minelaying and air-sea rescue duties, but issued by Hitler’s supreme armed version – the Focke-Wulf they were cumbersome and unsuited to headquarters (OKW) on 1 August 200C-0 – were delivered to a specialist anti-shipping operations against 1940, which decreed that “air attacks Fernaufklärungsstaffel (long-range defended targets. The firstLuftwaffe on enemy warships and merchant reconnaissance Staffel) under the aircraft to fall to the British was a Do-18, ships may be reduced except where command of Oberstleutnant shot down by a Blackburn Skua of the some particular target happens to (Lieutenant Colonel) Edgar Petersen in Fleet Air Arm on 26 September 1939. present itself”. November 1939.

150 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK Fear and excitement

All along the Kent coast, during those early months of the war, the fear of invasion was palpable. The schools, which had been crammed to the gills with children evacuated from London, emptied as the London children went home and the local children followed them to the comparative safety of Wales and the rural Midlands. Those who could leave did. And for those who stayed – particularly if they lived close to the railway line which seemed to be a constant target of German bombers – the drone overhead was a daily call to anxious sky-watching. The parishioners of St Saviour’s church, on the Strand at Walmer overlooking the Channel, felt particularly vulnerable. They fitted the church out with blackout curtains and shutters so that they could continue with evening worship – but the nights there, on the edge of the Channel, were full of foreboding: the empty streets, the empty beach where danger could erupt out of the night. Approaching peril could announce itself in many ways. The local doctors had organised themselves into rotas to cover emergencies, and those carrying out this service were given telephone lines to the local exchanges, which would switch over some of their lines when an alert was due. The son of one of the doctors on the rota recalls his father telling him that he had an early warning of an alert because his telephone would give a faint ‘ting’ when the lines were switched over. But the war was fascinating too. The grassy tops of the chalk cliffs between St Margaret’s and Dover offered a grand- stand view of the Battle of Britain – though they did not call it that at the time – to those of the local residents for whom the action in the skies was more exciting than frightening. Families would take picnics out on to the clifftops to watch the dogfights over the Channel and the convoys of bombers droning their way to their targets. The activity over Calais was also a draw, particularly on clear days when the white cliffs of the French coast looked as if they were merely the other side of a lake. Death and danger could be ignored as if they were part of a play on the stage in front of them.

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 151 Operating as part of the other tasks. A third factor was Focke-Wulf Condor of KG40, apprehension was shared by Churchill, Aufklärungsgruppe der Oberkommando structural: because of the Condor’s November 1940 who described the Fw-200 as the der Luftwaffe (AufKlGr ObdL, the airliner pedigree, its airframe was “scourge of the Atlantic”. Reconnaissance Group of the Luftwaffe insufficiently robust for a combat One of the largest targets to fall prey High Command), Petersen’s crews began aircraft and failures were frequent. to a Condor was the former Canadian to fly long-range maritime patrols in A fourth limitation lay in I/KG40’s Pacific liner Empress of Britain, then support of the German Navy’s U-Boat chain of command. The refusal of requisitioned for war service as a (submarine) fleet, ranging as far as Iceland Luftwaffe leaders to cede control of the troopship. On 26 October 1940 she and the Faroes. In April 1940 the Condors to the Navy meant that the was attacked by an Fw-200 off the Fernaufklärungsstaffel was designated the sighting reports of their crews were northwestern coast of Ireland. Bombs firstStaffel of Kampfgeschwader (bomber passed to the headquarters of the from the Condor ignited fires and the Geschwader) 40 (1/KG40), and in June it Commander-in-Chief of Submarines by ship was abandoned. Although was raised to the status of a Gruppe (I/ such a circuitous route that the delay subsequently taken under tow, the KG40). Following the French surrender, I/ hindered effectiveness. Empress of Britain was later struck by KG40 relocated to the airfield at Brest, These drawbacks not withstanding, two torpedoes fired by the German later moving to Bordeaux-Mérignac. during its heyday, between June 1940 submarine U-32, and on 28 October she sank. Spurred on by Churchill, the Air Ministry and Admiralty together forged a rapid response to the Condor threat. Coastal Command’s long-range fighter squadrons were redeployed to maximise the chances of intercepting the Condors en route to their patrol areas, and considerable efforts were made to equip merchant vessels with some form of anti-aircraft armament. Additionally, a number of merchant vessels were fitted with catapults capable of launching Sea Hurricane fighters in the event of a Condor sighting. Flight decks were not fitted, so the fighters launched by these catapult aircraft merchant ships could not be recovered. If no airfield was within reach, the only hope for the RAF and Royal Naval pilots who I/KG40 made its first operational and December 1941, the Fw-200 volunteered for this perilous duty was maritime reconnaissance sortie from posed a significant danger to Britain’s to abandon or ditch their aircraft Bordeaux-Mérignac on 8 August 1940. trans-Atlantic lifeline. During near a vessel from the convoy and Three days later it began to fly shuttle operational sorties, Condors were await rescue. sorties between its home airfield and the usually armed with between six and More significantly, in 1941 the Navy Luftwaffe station at Ålborg in Denmark, eight 250kg bombs, and their crews received the escort carrier HMS each leg lasting up to 13.5 hours and proved adept at using them to sink or Audacity, which was originally a covering up to 3,500km. By May the disable merchantmen. Writing to the German merchant ship. Captured by following year the airfields at Under-Secretary of State for Air on 10 the Royal Navy and re-named several Gardermoen (outside Oslo) and December 1940, the Air Officer times, Audacity paved the way for the Stavanger in Norway were also being Commanding-in-Chief Coastal use of converted merchantmen fitted used by the Condor crews. Command, Air Chief Marshal (ACM) Sir with full flight decks as aircraft carriers, The potential of the Condors to act as Frederick Bowhill, noted: “The capable of both launching and the eyes of the German Navy’s U-Boat depredations of hostile aircraft, and recovering fighters and anti-submarine fleet was immense, but never fully particularly the Focke-Wulf, in the aircraft. Although Audacity was sunk realised. One reason for this was the slow Atlantic has been causing me great by a U-Boat on 21 December 1941, rate of Fw-200 production, which meant concern. During the past five months, escort carriers and the merchant that the number of machines available July-November, these aircraft sank aircraft carriers were to prove a vital to I/KG40 was never large. Another was over 122,000 tons of shipping in the step towards the provision of fighter the Fw-200’s transport capability, which Atlantic, besides causing damage to a protection for convoys crossing led to aircraft being drawn away for number of other ships”. ACM Bowhill’s the Atlantic.

152 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK Allied Air Forces Memorial

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L A I I E R #!# & !  #!## D O A M I E R M www& !  #!## FORCES Sunday 15 September

AFTER A WEEK of reduced daytime of attackers, with 10 and 12 Group The attacking force comprised about A gunner’s eye view as activity, mainly dictated by poor squadrons being paired to supplement 100 Dornier 17 bombers with fighters. a formation of Do-17s weather, the Luftwaffe struck again at the defence if required. Hitherto, Luftwaffe formations had met approaches London London, on an unprecedented scale. From the dawn of 15 September, their escort en route. However, missed Air Chief Marshal Dowding had used standing patrols were mounted along rendezvous had occasionally left the the lull to rotate his squadrons, so the south coast between Harwich and bombers poorly protected, today British pilots were refreshed and well Land’s End. From 07:00 at least one fighters and bombers formed up before prepared. Although not known to the squadron at each Sector Station was they left the French coast. The new British at the time, Luftwaffe morale maintained at readiness. As usual, a procedure was an acknowledgement of was beginning to suffer. Having failed few reconnaissance aircraft were the Luftwaffe’s growing respect for to destroy the RAF during August, detected and pursued between 09:00 Fighter Command, and it assisted the some German aircrew were beginning and 11:00 but to little avail, save for defenders: the time needed to to doubt the effectiveness of the an He-111 that was shot down off Bolt assemble made it easier for Radio daylight-bombing offensive. Head in the southwest. Direction Finding (RDF) to locate the With an improved weather forecast, From 10:00 a number of Luftwaffe formations, and enabled AVM Park’s Fighter Command was on the alert. patrols appeared over the Straits of pilots to arrive in a tactically Learning from the events of 7 Dover. Rye Chain Home reported advantageous position. Defence-in- September, four days later Air significant activity developing at 10:50 depth was the key approach. The Vice-Marshal (AVM) Park had issued – an increasing number of plots were additional warning time enabled modified instructions to 11 Group identified assembling over the Pas de 10 out of 21 of AVM Park’s squadrons Controllers. Squadrons equipped with Calais. At 10:55 AVM Park brought all of to form up to fight in pairs, and for the same type of aircraft were to be his squadrons to readiness. Spitfires reinforcements to be summoned from despatched in pairs ‘at readiness’ to then patrolling over Kent returned to 10 and 12 Groups. make initial contact with the enemy. base to refuel, while 92 and 72 Three columns of advancing Dornier Spitfires would engage the top fighter Squadrons were scrambled from bombers encountered the Spitfires of cover, while Hurricanes attacked the Biggin Hill to meet the enemy 72 and 92 Squadrons at 11:33, shortly bombers and close escort. As the first formations between Canterbury and after they crossed the coast between squadrons were scrambled, others Dungeness. Word went out to 10 and Ramsgate and Dover. The Spitfires would be brought to increased states, 12 Groups to give forewarning of immediately set about the ready to meet second and third waves anticipated activity. Messerschmitt Bf-109 escort. The

154 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK battle continued as they headed north making it impossible for the close on the lawn of Buckingham Palace but Calm before the storm: route before turning for Maidstone. Here, fighter escort to do its job. The failed to explode. A 504 Sqn pilot out planning before a sortie battle was joined by other units; escorting Bf-109s were in any case of ammunition rammed a Dornier, Hurricanes of 253 and 501 Squadrons now running low on fuel and turned to sending it crashing onto the forecourt carried out head-on attacks against head for home via the Thames Estuary. of Victoria Station. The pilot baled out the vanguard of the formation. South Fighting for survival, the bombers of his damaged Hurricane to land on a dustbin in Chelsea. Sensing that this was only the first phase of the day’s activity, the Fighter Fighting for survival, the bombers Controllers ordered the prompt replenishment of their fighters as they wheeled round across central landed. It was a shrewd move. Within an hour or so, three waves totalling London… heading for the relative more than 150 Dorniers and Heinkel bombers, escorted by Bf 109s, were safety of the south coast taking off and assembling over northeast France. Once again, the assembly period gave the RAF of Gravesend, 66 Sqn engaged the wheeled round across central London, controllers time to call 12 squadrons bombers while 41 Sqn occupied the releasing their loads as soon as into the air. Fresh from their morning’s Bf-109s above. possible before diving away to the success, the British pilots were A quarter of an hour later the west and heading for the relative scrambled between 13:50 and 14:20. German crews could see their target. safety of the south coast. Prompt work by the groundcrews At this moment they were heavily Lacking concentration, the bombs enabled almost every squadron to put engaged by six squadrons from 11 fell widely across the south and central up two flights, totalling more than 170 Group, followed by the Duxford Wing London, from Crystal Palace to Victoria. Spitfires and Hurricanes. – three squadrons of Hurricanes with Two bridges between Clapham The German armada crossed over two more of Spitfires providing cover Junction and Victoria were hit, but north Kent between 14:15-14:20, in 5,000ft above. This sudden onslaught damage to vital installations and three waves, spread over a 25-mile fragmented the bomber formation, services was minimal. One bomb fell front. The first clash came with the

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 155 escorting Bf-109s, who succeeded in Below, top: deflection shot escort, operating at maximum range, Southampton. Avoiding the barrage holding off the defending fighters for – an He-111 caught in a hail would have no fuel left to engage in balloons, they were targeting the of tracer more than 10 minutes. Further RAF Below: 257 Sqn’s Hurricanes protective combat. Supermarine Spitfire factory at fighters joined battle, finally inflicting return to base, their sealed The bombing was more effective Woolston. Determined anti-aircraft fire some damage on the bombers. The gun ports suggesting no than that of the morning, but still less frustrated their aim and although arrival over East London of five contact with the enemy than that caused by the more damage was done to surrounding squadrons of the Duxford Wing concentrated attack of 7 September. property the aircraft factory escaped. tipped the balance, though on this Damage was caused to electricity This was the last of the day’s daylight occasion the bombers’ fighter escort supplies, a telephone exchange, a attacks. By chance, this was also the day was initially more effective. The die gasholder and railway installations. that Winston Churchill chose to visit 11 was truly cast as six 11 Group and two As the retreating bombers headed Group’s Operations Room at Uxbridge. 10 Group squadrons arrived to make a for the Kent coast with Fighter Standing with AVM Park in the gallery head-on attack on the bombers, Command in pursuit, two small overlooking the plotting table, he scattering them in all directions. formations of Bf-109s and Bf-110s viewed the unfolding battle. As the Once again, realising that there was crossed the Kent coast at 15:30. In the German formations advanced towards no hope of making a concentrated scale of things they were small fry and the capital, Churchill is reported to have attack, the bombers released their went virtually unnoticed. Meanwhile, asked about the state of reserves, loads as soon as possible and turned further formations of bombers and receiving the ominous reply: “There are to run for home. As they did so, they fighters were encountering effective none.” Fighter Command’s entire knew that after such combat their opposition over Kent. available force had indeed been The day had more in store. At 15:00, committed, but with advanced 27 Heinkel bombers were detected warning, effective positioning and heading for Southampton, but then renewed determination it had proved suddenly swung westwards toward sufficient. AVM Park’s new tactics Portland. Six Spitfires from 152 Sqn were sound. were despatched to intercept, Newspapers and the BBC told the destroying one bomber and damaging public that 185 enemy machines had a second. Only five bombs fell on naval been destroyed. Admiration for the ‘Few’ targets at Portland. reached new heights, with a Around 17:00 a further formation of corresponding lift in morale. We now fast aircraft was spotted heading north know that the real figure was a good from Cherbourg. Six squadrons were deal less, about 60, for the loss of 26 of sent to patrol between the Isle of Wight Fighter Command’s aircraft with 12 and Portland. Instead, 18 Bf-110s pilots killed, one taken prisoner-of-war skirted east and headed for and four seriously wounded. Yet, even this was an outstanding success for Fighter Command, and it would do much to change the course of the Battle. The day’s main significance lay less in the number of aircraft brought down than in the fact that British fighters had, for the first time, found themselves attacking the enemy in favourable numbers. Fighter Command’s pilots sensed a real improvement in the odds. At the same time, for Luftwaffe crews who had been told that the RAF was down to its last 50 fighters and had met only limited opposition on 7 September, the day’s encounter with a re-vitalised Fighter Command came as a shock. In the course of one day both sides experienced a reversal of outlook – German victory was now by no means certain, while Britain stood alone with renewed vigour.

Robert Owen

156 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK ARMED FORCES TRAINING FOR THE FUTURE: Achieving flexibility and innovation through sustained excellence in training delivery

Metrix – Training transformation and the creation of an exciting new college the process of course environment for the 21st Century redevelopment and design. In 2001 the MOD published a report entitled ‘Modernising Defence The challenge therefore will Training’. The report highlighted that future defence technical training be for Metrix to maintain needed to be more integrated, managed on a defence-wide basis and that standards and uphold a the training estate needed investment and rationalisation. These balanced approach to training recommendations are at the heart of what is today the Defence Training delivery, which will be Review (DTR) Package 1 Project which seeks to transform the way three informed by a blend of real types of technical training are delivered across the Services, and which will working environments mixed see the construction of what will become the Defence Technical College with emulation and simulation (DTC) in South Wales. techniques, while embracing distance learning capabilities. About Metrix The transformation of Metrix is the consortium which has been appointed Preferred Bidder to defence training, which will be designed and managed by Metrix, will transform three types of technical training that is critical to the UK’s Armed deliver benefits to trainees, instructors, colleges, and Front Line Forces, and to manage, build and operate what will become the UK Ministry Commands. of Defence (MOD) Defence Technical College (DTC) in St Athan, South Wales. The Metrix consortium combines the best in technical knowledge, The Defence Technical College the best in education and training and the best in land property and The Defence Technical College (DTC) will bring together technical training facilities management. for all three Services in one location, creating the largest vocational training operation in the country. The DTC will be a wholly new type of training Training transformation facility, providing the Armed Forces with a purpose-built training capability. More than 20,000 men and women from the three Services will be coming Buildings will be specifically designed to accommodate the training to St Athan each year to train in the disciplines of Communications and techniques and methods of today while at the same time being flexible Information Systems (CIS), and Aeronautical and Electro-Mechanical enough to facilitate the continually changing military training requirements engineering. Currently these streams are instituted at three colleges: RAF of the future. The design of the DTC will support the respective ethos within Cosford in Shropshire, HMS Sultan near Portsmouth and Blandford Camp in each of the three Services and will reflect their different combat Dorset. Combined these colleges deliver more than a thousand different environments, their heritage and traditions. This acknowledges the courses each year and produce some of the best technically-skilled military influential nature of the training environment on the development of young personnel in the world. These highly skilled professionals benefit from a sailors, soldiers and airmen. Overall the DTC will provide a fitting home for body of training, which ranges from introductory courses in specific fields the servicemen and women who will train at St Athan over the course of designed to help shape a student’s career in the Services, through to the next 30 years. focused Phase 3 professional development courses. This one fact – the excellence of today’s technical training for the military – must be at the forefront of the minds of the Metrix training design teams as they manage www.metrixuk.com October

FIGHTER COMMAND’S SUCCESS on 15 September was a turning point. The Luftwaffe was increasingly aware of its failure to nullify Fighter Command. Air superiority over southeastern England, essential for the execution of Operation Seelöwe (Sealion), remained unachieved. On 17 September, accepting this and realising that autumn weather would make a sea crossing of the Channel increasingly hazardous, Hitler issued orders for the indefinite postponement of the invasion. Nevertheless, the Luftwaffe’s attacks continued, by both day and night. During late September the Luftwaffe had turned its attention to daylight attacks against aircraft factories. Considerable success was scored against the Supermarine works at Woolston and Bristol’s at Filton. Three months earlier this would have had serious consequences, but now the ‘shadow factory’ scheme and dispersed production had reduced the importance of parent factories. Luftwaffe tactics against London changed. Massed formations of bombers, protected by even larger numbers of fighters, were now replaced by significant numbers of improved versions of the Messerschmitt Bf-109 fighter, each carrying either a single 250kg bomb or an additional long- range fuel tank. The Luftwaffe High Command had ordered that one Gruppe in every Geschwader should be so equipped. Flying high and fast, they bombed indiscriminately. Damage was usually light, although occasionally significant casualties were caused when crowded thoroughfares were hit. Operating at 25,000-30,000ft they were above the effective height of the Hurricane, so putting themselves beyond two-thirds of the defending force. The fact that such attacks gave insufficient warning for Spitfires to scramble in time to reach the attackers’ altitude necessitated a return to virtually continuous standing patrols throughout the hours of daylight. Using oxygen and sitting in freezing

158 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK cockpits added to the strain of the Left: in coming months RAF’s pilots who sometimes flew up to London’s face was utterly changed On 12 October, Hitler issued a four sorties a day, often against Above, left: though the most formations of 50 or so Bf-109s. reliable of the Luftwaffe On 12 October, Hitler issued a bombers, the Do-17 lacked directive that demonstrated directive that demonstrated the bomb carrying capacity of the He-111 and the speed acceptance of the Luftwaffe’s failure. of the Ju-88 acceptance of the Luftwaffe’s failure Ostensible preparations for Seelöwe Below: a high-flying raider is were purely to maintain political and intercepted over Whitehall military pressure on Britain. The Also that morning, 12 Ju-88s Towards the end of October, Luftwaffe high-flying ‘snappers’, as they escorted by two Gruppen of Bf-109s Fighter Command found itself had become known, continued their attacked Portsmouth. In the afternoon, confronting a new, if less formidable, high-level attacks and, when weather North Weald was targeted by dive- enemy. Italy’s leader, Benito permitted, combined them with sneak bombing jabo Bf-109s. This was an Mussolini, had persuaded cloud cover attacks by single Junkers- effective attack, catching 249 and 257 Reichmarshall Göring to permit 88s and Dorniers against airfields. Squadrons just as they were taking off expeditionary elements of the Regia As weather deteriorated and days and destroying two Hurricanes. Aeronautica – the Italian Air Corps shortened, daylight attacks declined in Nineteen people were killed on the (Corpo Aereo Italiano or CAI) – to number. On 21, 23 and 24 October, ground and 42 injured. participate in operations against Fighter Command suffered no casualties in combat. On 29 October the RAF scored a major victory against the ‘snappers’. At 11:10, a Gruppe of Bf-109s was intercepted at 20,000ft as it crossed the coast near Deal. The Spitfires engaged two fighterStaffeln while a bomb-carrying Staffel slipped through to attack the Charing Cross railway bridge. But already Air Vice-Marshal Park’s controllers were scrambling five further Spitfire and four Hurricane squadrons. Climbing to 20,000-28,000ft they were ideally positioned up-sun as the next wave – 100 Bf-109 fighters escorting two Gruppen of bomb-carrying (jabo) Bf-109s – approached. Within six minutes the Germans were routed, jettisoning their bombs, leaving behind the smoke trails and pyres of 11 of their number.

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 159 Briefly engaged

On 1 January 1940 Denis Wissler, pilot under training with 15 Flying Training School at RAF Lossiemouth, begins a diary. Each day he makes an entry of about 100 words. This is a handful of extracts.

MONDAY 1 JANUARY I flew for the first time after my leave. I did solo time all morning. I felt perfectly fit and quite at home in the air.

TUESDAY 2 JANUARY We had lectures in the morning, and nothing happened in any of them, no lecturer turning up.

Wissler completes his course. March finds him with 6 OTU at Sutton Bridge, in Lincolnshire fenland.

WEDNESDAY 20 MARCH I at last went solo in a “Hurricane” and did 5 landings in 50 minutes. It is a grand aeroplane and not so very difficult…

THURSDAY 21 MARCH 1½ hours in the “Hurricane” today and I like it more every time I fly it. Another “Hurricane” fortunately piloted by an instructor had its engine cut while flying across wind… It managed to get down in a field quite O.K. SUNDAY 19 MAY TUESDAY 9 APRIL We left Seclin airfield in a great flap… The Squadron moves to Merville near Dunkirk. Germany invades Norway and Denmark. Later this day Wissler’s Hurricane is showered with incendiary bombs as he sits I did an oxygen climb to 25,000 today, and on the way down I aerobated the in the cockpit trying to start the engine. “Hurricane” for the first time… My outlook on life has changed considerably in the last 24 hours, and I have made up my mind to live in the present. MONDAY 20 MAY All the troops but 20 were packed up in the transport vans and sent to WEDNESDAY 1 MAY Bolougne, plus some of the pilots… The transport a/c arrived at 6.15 p.m. and at Wissler is sent to the Air Component of the BEF in France. He joins 85 Sqn at Lille 7.30 I landed in England at Northolt without any of my kit. We lost a further 3 Seclin. During the next fortnight the Squadron flies one, two, sometimes three pilots today… patrols a day. One pilot is shot down over German-occupied Belgium and makes his way back to rejoin them. On 11 May they are bombed. TUESDAY 21 MAY I came home last night. Bath – bed – booze. (WHIT) MONDAY 13 MAY I went up on two patrols today and lost the leader in the second, and coming On 8 June, Wissler is transferred to 17 Sqn at Debden, whence he flies patrols through the clouds couldn’t find out where I was. I landed at Cambrai over France in support of the shrinking BEF. aerodrome and one of the French told me that I was gushing oil… WEDNESDAY 12 JUNE I had my first action today when we were up on patrol by Le Harvre 3 Heinkle [sic] 111 were bombing shipping when we came out of the sun. I was in the first section to attack and as I fired smoke came out of the starboard engine. I broke away and made two other attacks; all the bombers were shot down, also another which was caught by another bloke.

MONDAY 17 JUNE This was my day off, but at lunch time we heard that the French have given up. We all went down to the ‘drome and after about an hour we took off and flew to Jersey Airport… a party was thrown for us and we had a damned good time.

TUESDAY 18 JUNE What a day. We got up at 5 a.m. We sat about for a while… Just as we were to be relieved there was a flap and off we went. I did a patrol of 1.55 hrs over Cherbourg. Having landed I was sent to Guernsey where I remained with 8 others… We heard today that we are off to England tomorrow. Oh I hope it is true.

WEDNESDAY 19 JUNE Whoopee. Back in England again. SATURDAY 18 MAY This was a bad day as we lost 7 out of 9 planes, and 4 out of 9 pilots, if not On 31 June Jersey surrenders to German occupation. more. Derek Allen is missing again. There are rumours of a quick move and if this is so I shall lose nearly all my kit. The Wing Commander has left and the CO TUESDAY 2 JULY is going tomorrow… this leaves a newly-arrived Canadian F/L in charge. Up at 3 again this morning. We did nothing until about 1 p.m. when we were

160 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK Britain. Equipped with the Fiat CR-42 open cockpit, fixed undercarriage sent off on a practice flap, organised by the CO to see how long we took to get off biplane fighter (which was nevertheless the ground. We had 3 machines in the air in 3 mins 50 secs, which I think is damn good since we were not at readiness and nowhere near our machines. more agile than either the Spitfire or Hurricane), the Fiat G-50 open cockpit MONDAY 29 JULY monoplane fighter (generally inferior in Up at 4.30 and forward to Martlesham Heath. I was with F/L Bayne and F/O B-Wilson all respects to the British fighters) and and after one eventful patrol we met a He 111 which was being half-heartedly the Fiat BR-20 twin-engine bomber, the attacked by Spitfires. We made a head-on attack and then an astern attack pieces and oil coming out in all directions. The E/A slowly went down to the water. I Italians lacked both the equipment and thought it was trying to get away low down and made another head on attack. This combat experience to pose any time it went into the water. significant threat. Operating from bases in Belgium, the SATURDAY 10 AUGUST CAI made their first attack during the I attended P/O Britton’s funeral at 1.30, and this was the most harrowing affair I night of 25 October, bombing Harwich. have ever come upon. On 29 October ground observers THURSDAY 20 AUGUST spotted a force of 15 BR-20s escorted I took off from Debden at about 10.15 and flew to Tangmere… Tangmere is in a by 39 CR-42s and 34 G-50s crossing the shocking state…

SUNDAY 25 AUGUST This was our hard day being at 15 min + readiness the day long. At about half past The CAI made several more seven we had a hell of a scrap over Portland, in which about 100 a/c were engaged. F/L Bayne made an attack below and astern quarter, the Me 110 whipped up in a brief forays over Britain’s stall turn and gave him a long burst while he was in a stalled condition, it fell over and went down. I then went on my own and made another Me 110 break forma- tion, I gave it another burst and it went down towards the sea. F/L Bayne shot coasts, finding that it was no down but O.K. S/L Williams lost, wing shot off. match for the RAF’s pilots SATURDAY 31 AUGUST We did four patrols today ending up with one in which we intercepted about 30 Do. 17s and 20-30 Me. 109s. I got onto a Me. 109’s tail, after an ineffectual attack on the Kent coast in copybook formation. bombers… Another got on my tail and I had to break away… Unsure of their identity, the ground On 3 September Wissler flies two patrols, his Hurricane’s radiator being pierced by gunners held their fire until they were a bullet during one of them: “got covered in glycol, force landing at Castle Camps.” certain of the formation’s hostile nature. As if honour had been satisfied by SUNDAY 8 SEPTEMBER overflying England, the formation then Went home on 4 days leave. Air raids have messed London up quite a bit. made a sharp turn and headed back over Ramsgate, unloading a few bombs FRIDAY 20 SEPTEMBER Wissler now a section leader: ‘I got back to Debden (amazing) and led in to land.’ on the way. During the following week, the CAI made several more brief forays TUESDAY 24 SEPTEMBER over Britain’s coasts, finding to its cost There was a blinding flash on my port wing and I felt a hell of a blow on my left arm that it was no match for the RAF’s and then blood running down. A cannon shell had hit my wing and a bit of it hit me… seasoned pilots. Wissler force lands, no flaps. The Hurricane hits a pile of stones. The impact gashes his face. He is taken to hospital and undergoes surgery to remove metal splinters from his October’s last days were a period of arm. Wissler is released from hospital the following Friday. low cloud and drizzle. On 30 October there was limited activity by about 130 SUNDAY 29 SEPTEMBER aircraft over Kent and the Thames Met Edith Heap and fell in love at first sight. Edith is from Yorkshire and works as Estuary, a few succeeding in getting an RDF plotter. Wissler is sent on seven days’ sick leave. through to London and eight failing to MONDAY 7 OCTOBER make it home. The last day of the Returned to Debden. Had a good party, and met Edith Heap. My God it seems to be month saw half that number make the real thing this time. minor attacks across the Channel. The RAF was undefeated. Suffering FRIDAY 18 OCTOBER disproportionate losses by day, with Got engaged today. insufficient numbers of fighters to A week later the Squadron is sent forward to North Weald; Martlesham Heath is protect the bombers, the emphasis of bombed in a Jabo raid; on the 30th, more about Edith. the Luftwaffe campaign shifted to bombing by night. SUNDAY 11 NOVEMBER Wissler is shot down into the Thames Estuary. His body is never recovered. Robert Owen

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 161 InIn war war and and in in peace, peace, the the Royal Royal Air Air Force Force andand thethe airair forcesforces of the USA havehave stoodstood togethertogether to to defeat defeat the the enemies enemies of of freedom. freedom. The Royal Air Force Museum American Foundation ensures that the shared aviation The Royal Air Force Museum American Foundation ensures that the shared aviation heritage of the USA and the UK is kept alive in the memories of our two great nations. heritage of the USA and the UK is kept alive in the memories of our two great nations. Through its charitable mission, the Foundation provides financial support to many aspects Through its charitable mission, the Foundation provides financial support to many aspects of the work of the Royal Air Force Museum and in particular its education, academic and of the work of the Royal Air Force Museum and in particular its education, academic and aircraft acquisition programmes. The Foundation continues to foster close links between aircraft acquisition programmes. The Foundation continues to foster close links between the Royal Air Force and the air forces of the United States. the Royal Air Force and the air forces of the United States. Tel: +1 (202) 558 5121 Email: [email protected] Tel:www.rafmaf.org +1 (202) 558 5121 Email: [email protected] www.rafmaf.org John Michaelson, a Director of the Royal Air Force Museum American Foundation, reflects on the part played by American pilots in the Royal Air Force during and after the Battle of Britain Eagles in the burning blue

ARTHUR DONAHUE, A Minnesota immigration officer with the welcome, farm boy, took a bus to Canada and “I suppose you’ve come to join the Air joined the RAF in 1940. He wrote to his Force as well?” parents that he was doing this because Knilans was following in the he did not want to have to fight Hitler footsteps of the 11 young Americans in his own backyard. By the time the who fought in the Battle of Britain and US entered the war in December 1941, a host of other volunteers, many of approximately 7,000 Americans had whom would subsequently be done likewise. transformed into the ‘Eagle Squadrons’ It was not easy for Americans to join and, eventually, form the nucleus of the British forces. Under the strict the USAAF 4th Fighter Group. Neutrality Acts, it was a federal offence They were characters to a man. Jim to fight for Britain. An American citizen Goodson wore a monocle and the who did so not only risked his life, but RAF’s Distinguished Flying Cross. When also his citizenship and liberty. Yet so General Ira Eaker, commander of the many went that by the time ‘Nick’ Eighth Air Force, asked him to remove Knilans from Wisconsin approached the latter from his new USAAF uniform the Canadian border in October 1941 he replied: “King George pinned this he was greeted by a Canadian on my chest and only the King can

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 163 remove it.” When asked why he wore women to Britain where the Air typical Americans, amusing, always the monocle he would quietly say that Transport Auxiliary (ATA) welcomed ready with some devastating it “had no effect in London, but would them. In all, 27 American women flew wisecrack (frequently at the expense stop the traffic in Chicago”. with the ATA. of authority) and altogether excellent Vic France, from Dallas, had his Eagle John Gillespie Magee Jr of company. Our three Yanks became Squadron shoulder flash re- Connecticut, was one of those who quite an outstanding feature of embroidered so that the letters ‘USA’ joined the Royal Canadian Air Force the Squadron.” were delicately over-sewn with ‘TEXAS’. before America entered the war. He Billy Fiske was a dashing young He also replaced his standard issue became a Spitfire pilot, and was killed New Yorker. Wealthy and privileged, RAF flying boots with ‘standard issue’ in December 1941 at the age of 19. He he had already found fame as an cowboy boots and always flew lies at Scopwick, Lincolnshire, where Olympic bobsleigh champion and as correctly attired for the range. his gravestone is inscribed with a racing driver, and had studied at Two hundred and forty-four the first and last lines of his poem, Cambridge. He returned to England in Americans served with the Eagle High Flight: 1939 and joined the RAF claiming to Squadrons in the RAF, alongside 16 “Oh! I have slipped the surly bonds be Canadian. He completed his British pilots. The attrition rate was of Earth – training in July 1940 and went to join high, 77 of them falling with the Eagles Put out my hand, and touched the 601 Sqn at RAF Tangmere. and a further 31 after they had Face of God.” On 16 August Fiske flew two transferred to the USAAF. Of the 11 Americans who flew operations. During the second, his Not only young men came to fighters in the Battle of Britain, four Three American pilots of aircraft was damaged. Understanding Europe to fly. In 1940, the American were killed during the Battle itself and 71 (Eagle) Sqn RAF, Pilot the acute shortage of fighters, he Officers A Mamedoff of racing aviatrix Jackie Cochran had the five died in action later. A British pilot Thompson, Connecticut, nursed his Hurricane back to idea of forming a female corps of who flew with ‘Shorty’ Keough, ‘Red’ V C ‘Shorty’ Keough of Tangmere. Although he landed intact, transport pilots. Her idea was Tobin and ‘Andy’ Mamedoff in 609 Sqn Brooklyn, New York and G the aircraft caught fire and he was rejected, so she took her young recalls his comrades: “They were Tobin of Los Angeles, show severely burned. Fiske died of his how their new squadron badge will look on Keogh’s injuries the next day. uniform at Church Fenton, Fiske was buried at Boxgrove Priory. Of the 11 Americans who flew Yorkshire, autumn 1940. In 1941 a plaque in his honour was Mamedoff was formerly a placed in the crypt of St Paul’s stunt pilot in an air circus. Cathedral. It reads: “An American Citizen fighters in the Battle, four were Keough was a professional parachutist with 480 drops who died that England might live.” at the time this photograph When Sir Archibald Sinclair, Secretary of killed during the Battle and five was taken. Tobin was a State for Air, unveiled the plaque on commercial pilot who also did film work in Los Angeles 4 July – Independence Day – 1941, he died in action later said: “Here was a young man for whom life held much. Under no kind of compulsion he came to fight for Britain. He came and he fought, and he died.” Those words stand for other young men who died in the air war over Europe, and for all of those from both our nations who have died since while swirling up John Magee’s “long, delirious, burning blue” in the cause of freedom. We salute them all.

John Michaelson is a Director of the Royal Air Force Museum American Foundation (RAFMAF), based in Washington. RAFMAF promotes the Royal Air Force and the Royal Air Force Museum in the United States and also helps underpin the close ties between the Royal Air Force and the air forces of the United States. John Michaelson is also a trustee of the Royal Air Force Museum

164 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK When you’re in the RAF, serving in Afghanistan, security is vital. So you can’t use your mobile phone. Ever. You have limited time on the lines provided. But everyone needs to talk. And every minute is important. No matter how small your reason to call home.

The RAF Association’s Wings Appeal Miles More Minutes Campaign. Just £20 could buy an extra 6 minutes talk time every day for a month. Sometimes a simple phone call isn’t so simple. For RAF personnel serving in Afghanistan security is a major issue. They’re currently allowed the equivalent of 4½ minutes a day on MOD lines to keep in touch with loved ones. Now put yourself in the shoes of someone over 3500 miles from home with a baby on the way and you’ll realise just how important it is to talk. And know that everything’s OK. With your support we can give RAF personnel even more minutes. You can help our heroes feel closer to home. Everyone from the Red Arrows to Virgin Money Giving is supporting us, will you? To donate please visit www.rafa.org.uk/milesmoreminutes or freephone 0800 018 2361. As winter approached and German invasion plans were put on hold, the Luftwaffe turned its main effort to urban and industrial targets at night. Clive Richards describes the Blitz On into the night

BY MID-SEPTEMBER 1940, it was clear to senior German leaders that the Luftwaffe’s campaign to break the RAF, “If they say they will attack and thereby create a favourable air situation for Unternehmen Seelöwe our cities on a large scale, we (Operation Sealion), had not yet succeeded. shall obliterate their cities” Writing in his diary on 14 September 1940, Colonel-General Franz Halder, head of the Army General Staff, recorded Hitler’s assessment of the “Problem of Britain” at a Führer Conference held that afternoon. Given that a “successful landing followed by occupation would [end] the war in short order”, Hitler viewed the invasion of Britain as “essential”. Despite this, he asserted that the “execution [of Operation Sealion] is not tied to any particular date”. While “the Navy has attained all targets set of it in the preparation for the Channel crossing”, it was nevertheless the case that of reprisal.” According to Halder, on 14 “enemy fighter forces have not yet September the Luftwaffe’s Chief of Staff, The butcher’s boy been completely eliminated”. Hence, General Hans Jeschonneck, informed “the prerequisites for Operation his Führer that the “physical destruction Percy Ponting was just about to turn 14 when war broke out in September 1939. Sealion have not yet been completely [caused by the bombing to that date] Although some of his siblings were realised”. exceeds our expectations. But there has evacuated, he decided to stay in Deal with At this conference the next target yet been no mass panic, because [the] his parents, and to leave school and start date for Seelöwe was set for 27 residential sections have not been work as a butcher’s boy. September. However, if the invasion attacked and destroyed so far. The town was a constant target for was to be mounted on this date, then [Jeschonneck] Wants [a] free hand in German aircraft, both bombers and fighters, during the Battle of Britain. Percy forces were to be alerted 10 days attacking residential areas.” and his family were bombed out of their before, on 17 September. When 17 Hitler responded: “All right, but house not once but twice – those who September arrived it was decided not attacks on strategic targets must have lived with them in their next refuge were to proceed, the operation being first priority, because they destroy war understandably rather nervous. He saw at postponed “until further notice”. potential which cannot be replaced. As close quarters a bomb falling from a plane flying along the railway line, and another On 2 October, following the mounting long as there is still a strategic target which landed in Marks & Spencer’s in the losses of watercraft that were being left we must concentrate on it. Railway town centre and failed to explode. There caused by RAF Bomber Command’s stations, targets in outlying districts, gas were also the constant dogfights overhead attacks on invasion shipping, Hitler and water works. Bombing calculated – and most frightening of all, German directed that preparations hitherto to create mass panic must be left to the planes flying at low level and strafing made for Seelöwe should be “largely last (possibility of retaliation against the streets. The butcher for whom he worked had dismantled”. Ten days later it was German cities). The terrible threat of his premises right in the middle of town decided to defer the invasion until bombing population concentrations – an area that was regularly targeted, and spring 1941. Although Seelöwe must be our last trump.” which was eventually bombed totally flat. continued to figure in German planning It is a carpark to this day. He remembers until 1942, it had in reality been “…We shall obliterate their cities!” early one morning, on his way to work, stopping to help a greengrocer who had relegated to the status of a deception The Luftwaffe’s primary urban and knocked his stock of fruit and vegetables operation aimed at pinning down British industrial target – London – had in fact all over the road, and agreeing with him forces in the UK. already been attacked. The first bombs that this was “a bloody awful start to the to fall on the City of London since 1918 day”. By lunchtime the greengrocer was Which way now? were dropped by accident on the dead, the victim of a bomb. The decision to shelve invasion plans night of 24/25 August, when German left Hitler and his generals with a bombers bound for targets at the dilemma: how should the war against mouth of the Thames released their Britain now be prosecuted? loads in error. In response, the War In the first instance, it was intended to wage an economic war, to destroy Britain’s ability to resist. This would take the form of a blockade aimed at severing Britain’s supply lines, and aerial attacks to wreck vital war industries and other strategic targets. Alongside this, consideration was given to the use of the Luftwaffe to bomb the people of Britain into submission. In his Directive No 17 For the conduct of the air and sea war against England of 1 August 1940, Hitler stipulated: “I reserve to myself the right to decide on terror attacks as measures Cabinet directed the Chief of the Air only be centred upon a collapse of the Defiant two-seat turret fighter. The Staff, Air Chief Marshal Sir Cyril Newall, British will to resist.” effectiveness of the nightfighter force to strike back. On the next night, RAF was further limited by the erratic Bomber Command bombed Berlin for Moonlight Sonata performance of early airborne the first time. The campaign that followed is interception (AI) radar. It was not until More RAF raids on Berlin followed, remembered as the ‘Blitz’. Attacks were 1941 that the introduction of improved and on 30 August Hitler authorised not restricted to London, but struck AI radar and new ground control strong attacks on London. In a speech also at industrial centres and ports systems enabled the defenders to come delivered at the Berlin Sportpalast on across the UK. into their own. the night of 4 September, Hitler raged: On 7 November the forward echelon The RAF’s task was further “If they say they will attack our cities of Göring’s headquarters (codenamed complicated by the changed strategic on a large scale, we shall obliterate ‘Robinson’) issued a Directive which situation. Until May 1940, mid- and their cities! We shall put a stop to the said that while London was to remain north Wales, the Mersey and Northern game of these night pirates, so help us the prime target, attention should also Ireland had been shielded from German God. The time will come when one be given to the Midlands, with raids by the air defences of the Midlands. side breaks, and that will not be large-scale operations against With much of France now under German National Socialist Germany!” Birmingham, Coventry and occupation, Luftwaffe bombers The first German daylight raid on Wolverhampton. On the night of 14/15 operating from airfields in Brittany could London took place on 7 September, November, Unternehmen operate over these areas by crossing or followed by a second raid that night. ‘Mondscheinserenade’ (Undertaking skirting the area defended by Number The intended target was London’s ‘Moonlight Sonata’) was launched 10 Group. The Air Ministry therefore put sprawling docks, but inevitably many against target Korn (Coventry). in train the establishment of a fifth bombers scattered their loads over Luftflotten 2 and 3 despatched 509 Group within Fighter Command – East End streets. Massive fires were aircraft, of which 449 reached the city. Number 9 – which would be responsible started, prompting one Station Officer The raid destroyed or badly damaged for defending Britain’s ‘back door’. This was officially formed at Barton Hall, Preston, on 9 August 1940. The Group The switch to night attacks HQ’s operations room opened four days later, although Number 9 Group itself provided RAF Fighter Command did not become operational until December 1940, and did not assume full with much-needed respite control of all of the sectors allotted to it until the following year. In the interim, responsibility for the defence of Wales to plead by telephone to Fire Brigade 60,000 buildings and severely and the west of England remained with Headquarters: “Send every pump damaged 21 factories. According to Number 12 Group. you’ve got. The whole bloody world’s one official source, 554 of Coventry’s Not all of the defenders were drawn on fire.” citizens lost their lives, and 865 were from the military. Before the outbreak of The Luftwaffe did not cease daylight seriously injured. war a civil defence organisation had air operations immediately, but from 7 While the switch to night attacks been put in place to help mitigate the September there was increasing provided RAF Fighter Command with effects of an assault on Britain’s cities. emphasis on large attacks by night. much-needed respite, the Command The structure included Air Raid Writing in the German Research was at first poorly placed to respond to Precautions, light and heavy rescue Institute for Military History’s Germany the new offensive. The existing services, first aid, auxiliary fire and and the Second World War, Klaus A command-and-control network, so ambulance. During the Blitz, as Maier states that by October 1940: effective by day, was not suited to night members of the civil emergency services “Although the battle to achieve air interception. Efforts to employ rose to their tasks, these precautions supremacy by attacking British fighters Hurricanes at night were largely proved to be of immense value. and the air-armaments industry was ineffective. In due course, the The Luftwaffe’s last great raid on not abandoned, the air war henceforth nightfighter version of the Bristol London took place on 10 May 1941. In assumed more and more the character Beaufighter twin-engine fighter- that month, bomber units were of a war of terror and exhaustion. With bomber would become potent, but in withdrawn from the Channel coast to winter approaching, the Luftwaffe the autumn and winter of 1940 the take part in the German campaign in would have to reduce its activities Beaufighter was only just coming into the Balkans and the invasion of the because of the weather… while service, and much of the duty for night Soviet Union. Britain’s cities would be increased British aircraft production air defence rested on the inadequate attacked again later in the war. But the and American supply shipments were Bristol Blenheim twin-engine fighter- first great challenge had been met, to be expected. German hopes could bomber and the Boulton-Paul and weathered.

168 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK St Clement Danes is the Central Church of the Royal Air Force and its spiritual home since 1958. This beautiful Wren building was bombed during the last days of the London Blitz and rebuilt post war by the RAF - so starting a new chapter in its 1,000 year old history.

Linked to King Alfred, the Knights Templar, Samuel Johnson and the Covent Garden Flower Sellers, the bells still ring out the tune of the nursery rhyme “Oranges & Lemons say the bells of St Clement”.

Re-consecrated as a perpetual shrine of remembrance to those who sacrificed their lives in the line of duty, St Clement Danes is a living church that offers comfort and solace to its visitors.

When you come inside you will be greeted by a beautiful sanctuary that holds in its Books of Remembrance over 125,000 names. Over 800 Welsh slate badges of RAF Squadrons, Stations and Units line the floor among countless memorials to our fallen heroes.

You will be most welcome at St Clement Danes.

Visitors can also come and enjoy our regular photographic exhibitions, lunchtime concerts and exclusive evening events. Visit our website: www.raf.mod.uk/stclementdanes and sign up to our e-newsletter to receive details.

OPEN DAILY 9am - 4pm

NEAREST TUBE: Temple (District & Circle Lines)

SUNDAY SERVICE 11am

GUIDED TOURS on request from: [email protected] or 020 7242 8282 or www.raf.mod.uk/ stclementdanes

The pages in the Books of Remembrance are turned daily.

Reg Charity No. 250350 Roger fought for our freedom. We gave him some back. Wing Commander Roger Morewood was one of Churchill’s ‘Few’ – a courageous RAF pilot who protected convoys in the English Channel during the decisive Battle of Britain. He completed 12 years of distinguished service, before passing on his considerable knowledge as an instructor at the Central Flying School. But through a loophole in the system of RAF commissions, when Roger retired he was not eligible for a Service pension. With nowhere else to turn, Roger contacted the RAFBF to see if we could help. That was back in 1980 and we have been supporting him with a monthly maintenance grant ever since. Our financial support has enabled Roger to remain comfortable and fiercely independent well into his nineties. The RAF Benevolent Fund is here to provide support to all members of the RAF family who may find themselves in difficulty. We offer a range of services to help with problems such as housing, disability, care and financial distress. So if you or your partner are serving, or previously served in the RAF, and you now find yourself in need of support, please get in touch.

0800 198 2400 www.rafbf.org Late in the summer of 1940, the phrase ‘Battle of Britain’ was already being used by members of Britain’s War Cabinet. Hazel Crozier surveys how the Battle has been marked since Commemoration PUBLIC AWARENESS WAS promoted which the Air Ministry decided to 1945. Also in that year, Battle-veteran from the start. Within months of record all those who lost their lives on Group Captain (Sir) Douglas Bader led the Battle’s end, the Ministry of a Roll of Honour. the first annual Battle of Britain flypast Information produced a By 1943, commemoration was well over London on 15 September; thus commemorative pamphlet entitled established. A Thanksgiving service began a tradition for a Hurricane and The Battle of Britain: August-October was held at St Paul’s. Attended by the a Spitfire to lead these flypasts. 1940. Subtitled, An Air Ministry King and Queen, with a sermon by the Although the number of airworthy account of the Great Days from 8th Archbishop of Canterbury, the service Spitfires and Hurricanes was August to 31st October 1940, the helped to initiate the idea of ‘Battle of dwindling, the RAF believed that the booklet was printed in large numbers Britain Sunday’, providing a model that Battle of Britain should continue to be and widely distributed – copies still to this day is followed in parish commemorated by such flypasts. turn up in second-hand bookshops churches and cathedrals across the North Weald, 15 September In 1957, this led to The Historic today. In 1942, actor-director Leslie country. Also in 1943, an information 1945: Group Captain Aircraft Flight, which was formed by Howard released his filmThe First of film Why We Fight: the Battle of Britain Douglas Bader DSO DFC (in Group Captain Peter Thompson at RAF the Few, which celebrated the origins was made. the cockpit of the nearest Biggin Hill. In 1969, the name was aircraft) prepares to lead a and fighting significance of the A Battle of Britain clasp to the commemorative flypast changed to the Battle of Britain Spitfire. This was also the year in 1939-1945 Star was inaugurated in over London Memorial Flight (BBMF). From 1945

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 171 Join The THE AIR LEAGUE Air League CENTENARY today

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The Air League has been in existence since 1909, promoting British aviation. It has been supporting major developments in aerospace for 100 years and it is now more important than ever to ensure that Britain continues to match the world in the 21st century in this key technology. So why not join us and ensure that Britain is among the world leaders in aerospace in the new century?

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ˆÀÊi>}Õi]Ê Àœ>`Ü>ÞÊœÕÃi]Ê/œÌ ˆÊ-ÌÀiiÌ]Êœ˜`œ˜Ê-7£ʙ -°7iÊ܈ÊVœ˜Ì>VÌÊޜÕÊ>LœÕÌÊޜÕÀʓi“LiÀà ˆ«Ê>˜`Ê œÜÊޜÕÊ܈à ÊÌœÊ «>ÞÊޜÕÀÊvÕÌÕÀiÊÃÕLÃVÀˆ«Ìˆœ˜Ã°/œÊVœ˜Ì>VÌÊÕÃÊ>LœÕÌÊޜÕÀÊ>««ˆV>̈œ˜]Ê« œ˜iʳ{{Ê­ä®ÊÓäÇÊÓÓÓÊn{ÈÎʜÀÊi“>ˆ\ [email protected] www.airleague.co.uk until 1978, RAF stations held open The Plotting Room, built 60ft days in honour of the Battle. In 1947, underground in 1939 to withstand King George VI unveiled the Battle of aerial attack, remained a well-hidden Britain Memorial window in secret from the German High Westminster Abbey. Command. As the Battle of Britain Two post-war feature films have unfolded, the concrete bunker took made their mark in popular culture: on national significance. Without the Reach for the Sky (1956) and The Battle Operations Room, and its role in the of Britain (1969). While neither is world’s first fully-integrated air wholly accurate, both still have a defence system, the outcome of the place in the national consciousness, Battle of Britain would have been reminding younger generations who very different. In acknowledgement might otherwise consider this as of this, The Bunker is now a Grade irrelevant history. I-listed building – one of only a Among the most tangible reminders handful of structures to have this of the sacrifice made by the ‘Few’ 70 accolade. years ago are the 11 Group Operations Personnel worked around the clock. Room, the BBMF, the Memorial at Plotters and tellers plotted hostile Capel-le-Ferne and the Monument at and friendly formations, while the London Embankment. controllers headed by the Senior The 11 Group Operations Room at Operations Officer, Wing Commander RAF Uxbridge, also known as ‘The Lord Willoughby de Broke, controlled Bunker’, was where the defence of the aircraft from their position behind London and the South East was glass cabins above. Although these controlled during the Second World personnel are less well-known than War and up to 1958, when the the pilots, their significance in the methods of plotting formations on a saving of the UK in 1940 equals that map table had become outdated. of the ‘Few’.

Without the Operations Room… the outcome of the Battle of Britain would have been very different Above: US poster and title Of the 70 people working in The for the influential 1942 film The First of the Few Bunker, 80 per cent were WAAFs (Women’s Auxiliary Air Force) many of Left: The Royal family whom still visit and remember fondly at Westminster Abbey the camaraderie of those days. The for the unveiling of the Battle of Britain Window, Battle continues to resonate with 10 July 1947 them and The Bunker stands as a memorial to their youth and endeavours in war, when Britain stood alone and defeat and the consequences seemed real possibilities. These personnel, many 18 or 19 years of age, were working without the knowledge and hindsight of the 21st century visitor. However, one wartime WAAF, writing in an internal newsletter, predicted what the plotting room would be like in 1990. She was uncannily accurate, stating that it would be a museum with a guide to take visitors around telling them of the goings-on in 1940. I had the privilege to be the Curator

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 173 of the 11 Group Operations Room for seen so much, yet are reticent and 1973, the ‘Three Ship’ – a Lancaster, four-and-a-half years. As I welcomed modest when talking of their Spitfire and Hurricane – is one of the the thousands of visitors, I realised that experiences. Those of us present most moving sights one can see: a their interest in The Bunker is an could only listen in awe to surviving graceful, evocative and ‘living’ memory. expression of the importance in which members of the ‘Few’ who took each The Three Ship is part of Britain’s public the Battle of Britain is held in the day in their stride, seeing flying life, and flies before a wide variety of minds of today’s population, not only against the Luftwaffe to defend their local and national events. in Britain but also across the world. country as “just a job that had to The BBMF today has five Spitfires, Many, descending to the Bunker, say: be done”. two Hurricanes, a Lancaster, a Dakota “Just think who has walked down The BBMF has been based at RAF and two DH Chipmunks. The markings these stairs…” Coningsby in Lincolnshire since of its aircraft are varied periodically to Visitors have stood in awe, transferring from RAF Coltishall in represent different squadrons and absorbing the scene. It is a very 1976. Coltishall was a fighter station aircrew. Some honour well-known common experience to try to during the Battle of Britain, and so a pilots such as Flight Lieutenant empathise with this vital aspect of our fitting home for BBMF. Today, RAF Geoffrey Wellum DFC, while others nation’s history. The ‘exact spot’ Northolt is the sole Battle of Britain are lesser-known pilots such as Flight association engendered by The Bunker airfield still in use by the RAF. Lieutenant Desmond Ibbotson DFC. gives us our sense of place and I The BBMF exists to commemorate, Members of the public may visit the believe such a physical reminder of the and to inspire. On 5 March 1986, a BBMF at the hangar at RAF Coningsby Battle helps us to remember. BBMF Spitfire flew over London for the to view the aircraft on the ground. People of all ages and lifestyles first time since 1959, when such flights In 2007, the Flight’s crest was set share interest in The Bunker. My were banned. She flew over the into the floor of St Clement Danes, visitors included royalty, MPs, senior Houses of Parliament at 11:00 as a the RAF church. As the ‘Few’ dwindle officers of all services, school children tribute to 11 Group and the Battle. and living memory fades, the BBMF’s and international sportsmen. Many Every year, the BBMF flies before motto becomes ever more poignant: were service personnel of all ranks; millions to pay tribute to ‘the Few’ and ‘Lest We Forget’. others were members of the public. to the 55,000 Bomber Command The Battle is as actively The Second World War veterans were The Battle of Britain aircrew who lost their lives during the commemorated today as it ever was. very much men to admire; they have Memorial at Capel-le-Ferne Second World War. Since it first flew in The Central Band of the RAF plays at numerous venues throughout September, including the Service of Thanksgiving and Rededication at Westminster Abbey. The service culminates in the Battle of Britain Roll of Honour being borne from the Chapel of St George to the Sacrarium, escorted by Battle of Britain veterans. There are, of course, many memorials to individuals who lost their lives during the Battle of Britain across the UK, and more are still being created. They range from simple roadside shrines to The Battle of Britain Monument on the London Embankment. Unveiled in 2005, the Monument pays a fitting modern tribute in bronze panelling to all involved in the Battle, showing scenes from the home front as well as in the cockpit. Lord Dowding’s statue outside St Clement Danes provides a tangible memorial to the command of the Battle of Britain in London. The Battle of Britain Memorial at Capel-le-Ferne above the White Cliffs in Kent was opened in 1993. The statue of a pilot sits in thoughtful mood, staring across the Channel.

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The School of Polish Eaglets is the only In 2004 PAFA joined the EUAFA Association, which facility in Poland providing training for gathers representatives of the Air Force Academies from 22 military pilots and AF personnel. It was European countries, and as an active member hosted the established in 1925 in Grudziadz and since EUAFA Commandants Conference in Warsaw and Deblin 14th April 1927 it has been based in Deblin. in 2009. PAFA cooperates closely with other academic and aviation training centers in France and the United Kingdom. It also participates in a new initiative, ESDC, sending its students to seminars organized by the College.

Military courses PAFA offers full-time undergraduate studies in Aviation and Aeronautics for military pilots, navigators and air traffic controllers. Military studies are addressed to permanent military career candidates.

Short-track officer courses PAFA conducts courses for graduates of civilian universities who wish to become members of AF. They can qualify as military pilots, navigators, maintainers, air traffic controllers, meteorologists, communications specialists and air defense specialists. After graduating from the course, cadets are commissioned as 2nd Lieutenants.

Admission Office: Tel +48 (81) 551 88 11 civilian courses Tel +48 (81) 551 77 77 military courses Tel +48 (81) 551 88 23 post-diploma studies Reminders of 1940 are everywhere. As Hazel Crozier, William Foot and Richard Morris reflect, while a few are actively protected, most of them are all around us

JUNE1940 THROUGH TO the spring of 1941 can still be seen throughout the UK. They stand in fields, by rivers, roads and railways, half-hidden in woodland, Landscape dug into hillsides and cliffs. The 11 Group Operations Room at RAF Uxbridge is the best, most complete surviving building solely dedicated to and memory the Battle of Britain. 13 Group’s Operations Room at Kenton Bar, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, also survives but

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 177 178 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK is dilapidated and awaits restoration. Another famous building with a long history of its own is the Officer’s Mess at the former RAF Bentley Priory. Substantially rebuilt in the 18th century and modified since, this was Fighter Command’s headquarters during the Battle. Bentley Priory was immortalised by the final scene in the filmhe T Battle of Britain when Laurence Olivier, as Air Chief Marshal Dowding, views London from his balcony and looks up into the sky. There has been much interest in the Priory itself, with guides giving regular tours. ACM Dowding’s office has been recreated and the sense of history and the decisions made there is unmistakeable. The affection in which the British public hold Bentley Priory was very evident when the Station closed in 2008. Perhaps the most striking tribute to the ‘Few’ today is a Spitfire Mk IIA (P7350) of the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight (BBMF). Given to the BBMF in 1968 after being used in the filming ofThe Battle of Britain, she is the world’s oldest airworthy Spitfire and the only Spitfire still flying that actually fought during the Battle of Britain. P7350 flew with 266 and 603 Squadrons and was forced to crash-land in October 1940, suffering Category B damage after a combat with a Bf-109; but flew again on 15 November, only three weeks later. A real tribute to the Battle of Britain, P7350 still bears patched-up bullet holes from that combat. Other reminders of the fighting and tension of 1940 are dotted across Britain. Most widespread are remains of the hastily erected ground defences – pillboxes, dragon’s teeth, anti-tank ditches, and vestiges of roadblocks. Also to be found are local memorials, some at former front-line airfields, others out in the countryside in places where aircraft crashed and young men died. For some, the most evocative remains of all are the skeletal Chain Home masts. Of the five that are still standing, only one is complete and of the period – that at Great Baddow near Chelmsford. This mast originally formed part of the Radio Direction Finding (RDF or radar) station at Canewdon in southeast Essex, where in 1940 it stood guard over the north-eastern approaches to London.

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 179

AS I HAVE grown up, so many of those bright icons from which my parents’ Burning bright generation took such comfort have lost their lustre. We know a good deal more than they did, and, with our Richard Holmes reflects on the Battle national survival no longer at stake, of Britain as history, and its influence have the luxury of being able to think more laterally. on Britain’s self-understanding On the one hand, we are at last fully aware of the extraordinary impact of the Eastern Front, where Russia’s Great Patriotic War eventually gnawed the heart out of the German Army. But on the other, we are uncomfortable about the fact that in order to defeat one of history’s greatest mass murders, we were allied to a man whose conduct towards his people was even more shocking. Although my parents may not have admired Joseph Stalin’s politics, they J^[8Wjjb[e\8h_jW_dC[ceh_Wb

WWW.RAF.MOD.UK 183 BRAVERY - SACRIFICE - FREEDOM

ON 8 AUGUST, all ammunition spent, the battle damage seeming trivial in Sgt Denis Robinson of 152 Sqn was comparison with circumstances a few Shot down returning from patrol over the Channel seconds before. “I experienced the to the Dorset airfield of Warmwell. His feeling several times during the Battle was one of three Spitfires flying in a tight and it had a profound effect… It vic, and he was concentrating on somehow changed my value system, keeping formation. so that things that seemed important “The first thing I felt was the thud of before never had the same degree of bullets hitting my aircraft and a long line importance again.” of tracer bullets streaming out ahead.” Robinson prepared to bale out, then Robinson pushed the stick forward “as decided to force land. The landing was far as it would go”. Standing the Spitfire good, but the chosen field was crossed on its nose, he looked down “at Mother by a ditch into which the Spitfire Earth thousands of feet below… fear tipped, the inertial force causing the mounting. Sweating, mouth dry and canopy to slam shut and the cockpit to near panic.” fill with blinding dirt. Again the fear of After some seconds, Robinson fire welled up, infusing Robinson with decided he must look for his attacker. a strength that enabled him to fling He pulled out of the dive, applied full the canopy back. throttle, engaged emergency boost, Locals took Robinson to a pub in and began to climb. Wisps of white nearby Wareham. They “filled me with smoke trailed from the engine. “God, whisky. I had a slight bullet graze on my no! Fire!” The Spitfire fuel tank is just in leg, but was otherwise unhurt and felt front of the pilot. Burning to death “was strangely elated.” Robinson returned to one of the worst fears”. In fact, the operations the next day. source of the smoke was coolant “Telling this story helps me deal with dispersing from the glycol tank, which my survival syndrome… it is as though had been holed. I am speaking for the other chaps who “One constantly asks: did not make it… One constantly The engine stopped asks: ‘Why did I survive… why did ‘Why did I survive… Robinson looked around. “As often others not?’’’ happens in air combat, not a single Denis Robinson’s assailant was a Bf why did others not?’” plane was to be seen in the sky around 109 of II/JG 53. Robinson survived me.” Robinson felt a release of tension, the war.

ROLLS OF HONOUR SERVICE RECORDS, AWARDS AND PROMOTIONS Finding the Few Ministry of Defence www.raf.mod.uk/bob1940/roll.html London Gazette Here are pointers to some sources for those http://www.gazettes-online.co.uk/ Battle of Britain Historical Society AdvancedSearch.aspx?geotype=London who would like to find out more for themselves www.battleofbritain1940.net/bobhsoc The National Archives Ian Hartas ‘Battle of Britain – The Few’ (formerly Public Record Office (PRO)) The ‘Few’ are officially defined as aircrew (pilots, air gunners or www.the-few.org.uk/page_5.php PRO Readers’ Guide No 8: RAF Records in others) who flew at least one authorised operational sortie with one the PRO (1994), ISBN 1-873162-14-6 of 71 eligible units of the Royal Air Force or Fleet Air Arm between 10 Key Publishing Forum: July and 31 October 1940. Aircrew so defined are entitled to wear the http://forum.keypublishing.co.uk/ PRO Readers’ Guide No 21: Air Force ‘Battle of Britain’ Clasp on the ribbon of their 1939-45 Star. All flew Records for Family Historians (2000), fighters and most served in Fighter Command. The Clasp was not ‘The Battle of Britain’ ISBN 1-873162-93-6 issued to aircrew who did not fly in fighters, even though they may www.the-battle-of-britain.co.uk/Menus/ have engaged the enemy in some other capacity during the men.htm Unit Records qualifying period. Some Rolls of Honour that list the ‘Few’ are given http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ below. Much information rests in The National Archives (TNA) at CASUALTIES catalogue/search.asp?j=1 Kew. The catalogue can be searched on line, but individual documents must generally be viewed by visiting in person. TNA Commonwealth War Graves Commission Squadron records (RAF Form 540/51, publishes guides to types of sources and how they can be used, and http://www.cwgc.org/debt_of_honour. Operations Record Books) are in class AIR it is recommended that you consult these. asp?menuid=14 27 and searchable by Squadron number. Civilian casualties are also recorded and Station Records are in class AIR 28 and may be searched for on this site searchable by Station name.

184 WWW.RAF.MOD.UK Glossary RAF rank abbreviations are given in today’s standard form

AA Anti-aircraft Geschwader Largest fixed flying unit in Luft- OKH Oberkommando des Heeres – Abwehr German military intelligence waffe; normally comprising Stab German Army Supreme Command (literally ‘Defence’) (q.v.) and three Gruppen (q.v.) OKL Oberkommando der Luftwaffe – ACM Air Chief Marshal GHQ General Headquarters Luftwaffe Supreme Command Adlertag Eagle Day Großadmiral Grand Admiral OKW Oberkommando der Wehrmacht – AM Air Marshal Grp Capt. Group Captain German Supreme Command AOC Air Officer Commanding Gruppe (pl. Gruppen) Basic Luftwaffe flying Panzer Armoured fighting vehicle, tank AOC-in-C Air Officer unit for operational and adminis- Plt Off. Pilot Officer Commanding-in-Chief trative purposes, normally PPI Plan Position Indicator ATA Air Transport Auxiliary comprising a Stab (q.v.) and three RDF Radio Direction Finding, from 1943 AVM Air Vice-Marshal Staffeln (q.v.) supplanted in British forces termi- BEF British Expeditionary Force He Heinkel nology by US acronym RADAR (from Bf Bayerische Flugzeugwerke: Bavarian Jabo ‘Jagdbomber’ – bomb-carrying Radio Detection and Ranging) Aircraft Works. Creator of the Bf 109 single-seat fighter Reichs- and Bf 110, the company was re- JG Jagdgeschwader – fighter (literally marschall Marshal of the Reich named Messerschmitt AG in 1938. ‘hunting’) Geschwader SASO Senior Air Staff Officer CH Chain Home: primary RAF ground- Ju Junkers Seelöwe See Unternehmen Seelöwe based RDF system in use in 1940. KG Kampfgeschwader – bomber (liter- ‘Snapper’ High-flying German bomb-carrying CHL Chain Home Low: version of War ally ‘war’) Geschwader fighter Office Coast Defence (CD) RDF Kriegsmarine German Navy Sqn Squadron system employed by RAF to detect Kustenflieger Sqn Ldr Squadron Leader low-flying aircraft -gruppe Maritime Aviation Gruppe Stab Headquarters staff flight, usually of C-in-C Commander-in-Chief LDV Local Defence Volunteers three aircraft DFC Distinguished Flying Cross LG Lehrgeschwader – literally ‘training. Staffel (pl. Staffeln) Smallest Luftwaffe DFM Distinguished Flying Medal Geschwader’, normally used to combat flying unit in general use, Do Dornier denote specialist tactical develop- normally comprising nine aircraft. DSO Distinguished Service Order ment unit Stuka Sturzkampfflugzeug – dive bomber Flak Anti-aircraft fire – acronym from Luftwaffe German Air Force Unternehmen Fliegerabwehrkanone Luftflotte Air Fleet. In 1940, the largest Luft- Seelöwe Operation Sealion – codename for Flg Off. Flying Officer waffe operational formation, made projected German invasion of UK Fliegerkorps Air (or Flying) Corps: Luftwaffe up of a balanced force of fighter, VC Victoria Cross command formation made up bomber and specialist units, nor- VHF Very High Frequency of a number of Geschwader and mally divided between component Vic Formation of three aircraft, one in independent Gruppen Fliegerkorps. the lead flanked by two following Flt Lt Flight Lieutenant Me Messerschmitt (see also Bf ) at either side Generalfeld- MM Military Medal WAAF Womens’ Auxiliary Air Force marschall (General) Field Marshal OC Observer Corps (from 1941, Royal Wg Cdr Wing Commander Generaloberst Colonel General Observer Corps)

Group Records are in class AIR 25 Bishop, Patrick, Battle of Britain: a July-December 1940, and of Sarkar, Dilip, The Few: The Story of and searchable by Group number. Day-by-Day Chronicle, 10 July 1940 to the Development of Britain’s Air the Battle of Britain in the Words of 31 October 1940 (Quercus: 2009) Defences between the World Wars the Pilots (Amberley: 2009) HQ Fighter Command’s F540 for J (Aston Publications: 1990) uly 1936-December 1940 is held Bungay, Stephen, The Most Townsend, Peter, Duel of Eagles as AIR 24/507. For accompanying Dangerous Enemy: A History of the Overy, Richard, The Battle (Cassell: 1970) appendices covering the period Battle of Britain (Aurum: 2000) (Penguin Books: 2000; reissued September 1939-December 1940, as The Battle of Britain: the Myth Wood, Derek, & Derek Dempster, The see AIR 24/520–531. Hough, Richard, and Denis Richards, and the Reality, 2004) Narrow Margin: The Battle of Britain The Battle of Britain: The Jubilee and the Rise of Air Power (2nd rev. READING ON History (Hodder and Staughton, Ramsay, Winston (ed.) The Blitz: edn, Arrow Books: 1969) 1989) Then and Now (2 vols, Battle of Much has been written about Britain Prints International: 1987, Wynn, Kenneth G, Men of the Battle the Battle of Britain. This is a James, T C G, and Sebastian Cox 1988) of Britain: A biographical directory small selection, from different (eds), The Battle of Britain (Frank of ‘The Few’ (2nd edn, CCB Associ- perspectives: Cass, for the Whitehall History Ramsay, Winston (ed.) The Battle ates: 1999) Publishing Consortium: 2000) of Britain Then and Now Mk V Addison, Paul, and Jeremy A Crang (Battle of Britain Prints Internation- (eds), The Burning Blue: A New Levine, Joseph (ed.) Forgotten Voices al: 1989) History of the Battle of Britain of the Blitz and the Battle of Britain (Pimlico: 2000) (Ebury Press: 2006) Ray, John, The Battle of Britain: New Perspectives (Arms and Armour Bickers, Richard Townshend, Mason, Francis K, Battle over Britain: Press, 1994; reissued as The Battle of The Battle of Britain A History of the German Air Assaults Britain: Dowding and the First (Salamander:1997) on Great Britain, 1917-18 and Victory, 1940, Cassell: 2000)

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£ * only 24.99

Watch face measures 1 5/8 inches (4cm) including bezel. Adjustable strap Winston Churchill's measures 8 inches (21cm) long by 3/4 famous quote and Tom inches (2cm) wide. Neil's Signature

ritain and indeed the world could have been a very different place if it weren't for the fearless RAF pilots of the BBattle of Britain… the courageous souls who have become known in the annals of history as 'The Few'. Lauded by Sir Winston Churchill for their bravery and heralded as heroes by the British public, they are owed an immeasurable debt of gratitude. In 2010, we celebrate the 70th anniversary of our triumph in the Battle of Britain and SEND NO MONEY NOW in the lead-up to this momentous event we are offering you the opportunity to be the fi rst to acquire this magnifi cent new RAF Battle of Britain 70th Anniversary Chronograph. EXCLUSIVELY ENDORSED BY A SURVIVING MEMBER OF 'THE FEW' RESERVATION APPLICATION Please Respond Promptly Wing Commander Tom Neil DFC* AFC AE is one of the original fi ghter aces of the iconic battle. Credited with a To: The Bradford Exchange, PO Box 653, Stoke-on-Trent ST4 4RA total of 17 victories in the war (13 in the Battle of Britain), he embodies the tenacity of 'The Few' like no other. Today YES! Please reserve the offi cial RAF Battle of Britain 70th he lends his signature to this world fi rst watch – expertly engraved on the reverse and accompanied by Churchill's Anniversary Chronograph for me as described in this advertisement. stirring words "Never in the fi eld of human confl ict was so much owed by so many to so few". I need SEND NO MONEY NOW! Certifi cate of Authenticity and 30-day Money-back Guarantee Reminiscent of the watches worn by World War 2 pilots, ours is handcrafted and boasts an oversized crown and numerals, a precision movement, genuine leather strap and a wealth of authentic RAF detail on the face. For a Name (Mr/Mrs/Miss/Ms) ______contemporary fi nishing touch it is fully plated with 22-carat rose gold. (PLEASE PRINT) Address ______HESITATE AND YOU WILL MISS OUT – RESPOND TODAY! ______Our offi cial RAF signature chronograph is limited to just 4,999 worldwide. Your timepiece arrives with a Certifi cate of Authenticity and is payable in 5 easy monthly instalments of ONLY £24.99 – exceptional value at just £124.95 (plus a Postcode ______Telephone ______total of £9.99 postage and handling)*. To reserve yours backed by our 30-day money-back guarantee, send no money Email Address ______now – simply fi ll in and post the Reservation Application today. © 2010 Crown copyright. *Offer applies UK only. A credit check may be carried out by a licensed credit www.bradford.co.uk/battleofbritain Signature ______reference agency. Full Terms and Conditions are available on request. The Bradford Group, 1 Castle Yard, From time to time The Bradford Exchange may allow carefully screened companies Richmond, Surrey TW10 6TF. If ordering online, please quote to contact you. If you do not wish to receive such offers, please tick box reference code P266308 Order Ref:P266308 Trusted Partner

Honouring Those Who Serve.

Raytheon salutes the men and women of the Royal Air Force, whose honour and commitment are invaluable to the security of our country. As a trusted partner to the Ministry of Defence, Raytheon delivers proven solutions and support that enable a true operational advantage. On this 70th anniversary of the Battle of Britain, Raytheon honours our Armed Forces.

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