The origin and nature of Salado: evidence from the Safford Valley, Arizona

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Authors Brown, Jeffrey Lawrence, 1941-

Publisher The University of Arizona.

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Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/597108 THE ORIGIN AND NATURE OP SALADO:

EVIDENCE FRCM THE SAFFORD VALLEY, ARIZONA

by-

Jeffrey Lawrence Brown

A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the

DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

In the Graduate College

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

1 9 7 3 THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

GRADUATE COLLEGE

I hereby recommend that this dissertation prepared under my direction by Jeffrey Lawrence Brown______entitled The Origin and Nature of Salado: Evidence from the

Safford Valley, Arizona.______be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement of the degree of ______Doctor of Philosophy______

After inspection of the final copy of the dissertation, the

following members of the Final Examination Committee concur in

its approval and recommend its acceptance:*

/ V /??! - 7 3

This approval and acceptance is contingent on the candidate's adequate performance and defense of this dissertation at the final oral examination. The inclusion of this sheet bound into the library copy of the dissertation is evidence of satisfactory performance at the final examination. STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This dissertation has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to bor­ rowers under rules of the Library.

Brief quotations from this dissertation are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or re­ production of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his judgment the proposed use of the material is in the in­ terests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.

SIGNED: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Excavations at the Methodist Church site were sponsored and financially aided by the Graham County Historical Society. I owe special thanks to the Board of the First United Methodist Church for permitting excavations, to Rev. and Mrs. Robert Bjorkland not only for assistance on the dig, but for the generous loan of parsonage facilities, and to Mr. Joe Agers for delaying construction at the site. The following people participated in the excavations at the

Methodist Church site: Mr. Dwight Abram, Mr. and Mrs. Robert

Bjorkland, Mr. Brad Brawley, Mrs. Aileen Carpenter, Mr. and Mrs. Ted

Chadwick, Mr. and Mrs. Mason Coggin. Miss Peggy Davis, Mr, Eugene

Etter, Mrs. E. W. and Steven Hicks, Mr. Frank Highby, Mr. and Mrs.

Robert E. Lee, Mr. and Mrs. Russell Murdock, Mrs. Glen Porter, Mr.

Larry Shiflet, Mrs. Bruce Stadfield, and Mr. Ray Theissen.

To Mr. and Mrs. Afton Whitmer I owe an important debt of thanks for permitting excavations on their property and for helping with the excavation of the Whitmer site. Mrs, Aileen Carpenter,

Mrs. Robert E, Lee, and Mrs. Jerri Hack and family also aided exca­ vations.

Hayward Franklin, Department of Anthropology,- University of

Arizona, helped with site survey and excavations. Thomas Bridge,

Physical Sciences Department, Kansas State Teachers College, guided the petrographic analysis. The staff of the Henderson Museum at the

ill iv

University of Colorado graciously provided access to the artifacts and notes from Tatman's excavations at the Buena Vista site.

To all the collectors, property owners, and individuals who helped in this project I cannot give enough thanks. Very special thanks are due to the Dwight Abram family, to Rev. and Mrs. Robert

Bjorkland, and especially to Mr. and Mrs. Robert E. Lee for many kindnesses that can never be repaid.

Also, I wish to express my appreciation to the members of my dissertation committee, Raymond H. Thompson, William J. Robinson, and

R. Gwinn Vivian whose critical suggestions did much to improve the

quality of this effort. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS...... viii

LIST OF TABLES ...... x

A B S T R A C T ...... xii

1, INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM ...... 1

Misconceptions and Speculations ...... U Hypotheses ...... 8 Summary ...... 12

2. SITE SUMMARY ...... ill

Earven Flat S i t e ...... Hi Earven Flat Site, Cultural Affiliation ...... Hi The Yuma Wash Site ...... 20 The Yuma Wash Site, Cultural Affiliation ...... 23 The Rincon Canyon S i t e ...... 23 The Rincon Canyon Site, Cultural Affiliation ...... 23 The Methodist Church Site ...... 27 Excavation Procedure ...... 27 Architecture ...... 29 Artifacts ...... 30 Subfloor Artifacts ...... 35 Vegetal Material ...... 35 The Methodist Church Site, Cultural Affiliation . . , . 39 Bonita Creek Ceremonial Cave ...... 39 Artifacts ...... 39 Bonita Creek Ceremonial Cave, Cultural Affiliation . . U5 The Marijilda Site ...... U8 Room Features and Artifacts ...... ti8 The Marijilda Site, Cultural Affiliation ...... 60 The Whitmer Site...... 61 Architecture...... 6l Artifacts ...... 61i The Whitmer Site, Cultural Affiliation ...... 6U The Spear Ranch Site ...... 69 The Spear Ranch Site, Cultural Af f i l i a t i o n ...... 72 The Goat Hill Site ...... 76 The Goat Hill Site, Cultural Affiliation ...... 76

v vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued

Page

The Buena Vista Site ...... 82 House 1, General A r c h i t e c t u r e ...... 8U House 1, Room Features...... 8U House 1, Wall, Floor, and Roof Construction .... 86 House 1, Ceramic Artifacts ...... 87 House 1, Non-ceramic Artifacts ...... 87 House 1, B u r i a l s ...... 91 House 1, Artifact Associations...... 91 House 1, Cultural Affiliation ...... 91 House 2 99 House 2, Cultural Affiliation ...... 100 House 3 100 Summary ...... 100

3. TEMPORAL CONSIDERATIONS...... 10$

Time Indicators ...... 10$ Wingate Black-on-red ...... 10$ Tularosa Black-on-white ...... 10$ Tularosa Fillet R i m ...... 106 Pinedale Polychrome ...... 106 Maverick Mountain Wares (Maverick Mountain Black- on-red, Maverick Mountain Polychrome, and Nantack Polychrome)...... 106 St. Johns Polychrome ...... 112 Temporal Placement of the S i t e s ...... 113 Classification and Temporal Placement of the Salado Polychromes ...... 11$ Summary ...... 120

U. HYPOTHESIS T E S T I N G ...... 122

Cibola Migration Hypothesis ...... 122 Hypothesis 1 ...... 122 Tonto Basin Migration Hypothesis ...... 12U Hypothesis 2 ...... 12U Gila Basin Migration Hypothesis . » ...... 12U Hypothesis 3 ...... 12U Casas Grandes Migration Hypothesis ...... 12$ Hypothesis h ...... 12$ Central Mountain Region Migration Hypothesis ...... 126 Hypothesis $ ...... 126 Safford Valley Origin Hypothesis...... 130 Hypothesis 6 ...... 130 S u m m a r y ...... 131 vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued

Page

5. PUEBLO VIEJO SA L A D O ...... 132

Pueblo Viejo Salado and Tonto Basin Salado Comparisons, 13U Pueblo Viejo Salado and Gila Basin Salado Comparisons . 135 Pueblo Viejo Salado and Reeve Ruin Comparisons , . . , 137 Pueblo Viejo Salado and Kayenta-Maverick Mountain Comparisons...... 139 Buena Vista Salado Polychrome Layout F o r m s ...... m 2 Buena Vista Salado Polychrome Design Elements ...... 150 Summary ...... 152

6. CONCLUSIONS...... i #

LIST (F R E F E R E N C E S ...... 1^5 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1. The Pueblo Viejo region of the Safford Valley ...... 15>

2. Sketch map of the Barren Flat site 16

3. Sketch map of the Rincon Canyon s i t e ...... 2U

U. The Methodist Church site ...... 28

5. Methodist Church site artifacts ...... 36

6. Methodist Church site effigies ...... 37

7. Methodist Church site subfloor stone artifacts • • . • . 38

8. Unpainted agave wood slat ...... Ul

9. Agave wood s l a t ...... U2

10. Bonita Creek Ceremonial Cave bow and arrow remains . . . 1)3

11. Bonita Creek Ceremonial Cave artifacts . ♦ ...... I46

12. Sketch map of the Marijilda s i t e ...... U9

13. Marijilda site miniature vessels ...... $0

lit. Marijilda site ceramic effigies •••• ...... 51

15. Marijilda site ceramic artifacts ...... 52

16. Marijilda site. Room 1, slab-lined firepit and deflector ...... •• ...... 5£

17. Marijilda site. Room 3, slab-lined opening ...... 57

18. Marijilda site. Room U, masonry with boulder footings . . 58

19. Marijilda site. Room U, banded m a s o n r y ...... 59

20. The Whitmer site ...... 62

21. The Whitmer site. Room 3 63

viii ix

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS— Continued

Figure Page

22* Whitmer site stone artifacts ••••••••••••••• 6?

23. Whitmer site bone and shell artifacts ...... 68

2lu Spear Ranch site ceramic artifacts...... 70

2£* Spear Ranch site stone artifacts ...... 71

26. Profile of excavations at the Spear Ranch site ...... 73

27. The Goat Hill site ...... 77

28. Sketch map of the Goat Hill site ...... 78

29. Figurines ...... 81

30. The Buena Vista s i t e ...... 83

31. Buena Vista site, House 1, Maverick Mountain vessels . . . 88

32. Goat Hill site Polychrome s h e r d s ...... Ill

33e Methodist Church site Maverick Mountain Black-on-red bowl sherd ...... lUO

3U. Spear Ranch site. Lower Level, Maverick Mountain Black- on-red bowl s h e r d ...... llil

3I>« Y-frame layouts ...... 1U3

36. Buena Vista site. House 1, Tonto Polychrome vessels with Y-frame layouts ......

37. Buena Vista site. House 1, Salado Polychrome vessels with bird wing meander layouts ...... 1U6

38. Buena Vista site. House 1, Gila Polychrome bowls . . . . . Ilt7

39. Buena Vista site. House 1, Gila Polychrome bowls with offset quartered layouts ...... H 48

1*0. Buena Vista site, House 1, Salado Polychrome jars • . • • 1$1 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Earven Flat Site: Painted Ware Tabulation ...... 17

2. Earven Flat Site: Plain and Textured Ware Tabulation . • 18

3. Yuma Wash Site: Painted Ware Tabulation ...... 21

I4. Yuma Wash Site: Plain and Textured Ware Tabulation . . . 22

*>. Rincon Canyon Site: Painted Ware Tabulation ...... 2$

6. Rincon Canyon Site: Plain and Textured Ware Tabulation • 26

7. Methodist Church Site, Floor and Floor Fill: Painted Ware T a b u l a t i o n ...... 31

8. Methodist Church Site, Floor and Floor Fill: Plain and Textured Ware Tabulation ...... 33

9. Methodist Church Site, Subfloor: Painted Ware Tabulation ...... •••• 3I1

10. The Marijilda Ruin: Painted Ware Tabulation...... 53

11. The Marijilda Ruin: Plain and Textured Ware Tabulation .

12. Whitmer Site: Painted Ware Tabulation ...... ££

13. Whitmer Site: Plain and Textured Ware Tabulation . . . . 66

lit. Spear Ranch Site, Upper Level: Painted Ware Tabulation . 7^

15• Spear Ranch Site, Lower Level: Painted Ware Tabulation . 75

16. Goat Hill Site: Painted Ware Tabulation ...... 79

17. Goat Hill Site: Plain and Textured Ware Tabulation • • • QO

18. Buena Vista Site, House 1: Painted Ware Tabulation • • • 89

19. Buena Vista Site, House 1: Plain and Textured Ware Tabulation ...... 90

x xi

LIST OF TABLES — Continued

Table Page

20. Buena Vista Site, House 1: Burial Data ...... ?2

21. Site Summary Chart ...... ••••• 102

22. Temper Constituents of Selected Sherds ...... 108

23. Salado Polychrome Hatched Elements ...... 117

2li. Salado Polychromes: Styles of Interior Ornamentation . . . 118 ABSTRACT

The Pueblo Viejo region of the Safford Valley is one of the least known archaeological areas of the American Southwest. As yet no major excavation has been attempted there. In spite of the almost total lack of published data concerning the Salado manifestations of. the Pueblo Viejo region, this area figures prominently in numerous

Salado origin and migration speculations. In this paper hypotheses derived from these speculations are tested with new data gathered from the Pueblo Viejo region.

The location, architecture, cultural affiliations, and temporal aspects of ten Pueblo Viejo area sites are discussed.

Minimal evidence for confirming immigrations of Saladoans from

Cibola, the Tonto Basin, the Gila Basin, or Casas Grandes does not seem to be present in the Pueblo Viejo area. Some support for an immigra­ tion from the Point of Pines-Reserve region is present. No support for a Safford Valley Salado origin is apparent.

The major characteristics of the Pueblo Viejo Salado manifesta­ tions are outlined. Comparisons are made with the Tonto Basin, the

Gila Basin, and the Reeve Ruin Salado manifestations. A number of

specific resemblances between the Kayenta-Hopi and Pueblo Viejo Salado

ceramic traditions are noted. • .

xii CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM

The Safford Valley is that portion of the Gila Valley in east- central Arizona extending some 60 miles from the Sanchez Gorge on the east to the Mescal Mountains on the west (Harbour 1966: ?)• Though evidence of aboriginal occupation can be found throughout the Safford

Valley, Fewkes (190U: 168-195) noted that the area from northeast of

San Jose to Pima bore evidence of especially heavy pre-Columbian occu­ pation, He termed this area "the Pueblo Viejo" after the most prom­ inent ruin in the vicinity. It is the Pueblo Viejo area that forms the focus of this report.

According to Fewkes, the Pueblo Viejo area at the time of his visit retained much of the appearance it possessed when crossed by the

Army of the West in 18U7:

The appearance of Pueblo Viejo at this time was probably not unlike that of those sections which are not now farmed. A dense growth of mesquite and cactus covered a sandy soil, which in the dry season turned to dust, covering the traveler or hovering in clouds behind him. Most of the larger speci­ mens of mesquite and other trees have long ago been cut down, but the great growth which this tree may have reached can be judged from the few survivors. In places along the bank of the Gila there were clumps of cottonwood trees, some of which even now present a delightful sight to the .weary trav­ eler. In the rainy season the river overflowed its banks, flooding the neighboring valley for miles. The river was so swollen after rains in the mountains as to be impassable (190U: 169).

1 2

The Pueblo Viejo area still exhibits the arid character described by Fewkes.

Safford is located at an altitude of 2900 feet above sea level.

Summer temperatures usually reach the high nineties by mid-afternoon.

In the winter, afternoon temperatures normally range into the sixties but occasionally reach the eighties. These warm temperatures allow a

200-day growing season. Precipitation at Safford averages about 10 inches annually (Sellers I960: 8-9).

The climate of the Pinaleno Mountains provides a marked con­ trast to the valley. Summer afternoon temperatures seldom rise above

85°. Annual precipitation averages more than 25> inches (Sellers I960:

8-9).

Situated within the Upper Sonoran Life Zone, the valley floor is characterized by creosote and salt brush. Grass and mesquite, chaparral-oak woodland, and yellow pine forests are found at the suc­ cessively higher elevations (Nichol 1952: 208-209).

The Pueblo Viejo is one of the least known archaeological regions in the American Southwest. As yet, no major excavation has been attempted there, and survey work has been superficial. Other than passing references by Sauer and Brand (1930), Sayles (19W>: 2), and Gladwin (19571 317-318), the only published reports are those of

Fewkes (190U) and Hough (1907). Both of these reports describe the brief joint reconnaissance of the authors in the summer of 1897.

Late in 1931, Oscar Tatman, under the direction of Earl H.

Morris, began excavations at the Buena Vista ruin on Curtis Ranch near 3

Solononsville, Shortly thereafter, according to Morris (1932), "out­ side pressure was brought to bear on the owner of the property," and excavation was halted. The results of this brief dig were not pub­ lished by Morris, but are summarized in this report.

The most recent work in the Pueblo Viejo area was carried out by Donald R. Tuohy in 195>8 for the Arizona State Museum under a con­ tract for salvage archaeology (Tuohy I960). Tuohy* s survey was confined primarily to the environs of the river channel endangered by a proposed United States A m y Corps of Engineers channel clearing and flood control project. This survey included not only the Pueblo Viejo area, but the entire Safford Valley from Barren Flat on the east to

Coolidge Dam on the west and a section of the Gila Valley near

Wirikelman, Arizona.

Tuohy identified ten sites in the Pueblo Viejo region including

the Buena Vista ruin, now almost totally destroyed. He also excavated

portions of two sites. One of these sites he identified as a Sacaton

phase, Casa Grande-type ball court. The other was a small pueblo with

ceramic associations of Tularosa Black-on-white and Sacaton Red-on-

buff.

The portion of the Safford Valley downstream from Pima is

hardly better known than the Pueblo Viejo region. This area was vis-

isted by Bandelier (1892: U05-U19), Fewkes (190b: 168-195), and Hough

(1907: 32-35). On two occasions the Arizona State Museum has excavated

sites near Bylas. The first excavations were conducted by Byron

Cummings in 1926. No records of these excavations exist (Wasley 1958), It

In 1963 the Arizona State Museum, under a National Park Service con­ tract, excavated two 12th-century pueblos near Bylas, According to

Johnson and Wasley (1966: 2li8-293), these sites are a local version of

•’Western Pueblo culture," which they termed "the Bylas phase." Bylas phase sites were assumed to occur in the entire Safford Valley from

Coolidge Dam to the gorge east of Safford.

My work in the Safford Valley was carried out in the summers of 1969 and 1970. The Methodist Church site was excavated during the early summer of 1969. This excavation produced a substantial quantity

of Maverick Mountain Black-on-red sherds. I returned to the Safford area during the summer of 1970 in order to determine the extent and nature of sites with Maverick Mountain wares. It soon became apparent, however, that the Safford area is culturally very complex and my

efforts shifted to an attempt to define the variety of ceramic sites

through examination of private collections, survey, and limited exca­

vation.

Misconceptions and Speculations

A major misconception concerning the nature of the "Salado

complex" in the Safford Valley has grown from the somewhat ambiguous

reports of Fewkes and Bandelier. This misconception is that the typi­

cal Safford Valley Salado period ruin is a variant of the Casa Grande

or Tonto Basin compound structure. Supposedly, the ruins of the

Safford Valley are surrounded by walls, have either a central room

block or great house structure, and are associated with Gila Poly­

chrome. Though the presence of Gila Polychrome will not be disputed, 5 it will be contended here that no evidence concerning the presence of compound structures east of old San Carlos can be found in the writings of either Fewkes or Bandelier.

Fawkes’ description of the Pueblo Viejo Valley sites, typified by the Buena Vista ruin, is cited by Kidder (l92lt: 313) as evidence for the presence of compounds:

. , . in the Pueblo Viejo Valley near Solomonsville, Arizona, on the Gila, there are evidently real compounds. The ruins mentioned here by Fewkes are large, are enclosed by walls and contain great central structures; they produce typical Lower Gila polychrome ware, but seem to contain no red-on-gray.

Some passages of Fewkes' report do seen to indicate that the Buena

Vista ruin was a compound with a central great house similar to the

Great House at Casa Grande:

The houses of the Pueblo Viejo are arranged somewhat differ­ ently from those of the Little Colorado and its tributaries. The tendency in the latter regions is toward consolidation, toward a close approximation into a communal pueblo, while the buildings in the Pueblo Viejo are more like rancherias or farm dwellings. Each of the houses was small, apparently inhabited by a single clan, and they were. generally grouped in clusters, which may for convenience be styled villages.

There is generally found in the midst of, or near, such a cluster of small houses, a larger building which occupied the relation of a sitadel, or, possibly, a ceremonial room; it may be single or composed or several chambers. This feature can be well seen in the accompanying plan (Plate LXVI) of the Buena Vista ruin, one of the least changed of those in the Pueblo Viejo. The existence of a central room with clusters of small houses near or about it reminds one of the Casa Grande group near Florence, Arizona (190U: 176).

Other passages, however, clearly state that no Great House

structure was present at Buena Vista: 6

Architecturally there is very little likeness between this central large stone enclosure or house with many rooms and Casa Grande, the best-known building of the Casa Grande group. This difference is in part due to the character of the building material, but more to the plan of the building itself. The large central stone structure of Buena Vista is more like those north of the White Mountains and resem­ bles closely the rectangular ruin at Pinedale (1901*: 172- 173).

Nowhere does Fewkes describe a wall surrounding the ruin. No wall is shown on his map (Plate IXVI). Clearly then, the ruin at Buena Vista consisted of a large pueblo structure and a number of outlying units.

As Fewkes indicates that the Buena Vista ruin is typical of the ruins in the Pueblo Viejo area, we may assume that he saw no compound struc­ tures .

Gladwin asserts that Bandolier described a compound ruin near

San Carlos:

On his way from Fort Apache to Casa Grande in May, 1883, Adolph Bandelier passed through the valley and mentioned several ruins which he visited. One near Fort Thomas was described as having a large mound, 1*8 x 1*3 feet, within an enclosure 7l* feet long, which clearly was the same as the ruins in the Tonto Basin that I have been calling compounds (1957: 317).

Again, a close reading of the early record does not indicate any evidence of a compound structure:

They (the ruins at Fort Thomas) are distinctly of the small house type, and rows of stones indicating low enclosures connect the mounds that denote former buildings . . . The remains about Fort Thomas are much decayed, so that it is almost impossible without excavation to reestablish the connecting lines. It struck me that the amount of rubbish that was lying about was quite inconsiderable, and that the mounds, though low, seemed to consist of packed earth. -This suggested the thought that the houses, except their foundations, might have been of adobe (Bandelier 1892: 1*09).

Bandelier1s description more closely fits the rambling pueblo layout 7 of Arizona V:16:10 (ASM) at Bylas (Johnson and Wasley 1966: 212) than a compound structure.

Only at old San Carlos does Bandelier describe what might be a compound:

The present Indian Agency of San Carlos is not on a pre­ possessing site. The modern constructions stand on the ruins of a village, which must have covered much more ground than I could survey, which was . . . an aggregation of dwellings and enclosures. A mound 0.80 m. high . . . and 37 meters long by 16 broad . . . is connected with the other remains. Its surface is traversed by a double line of stone walls, showing that the rubbish mass once formed a house. This feature was new to me, and it suggested the existence of a larger central building, perhaps artificially elevated by means of an underlying platform, and connected with the rest of the settlement by walls of courts or squares. VJhat few other buildings were visible were small houses resting on the level (1892: UlO).

In spite of the almost total lack of data concerning Salado

manifestations in the Safford Valley, this area figures directly and

by implication in a number of Salado origin and migration speculations.

Steen, for instance, proposes that the Salado originated in the Safford

Valley:

At the period 1150-1200 A.D., there lived a group of "Mogollon" Indians in the Gila Valley, from about the loca­ tion of the Coolidge Dam to the New Mexico line. At this time, masonry was introduced to the area as a method of building homes, and two types of pottery (those we know as Roosevelt Black-on-white and Pinto Polychrome) were intro­ duced among these people. These pottery types were accepted at about the same time that a portion of this population moved into a large unoccupied valley— the Tonto Basin— and the smaller mountain valleys south of the Basin. Soon after this expansion, Gila Polychrome was evolved from PintoTolychrome and became the Salado trademark (1910: 29).

Wasley, on the other hand, maintains that the Safford Basin was colo­

nized by Saladoans from the Tonto Basin (Lindsay and Jennings 1968: 2). 8

Gladwin proposes that the Safford Basin was colonized by two waves of

Saladoans. One wave came from the Cibola area at AD 1300. Johnson

(196$: 79) proposes that the "Salado invasion" was really a post AD

1300 expansion of the Western Pueblo culture of the central mountain

region of Arizona and Western New Mexico into southern, desert areas.

Young (1967: 81-8U) suggests that the Saladoans may have originated in

the Casas Grandes area of Mexico before AD ll£0 and migrated northward.

Gladwin (1937: 101) and Haury (19W>: 211) imply that the Safford Basin

may have been colonized by retreating Saladoans from the Gila Basin

during the period from AD 11*00 to Hi$0.

These Salado origin and migration propositions are to a large

extent speculations based upon incomplete and ambiguously reported

data. The purposes of this paper are: (1) to put these speculations

into the form of testable hypotheses, and (2) to test these hypotheses

with new data gathered from the Pueblo Viejo area of the Safford

Valley.

Hypotheses

In forming and testing the hypotheses, the hypothetico-

deductive method as outlined by Salmon is followed:

As it is frequently characterized, the hypothetico-deductive method consists of (1) setting up a hypothesis, (2) deducing consequences [observational predictions] from the hypothesis, and (3) checking by observations to see whether these conse­ quences are true (1963: 78).

The migration speculations, then, are put into the form of

hypothetico-deductive arguments with the following form. The first

premise is the hypothesis. It states the area from which the migration 9 supposedly originated and the presumed time of migration. The second premise states the evidence accepted for migrations in general. The conclusion or observational prediction states the Pueblo Viejo archae­ ological manifestations required for confirmation of the hypothesis.

As the second premise of the argument links the hypothesis to the observational prediction, it needs to be explicitly stated. In this report the evidence accepted for the recognition of migrations is based upon criteria presented by Hauzy (1958: 1-6) and Rouse (1958:

61-68). According to Haury, the following conditions must be met before a migration can reasonably be proposed:

A migration is the probable, though not the only, explana­ tion in the archaeological record of past people:

1) if there suddenly appears in a cultural continuum a constellation of traits readily identifiable as new, and without local prototypes, and 2) if the products of the immigrant group not only reflect borrowed elements from the host group, but also, as a lingering effect, preserve unmistakable elements from their own pattern.

The probability that the phenomena outlined above do indeed represent a migration, rather than some other force that induces culture change, is increased:

1) if identification of an area is possible in which this constellation of traits was the normal pat­ tern, and .2) if a rough time equivalency between the "at hone" and the displaced expressions of the similar com­ plexes can be established (1958: 1).

Rouse (1958: 65-66) adds to Haury's criteria the necessity for

demonstrating favorable environmental conditions for a migration and

eliminating the possibility that other explanations might be more

satisfactory. 10

The belief that different socio-cultural systems have distinct cultural contents and geographic locations is an essential working assumption of both ethnographers and archaeologists. It follows, then, that the key element for recognizing migrations is the sudden appear­ ance in a localized cultural continuum of a constellation of traits readily identifiable as new, without local prototypes, and indigenous to another known area. This evidence is the minimum requirement.

Without it, migrations cannot reasonably be proposed.

Basically, then, the various migration arguments have the fol­ lowing form:

Premise (Hypothesis)— There was a migration into the Pueblo Viejo area from area x at time y.

Premise— A migration from a given area at a particular time can be recognized by the sudden appearance in a cultural continuum of a con­ stellation of traits readily identifiable as new, without local proto­ types, and indigenous to another known area.

Conclusion (Observational Prediction)— There appears in the

Pueblo Viejo area cultural continuum at time y a new trait complex, without local prototypes, indigenous to area x.

Leaving out the second premise, which is the same in each case, we have the following specific hypotheses and observational predictions:

1. Hypothesis— There was a migration into the Pueblo Viejo area from the Cibola area at AD 1100,

Observational Prediction— There appears in the Pueblo Viejo area at AD 1100 a new trait complex, without local prototypes. 11 indigenous to the Cibola area. According to Gladwin (19^7J 318), this trait complex should include black-on-white pottery and one-story houses built against the inside of enclosing walls.

2. Hypothesis— There was a migration into the Pueblo Viejo area from the Tonto Basin at AD 1300.

Observational Prediction— There appears in the Pueblo Viejo area at AD 1300 a new trait complex, without local prototypes, indig­ enous to the Tonto Basin. According to Gladwin (1957$ 318), this trait complex should include two-story pueblos standing clear of com­ pound walls and Salado Polychrome pottery.

3* Hypothesis— There was a migration into the Pueblo Viejo area from the Casas Grandes area of Chihuahua at approximately AD 1150.

Observational Prediction— There appears in the Pueblo Viejo area at approximately AD 1150 a new trait complex, without local prototypes, indigenous to the Casas Grandes area. According to Young

(1967$ 82-8U), this trait complex might include Salado Polychromes, compound enclosures, and substructure mounds.

L. Hypothesis— There was a migration into the Pueblo Viejo area from the Gila Basin during the period from AD lit CO to 1U50.

Observational Prediction— There appears in the Pueblo Viejo area from AD lit00 to Ut50 a new trait complex, without local proto­ types, indigenous to the Gila Basin. Though neither Gladwin (1937$

101) nor Haury (19U5$ 211) specifically state what this complex should include, compound architecture with great houses, and inhumation with 12

Salado Polychromes would appear to be the primary defining traits of the Gila Basin Salado (Haury 19W>: 207).

5. Hypothesis— There was a migration into the Pueblo Viejo area from the central mountain region of Arizona and Western New Mexico at

AD 1300.

Observational Prediction— There appears in the Pueblo Viejo area at AD 1300 a new trait complex, without local prototypes, indig­ enous to the central mountain region of Arizona and Western New Mexico.

Though Johnson (196$: 79# 8U) does not state what traits he would accept as evidence for this migration, Salado Polychromes and pueblo architecture are implied.

Steen’s Safford Valley Salado origin proposition will be tested with the following hypothetico-deductive argument:

Premise (Hypothesis)— Salado culture developed in the Pueblo Viejo

area during the period from AD 11$0 to 1200.

Premise— Salado culture is defined by the presence of masonry

architecture, Roosevelt Black-on-white, and Pinto Polychrome pottery.

Conclusion (Observational Prediction)— Masonry architecture,

Roosevelt Black-on-white, and Pinto Polychrome pottery appear in the

Pueblo Viejo area during the period from AD 11$0 to 1200.

Summary

The Pueblo Viejo region of the Safford Valley is one of the

least known archaeological areas of the American Southwest. No major

excavation has been attempted there as yet. In spite of the almost total lack of data concerning the Salado manifestations of the Pueblo 13

Viejo region, this area figures prominently in numerous Salado origin and migration speculations. In this paper I attempt to put these speculations into the form of testable hypotheses and to test these hypotheses with new data gathered from the Pueblo Viejo region. CHAPTER 2

SITE SUMMARY

Data from the following sites provide the basis for testing the various Salado origin and migration hypotheses previously presented.

Earven Flat Site

The Earven Flat site is located on the southwestern edge of

Earven Flat on the north side of the Gila Valley (Fig. l). This site consists of a large masonry pueblo of approximately 170 rooms (Fig. 2), a probable great kiva, and an unknown number of small outlying units.

The Earven Flat site was reported by Tuohy (i960: 21) and was desig­ nated by him as Arizona CO:2:9 (ASM) in the Arizona State Museum

Survey. Surface ceramics from the Earven Flat site are listed in

Tables 1 and 2.

Earven Flat Site, Cultural Affiliation

As the five painted pottery types present at the Earven Flat

site are also present at the Turkey Creek ruin near Point of Pines

(Johnson 1969: 66), and the Bylas Sites (Arizona V:l6:8 ASM, and

Arizona V:l6:10 ASM) in the lower Safford Valley (Johnson and Wasley

1966: 290), we may assume that the Earven Flat site is more or less

contemporary with Turkey Creek and the Bylas sites. As Johnson and

Wasley propose that the Bylas sites represent a "local Safford

Valley manifestation of Western Pueblo culture" (1966: 2h9)> a close /- ! )

▲ SUES

1 IMVEN FUtT THATCH! 2 VIM* WAS! 3 WHITHER RANCH 4 RINCRN CANVRN 5 MARMIIDA • METHMIST CNRRCN 7 SPEAR RANCH • CMT HILL • ARENA VISTA 9

Figure 1* The Pueblo Viejo region of the Safford Valley.

vx

\ PLAZA

PLAZA

WALL

AOOMS

Figure 2. Sketch map of the Barren Flat site. 17

Table 1, Barren Flat Sites Painted Ware Tabulation

Percent Type Amount of Total

Tularosa Black-on-white U3 U3.U3

Encinas Red-on-brown 2U 2U.2U

Casa Grande Red-on-brown 11 11.11

Wingate Black-on-red 9 9.09

Mimbres Classic Black-on-white 7 7.07

Indeterminate Red-on-brown 5 5.05

Total 99 100.00 18

Table 2. Barren Flat Site: Plain and Textured Ware Tabulation

Amount Percent T yp e (Rims) of Total

McDonald Painted Corrugated 9 23.68

Indented Corrugated Smudged 8 2 1 .0 5

Indented Corrugated Unsmudged *8 2 1 .0 5

Plain Brownware U 1 0 .5 2

Tularosa Fillet Rim 3 7 . 8 9

Corrugated Smudged 2 5.26

Redware 2 5.26

Reserve Smudged 1 2 . 6 3

Incised Corrugated 1 2 . 6 3

Total 3 8 1 0 0 .0 0

Types represented by body sherds only: Corrugated Unsmudged 20; Tularosa Patterned Corrugated 2; Incised Brownware 1; Cloverdale Corrugated 1 19 resemblance between the Earven Flat site and the Bylas sites would be

expected. The Earven Flat site, however, more closely resembles the

Tularosa Phase Turkey Creek ruin than either of the Bylas sites.

The dominant painted pottery type at Earven Flat is Tularosa

Black-on-white. The dominant painted type at Turkey Creek is Reserve-

Tularosa Black-on-white. These types are Cibola Whitewares and are,

presumably, indigenous to the White Mountains (Johnson 196£: 66). The most frequently occurring painted pottery type at Arizona V:l6:10 (ASM)

is Casa Grande Red-on-buff. The most common painted type at Arizona

V:l6:8 (ASM) is San Carlos Red-on-brown. Both Casa Grande Red-on-buff

and San Carlos Red-on-brown are thought to be indigenous to the

Safford Valley. At the Bylas sites. White Mountain Redwares and

Cibola Whitewares are in the minority among the painted wares. At

Earven Flat and Turkey Creek, White Mountain Redwares and Cibola White-

wares are in the minority.

The plain and textured Brownware sherds from the Earven Flat

site include McDonald Painted Corrugated, Indented and Plain Corru­

gated, Plain Brownware, Tularosa Fillet Rim, Reserve Smudged, and

Incised Corrugated. These types belong to the coiled and scraped,

often surface manipulated, Brownware tradition of the Point of Pines-

Reserve region (Rinaldo and Bluhm 19^6: 11*9-173> Johnson 1965): 6U-65).

The Turkey Creek ruin is larger and far more compact than the

Bylas sites. At Turkey Creek 32$ rooms are located in a pueblo meas­

uring 80 rt. by 7$ m. At Arizona V:l6:10 (ASM), 7$ rooms are strung

out for some 370 m. Arizona V:l6:8 (ASM) consists of two small 20 pueblos, one with nine rooms and the other with six. The Barren Flat ruin, though not as large as the Turkey Creek ruin, is considerably larger and more compact than the Bylas sites. It is estimated that this Pueblo contains some 170 rooms in an area measuring ZjU m. by

77 m. The density of rooms is one room per 18.L square m. At Turkey

Creek the ratio is one room per 18.81* square m.

A great kiva and two large kivas were located at the Turkey

Creek ruin. No kivas could be identified with certainty at the Bylas

sites. A probable kiva depression measuring some ll* m, in diameter is

located approximately 80 m. to the north of the Earven Flat pueblo.

The painted, plain, and textured pottery, and architecture at

the Yuma Wash site point to a primary cultural affiliation with the

Tularosa Phase of the Point of Pines-Reserve region.

The Yuma Wash Site

The Yuma Wash is located approximately one-quarter mile east

of Yuma Wash on the south side of the Gila Valley (Fig. 1). It is

situated on a bluff directly above the river. Because of considerable

pothunting and heavy boulder cover, little information concerning the

architecture of the ruin could be obtained from surface investigation.

It was determined, however, that the ruin is a compact pueblo struc­

ture built primarily of river cobbles. At least one fully enclosed

plaza is present. The major portion of the ruin measures some 78 m.

by 30 m. with the long axis oriented east-west. Ceramics from the

surface of the Yuma Wash site are presented in Tables 3 and 1*. 21

Table 3. Yuma Wash Site: Painted Ware Tabulation

Percent Type Amount of Total

St. Johns Polychrome 20k 65.38

Maverick Mountain Black-on-red, 32 10.25 Indeterminate Variety

Tularosa Black-on-white 2k 7.69

Indeterminate White Mountain Redwares 21 6.73

San Carlos Red-on-brown 13 3.8k

St. Johns Polychrome, 6 1.92 Springerville Variety

Maverick Mountain Polychrome k 1.28

Pinedale Polychrome 3 .96

Tanque Verde Red-on-brown (?) 2 .6k

Tularosa White-on-red 2 .6k

Pinto-Gila Polychrome 2 •6k

Total 312 100.00 , 22

Table U. Turaa Wash Site: Plain and Textured Ware Tabulation

Amount Percent Type (Rims) of Total

Plain Brownware 20 60.60

Tularosa Fillet Rim 6 18.18

Reserve Smudged 3 9.09

Corrugated Smudged 1 3.03

Indented Corrugated Smudged 1 3.03

Indented Corrugated Unsmudged 1 3.03

Tularosa Patterned Corrugated 1 3.03

Total 33 100.00

Types represented by body sherds only: Corrugated Unsmudged 175 Incised Brownware 3j Red Incised 3j Obliterated Corrugated 3 23

The Yuma Wash Site, Cultural Affiliation

The Yuma Wash site, like the Barren Flat site, appears to be closely associated with the Tularosa phase sites of the Point of Pines-

Reserve area. Only $,h$% of the painted sherds from the surface col­ lection of Yuma Wash site are indigenous to the desert area. The other

are either White Mountain or Maverick Mountain wares. In addi­ tion, all of Barter’s guide types of the Tularosa phase are present at Yuma Wash (Martin, Rinaldo, and Barter 1957i 97). These types are:

Tularosa Black-on-white, St. John's Polychrome, Tularosa White-on-red,

Tularosa Fillet Rim, and Tularosa Patterned Corrugated.

The Rincon Canyon Site

The Rincon Canyon site is located in Rincon Canyon on the pedi­ ment of the Pinaleno Mountains (Fig. 1). The site is a small pueblo consisting of approximately 16 rooms and a walled plaza (Fig. 3).

Walls are made of adobe with a foundation of vertically set river cobbles. Ceramics collected from the surface of the Rincon Canyon site are reported in Tables 5 and 6.

The Rincon Canyon Site, Cultural Affiliation

San Carlos Red-on-brown, a local type, is the dominant painted pottery type at the Rincon Canyon site. The red-slipped plainwares and the obliterated textured wares differ markedly frpm the typical

Tularosa phase plain and textured wares at Earven Flat and Yuma Wash.

This pueblo, then, does not appear to be closely affiliated with the 2U

N

I

/

PLAZA

/

WALLS

PROBABLE WALLS

Figure 3. Sketch map of the Rincon Canyon site 23

Table 3. Rincon Canyon Site: Painted Ware Tabulation

Percent Type Amount of Total

San Carlos Red-on-brown. 26 53.06

St. Johns Polychrome 17 3U.69

Tularosa Black-on-white 2 It .08

Indeterminate Black-on-white 2 It .08

Encinas Red-on-brown 1 2.0lt

Plain Brownware, Scored and Painted 1 2.Oil with Breadline White Designs

Encinas Red-on-brown 1 2 .Oit

Total U9 100.00 26

Table 6. Rincon Canyon Site: Plain and Textured Ware Tabulation

Amount Percent Type (Rims) of Total

Plainware, Red-slipped, 8 27.58 Scored and Unsmudged

Plainware, Red-slipped, 6 20.68 Scored and Smudged

Obliterated Corrugated, Unsmudged h 13.79

Obliterated Corrugated, Smudged 3 10,3b

Plainware, Red-slipped, 3 10.3b Polished and Unsmudged

Plain Brownware 2 6.89

Indented Corrugated, Smudged 2 6.89

Plainware, Red-slipped, 1 3.bb Polished and Smudged

Total 29 100.00 27

Tularosa phase. It more closely resembles the Bylas sites (Johnson and Wasley 1966).

The Methodist Church Site

The Methodist Church site is located in the town of Safford,

Arizona, on the floodplain of the Gila River, one and one-quarter miles south of the present river channel (Fig. 1). Long-time Safford resi­ dents report that the site once extended for some hO acres, but most of it has been destroyed by modern construction. The excavated portion of the site had been under cultivation for some 80 years when it was ex­ posed late in 1968 by construction work for a new First United

Methodist Church.

Excavation Procedure

Clearing of the plow zone material from the Hi m. by 9 m. plot

allotted for excavation revealed the southeast corner of a cellular pueblo (Fig. U). Preliminary excavations indicated that one complete

room (Room 2) was accessible for excavation. Portions of two other

rooms (Rooms 1 and 3) could be excavated.

Plow Zone. The plow zone extends generally from 5 to 10 cm.

below the highest remaining portion of the walls. This zone contains

numerous historic artifacts as well as prehistoric material.

Floor Fill— from plow zone to floor. This zone contains abun­

dant prehistoric artifacts, but historic artifacts are rare. The pre­

historic artifacts are generally broken and mixed, indicating that the

zone, extending to floor contact,is composed of trash. 28

N

ROOM 1

ROOM 2

------PARTITION WALL ------LIMITS OF EXCAVATION ------WALLS 0 1 2 3 O FIRE PIT # SUB-FLOOR PIT METERS

figure lie The Methodist Church site. 29

Floor Level. The floors are of packed earth and are ill- defined. They range from 25> cm. to 30 cm. below the highest remaining portion of the walls.

Sub-Floor Level. A featureless layer of prehistoric trash extends from the floor level to 30 cm. below the floors.

Architecture

The walls of the excavated rooms at the Methodist Church site are made of adobe reinforced with vertically set cylindrical river cobbles. Maximum wall thickness is 29 cm.

Room_l. The distance between the two east walls is l.U m.

Only four small reinforcing rocks are present in the inner wall, which is defined by a low, wide (29 cm.), flat-topped adobe ridge running parallel to the outside wall. As the inner wall is an extension of the east wall of Room 1 and is considerably thicker than the outside wall, it appears that the inner wall is the original outside east wall, and that it was subsequently torn down and another less substan­

tial wall built 1,5 m. to the east. No north wall was found in Room

1, even though an exploratory trench exposed 7 m. of the east wall.

Room 1, then, is either a very large room, or perhaps an open plaza.

Room 2 . Two poorly defined bowl-shaped fire pits are present

in the floor of this room.

Room__3. Room 3 is divided into a north and south portion by

an east-west trending wall. This wall is set on the floor forming a

partition cutting the room in half. A large spherical pit is present

in the north portion of Room 3. This pit is adjacent to the partition 30 wall. Its opening is 2f> cm. in diameter. Its maximum diameter is 68

cm., and its depth is f>0 cm. A large, flat, unburned rock had been

set on the floor of the pit. Though the pit was packed with fire

cracked rock and pieces of burned Brownware pottery, the walls were not

fire reddened. It is apparent, then, that this feature was used first

as a storage pit and later was filled with burned trash.

Artifacts

The sherds from the Methodist Church site are listed in Tables

7-9. Artifacts from the floor and floor fill levels are listed below:

Mescal Knife. This artifact (Fig. £a) was manufactured from

a thin slab of volcanic rock. The cutting edge is parallel to the long

axis, and the edge is serrated. It resembles tools from San Cayetano

del Tumacacori demonstrated experimentally to be effective in the cut­

ting of mescal plant leaves (Brown and Grebinger 1969: 192-19k).

Arrowshaft Tool. The terms "arrowshaft straightener" and

"arrowshaft smoother” are often used interchangeably in the archaeo­

logical literature of the Southwest. Because the exact use of these

artifacts remains somewhat speculative, the more general term "arrow-

shaft tool" will be used in this report. The Methodist Church site

arrowshaft tool is triple-grooved and closely resembles a specimen

from W: 10:^1 ASM (Wendorf 1950: 6h, Fig. 26f).

Miniature Vessels. The miniature vessels from the Methodist

Church site are made of unfired clay. One vessel is a jar (Fig. $e);

the other is a fragmentary plate. 31

Table 7* Methodist Church Site, Floor and Floor Fill: Painted Ware Tabulation

Percent Type Amount of Total

Maverick Mountain Black-on-red, 57* 16.81 Safford Variety

Maverick Mountain Black-on-red, 38 11.20 Point of Pines Variety

Encinas Red-on-brown 56 16.51

Casa Grande Red-on-buff U6 13.56

San Carlos Red-on-brown 35 10.32

St. Johns Polychrome 27 7.96

Mimbres Black-on-white 20 5.89

Tanque Verde Red-on-brown 18 5.30

Maverick Mountain Polychrome, 8 2.53 Point of Pines Variety

Maverick Mountain Polychrome, 3 2.73 Safford Variety

Plain Brownware, Scored and Painted 8 2.35 with Breadline White Designs

Mimbres Boldface Black-on-white 7 2.06

Tularosa Black-on-white 6 1.76

Sacaton Red-on-buff 6 1.76 32

Table 7— (continued)

Percent Type Amount of Total

Indeterminate Salado Polychrome 2 .58

Pinto-Gila Polychrome, Pink Variety 1 .29 S Nantack Polychrome 1 #

Total 339 100.00

*Does not include one partially restorable vessel 33

Table 8. Methodist Church Site, Floor and Floor Fill: Plain and Textured Ware Tabulation

Amount Percent Type (Rims) of Total

Plain Brownware 61 63.SU

Indeterminate Redwares 10 10.U1

Reserve Smudged 9 9.37

Tularosa Fillet Rim 8 8.33

Obliterated Corrugated 3 3.12

Indented Corrugated, Smudged 2 2.08

Indented Corrugated, Unsmudged 1 1.0U

Corrugated 1 1.0U

Plain Brownware, Scored 1 1.0U

Total 96 100.00 3U

Table 9. Methodist Church Site, Subfloor: Painted Ware Tabulation

Percent Type Amount of Total

Encinas Red-on-brown 35 36.8k

Casa Grande Red-on-brown 2U 25.26

Sacaton Red-on-buff 11* 11.57

Mimbrea Black-on-white 11 11.57

San Carlos Red-on-brown 6 6.31

Maverick Mountain Black-on-red, 3 3.15 Safford Variety

St, Johns Polychrome • 2 2.11

Tularosa Black-on-white 2 2.11

Mimbres Boldface Black-on-white 1 1.0$

Total 95 100.00

*Does not include one restorable vessel 35

Projectile Points. Projectile points include a chert side- notched triangular point (Fig. 5>c), a triangular chert point (Fig. !>d), an unfinished obsidian point, and a triple-notched obsidian point

(Fig. ^b) resembling triple-notched points from the Reserve area

(Martin, Rinaldo, and Bluhm 1951*: 126, Fig. 6U).

Grinding Tools. Grinding tools include a vesicular basalt mortar, a pestle, and unifacial mano fragments.

Shell Artifacts. Shell artifacts include a disc bead, disc bead fragments, and two Glycemeris bracelet fragments.

Animal Effigies. A stone and a shell effigy were recovered

(Fig. 6). These effigies bear obvious similarities to modern pueblo fetishes. Especially striking is the resemblance between the shell effigy and the Zuni coyote fetish illustrated by Cushing (1883: PL. V).

Subfloor Artifacts

Subfloor artifacts include a stone bowl (Fig. 7c), a trian­ gular obsidian projectile point (Fig. 7b), and a serrated chalcedony projectile point (Fig. 7a) similar to Sacaton Phase Hohokam projectile points (Gladwin, Haury, Sayles, and Gladwin: 1937 PL. LXXXV, e).

Vegetal Material

A pocket of carbonized vegetal material was found on the floor of Room 1. This material, identified by Hugh Cutler, consists of a small quantity of mesquite beans and portions of three c o m cobs. Two corn cobs have 12 rows of grain and cuple widths (corrected for shrink­ age of 7.5 and 10,0 mm. The remaining cob has ten rows of grain and a

Figure 5. Methodist Church site artifacts, a. mescal knife b-d. projectile points e. unfired miniature clay vessel

a, one-half size; all others actual size. 3 7

Figure 6. Methodist Church site effigies. a. shell, 1.2 cm. in length b. stone, 9.1 cm. in length 38

c

Figure 7. Methodist Church site subfloor stone artifacts, a,b, projectile points c. stone bowl All actual size 39 cuple widths (corrected for shrinkage) of 9#5 mm. The corn cobs are large and vigorous. The ten-row cob is especially woody and well- developed.

The Methodist Church Site. Cultural Affiliation

The trait complex present in the upper levels of the Methodist

Church site indicates relationships both with the Maverick Mountain phase and the Tularosa phase. Though Maverick Mountain wares are the dominant painted wares, a large number of Tularosa phase painted, plain, and textured wares are present. Other artifacts and architectural features are generally puebloid but specific cultural affiliations are not definitive. Sub-floor artifacts are probably mixed, but strong

Hohokam affiliations are suggested.

Bonita Creek Ceremonial Cave

The Bonita Creek ceremonial cave is located some 15 miles north of Safford. Wasley (1966: 393) assigns a cache of ceremonial items re­

covered from the cave to the Maverick Mountain component at Point of

Pines. Additional materials from the cave located in a private collec­

tion in Safford are described below:

Artifacts

Three Agave Wood Terraced Objects. These objects are painted

identically to those reported by Wasley (1962: 387-388),

Thirty Agave Wood Slats and Fragments of Slats. These pieces

are from terraced objects. Uo

Three Agave Wood Slats, These slats are from terraced objects and are painted green in the medial portion.

Two Unpainted Slats of Agave Wood. The dimensions of each are

10.U cm. long and 2.2 cm. wide (Fig. 8). These slats are perforated and stitched together at both ends. One end is braced with a wooden stick. One slat is perforated in the middle, and a small piece of fiber twine remains in the hole.

One Agave Wood Slat. This slat is 11 cm. long and l.£ cm. wide (Fig. 9). This slat is painted black on one side and is alter­ nately painted black and unpainted on the other side. It is perforated in the middle and at one end. A piece of twine tied in an overhand knot protrudes from the middle perforation. A piece of twine is wrapped six times around the unperforated end. The area of the slat under the twine is unpainted. The twine appears to have been painted black at the same time as the slat. The unpainted areas may indicate places where additional elements of some sort were attached.

Three Red-Painted Functional Foreshafts with Tapered Tenons

(Fig. 10b). Lengths of these foreshafts, which are all broken, range from greater than 20 cm. to greater than 22.U cm. Tenon length ranges from greater than 2.$ cm. to U.6 cm. The maximum foreshaft diameters range from .6 to .7 cm.

One Unpainted Foreshaft with Sharp Tenon. This foreshaft is made from a harder, heavier wood than the red-painted foreshafts.

Some black adhesive remains on the tenon. The tip has been broken and apparently smoothed. The length of this foreshaft is lh.£> cm. irn\m Figure 8 Figure Unpainted agave wood slat. agave wood Unpainted Actual size Actual a, b, reverse sides of same object same of sides reverse b, a, ui U2

b

Figure 9. Agave wood slat, a, b, reverse sides of same slat. Actual size a

b

c

Figure 10, Bonita Creek Ceremonial Cave bow and arrow remains, a, bow b, arrow foreshaft c, nock end of arrow with plug

a, one-fourth size; b,c, actual size u u

Its maximum diameter is .6 cm. The length of the tenon is.2.1 cm.

Complete Cane Arrowshaft with Foreshaft Fragment. The shaft is unpainted, is h9»5 cm. long, and has a maximum diameter of .8 cm.

Feather fragments indicate three-vane fletching. The feathers are

secured by sinew wrapping. No wrapping is present at the foreshaft

socket. The foreshaft fragment is unpainted. The tenon is tapered

and is I4.O cm. long.

Nock End of Cane Arrowshaft with Wooden Plug. The length of

this shaft fragment (Fig. 10c) is 2.It cm. at the maximum, and the

diameter is .8 cm. The lower sinew wrapping is red-painted. Red

paint extends onto the shaft 3,0 cm. above the lower wrapping. Feather

remains indicate three-vane fletching. The nock has been strengthened

by the insertion of a wooden plug.

Nock End of Cane Arrowshaft. The length of this shaft fragment

is 29.0 cm. and the maximum diameter is .5 cm. The sinew wrapping is

Painted red. Feather remains indicate three-vane fletching. The

possible presence of a wooden plug could not be determined without

damaging the specimen.

Distal Rid of Cane Arrowshaft and Foreshaft. The length of the

shaft portion is 26 cm. and the maximum diameter is .8 cm. The distal

end of the shaft is wrapped with black-painted sinew. The red-painted

foreshaft is glued into the shaft. The foreshaft length is 20 cm.,

not including the length of the tenon.

Shaft Fragment and Foreshaft. The length of the shaft portion

is 32 cm. and the maximum diameter is .7 cm. The distal end of the shaft is sinew wrapped and the shaft and sinew are painted with green malachite. The foreshaft length is 19.U cm. not including the length of the tenon.

Non-Functional Self Bow. The length of this bow is 52.5 cm.

Maximum diameter is .7 cm. The bow ends are notched and painted black

(Fig. 10a).

Two Fragmentary Non-Functional Self Bows. Both of these frag­

ments are red-painted.

One Bottle Gourd Container. This specimen (Fig. 11a) was iden­

tified by Hugh Cutler was a member of the genus Lagenaria.

Twig Paho. One twig item (Fig. 11b) 9.5 cm. long with an at­

tached cane cigarette fragment can be identified as a twig paho (Hough

1911*: 91-93).

The Bonita Creek Ceremonial Cave, Cultural Affiliation

Wasley (1962) argues that the Bonita Creek cache can be attrib­

uted to the Kayenta-derived Maverick Mountain component at Point of

Pines. The basis for this assignment is the presence in the Bonita

Creek cache of some items virtually identical to artifacts from the

Sunflower cache near Kayenta.

The inclusion of like objects in both caches— flowers, bird representation, and cones— argues for the view that they represent items from the same ceremonial comolex. They were probably used in essentially the same way in virtually iden­ tical ceremonies performed by closely related groups of people sharing the same ceremonial beliefs. The two caches are essentially contemporaneous (Haury 1958: h), dating roughly from the time of abandonment of the northern Kayenta country, so that there is no chronological problem connected with this supposition. The inclusion of additional items in U6

b

Figure 11* Bonita Creek Ceremonial Cave artifacts, a* Lagenaria b* twig paho U7

the Bonita Creek cache does not negate this postulate either. It simply suggests that a more complete inventory of the ceremonial paraphernalia is represented (1966: 393)•

While not denying the probable association of some artifacts with the

Maverick Mountain complex, it should be pointed out that many arti­ facts from Bonita Creek cannot be exclusively associated with the

Sunflower Cache or the Kayenta area. Although cane arrows strength­ ened with wooden plugs and tipped with red-painted foreshafts are found in the Kayenta area (Kidder and Guernsey 1919? 122-123), similar arrows are abundant in the Upper Gila and Reserve areas (Hough 1911*:

63-66j Cosgrove 191*7: 62-63; Grange 1952: 381*-385, 388: Brown 1951*:

186-187; Lekson, Ross, and Fitting 1971: 12-20) and have been re­ ported from the Winchester Mountains of southern Arizona (Fulton

191*1: 16-19).

Red-painted bows are reported from the Upper Gila and Reserve areas by Hough (1911*: 100), Cosgrove (191*7: 61), Grange (1952: 1*13), and Brown (1951*: 185) and also from the Winchester Mountains by

Pulton (191*1: 21). Black band decoration on bows is reported from the

Reserve area by Brown (1951*: 185) and the Winchester Mountains by

Fulton (191*1: 21).

Although the exact form of the Bonita Creek terraced wooden objects is unique, ceremonial paraphernalia made of wood slats is common in caves of the Upper Gila and Reserve areas (Hough 1911*:

10l*-106; Cosgrove 19l*7: 132-131*; Grange 1952: 1*21; Brown 1951*: 200-

202; and Lekson, Ross and Fitting 1971: 25-26). U8

Miniature baskets occur as offerings in Bear Creek Cave on the

Upper Gila (Hough 1911i: 123-12$) as well as at Bonita Creek (Wasley

1962: 38$-38?)• Twig pahos also are found in caves of the Upper Gila and Reserve areas (Hough 1911*: 91-93? Cosgrove 191*7: 2$-26).

The cultural affiliations of the Bonita Creek ceremonial cave, then, appear to be very complex. This situation may reflect the use of the cave by members of different cultural groups.

The Marinilda Site

The Marijilda site is located on the Marijilda Wash at the eastern foot of the Pinaleno Mountains (Fig. l). The site is a masonry pueblo containing more than $0 rooms (Fig. 12). Two of the three plazas of the pueblo are fully enclosed by rooms. A third plaza is en­ closed by a single wall on three sides and by rooms on a fourth.

Four rooms and parts of several others have been excavated by local collectors. It was possible to locate much of the excavated material from Roans 1, 2, and I* (Figs. 13-1$). Fortunately, all of the sherds from Room 1 were saved by a collector and are reported in

Tables 10 and 11. A summary of room features and artifacts is pre­

sented below.

Room Features and Artifacts

Room 1 . A photograph of this room taken during excavation

shows the presence of a slab-lined firepit and deflector (Fig. 16).

A doorway is located in the east wall, though the details of its.

construction cannot be determined because of damage to the wall. r —i ------i i i i I* — 1 r* — -f- ~ t — — r--# i i r - L-4— ------}------;------— T ” — z r 1 i i i i i PLA2A i L . „ __ j _._j _._L__L _ i _ _ 1 ! —i ,laz* r r i 1 1 1 1 j ___| PLAZA rd:.t: ------| * _ J ------L..I___1L.i PLAZA l" * l ““

...... TTT n 1 1| 1 l ° a ~ W a s H ------..

------WALLS ------PROBABLE WALLS METtRS

er N3

Figure 12. Sketch map of the Marijilda site 50

Figure 13• Marijilda site miniature vessels, a, Plainware ladle b, c, f, Plainware jars d. Indented Corrugated bowl e. Plainware bowl All actual size *1

b

c

Figure lit. Marijilda site ceramic effigies,

a«b, side and top of bird effigy c, quadrupedal effigy All actual size b

d

Figure 1$. Harijilda site ceramic artifacts. a. knobbed Flainware bowl b. Flainware bowl c. Flainware colander d. Flainware duck effigy vessel (clotted area indicates broken appendage) All actual size 53

Table 10. The Marljlida Ruin: Painted Ware Tabulation

Percent Type Amount of Total

Pinto-Gila Polychrome 93 62.00

Maverick Mountain Black-on-red, 10 6.66 Indeterminate Variety

Tularoaa Black-on-white 10 6.66

San Carlos Red-on-brown 7 1.66

Tucson Polychrome 6 U .00

St. Johns Polychrome 5 3.33

Encinas Red-on-brown 5 3.33

Mimbres Black-on-white 5 3.33

Maverick Mountain Polychrome, U 2.66 Indeterminate Variety

Casa Grande Red-on-buff U 2.66

Fourmile Polychrome (?) 1 .66

Total 150 100.00 Table 11. The Marijilda Ruin: Plain and Textured Ware Tabulation

Percent Type Amount of Total

Reserve Smudged 1U9 33.78

Indented Corrugated Unsmudged 91 20.63

Plain Brownware 89 20.18

Tularosa Fillet Rim 76 17.23

Indented Corrugated Smudged 27 6.12

Incised Corrugated 6 1.36

Corrugated 2 .US

Plain Brownware Incised 1 .23

Total B l 100.00

Types represented by body sherds only: Gila Red Ij Alternating Corrugated 85 Red Incised 1 Figure 16 Marijilda site. Room 1, Slab-lined firepit and deflector 56

Boulder footings are present in wall foundations. In addition to the sherd collection, the following artifacts were recovered from this room: four miniature plainware vessels, one miniature plainware ladle, one small fired clay ball, one ceramic bird effigy figurine,

one Maverick Mountain Polychrome sherd scraper, one Tucson Polychrome

sherd scraper, two Conus shell rings, two Olivella shell beads, one probable Glycemeris shell pendant made from a bracelet fragment, one

small perforated Glycemeris shell, one arrowshaft tool, and one pol-,

ishing stone.

Room 3 . A slab-lined firepit is present in this room. A

slab-lined opening, possibly a ventilator, 31 cm. wide and 36 cm. high

is located in the east wall (Fig. 17). A blocked doorway is located

in the north wall. The artifacts from Room 3 were not located.

Room 2. This excavated room has been partly refilled by ero­

sion, and, therefore, the description of its features may be incom­

plete. A slab-lined opening similar to the one in Room 3 is located

in the west wall. This opening measures 30 cm. in width and $6 cm. in

height. Adobe plaster is present on exposed wall surfaces. Artifacts

from Room 2 include: one Reserve Smudged bowl, one San Carlos Red-on-

brown bowl, one miniature Indented Corrugated bowl, four miniature

Brownware vessels, one Brownware scoop, and one quadrupedal fired

clay figurine.

Room In An entrance is located in the south wall of this

room. Wall construction includes large boulder footings and banded

masonry (Figs. 18 and 19). A sub-floor infant burial is present.

Figure 19. Marijilda site. Room L, Banded masonry. Length of scale is 1 m. 60

Included in this burial is a Gila Red scoop, an Indented Corrugated jar, a Reserve Smudged bowl, and a Brownware duck effigy vessel.

Additional artifacts recovered from Room It include: one Salado Poly­ chrome sherd scraper, two polishing stones, one miniature Brownware vessel, and one fragmentary, shallow Obliterated Corrugated bowl.

The Marijilda Site, Cultural Affiliation

Although Salado Polychromes are the dominant painted types at the Marijilda ruin, architectural features and the plain and textured ceramics indicate a primary cultural affiliation with the Point of

Pines-Reserve area. Point of Pines-Reserve architectural features present at the Marijilda ruin include boulder-base masonry (Wendorf

1950: 23, Morris 1957: 63), banded masonry (Morris 1957: 62), slab-

lined firepits (Morris 1957: 76, Rinaldo 1959: 178), ventilator open­

ings (Rinaldo 1959: 173), deflectors, and the multiple court layout

(Danson 1957: 20). Point of Pines-Reserve plain and textured ceramic

types include: Corrugated, Indented Corrugated, Reserve Smudged, and

Tularosa Fillet Rim (Rinaldo and Bluhra 1956: 31:9-169) • Also included

among the plain and textured wares is Alternating Corrugated previously

reported from Point of Pines (Wendorf 1950: 38).

Other traits shared by the Marijilda ruin and the Point of

Pines-Reserve area include: sub-floor infant inhumation with duck

effigy pottery (Martin, Rinaldo, and Barter 1957: 122), ceramic bird

figurines with spread wings (Wendorf 1950: 86), crude ceramic animal

figurines (Wendorf 1950: 85-86, Johnson 1965: 67-68), and miniature 61 ceramic vessels (Hough 191b: 117-121; Wendorf 195)0: 86-87; Martin,

Rinaldo, and Barter 195>7: 122).

With the exception of the occurrence of Pinto-Gila Polychrome as the major painted type, no Salado traits can be identified at the

Marijilda ruin. The ruin and associated assemblage appear to be linked primarily to Point of Pines-Reserve area.

The Whitmer Site

The Whitmer site is located in an area of heavy aboriginal pop­ ulation one-quarter mile northwest of the confluence of the Marijilda and Stockton washes (Fig. 1). The ruin is situated on the floodplain

of the washes and has not been disturbed by modem agricultural activ­

ities or extensively damaged by pothunting.

Architecture

The Whitmer site is a small pueblo consisting of four rooms

and a walled plaza (Fig. 20). All walls are constructed of adobe re­

inforced with vertically set cylindrical river cobbles. The rooms are

built in pits excavated to 30 cm. below original ground surface. Three

rooms were excavated. A summary of results is presented below:

Room 1. Room 1 was not excavated

Room 2 . No wall or floor features were observed in this room.

Little cultural material was recovered. The floor level is uncertain.

Room 3 . This room (Fig. 21) contained abundant cultural

debris. A single unlined circular firepit is present. Though no door

was observed, a narrow, slab-lined opening, probably a ventilator, is 62

ROOM ROOM ROOM

ROOM

, | DOOR

20. The W- t m e r site. Figure

6k located in the south wall. This feature is 1£> cm. wide. It opens directly onto the original ground surface of the plaza.

Roan U . Entrance to this room was gained through a doorway from the plaza. An unlined circular firepit and adjoining ashpit are located in front of the door.

Artifacts

The artifact content of all the excavated rooms appears to have

been deposited as trash. The ceramic artifacts are reported in Tables

12 and 13. The non-ceramic artifacts from the Whitmer Site (Figs. 22-23)

include: two triangular obsidian projectile points, one triangular

side-notched projectile point, two chert blades both bearing heavy

concentrations of use scars on their edges, three Olivella shell beads,

one Glycemeris shell bracelet fragment, one bone splinter awl, one

broken arrowshaft tool, two polishing stones, bifacial and unifacial

manos and mano fragments, numerous pieces of malachite both worked and

unworked, and fragments of pumice.

The Whitmer Site, Cultural Affiliation

Gila Polychrome is the dominant painted type at this site. It

occurs in all provenience units including floor contact. No other dis­

tinctive Salado traits are present. The plain and textured wares are

typical of the Point of Pines-Reserve area. Especially indicative of

this cultural relationship is the presence of high percentages of

Reserve Smudged, Tularosa Fillet Rim, and Indented Corrugated. While 6$

Table 12. Whitmer Site: Painted Ware Tabulation

Percent Type Amount of Total

Gila Polychrome 277 92.33

Ramos Polychrome 11 3.66

Indeterminate Black-on-white 6 2.00

San Carlos Red-on-brown 2 .66

Tularosa Black-on-white 1 .33

Casa Grande Red-on-buff 1 .33

Mimbres Black-on-white 1 .33

Indeterminate Black-on-red 1 .33

Total 300 100.00 66

Table 13. Whitmer Site: Plain and Textured Ware Tabulation

Amount Percent Type (Rims) of Total

Plain Brownware 69 L3.9S

Reserve Smudged 16 28.02

Indented Corrugated, Smudged 27 17.02

Tularosa Fillet Rim 10 6.37

Indented Corrugated, Unsmudged 7 U 66

Total 1*7 100.00 67

d

Figure 22. Whitmer site stone artifacts, a-c, projectile points d. chert blades All actual size 68

Figure 23, Whitmer site bone and shell artifacts left, bone awl middle, shell figure-8 bead right, Conus bead All actual size 69 the architectural features at the YJhitmer site are basically pueb- loid, specific parallels with any particular culture area were not noted.

The Whitmer site, then, exhibits Salado, Point of Pines-Reserve area, and generalized pueblo traits. It is assumed here that plain and textured wares are generally the best indicators of basic cultural

affiliations. If this assumption is true, then the Whitmer site joins

the Earven Flat, Yuma Wash, and the Marijilda sites in a basic cultural

affiliation with the Point of Pines-Reserve area.

The Spear Ranch Site

The Spear Ranch site is located in Lefthand Canyon approxi­

mately a mile and one-quarter above Cottonwood Wash (Fig. 1). The

site consists of a large pueblo with a central plaza and an unknown

number of outlying small units. The main ruin extends approximately

$0 m. in a north-south direction and hS m. in an east-west direction.

The central courtyard is approximately 12 m. by 12 m. Construction

of the main pueblo appears to be adobe and rock reinforced adobe.

Several years ago a local collector excavated two connected

burned rooms at the Spear Ranch site. The skeletal remains of two

adults and a child were found in these rooms. Also included in the

rooms were more than 30 whole vessels, including a number of Salado

Polychrome vessels (Fig. 2l*a, c, d). Additional artifacts included

two three-quarter grooved single-bitted axes (Fig. 2^b), one double-

bitted three-quarter grooved axe (Fig. 25a), one full-grooved maul

(Fig. 25c), two Cardium shells, one arrowshaft tool, one human 7 0

C

Figure 2lu Spear Ranch site ceramic artifacts. a, c,d Salado Polychrome vessels b. figurine head a,c,d one-fourth size; b, actual size 71

d e

Figure 2$. Spear Ranch site stone artifacts. a. double-bitted axe b. single-bitted axe c. maul d. arrowshaft tool e* mano All one-fourth size 72 ceramic figurine head (Fig. 2Ue), one quadrupedal animal ceramic fig­ urine, one faceted mano (Fig. 2f>e), three bone awls, one bone needle, one probable bone weaving tool, one antler .hammer, Glycemeris shell jewelry, and one stone nose plug. The results of this excavation touched off a wave of pothunting that has continued to the present and has almost totally destroyed the site.

Surface survey of the site produced a mixed collection of

Salado and Maverick Mountain polychrome sherds. In order to determine the stratigraphic relationship of these two pottery types, a test pit was excavated in deep trash on the west side of the ruin (Fig. 26).

An upper level of brown and red earth and a highly distinct lower level

of gray ash were observed in this pit. VIhen a trench was excavated up-slope from the pit, an upper level of brown and red earth and a

lower level of gray ash were again discovered. The ceramic content of

the two levels observed in the excavations is reported in Tables Ik-15.

The Spear Ranch Site, Cultural Affiliation

The Spear Ranch (lower level) ceramics are unique among the

assemblages discussed here. The painted types consist almost entirely

of Safford variety Maverick Mountain wares. There are no textured

wares. The plainwares do not include Reserve Smudged, a characteris­

tic Point of Pines-Reserve area plainware. The lower level Spear

Ranch plainwares also lack the red slip typical of the Rincon Canyon

plainwares. The lower level ceramics suggest a Safford Valley

Maverick Mountain component. WEST EAST TRENCH

JU STERILE

0 WALL

□ UNEXCAVATED METER

Figure 26. Profile of excavations at the Spear Ranch site. Width of the excavations was one meter. 7U

Table lit, Spear Ranch Site, Upper Level: Painted Ware Tabulation

Percent Type Amount of Total

Pinto-Gila Polychrome 57 U6.3U

Maverick Mountain Black-on-red, bU 35.77 Safford Variety

Indeterminate Black-on-red 12 9.76

Maverick Mountain Polychrome, 3 2.ltlt Safford Variety

San Carlos Red-on-brown 2 1.63

Tucson Polychrome 2 1.63

St. Johns Polychrome 1 .81 OO

Nantack Polychrome, 1 # Safford Variety

Total 123 100.00 Table l£. Spear Ranch Site, Lower Level: Painted Ware Tabulation

Percent Type Amount of Total

Maverick Mountain Black-on-red, 93 87.73 Safford Variety

Maverick Mountain Polychrome, 9 8.U6 Safford Variety

San Carlos Red-on-brown 1 .93

Tularosa Black-on-white 1 .93

Mimbres Black-on-white 1 .93

Indeterminate Black-on-white 1 .93

Total 106 100.00 76

The upper level ceramics differ from the lower not only by. the

presence of Salado Polychromes, but also by the presence of textured wares and Tularosa Fillet Rim, Because of the limited size of the

sample and the possibility of mixing from the lower level during build­

ing activities at the pueblo, the cultural affiliations of the upper

level are obscure.

The Goat Hill Site

The Goat Hill site is located on the top of a steep butte in

Lefthand Canyon (Fig. 1). The top of the butte rises approximately

l£0 feet above the surrounding country. The site, therefore, is in an

excellent defensive position.

The Goat Hill Site is a masonry pueblo (Fig. 27 bottom) con­

sisting of approximately 2$ rooms (Fig. 28). The circular form of the

pueblo conforms to the circular flat summit of the butte. The rooms

surround a central plaza. A circular depression 5> m. in diameter, lo­

cated in the center of the courtyard, is probably a kiva. Ceramics

from the surface of the Goat Hill site are reported in Tables 16 and

17.

The Goat Hill Site, Cultural Affiliation

The ceramics at Goat Hill indicate a major cultural affilia­

tion with the Maverick Mountain phase. Evidence supporting this

affiliation is the presence in a private collection of a ceramic fig­

urine (Fig. 29b) virtually identical to one (Fig. 29a) from Ruin A

(Long House) in the Kayenta area (Kidder and Guernsey 1919$ 1U3) and 7 7

Figure 27. Goat Hill site. top, flat metate bottom, masonry construction length of scale is 1 m 78

Figure 28. Sketch map of the Goat Hill site 79

Table 16. Goat Hill Site: Painted Ware Tabulation

Percent Type Amount of Total

Maverick Mountain Black-on-red (?) 30 72.00

Nantack Polychrome (?) * 12.20

Indeterminate Salado Polychrome 1 2.20

Pinto-Gila Polychrome, Pink Variety U 10.00

Total UO 100.00 80

Table 17. Goat Hill Site: Plain and Textured Ware Tabulation

Percent Type Amount of Total

Plain Brownware 18 80.00

Reserve Smudged (?) 3 5.00

Plain Brownware. Perforated Rim 2 3.33

Indeterminate Redwares 7 11.66

Total 60 100.00 81

Figure 29. Figurines a. Long House (Kidder and Guernsey 1919: 11:3)» no scale given b. Goat Hill, actual size 82 a flat metate (Fig. 27 top), also a common Kayenta area artifact

(Beals, Brainerd, and Smith 19lif>t Fig. 15>). The Kayenta area is the supposed homeland of the Maverick Mountain migrants (Haury 1958: 1-6).

The Buena Vista Site

The Buena Vista site is located on a bluff above the Gila

River three miles east of Solomon. The ruins at Buena Vista were first described by Fewkes (I90lt: 168-195). In 1931 Oscar Tatman, under the direction of Earl Morris, excavated portions of the Buena Vista site.

Tatman1s work was cut short by what appears to have been a jurisdic­ tional dispute between Southwestern archaeologists (Morris: 1932).

Professional excavation has not been attempted at the site since

Tatman was forced to leave, and the ruins have subsequently been heav­ ily damaged by construction activities. The notes, maps, and arti­ facts from Tatman1s excavation are presently located in the Henderson

Museum at the University of Colorado and have not been previously re­ ported.

Tatman dug three pueblo units at the Buena Vista site. He terms these units, "House l," "House 2," and "House 3" (Fig. 30). No complete site map was made by Tatman, and the relationship of his ex­ cavated "houses" to the mounds and structures shown on Fewkes1 site map (190U: PI. LXVI) cannot be determined with certainty. However, the relative position of Tatman's excavations and the massive size of

House 2 suggest that House 2 is, in fact, Fewkes1 "Central House." If this reconstruction is so, then House 1 corresponds to a cluster of 83 / / / / / / % / z z-

/ *v XW V //

Figure 30 • The Buena Vista site. — After Tatman 1931 8U mounds located southwest of the Central House, and House 3 is a line of mounds northeast of the Central House.

House 1, General Architecture

Tatman's efforts were concentrated primarily in the excavation of approximately 3k rooms in House 1. His map of this unit is pre­ sented in Fig. 30 and a.summary description taken from his field notes appears below:

The entire structure, including connecting walls, that were evidently constructed for the purpose of defense, formed a square, with the usual court in the center.

At least two tiers of rooms were continuous along the southern and western sides of the court and extending north along the eastern side to a point about midway, also from the north west corner eastward the length of two rooms.

At the north east corner of the court and on. the north side were two small rooms, which had been connected with the rooms to the south and west with a heavy defense wall.

The small block of rooms on the east side were shallow and what pottery they may have contained seemed to have been broken up on the surface (Tatman 1931: 2&).

It is clear from Tatman * s description that House 1 is a pueblo struc­

ture.

House 1, Ro o t Features

The following description of room features is taken with edit­

ing from Tatman*s field notes (1931: 1-26).

Room 1 . A rectangular firepit is located in this room 2.13 m.

from the north wall and 1.1$ m. from the east wall.

Room 3. In the northwest corner of this room is a bin. The

south wall of this feature is constructed of mud and stones and 8$ measures 76 cm. in length. The east vail is made of a single stone

slab 51 cm. long.

Room 8. Tatman (1931s 8) describes a narrow bench along the

east wall of Room 8. This feature measuring U6 cm. high and 1!? cm. wide was made by M . . . standing long, slim boulders on end and lev­

elling with mud.” A slab-lined, rectangular firepit is located 91.9

cm. from the east wall and 2.28 m. from the south wall. An empty pit

91.9 cm. in diameter and 1.22 m. deep is located in the southwest

corner of the room.

Room 9. A T-shaped doorway 81.9 cm. high and 91 cm. wide is

located in the south wall 1.68 m, from the southeast corner. The nar­

row portion of the doorway is 18 cm. high and 19.2 cm. wide. The

bottom of the doorway is flush with the floor.

Room Hi. Centered under the wall between Rooms 13 and 1L is

an empty pit 91.9 cm. in diameter and 1.22 m. deep.

Room 19. A rectangular slab-lined firepit is located 1.12 m.

from the east wall and 3.29 m. from the south wall. A shallow pocket

containing seven sherd discs is located directly east of the firepit

and adjacent to the east wall.

Room 17. Flat boulders 29.9 cm. high set on end encircle the

base of the walls of this room. A rectangular firepit lined with mud

on its north, east, and south sides and stone on the west side is lo­

cated 91.9 cm. east of the mid-point of the east wall.

Room 18. A blocked doorway 61 cm. wide is located in the west

wall 1.19 m. from the south wall. The bottom of the doorway is 20.9 86 cm. above the floor. A ventilator opening liO.£> cm. wide and 26 cm. high is located in the north wall 1.73 m. from the west wall and 79 cm.

above the floor.

Room 20. A circular clay-lined firepit is located 6l cm. north

of the mid-point of the south wall.

Room 21. A circular clay-lined firepit with a slab bottom is

located 89 cm. north of the mid-point of the south wall.

Room 22. A circular clay-lined firepit is located 1.02 m. from

the west wall and 1.37 m. from the north wall.

Room 23. A blocked doorway £6 cm. wide is located in the west

wall 2.UU m. from the north wall. The bottom of the doorway is 10 cm,

above the floor. A square slab-lined firepit is located 71 cm. east

of the mid-point of the west wall.

Room 27. A circular clay-lined firepit is located 71 cm. from

the west west wall and 2.bit m. from the north wall. A mud metate base

U6 cm. square and l£.2 cm. high is located along the east wall 2.lit m.

from the north wall.

House 1, Wall, Floor, and Roof Construction

According to Tatman (1931$ 2), wall construction consists pri­

marily of a boulder core encased in adobe. Floors are clay. A layer

of burned vegetal material above the floor in Rooms 27 and 28 indicates

the use of reeds and poles in roof construction. Roof support is pro­

vided by a juniper post in the center or posts along a line bisecting

the long dimension of the room (Fig. 30, Rooms 3> b, 9, and 8). 87

House 1, Ceramic Artifacts

Tatman retained only whole vessels or exceptionally large sherds. The ceramic collection, therefore, is probably biased in favor of burial inclusions. It should be pointed out, however, that a number of whole vessels and artifacts were found on room floors under what may be decayed and collapsed roof material, indicating peaceful abandonment with domestic artifacts left in place. This ideal archaeological situation had been partially destroyed, however, by heavy pothunting prior to Tatman1s work.

In contrast to many other ruins in the Safford Valley, the painted ceramics at House 1 consist of a relatively few types, pri­ marily Salado Polychromes (Table 18). Plain and textured wares include

Indented Corrugated, Polished and Plain Brownware, Polished and Plain

Redware, and a light, almost buff, Brownware (Table 19). The Polished

Brownware is probably a variety of type referred to elsewhere in this report as "Reserve Smudged.” The surface of the Buena Vista site

Polished Brownware vessels is slightly redder, however, than the usual

Reserve Smudged surface.

House 1, Non-ceramic Artifacts

Many non-ceramic artifacts were not available for study.

Stone artifacts observed in the collection or described in the field

notes by Tatman include three-quarter grooved stone axes and adzes, manos, metates, arrowshaft tools, arrowpoints, flat hematite-stained

river cobbles, a small stone mortar or bowl, a mortar, a cylindrical

object of unknown use, a hematite-stained pumice tablet 7 cm. long and b

Figure 31. Buena Vista site. House 1, Maverick Mountain vessels. a. Maverick Mountain Black-on-red b. Maverick Mountain Polychrome Both one-fourth size 89

Table 18. Buena Vista Site, House Is Painted Ware Tabulation*

Percent Type Amount of Total

Gila Polychrome 2U 68.57

Tonto Polychrome 8 22.85

Pinto Polychrome 1 2.86

Maverick Mountain Black-on-red 1 2.86

Maverick Mountain Polychrome, 1 2.86 Hatched Variety

Total 3!> 100.00

Whole vessels and large sherds only 90

Table 19. Buena Vista Site, House 1: Plain and Textured Ware Tabulation

Percent Type Amount of Total

Indented Corrugated, Snudged 9 19.57

Indented Corrugated, Unsmudged 7 15.22

Polished Brownware, Smudged 9 19.57

Plain Brownware 7 15.22

Tularosa Fillet Rim 2 U.35

Polished Redware, Smudged 2 10.80

Polished Redware, Unsmudged 1 2.17

Plain Redware, Unsmudged 1 2.17

Light Brownware, Unsmudged 3 6.17

Light Brownware, Unsmudged, 2 U.35 Perforated Rim

Total 1*6 100.00 91

1 cm, thick, unserrated "mescal knives," and pieces of yellow ochre, gypsum and specular hematite. Bone artifacts are represented by splin­ ter awls. Shell artifacts include Conus rings and pendants. Pectin pendants, a Glycymeris bracelet, a Turitella pendant, and disc beads.

House 1, Burials

Thirty-six inhumations and two cremations were recovered from

House 1. Burial data is summarized in Table 20.

House 1, Artifact Assocations

As can be seen in Table 20, Gila and Tonto Polychrome vessels

are found together in burial contexts with Indented Corrugated, Pol­

ished Brownware, and Plain Brownware vessels. These same vessel types

are also found in association on room floors. Perforated-rim plates,

reported by Tatman from five rooms, do not occur in burials.

With the exception of an arrowshaft tool found in the adult

burial under the floor of Room 8, stone artifacts are not reported

from burial contexts. Stone axes, the most common stone artifact col­

lected by Tatman, are found on the floors of 11 rooms. Manos or

metates are found in Rooms 3, 9, lit, 27, and 28 (all rooms without

firepits).

House 1, Cultural Affiliation

The presence of pueblo architecture and Point of Pines-Reserve

plain and textured wares indicates that the Buena Vista, House 1 ruin 92

Table 20, Buena Vista Site, House 1: Burial Data

Approximate Location Age Position Inclusions

Room 3. Along north Infant Right side head 2 light Brown- wall, 1,83 m. from to west ware bowls, east wall bracelet of beads

Room 3* Floor of Infant No data None bin

Room 3* Southeast ? Cremation in jar Light Brownware corner, subfloor covered with bowl, plain bowl Brownware bowl

Room 8, Northwest 2 Infants No data None comer, subfloor

Room 8, Northwest Adult Extended, head Gila Polychrome corner, below infant to west, jar, basket, burials covered with double-grooved matting arrowshaft tool in a cloth sack

Room 8. Southwest Infant No data Appears to be corner, subfloor associated with * a slab feature under the edges of which have been inserted a number of pot­ sherds 93

Table 20, Buena Vista Site, House 1: Burial Data— Continued

Approximate Location Age Position Inclusions

Room 9. Northwest Infant No data None comer, subfloor

Room 9# Southwest Infant No data None corner, subfloor

Room 9. Southeast Infant No data None corner, subfloor

Room 9. Midway along Infant No data None eastern wall, sub­ floor

Room 10* Southeast Child Bctended, head Tularosa Fillet corner, subfloor to east Rim bowl

Room 11, Northwest Child No data Plainware bowl comer, subfloor

Room 11. Southwest Child attended, head Indented Corru­ comer, subfloor - to north gated bowl

Room 12. Southwest Infant No data Tonto Polychrome comer, subfloor sherd 9h

Table 20, Buena Vista Site, House 1: Burial Data— Continued

Approximate Location Age Position Inclusions

Room lit. Along north Infant Head to west None wall, subfloor

Room lit. Along north Child Head to west Gila Polychrome wall, subfloor jar

Room lit. Southeast Child Extended, head Gila Polychrome corner, subfloor to south jar, Gila Polychrome bowl

Room 1$. Southwest Child Extended, head Gila Polychrome corner, subfloor to south bowl, 2 polished Brownware bowls. Plain Red- slipped jar with handle attach­ ments

Room 15. Northeast Infant No data Polished Brown- comer, subfloor ware bowl (oblong shape)

Room l6. Southeast Infant No data None corner, subfloor 9$

Table 20, Buena Vista Site, House 1: Burial Data— Continued

Approximate Location Age Position Inclusions

Room 18, 1,02 m. Infant No data Gila Polychrome from east wall, 1,52 jar m. from south wall

Room 18, Northeast 2 Children Flexed on left Tonto Polychrome corner, subfloor sides, heads to jar (bird effi­ west, bodies gy), Indented covered with Corrugated jar, matting Gila Polychrome bowl. Polished Brownware jar

Room 22. Northwest Infant No data None corner, subfloor

Room 23, Southeast Child Head to east Gila Polychrome comer, subfloor bowl. Indented Corrugated jar, "bowl, red out­ side, black in­ side"*

Room 2U. Southeast Infant Body placed in 2 Indented Corru comer, subfloor Indented Corru­ gated bowls gated bowl

Room 25* Northeast Infant Body placed in "large bowl"* corner, subfloor bowl 96

Table 20, Buena Vista Site, House 1: Burial Data«— Continued

Approximate Location Age Position Inclusions

Room 25• South of Infant No data None northeast corner. subfloor

Room 25. Southeast Child Head to south 2 Indented comer, subfloor Corrugated Bowls

Room 28. Northwest Infant Body placed in Portions of 2 comer, subfloor portions of 2 "cook pots,"* 3 "cook pots"* Indented Corru­ gated jars. Polished Brown- ware bowl (oblong shape), "corrugated bowl. • • black inside,"* 2 Pectin shell pendants, shell disc beads

Room 28, East of Infant Body placed "polychrome northwest corner. over "poly­ olla,"* 2 Gila subfloor chrome olla"* Polychrome bowls. Indented Corrugated jar 97

Table 20. Buena Vista Site, House 1: Burial Data— Continued

Approximate Location Age Position Inclusions

Room 28. Southeast of Infant Head to west Indented Corru­ northwest corner, gated bowl, subfloor "smooth red bowl, black interior”*

Room 28. Southwest Infant Body placed in Gila Polychrome corner, subfloor Gila Polychrome bowl, Gila bowl, head to Polychrome jar. south Polished Brown- ware bowl

Room 28. West of Infant Body placed in Portion of southeast corner, portion of a "cook pot,"* subfloor "cook pot,"* polished Red- head to west ware jar

Room 28. Southeast Infant Head to south None comer, sub floor

Room 3U. Northwest Infant Traces of skull Polished Brown- corner, subfloor in Polished ware bowl Brownware bowl

Room block on east Infant Fragments of Indented Corru­ side of pueblo, skeleton in gated bowl subfloor Indented Corru­ gated bowl 98

Table 20, Buena Vista Site, House 1: Burial Data— Continued

Approximate Location Age Position Inclusions

Room block on east Infant Grave lined with Tonto Polychrome side of pueblo, sherds of Tonto jar subfloor Polychrome jar

Room block on east ? Cremation in Maverick side of pueblo, Maverick Mountain Black- subfloor Mountain Black- on-red bowl on-red bowl (Pig. 31a)

*Not available for study, Tatman’s field description only. 99 is culturally most closely affiliated with the ruins of the Point of

Pines-Reserve area.

House 2

House 2, located to the northeast of House 1 (Fig. 30), is a

massive structure; it is also, apparently, a pueblo built around a

central plaza. Tatman excavated all or portions of at least eight

rooms in this unit. Sub-floor excavations on the east side of the

pueblo (Excavation b, Fig. 30) and "on the peak of the mound" yielded

evidence of superimposed construction. Tatman describes the general

appearance of House 2 as follows:

The south wall of the main structure is three feet thick and composed of adobe mud with river boulders forming the core.

All cross walls seem to be of same composition, with occasionally small timbers standing upright in center of walls. Practically all timbers used in roof and as posts seem to be of juniper.

Fire has destroyed most of the south half of the build­ ing, which was either abandoned at the time of fire or looted most systematically, as no pottery was found on the floor.

Evidence of burning at House 2 consists of charred reeds, tim­

ber, and human skeletons on room floors. Two skeletons found in Room

1 are described by Tatman (1931: 27).

In Room #1, as in most other rooms on the south side that have been excavated, the charred timbers and reeds are lying directly on the floor. Along the east wall and about two feet from the south wall, the skeleton of an adult was found in an unnatural position— left lower leg standing vertical with knee and foot against east wall. Right leg lying on floor, with thigh at right angles with body. 100

Torso curved from hips toward south wall and right lower arm extending above head. Left arm at side of body.

The skull was crushed, but whether from weight of debris or other means, could not be determined.

Another charred adult skeleton lying face up was found on the floor of

Room 3. In addition to the apparently unburied adults, two infant

burials without offerings were found under the floor of Room 1.

Architectural features at House 2 include a bench 30,5 cm, wide

and 61 cm. high around at least three sides of Room 6. Rectangular

doorways are located in the west and east walls of Room 2.

Ceramic artifacts recovered by Tatman include Maverick

Mountain Black-on-red sherds found on an upper floor on "the peak of

the mound" and an Indented Corrugated bowl from a child burial beneath

a lower floor in the same area.

House 2, Cultural Affiliation

In view of the lack of data from House 2, no conclusions re­

garding the cultural affiliations of this unit can be made.

House 3

So little information is present regarding House 3> that mean­

ingful description is impossible.

Summary

In this chapter the location, architecture, and cultural affil­

iations of ten sites are discussed. These sites are the Earven Flat

site, Methodist Church site, Bonita Creek Ceremonial Cave, Marijilda 101 site, Whitmer site, Spear Ranch site. Goat Hill site, and Buena Vista site. The most frequently occurring painted pottery type and cultural affiliation of each of these sites is presented in Table 21. Table 21. Site Summary Chart

Most Frequent Painted Suggested Cultural Approximate Date Site. Pottery Type Affiliation (AD)

Barren Flat Tularosa Black-on-White Point of Pines-Reserve 1150-1200

Turn Wash St. Johns Polychrome Point of Pines-Reserve 1250-1300

Marijilda Pinto-Gila Polychrome Point of Pines-Reserve 1250-1300 l

Whitaner Gila Polychrome Point of Pines-Reserve 1300-1325

Buena Vista, House 1 Gila Polychrome Point of Pines-Reserve 1325-1350

Methodist Church Encinas Red-on-brown Hohokam (?) 1050-1200 (Lower Level) Table 21. Site Summary Chart— Continued

Most Frequent Painted Suggested Cultural Approximate Date Site Pottery Type Affiliation (AD)

Methodist Church Maverick Mountain Maverick Mountain or 12^0-1300 (Lower Level) Black-on-red Point of Pines- Reserve

Spear Ranch Maverick Mountain Maverick Mountain 1250-1300 (Lower Level) Black-on-red

Spear Ranch Pinto-Gila Polychrome Maverick Mountain or 1275-1325 (Upper Level) Point of Pines- Reserve

Goat Hill Maverick Mountain Maverick Mountain 1250-1300 Black-on-red (?) Table 21. Site S u m a r y Chart— Continued

Most Frequent Painted Suggested Cultural Approximate Date Site Pottery Type Affiliation (AD)

Rincon Canyon San Carlos Red-on-brown Bylas Phase (?) 1225-1275

Bonita Creek One Maverick Mountain Data suggests mixed 1250-1300 Ceremonial Cave Polychrome vessel cultural affiliations CHAPTER 3

TEMPORAL CONSIDERATIONS

Time Indicators

As it was not possible to establish any direct means for the absolute dating of the sites described in this paper, temporal place­ ment is based on the presence of the following tree-ring dated pottery types and wares: Wingate Black-on-red, St* Johns Polychrome, Maverick

Mountain wares, Pinedale Polychrome, Tularosa Black-on-white, and

Tularosa Fillet Rim.

Wingate Black-on-red

Wingate Black-on-red has been dated by Carlson (1970: 17) from

AD 10^0 to 1200. The presence of this type in considerable quantity at the Turkey Creek ruin (Carlson 1970: 23) raises the possibility of a later end date. Turkey Creek was originally dated by Johnson (1965:

60) from AD 1200 to 1200. Recent tree-ring dates, however, indicate construction as late as AD 121*0 (Bannister and Robinson 1971: 1*3)*

Tularosa Black-on-white

Rinaldo and Bluhm (1956: 181*) assign dates of AD 1100 to 1250

for Tularosa Black-on-white. Breternitz (1966: 98) concurs with

Rinaldo and Bluhm. Recently published tree-ring evidence, however,

indicates revision of these dates is probably necessary. The assumed

abandonment of Higgins Flat pueblo at AD 1250 apparently provided

105 106

Rinaldo and Bluhm with the terminal date of AD 1250 (Martin, Rinaldo, and Barter 1957: 133). Construction of this pueblo is now placed between AD 12U9 and 1260 with occupation to at least 1281 (Bannister,

Hannah, and Robinson 1970: 62). Additional evidence supporting a later date for Tularosa Black-on-white is the previously cited revised date for the Turkey Creek ruin. Reserve-Tularosa Black-on-white, supposedly a transitional type between Reserve and Tularosa Black-on-white, is

the dominant painted type at the Turkey Creek ruin (Johnson 1965: 66).

Tularosa Fillet Rim

Tularosa Fillet Rim has been dated by Breternitz (1966: 99)

from AD 1100 to 1300.

Pinedale Polychrome

Carlson (1970: 53) places Pinedale Polychrome between AD 1275

and 1325.

Maverick Mountain Wares (Maverick Mountain Black-on-red. Maverick Mountain Polychrome, and Nantack Polychrome)

The brief occupation at the Point of Pines ruin by a Maverick

Mountain intrusive unit has been well documented by Haury (1958).

Recent re-examination of the tree-ring dates of this unit place occu­

pation between AD 1270 and 1290 (Bannister and Robinson 1971: 38). If

it could be determined that the Maverick Mountain wares in the Safford

Valley were from the Point of Pines area, then the occupation of those

ruins with Maverick Mountain ceramics might date within the AD 1270 to

1290 period. 107

Petrographic analysis was undertaken to determine the possibil­ ity of trade from the Maverick Mountain unit at Point of Pines to the

Safford Valley. Thin-sections of selected Maverick Mountain sherds from the Safford Valley were prepared and examined under a petrograph­ ic microscope. The sherds were selected for microscopic inspection on the basis of macroscopically observed paste and temper characteris­ tics. 'The thin-sections were compared with thin-sections of Maverick

Mountain sherds from Point of Pines containing leucite tuff (Wasley

1962: 392) and with non-Maverick Mountain sherds from the Safford

Valley. The results are presented in Table 22.

The rock and mineral inclusions of the Maverick Mountain sherds

from the Methodist Church site are of special interest. Six of the

eight tested sherds have temper that includes particles of leucite -

tuff and hematite-stained biotite. In thin-section these sherds are

indistinguishable from Maverick Mountain sherds from Point of Pines.

The other tested sherds from the Methodist Church site contain granit­

ic temper consisting primarily of coarse-grained quartz, micas, and

feldspars. No granite sources are present in the Point of Pines area.

The Pinaleno Mountains immediately south of Safford, however, are

primarily a granitic formation (Wilson, Moore, and Cooper 1969).

It is generally assumed by Southwestern archaeologists that

plain and textured wares are more likely to be locally manufactured

than imported. Though a less than adequate sample of plain and tex­

tured wares from the Safford Valley was examined in thin-section,

most sherds that were tested are characterized by granitic temper. 108

Table 22, Temper Constituents of Selected Sherds

Granitic Temper

Whitmer Site Gila Polychrome (2)*; Reserve Smudged (l)$ Tularosa Fillet Rim (1); Indented Corrugated (1); Plain Brownware (1)

Marijilda Ruin Pinto-Gila Polychrome (3)j Reserve Smudged (l); Indented Corrugated (l)j Plain Brown- ware (1)

Methodist Church Site Maverick Mountain Black-on-red (2)

Spear Ranch Site, Maverick Mountain Black-on-red (2): Nantack Lower Level Polychrome (1); Plain Brownware (1)

Spear Ranch Site, Pinto-Gila Polychrome (3) Upper Level

Goat Hill Site ? Salado Polychrome (l)j Pinto-Gila Poly­ chrome, Pink Variety (l)j Maverick Moun­ tain Black-on-red ? (5)$ Nantack Polychrome ? (1)

Volcanic Temper (Leucite and Hematite-stained Biotite)

Methodist Church Site Maverick Mountain Polychrome (2); Maverick Mountain Black-on-red (U)

Point of Pines Maverick Mountain Polychrome (2); Nantack Polychrome (2)

Volcanic Temper (Basalt or Obsidian)

Whitmer Site Gila Polychrome (2) 109

Table 22. Temper Constituents of Selected Sherds— Continued

Volcanic Temper (Basalt or Obsidian)

Earven Flat Site Indented Corrugated (1)

Yuma Wash Site Maverick Mountain Black-on-red (l)j Maverick Mountain Polychrome (1)

Marijilda Ruin Maverick Mountain Polychrome (l)

Sherd Temper

Yuma Wash Site St. Johns Polychrome (2)

Marijilda Ruin St. Johns Polychrome (1)

Rincon Canyon Site San Carlos Red-on-brown (1)

Earven Flat Site Tularosa Black-on-white (1)

Yuma Wash Site Tularosa Black-on-white (l)

Number in parenthesis indicates the number of sherds tested no

The petrographic analysis indicates, then, that the Maverick

Mountain pottery containing leucite tuff and hematite-stained biotite was manufactured at Point of Pines. Sherds of this pottery are iden­ tified in this report as "Point of Pines Variety." Maverick Mountain sherds containing granitic temper are assumed to be products of local manufacture, and are identified as "Safford Variety."

The volcanic-tempered sherds from the Yuma Wash and Marijilda sites differ to a minor extent from the Point of Pines variety Maverick

Mountain wares. These sherds contain prominent basalt and obsidian particles. Neither basalt nor obsidian was observed in the Point of

Pines sample. The Yuma Wash and Marijilda site sherds did contain hematite-stained biotite, and the Yuma Wash sherds contained small amounts of leucite tuff. The origin of these sherds could be from the Safford Valley, as Harbour (1966: 20-21) reports volcanic base­ ment rocks and alluvium in the Bonita Greek area. The Maverick

Mountain sherds from the Yuma Wash and Marijilda sites are designated in this report as "Indeterminate Variety."

Classification of the non-Salado painted wares from Goat Hill is difficult. The black-on-red wares, though heavily weathered, re­ semble Maverick Mountain Black-on-red. The polychrome sherds illus­ trated in Figure 32 bear a distinct resemblance to Point of Pines

Nantack Polychrome ceramics in the Arizona State Museum collections.

Both the black-on-red and the polychrome sherds from Goat Hill con­

tain granitic temper only, and are assumed, therefore, to be a product

of local manufacture. UNSLIPPED BUFF BACKGROUND

ORANGE PAINT

BLACK PAINT

WHITE PAINT

Figure 32. Goat Hill site Polychrome sherds a*d, body sherds; e, rim sherd 112

The presence of Point of Pines Maverick Mountain sherds at the

Methodist Church site and the mixture of Maverick Mountain wares with

Tularosa phase types at the Yuma Wash site, the Methodist Church site, the Marijilda site, and the Spear Ranch site suggests that Maverick

Mountain pottery in the Pueblo Viejo area is roughly contemporary with the late Tularosa phase, approximately AD 1250-1300.

St. Johns Polychrome

Carlson (1970: 39) assigns a span of AD 1175 to 1300 for St.

Johns Polychrome. Carlson’s tree-ring dates from the Showlow ruin,

Kinishba, and Point of Pines (Maverick Mountain phase) cluster around

AD 1250 with no date earlier than AD 1200 (Carlson 1970: 39).

Breternitz (1966: 6U, 93) states that St. Johns Polychrome is best dated between AD 1200 and 1300. It will be assumed for the purposes

of this study, therefore, that the presence of St. Johns Polychrome

indicates occupation no earlier than AD 1200, and more probably

around AD 1250.

Although it has not been possible to determine with certainty

the specific place of manufacture of St. Johns Polychrome (Carlson

1970: 33), it should be noted that specimens of this type from the

Pueblo Viejo area conform well to the paste and temper descriptions

of St. Johns Polychrome from the White Mountain area.

The paste is white to light gray, buff, pink, or occa­ sionally black. The inclusions are black, white, red, or buff angular fragments which in most cases appear to be crushed sherds, but in some cases appear to be crushed rock or rounded quartz particles. A carbon streak is fre­ quently present (Carlson 1970: 33). 113

The thin-sectioned St. Johns Polychrome sherds from the Yuma Wash and

Marijilda site contain sherd temper. Also, St. Johns Polychrome sherds from the Pueblo Viejo area generally have a light, almost white paste and a frequent carbon streak. It will be assumed, therefore, that the St. Johns Polychrome sherds from the Pueblo Viejo area are trade products brought from an as yet unknown locale in the White

Mountain region.

Temporal Placement of the Sites

The ceramics of the various sites indicate the following ap­

proximate temporal placement:

Earven Flat Site: The presence of Wingate Black-on-red and

Tularosa Black-on-white suggests a date late in the 12th century.

Yuma Wash Site: The presence of a small quantity of Pinedale

Polychrome and Maverick Mountain wares indicates a date in the latter

half of the 13th century.

Rincon Canyon Site: The presence of St. Johns Polychrome sug­

gests a date around AD 1250.

Spear Ranch Site (Lower Level): The presence of Maverick

Mountain wares suggests a post AD 1250 date.

Spear Ranch (Upper Level: The presence of a single sherd of

St. Johns Polychrome, a single sherd of Tularosa Fillet Rim, and

abundant sherds of Maverick Mountain wares could be the result of

mixing from below. No evidence for a date later than AD 1300 is pres­

ent, however. nil

Goat Hill Site: As the dominant painted pottery types appear to be related to Maverick Mountain wares, a date later than AD 12^0 is indicated.

Marijilda Site: The presence of Maverick Mountain Polychrome in considerable quantity argues for a date later than AD 125>0. The presence of Encinas Red-on-brown and Mimbres Black-on-white may be fortuitous. The possible presence of Fourmile Polychrome might extend occupation well into the llith century.

Methodist Church Site: The presence of Maverick Mountain wares and St. Johns Polychrome strongly supports a date in the latter half

of the 13th century. Earlier types such as Encinas Red-on-brown and

Sacaton Red-on-buff probably occur in the upper level due to mixture

from the lower level. A beginning date no later than AD 1100 for the

lower level is indicated by the presence of Sacaton Red-on-buff. The

presence of Casa Grande Red-on-buff indicates occupation of this

level after AD 1100.

Bonita Creek Ceremonial Cave: Wasley (1962: 380) assigns the

Bonita Creek cache to the late 13th or early lUth century on the basis

of the presence of a Maverick Mountain Polychrome jar. No additional

evidence useful for dating was obtained by iqy investigations.

Whitmer Site: The presence of Ramos Polychrome suggests a date

in the liith century (Thompson 1961). The presence of Tularosa Fillet

Rim indicates that if this site dates from the llith century, it should

be placed in the early part of that century. n *

Buena Vista Site, House 1 : The presence of Maverick wares suggests a date later than AD 12^0. The infrequent occurrence of

Tularosa Fillet Rim indicates a date later than the Whitmer site.

This dating, however, is highly tenuous.

Classification and Temporal Placement of the Salado Polychromes

Salado Polychromes exceed 10p of the painted wares only at the

Marijilda site, the upper level of the Spear Ranch site, the Whitmer site, the Goat Hill site, and the Buena Vista site, House 1. At the

Marijilda site Salado Polychromes make up 62$ of the painted sherds, at the Whitmer site 92.33$, at the Spear Ranch site U7.1J>$, and at

Goat Hill 12$. At the Buena Vista site, House 1 Salado Polychromes comprise 9h»2Q% of the painted vessels.

As a major goal of this report is to determine the date of occurrence of Salado Polychrome in the Safford Valley, and as available tree-ring dates for the Salado Polychromes are from outside the Safford

Valley, established tree-ring dates have not been used to date the

Salado Polychrome collections reported here. The conclusions of this report, however, are greatly influenced by the degree of consistency of occurrence of the Safford Valley Salado Polychromes with dates from other areas.

Temporal priority of Pinto Polychrome over Gila Polychrome is supported by tree-ring dates (Breternitz 1966: 76, 88). Breternitz places the beginning date of Pinto Polychrome at AD 1200 (1966: 88).

He proposes a beginning date for Gila Polychrome of AD 1250 or 1300, 116 conceding, however, that best current evidence supports the traditional beginning date of AD 1300 (1966: 88-89)• According to Longacre and

Ayres (Lindsay and Jennings 1968: 9), Pinto-Gila Polychrome appears to be temporally intermediate between Pinto and Gila Polychrome. Tonto

Polychrome appears to be a late variety of Gila Polychrome (Breternitz

1966: 97).

Criteria for classification of the Salado Polychromes have been summarized by the Ninth Southwestern Ceramic Seminar (Lindsay and

Jennings 1968). According to the seminar, Pinto Polychrome is defined by the presence of designs carried to the rim of bowls, a watery white

slip, and a predominance of hatched elements. Gila Polychrome is

characterized by a solid Mlife-line" or band of designs at the rim of bowls, a denser white slip than Pinto Polychrome, a prevalent masses

of black paint. Vessels and sherds exhibiting characteristics of both

Pinto and Gila Polychrome are termed Pinto-Gila Polychrome. Pink-

slipped varieties of Pinto and Pinto-Gila Polychrome are identifiable.

Tonto Polychrome is distinguished from Gila Polychrome by the incorpor­

ation of a red slip in exterior designs.

As these criteria for classification are best applied to whole

vessels, not sherds, individual Salado Polychrome sherds from the

Marijilda, Spear Ranch, Goat Hill, and V/hitmer sites cannot always be

classified with certainty. It was noticed, however, that none of the

sherds from these sites could be identified as Tonto Polychrome. They

appear to belong, then, either to the categories of Pinto, Pinto-Gila,

or Gila Polychrome. In order to establish an approximate classification 117

Table 23♦ Salado Polychrome Hatched Elements

Not Site Hatched Hatched Amount

Spear Ranch #56 98*

Marjilda 26% 7U56 58

Whitmer 1156 8956 229

Total 381

^Includes general surface sherds as well as sherds excavated from the trench and test pit. 118

Table 2lu Salado Polychromes: Styles of Interior Ornamentation

Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Site Decoration Solid Band Band Pattern Amount to the Rim at the Rim at the Rim

Spear Ranch h$% k$% 10% 31*

Marijilda 20% 73% 7% 1$

Whitmer 0* 10% 90% Ul

Total 87

^Includes general surface sherds as well as sherds excavated from the trench and test pit. 119

of the sherds from the Spear Ranch (upper level), Marijilda, and

Whitmer sites, the styles of interior ornamentation of rim sherds and

the presence of hatched elements of both rim and body sherds was ob­

served. The results are recorded in Tables 23 and 2h.

As can be observed from Tables 23 and 2U, the Salado Polychrome

sherds from the Spear Ranch and Marijilda sites include sizeable per­

centages of sherds with decoration to the rim and sherds with hatched

elements. These elements are characteristic of Pinto Polychrome. In

addition, most sherds, including those with band decoration, have a

watery white slip, also a characteristic of Pinto Polychrome. It is

apparent, then,"that the character of the Spear Ranch and Marijilda

Salado wares is mixed, with sherds exhibiting characteristics of both

Pinto and Gila Polychrome. These wares as a whole, then, are probably

\ best characterized as Pinto-Gila Polychrome.

The Salado Polychromes from the 'Whitmer site differ consider­

ably from the Marijilda and Spear Ranch Salado wares. The absence of

decoration to the rim, the presence in all cases of a dense white

slip, and the low frequency of hatched elements clearly identifies

these sherds as Gila Polychrome.

Because of the small number and fragmentary condition of the

Goat Hill. Salado Polychrome sherds, little can be said of this material.

One pink-slipped sherd, however, was identified as Pinto-Gila Poly­

chrome by W. A. Longacre.

Assuming that the stylistic and technical shifts from Pinto

to Pinto-Gila to Gila and Tonto Polychrome represent a temporal 120 sequence, then the Marijilda, Spear Ranch (upper level), and Goat Hill sites are earlier than the Whitmer site. The Spear Ranch (upper level) might be earlier than the Marijilda site. The Buena Vista site, House

1 with its high percentage of Tonto Polychrome is the most recent of the sites investigated.

As Pinto-Gila Polychrome is, presumably, temporally interme­ diate between Pinto and Gila Polychromes, the expected dates of Pinto-

Gila Polychrome should be from AD 12^0 to 1300, The dates proposed here for the Spear Ranch (upper level), Marijilda, and Goat Hill sites, then, are consistent with the expected dates for Pinto-Gila

Polychrome. The proposed post AD 1300 date for Gila Polychrome at the

Whitmer Ranch site is consistent with the traditionally held AD 1300 beginning date for Gila Polychrome.

It should be noted here that the high granite temper content of the Salado Polychrome sherds from the Pueblo Viejo area observed in petrographic analysis (Table 22) indicates probable local manufac­ ture, The Pueblo Viejo area Salado Polychromes, then, appear to con­ form to the pattern of local manufacture of these wares observed by

Danson and Wallace (1956).

Summary

In this chapter the temporal aspects of the Earven Flat, Yuma

Wash, Rincon Canyon, Methodist Church, Bonita Creek Ceremonial Cave,

Marijilda, Whitmer, Spear Ranch, Goat Hill, and Buena Vista sites are discussed. Temporal placement (Table 21) is based upon the presence of the following tree-ring dated tradewares: Wingate Black-on-red, 121

St. Johns Polychrome, Maverick Mountain wares, Pinedale Polychrome,

Tularosa Black-on-white, and Tularosa Fillet Rim.

It is an important conclusion of this chapter that the appear­ ance of Salado Polychromes in the Pueblo Viejo region coincides in time with the appearance of Salado Polychromes elsewhere in the South­ west. Also, it is apparent from petrographic evidence that the Pueblo

Viejo Salado Polychromes are a locally made product. CHAPTER U

HYPOTHESIS TESTING

It has been proposed in this report that the data from the

Pueblo Viejo area should provide a basis for testing Salado origin and migration hypotheses derived from archaeological literature. Hypothet­ ical points of origin for migrations into the Pueblo Viejo area include the Cibola region, the Tonto Basin, the Gila Basin, the Casas Grandes area of Chihuahua, and the central mountain region of Arizona and New

Mexico, Also, data from the Pueblo Viejo area should provide a test of the hypothesis that Salado culture developed in the Safford Valley during the period from AD ll£0 to 1200,

Cibola Migration Hypothesis

Hypothesis 1

There was a migration into the Pueblo Viejo area from the

Cibola area at AD 1100,

Observational Prediction, There appears in the Pueblo Viejo

area at AD 1100 a new trait complex, without local prototypes, indig­

enous to the Cibola area. This trait complex includes black-on-white

pottery and one-story houses built against the inside of enclosing

walls.

Observations, Black-on-white pottery and one-story houses

built against the inside of enclosing walls do not, apparently, occur

122 123 as a complex in the Pueblo Viejo area. Though Tularosa Black-on-white pottery is frequently present at Safford sites, it occurs as the domi­ nant painted type, in the sample presented here, only at the compact

Earven Flat pueblo. It is also present in relatively high frequencies

at the Yuma Wash and Marijilda pueblos. In addition, it should be

noted that Tularosa Black-on-white is clearly associated at the Earven

Flat, Yuma Wash, and Marijilda pueblos with plain and textured wares

typical of the Point of Pines-Reserve region.

One-stoiy houses built against the inside of enclosing walls

do occur at the Bylas, Rincon Canyon, and Whitmer sites. The dominant

painted pottery types at the Bylas sites are San Carlos Red-on-brown

and Casa Grande Red-on-buff. The dominant painted type at the Rincon

Canyon site is San Carlos Red-on-brown. Gila Polychrome is the domi­

nant painted type at the Whitmer site.

Conclusion. No Cibola trait complex was observed in the

Safford Valley* therefore, the minimal evidence for proposing a

Cibola migration is not present. It should be noted, however, that

the possibility of determining relationships between the Safford

Valley and the Cibola area is complicated by the fact that the Cibola

trait complex is not clearly defined. Danson (1957: 23) does not

recognize the one-story house inside enclosing walls as typical of the

Cibola region. According to Rinaldo and Bluhm (1956: 18U), Tularosa

Black-on-white is indigenous to the Reserve region as well as the

Cibola area. 12b

Tonto Basin Migration Hypothesis

Hypothesis 2

There was a migration into the Pueblo Viejo area from the Tonto

Basin at AD 1300.

Observational Prediction. There appears in the Pueblo Viejo area at AD 1300 a new trait complex, without local prototypes, indig­ enous to the Tonto Basin. This trait complex includes two-story pueblos standing clear of compound walls and Salado Polychrome pottery.

Observations. Compound architecture was not observed in my in­ vestigations of the Pueblo Viejo region and cannot be inferred from the written reports of Fewkes, Hough, and Bandelier. Salado Polychromes are present but are most clearly associated with pueblos culturally affiliated with the Point of Pines-Reserve region.

Conclusion. No Tonto Basin trait complex was observed in the

Pueblo Viejo region; therefore, the minimal evidence needed for pro­ posing a Tonto Basin migration is not present.

Gila Basin Migration Hypothesis

Hypothesis 3

There was a migration into the Pueblo Viejo area from the Gila

Basin during the period from AD IbOO to lbf>0.

Observational Prediction. There appears in the Pueblo Viejo

area at AD IbOO to lbf>0 a new trait complex, without local prototypes,

indigenous to the Gila Basin. This trait complex includes compound

architecture with great houses and inhumations with Salado Polychrome pottery. 1 #

Observations« The Salado manifestations of the Pueblo Viejo area occur earlier than would be expected if they were the product of a Gila Basin exodus. Furthermore, compound architecture is not present in the Pueblo Viejo region. Though inhumations with Salado

Polychrome inclusions are present at the Buena Vista site, Fewkes

(I90I4: 181-182) reports Salado Polychromes associated with cremations.

Private collectors in the Safford area indicated to me that cremations occur with Salado Polychrome, Plain Brownware, and Indented Corrugated vessels.

Conclusion. No Gila Basin trait complex was observed in the

Pueblo Viejo region; therefore, the minimal evidence needed for pro­ posing a migration is not present.

Casas Grandes Migration Hypothesis

Hypothesis 1;

There was a migration into the Pueblo Viejo area from the

Casas Grandes area of Chihuahua at approximately AD ll£0.

Observational Prediction. There appears in the Pueblo Viejo area at approximately AD 1150 a new trait complex, without local pro­ totypes, indigenous to the Casas Grandes area. This trait complex includes Salado Polychromes and substructure mounds.

Observations. Compound enclosures were not observed in my investigations of the Pueblo Viejo region and cannot be inferred from the written reports of Fewkes, Hough, and Bandolier. Substructure mounds were not observed in ny survey and were not reported east of 126 old San Carlos by early investigators. Salado Polychromes do occur in

Pueblo Viejo area sites, but are most clearly associated with pueblos culturally affiliated with the Point of Pines-Reserve region.

Conclusion. No Casas Grandes trait complex was observed in the

Pueblo Viejo region of the Safford Valley; therefore, the minimal evi­ dence needed for proposing a Casas Grandes migration is not present.

Central Mountain Region Migration Hypothesis

Hypothesis 5

There was a migration into the Pueblo Viejo area from the central mountain region of Arizona and Western New Mexico at AD 1300.

Observational Prediction. There appears in the Pueblo Viejo area at AD 1300 a new trait complex, without local prototypes, indig­ enous to the central mountain region of Arizona and New Mexico. This trait complex includes pueblo architecture and Salado Polychromes.

Observations. Though Salado Polychromes and pueblo architecture do occur as a complex in the Pueblo Viejo area after AD 1250 at the

Marijilda, Spear Ranch, Whitmer, Goat Hill, and Buena Vista sites, pueblos clearly predate Salado Polychromes in the Safford Valley.

Pueblo architecture is found at the Bylas sites perhaps as early as

AD 1200 (Johnson and Was ley 1966), the Earven Flat site in the late

12th century and the Yuma Wash and Rincon Canyon sites sometime around

AD 1250. ' - 127

Do the Safford Valley sites with Point of Pines-Reserve cul­ tural affiliations represent a migration of central mountain people to the Safford Valley? The criteria set forth by Haury (19^8: 1) and

Rouse (1958: 61-68) will be applied to the problem.

1. Does a Point of Pines-Reserve trait complex without local

prototypes appear suddenly in the Pueblo Viejo area cultural contin­ uum to answer this question effectively. Sayles (191*5: 2) identifies,

but does not describe, six San Simon Branch Mogollon sites in the

Safford area. The presence of San Carlos Red-on-brown as the dominant

painted type at Arizona V:l6:8 (ASM) and the Rincon Canyon site also

argues for a local Mogollon tradition. The situation is far from

clear, however, and the positive identification and description of a

local Mogollon tradition would greatly increase our understanding of

interaction patterns in the Pueblo Viejo area.

Also poorly understood is the local Hohokam tradition. A

Hohokam component apparently underlies the Methodist Church site.

Casa Grande Red-on-buff is the dominant painted type at Arizona

V:16:10 (ASM). Hohokam trade items, presumably from the Safford area,

are present at Point of Pines (Johnson 1965: 75). Johnson states that

the Safford Valley Hohokam occupation occurs at about AD 1000. The

possibility of a Hohokam expansion into the Safford Valley at AD 1000

and the potential relationship between this tradition and other

Safford Valley traditions should be a matter of great concern for

students of prehistoric acculturation processes. 128

2. Do the products of the Point of Pines-Reserve sites not only reflect elements borrowed from the host group, but also as a lingering effect preserve unmistakable elements from their own pattern?

Because of the unknown nature of the indigenous cultural develop­ ment of the Pueblo Viejo area, this question cannot be answered com­ pletely. The dominant cultural pattern at the Earven Flat, Yuma Wash,

Marijilda, Whitmer, and Buena Vista, House 1 sites, however, can be attributed to the Point of Pines-Reserve area. This close cultural affiliation is most strongly reflected in architectural features and plain and textured ceramics.

3# Is it possible to identify an area in which the Point of Pines-

Reserve trait complex was the normal pattern?

Yes. The Point of Pines-Reserve trait complex is indigenous to

the region north and northeast of the Pueblo Viejo area.

U. Can a rough time equivalency between the "at heme" and displaced

expressions of the similar complexes be established?

Yes. Cross-dating of Tularosa Black-on-white, Tularosa Fillet

Rim, St. Johns Polychrome, and Maverick Mountain Polychrome establishes

rough time equivalency between the Point of Pines-Reserve and Pueblo

Viejo regions.

*>. Are environmental conditions favorable for a migration?

Point of Pines is only 1*0 miles north of Safford and can be

reached today from Safford by pickup truck over unimproved roads. The

poorly defined boundary of the Reserve region at Clifton (Hough 1907:

Ul-52) is only 25 miles northeast of Safford. The presence of Maverick 129

Mountain trade sherds from the Point of Pines-Reserve area in the

Safford region and the Hohokam ceramic trade from Safford to Point of

Pines (Johnson 1965: 75) attests to the ease of transport between the two areas.

6. Are explanations other than migration more satisfactory?

In the absence of a well-defined indigenous trait complex, it may be that the appearance of a Point of Pines-Reserve trait complex in the Safford Valley was the result of the same social and cultural proc­ esses that produced "Western Pueblo culture" in the central mountain region of Arizona and New Mexico. It is possible that the Earven Flat,

Yuma Wash, Marijilda, Whitmer, and Buena Vista, House 1 sites repre­ sent late developments of a local Mogollon tradition that was somehow

"influenced" by Anasazi people to the north and as a result adopted pueblo architecture, Tularosa Black-on-white and St. Johns Polychrome pottery.

Confirmation of this proposition, then, would necessitate the

identification of a cultural continuum linking the Safford Valley pueblo sites to a pre-pueblo Mogollon tradition very similar to the

Nantack phase of the Point of Pines region of the three Circle phase

of the Reserve region (Johnson 1965: 37-bO). It is my opinion, how­

ever, that a reasonable amount of evidence is present to support the

idea of a short range population movement of people from the Point of

Fines-Reserve area into the Safford Valley. This possibility, though,

can only be demonstrated after additional excavations have clarified

the nature of the pre-Pueblo occupations of the area. 130

Conclusion. The fact that Salado Polychromes are strongly associated with Safford Valley sites belonging to the Point of Pines-

Reserve tradition does to a limited extent confirm Johnson’s hypothesis by showing that the Western Pueblo problem cannot clearly be separated from the Salado problem. This point has also been made by Di Peso

(1958) and by Johnson and Thompson (1963).

Safford Valley Origin Hypothesis

Hypothesis 6

Salado culture developed in the Pueblo Viejo area during the period from AD 11£>0 to 1200.

Observational Prediction. Masonry architecture, Roosevelt

Black-on-white, and Pinto Polychrome appear in the Pueblo Viejo area during the period from AD 1150 to 1200.

Observation. No evidence of Pinto Polychrome prior to AD 1250 was observed in the Pueblo Viejo area. Pinto Polychrome was not found

at the 12th century Earven Flat site nor at the Bylas sites (Johnson

and Wasley 1966: 250). Pueblo architecture and Tularosa Black-on-white

(a type closely related to Roosevelt Black-on-white) are found at the

Bylas sites and the Earven Flat site.

Conclusion. If the presence of Pinto Polychrome is essential

to the definition of the Salado trait complex, then no evidence for a

Salado complex appears in the Safford Valley until AD 1250. As tree­

ring dates suggest a beginning date of AD 1200 for Pinto Polychrome 131 elsewhere in the Southwest (Breternitz 1966: 88), the Safford Valley is an unlikely point of origin for the Salado complex.

Summary

Minimal evidence for confirming emigrations of Saladoans from

Cibola, the Tonto Basin, the Gila Basin, or Casas Grandes is not pres­ ent in the Pueblo Viejo area. Some support for an emigration from the

Point of Pines-Reserve region is present. No support for a Safford

Valley Salado origin was observed. CHAPTER $

PUEBLO VIEJO SALADO

The Salado phenomenon in the Pueblo Viejo area of the Safford

Valley is most clearly manifested as a shift in painted ceramics at sites with Point of Pines-Reserve cultural affiliations. This shift involves the replacement of Tularosa Black-on-white and White Mountain

Redwares, especially St. Johns Polychrome, by Salado Polychromes.

Whether a comparable shift to Salado Polychromes occurred in sites with other than Point of Pines-Reserve affiliations, cannot be affirmed due to a lack of data.

For comparative purposes, the Point of Pines-Reserve manifes­ tations with Salado Polychromes will be termed "Pueblo Viejo Salado."

Although too little data are available to fully define this complex, the following highly tentative generalization based on the Marijilda,

Whitmer, and Buena Vista, House 1 sites is offered.

Architecture— Architecture is characterized by pueblo structures

comprised of rooms, or a combination of walls and rooms, surrounding

a plaza. Wall construction is highly variable and is probably

strongly influenced by the availability of materials in the local

environment. Construction includes masonry, or masonry and adobe.

Masonry walls, when present, may be banded or constructed on boulder

footings. Other architectural features include ventilators, slab-

lined and clay-lined firepits, rectangular and T-shaped doorways,

132 133

Painted Ceramics— The dominant painted pottery types are Salado

Polychromes including Pinto Gila, Gila, and Tonto Polychrome, Minor percentages of Maverick Mountain wares may occur, Tradewares are rare in late sites, but Ramos Polychrome may be present. Prominent trade- wares in early sites include White Mountain Redwares and Cibola White- wares .

Plain and Textured Ceramics— Plain and textured ceramics include

Plain Brownware, Corrugated, Indented Corrugated, Reserve Smudged,

Tularosa Fillet Rim, and Perforated Rim Plates,

Burial Practices— Subfloor infant and child burial is practiced.

Cremation may occur. Inhumation offerings include vessels of the following types: Gila and Tonto Polychrome, Indented Corrugated,

Polished Brownware, Tularosa Fillet Rim, and untyped redwares,

Stone Artifacts and Minerals— Although inadequately sampled and reported, stone artifacts appear to include obsidian and chert trian­ gular and triangular side-notched projectile points, three-quarter grooved stone axes and adzes, bifacial and unifacial manos, chert blades, polishing stones, arrowshaft tools, and "mescal knives," Min­ erals include hematite, specular hematite, malachite pumice, and quartz crystals.

Shell Artifacts— Shell artifacts include Conus rings and pendants,

Olivella and disc beads, Pectin and Turitella pendants, and Glycemeris bracelets•

Bone Artifacts— Splinter awls. 13U

Pueblo Viejo Salado and Tonto Basin Salado Comparisons

The following list of Tonto Basin Salado traits was compiled from discussions of the Gila Pueblo, Rye Creek, and Tonto National

Monument ruins by Gladwin (I95>7z 310-323), Pierson (1932: 68-69), and

Shiner (1961: 3-H).

Assumed Indigenous Painted Types— Gila Polychrome, Tonto Poly­ chrome, San Carlos Red-on-brown.

Assumed Indigenous Unpainted Types— Tonto Red, Tonto Ribbed, Gila

Plain, Gila Smudged, Indented Corrugated, Obliterated Corrugated,

Salado Red.

Assumed Tradewares— Gila Red, Pinedale Polychrome, Fourmile Poly­

chrome, "Hop! Black-on-yellow.n

Additional Ceramic Traits— Perforated rim plates.

Architectural Units— Multi-storied cliff dwellings, hilltop pueb­

los, compounds.

Architectural Features— T-shaped and rectangular doorways, clay-

lined circular firepits, vertical center ceiling supports, hatchways.

Disposal of Dead— Subfloor infant and adult burial, cemetery

burial.

Stone Artifacts and Minerals — Grooved schist arrowshaft straight-

eners, trough metates, unifacial manos, mescal knives, three-quarter

grooved axes, triangular, low side-notched arrow points, azurite,

quartz crystals, hematite, turquoise, asbestos.

Shell--Glycemeris, Olivella. Conus, Haliotis, Anodonta,

Melongena. 135

Bone Artifacts— Awls.

As can be seen by comparing the Tonto Basin and Pueblo Viejo

Salado trait lists, Pueblo Viejo Salado differs from the Tonto Basin

Salado primarily by the presence of Point of Pines-Reserve types as the dominant plain and textured wares, by the absence of compounds, and by the apparent absence of late northern tradewares such as Fourmile

Polychrome and "Hopi Black-on-yellow." These differences, however, should not obscure the fact that many traits are shared, and that, to paraphrase Steen (19U0: 27), both complexes appear to represent Pueb- loan people who made Salado Polychrome pottery.

Pueblo Viejo Salado and Gila Basin Salado Comparisons

The presence of an identifiable Salado complex in the Gila

Basin has been challenged by Steen (1965) and Wasley (1966). Both authors designate Gila Polychrome as a northern tradeware and compound architecture as a probable Mexican introduction. In denying the pres­ ence of a Salado complex, they place special emphasis on the lack of northern utility wares that could be attributed to the Salado.

The situation in the Pueblo Viejo portion of the Safford Valley is obviously different. In this region pueblo architecture. Point of

Pines-Reserve utility wares, and Salado Polychromes form a distinct trait complex.

Though it may be true that no Salado complex is present in the

Gila Basin, the presence of Salado Polychrome does indicate some sort 136 of trade relationship with Salado Polychrome making people. The appearance of Salado Polychromes in the Gila Basin may be related to

an interesting shift in interaction patterns observed in the Safford

Valley. In the Safford area prior to the introduction of Salado

Polychromes, ceramic trade was oriented on a north-south rather than

an east-west basis. This trade pattern is clearly illustrated by the

distribution of St. Johns Polychrome. St. Johns Polychrome occurs in

substantial quantities, in the Pueblo Viejo area, at the Ringo site in

southeastern Arizona (Johnson and Thompson 1963: 1:7), the Pendleton

ruin in southwestern New Mexico (Kidder, Cosgrove, and Cosgrove 19U9$

lUf>), and the Casas Grandes ruin in Chihuahua (Di Peso 1966 : 21).

This fact indicates that the Pueblo Viejo sites were but a link in a

chain of interaction stretching from the White Mountain area on the

north, to Casas Grandes, Chihuahua, on the south.

In contrast to the heavy concentration of St. Johns Polychrome

north and south of the Safford Valley, this type does not occur west of

a line drawn from Point of Pines to the western end of the Safford

Valley and down the San Simon Valley to Casas Grandes (Carlson 1970:

30, Fig. H i ) . The distribution of St. Johns Polychrome, then, indi­

cates a lack of interaction between the Safford Valley and areas to

the west.

The distribution of Salado Polychromes differs markedly from

the distribution of St. Johns Polychrome. The heaviest concentration

of Salado Polychrome bearing sites is in a broad region stretching

from the headwaters of the San Simon drainage north to the Safford 137

Valley and west to the Tonto and Gila Basins (Young 196?: E>£>). The shift to Salado Polychromes, then, suggests not only a decrease in interaction between the Pueblo Viejo area and areas to the north, but also the establishment of interaction with regions to the west of the

Safford Valley and the continuation of interaction with areas to the south, including Casas Grandes (Di Peso 1966: 23). Elucidation of the social correlates of the shifting interaction patterns represented by the distributions of St. Johns and Salado Polychromes should be a major focus of future Salado research.

Pueblo Viejo Salado and Reeve Ruin Comparisons

Architectural similarities between the Reeve Ruin (Di Peso

1958: 18-79) and Pueblo Viejo Salado sites include boulder base masonry adobe walls on boulder footings, clay-lined circular firepits, slab- lined firepits, deflectors, rectangular doorways and, possibly, banded masonry. Absent from the Reeve Ruin but present in Pueblo Viejo

Salado sites are ventilators, T-shaped doorways, and plazas completely surrounded by rooms. Missing from Pueblo Viejo Salado sites, but present at the Reeve Ruin is the combined entrance, passage, and de­ flector.

Painted wares at the Reeve Ruin (Di Peso 1958: 82-86, 97-103) consist primarily of Salado Polychromes and Tucson Polychrome. Salado

Polychromes and Tucson Polychrome are present in the Pueblo Viejo area, but the relationship of Maverick Mountain wares to Tucson Polychrome needs further clarification before meaningful comparisons can be attempted. 138

The Reeve Ruin utility wares, though belonging to a coiled and scraped "Western Pueblo" Brownware tradition (Di Peso 1958: 90), can­ not be as closely linked to the Point of Pines-Reserve tradition as the Pueblo Viejo Salado utility wares. At the Reeve Ruin, corrugated wares are uncommon, and only one sherd of Tularosa Fillet Rim is pres­ ent. It should be noted, however, that the common Reeve Ruin type,

Belford Burnished" (Di Peso 1958: 91-9U), bears a strong resemblance to Reserve Smudged and to the Polished Brownware vessels of the Buena

Vista site. Perforated Rim plates are found both at the Reeve Ruin and at the Buena Vista site.

Shared stone artifact types include three-quarter grooved stone axes, "mescal knives,*1 arrowshaft tools and unifacial and bifacial manos. Apparently missing from the Reeve Ruin inventory is the side- notched triangular projectile point.

Di Peso (1958: 6) implies that the Reeve Ruin represents a unique immigration of Western Pueblo people into a southern desert

area. Viewed in relation to the Pueblo Viejo Salado sites, however,

the Reeve Ruin loses much of its anomalous character. The many

similarities between the trait complexes of the Reeve Ruin and Pueblo

Viejo Salado suggest that the Pueblo Viejo region might be the home­

land of the Reeve Ruin immigrants. Tempting though this suggestion

might be, too little data are currently available for confirmation

or refutation. 139

Pueblo Viejo Salado and Kayenta-Maverick Mountain Comparisons

Speculation concerning the relationship of the Safford Valley to the Kayenta-derived Point of Pines Maverick Mountain unit is not new to archaeological literature. It has been suggested by Wasley

(1962) that Maverick Mountain people may have moved south from Point of Pines after they were, apparently, driven out by hostile neighbors.

As possible evidence for such a migration, Wasley cites the presence of a Maverick Mountain Polychrome jar and Kayenta-style ceremonial items in the Bonita Creek Ceremonial Cave. Wasley speculates that this cache may have been deposited by the emigrant group from Point of Pines as they moved south. It should be noted that Wasley was aware of the presence of Maverick Mountain ceramics in the Safford Valley at the time he wrote his report on the Bonita Creek cache, as both he and

Bnil W. Haury had collected Maverick Mountain Black-on-red sherds from a plowed field at the University of Arizona experimental farm east of

Safford in March 1928 (Wasley 1958).

Though it is asserted in this paper that the Bonita Creek cache cannot be related in its entirety to the Maverick Mountain phase, evi­ dence indicating the presence of Maverick Mountain cultural units is found in the Pueblo Viejo portion of the Safford Valley. A local

Maverick Mountain ceramic tradition is present (Figs. 33 and 3U)«

Scant data from the Spear Ranch (lower level) and Goat Hill sites sug­ gest that these ruins are culturally affiliated most strongly with the

Maverick Mountain phase. litO

Figure 33. Methodist Church site Maverick Mountain Black-on-red bowl sherd. a. interior b. exterior Actual size llll

Figure 3U» Spear’Ranch site. Lower'Level/ Maverick Mountain Black-dn-r’ed bowl' sherd. - Actual size; 12*2

The presence of locally made Maverick Mountain wares in the

Safford Valley raises interesting possibilities regarding the relation­ ship of the Salado Polychrome tradition to the Kayenta-Hopi ceramic tradition. Gladwin and Gladwin (1935: 218) and Haury (192*5: 79-80) recognize the possibility of Kayenta origins for some Salado Polychrome stylistic motifs. Carlson (1970: 105-109) proposes that both the

White Mountain Redwares and Salado Polychrones were strongly influenced by the Kayenta-Hopi ceramic tradition. According to Carlson the major features borrowed from the Kayenta-Hopi tradition include: (1) bold line work and patterns; (2) filler units made up of small stepped lines; (3) filler units of parallel hatching; (I*) the running diamond motif; (5) the offset quartered layout; (6) double banding lines; and

(?) the dotted edge used on many filler units.

Most of these features can be seen on a Gila Polychrome bowl from the Spear Ranch site (Fig. 21*). A similar bowl collected by

Fewkes (1901*: PL. LV) from Epley's Ruin near Solomonsville exhibits the Kayenta "mosquito bar" motif.

Buena Vista Salado Polychrome Layout Forms

Perhaps the most distinctive Kayenta layout form is the T-frame

(Fig. 35a)• This device is thought by Smith (1971: 162*) to occur al­ most exclusively on the exterior of Tusayan Black-on-white jars.

According to Breternitz (1966: 99), Tusayan Black-on-white dates from

approximately AD 1125 to 1300 with greatest popularity between 1250

and 1300. Hi3

b

Figure 35® Y-frame layouts. a. Tusayan Black-on-white (Beals, Brainerd, and Smith 19U5: 225 PL. XXVI B) b, Tonto Polychrome (Fewkes 1901*: PL. IXVHI) 1UU

A Tonto Polychrome jar collected by Fewkes (190lt: PL. LXVIII) from the Buena Vista site clearly displays a T-frame (Fig. 35b).

Three Tonto Polychrome jars in the Tatman collection possess modified

Y-frames as exterior decoration. These modified decorative forms

(Fig. 36) differ from their possible Kayenta prototypes by the presence

of bands rather than triangular elements at the rim. The possibility

that the Buena Vista Tonto Polychrome Y-frame is Kayenta derived is

strengthened by the presence of a Y-frame layout on a Maverick Mountain

Polychrome jar (Fig. 31b) found on the floor of Room 16 by Tatman. A

Tonto Polychrome jar with a modified Y-frame was also found on the

floor of this room.

According to Haury (19U5$ 79), the Salado "bird wing" may be a

Kayenta derived element. On five Tatman collection Tonto and Gila

Polychrome jars, bird wing elements (Fig. 37) are arranged in a layout

pattern very similar to the Kayenta-Hopi "claw meander" (Smith 1971:

118). One Gila Polychrome bowl (Fig. 38e) in the same collection has

as interior decoration a tripartite meandering birdwing design virtually

identical to Kayenta-Hopi designs from the Tsegi drainage (Beals,

Brainerd, and Smith 19U5$ 100, Fig. 35) and Awatovi (Smith 1971$ 169,

Fig. 106v).

The interiors of seven bowls and one dipper in the Tatman col­

lection are arranged in offset quartered layout forms (Fig. 39) simi­

lar to Kayenta-Hopi layouts (Smith 1971$ 172). The interior of one of

Tatman’s bowls (Fig. 38c) can be described as meridional. Meridional Figure 36. Buena Vista site. House 1, Tonto Polychrome vessels with Y-frame layouts. Both one fourth size. 11*6

b

Figure 37, Buena Vista site. House 1, Salado Polychrome vessels with bird wing meander layouts. a. zoned b. unzoned Both one-fourth size. Figure 38. Buena Vista site. House 1, Gila Polychrome bowls. All one-fourth size Figure 39. Buena Vista site. House 1, Gila Polychrome bowls with offset quartered layouts. 11*9 layouts are another characteristic Kayenta-Hopi convention (Beals,

Brainerd, and Smith 19l*$: Fig. $9} Smith 1971: 173-177).

Zoned decoration is the most common layout form on Kayenta-

Hopi vessels at Awatovi (Smith 1971: 160). Zoned decoration is also present on nine of Tatman’s Salado Polychrome jar and bowl exteriors,

including two zoned jars with birdwing meanders. The layouts on four

of these vessels can be characterized as being composed primarily of

opposed triangles (Fig. 38d). The use of dotted edges and lines as

decorative devices on these vessels creates an effect oddly reminis­

cent of Kana-a Black-on-white (Beals,. Brainerd, and Smith 19W>: 88,

Fig. 19). Kana-a Black-on-white is a Kayenta type dating from AD 72$

95>0 (Breternitz 1966: 79).

Only eight of the 33 Salado Polychrome vessels in the Tatman

collection cannot be placed in the Y-frame, birdwing meander, offset

quartered, zoned, or meridional layout categories. Of these eight

vessels, four are bowls with central focus decorative elements (Fig.

38b). One of these bowls (Fig. 38a) has, as the central focus of

decoration, a checkerboard design similar to designs found occasion­

ally on Kayenta-Hopi vessels at Awatovi (Smith 1971$ Fig, 11*1, f;

Fig. 279, k). This motif, however, is also found on Sacaton phase

Hohokam vessels (Gladwin, Haury, Sayles, and Gladwin 1937: PL. CL).

The four remaining vessels either have unique layout forms or are

too fragmentary for identification of layout type.

It is interesting to note that the Buena Vista site Salado

Polychrome layout forms do not include the "dual balanced design" ISO characteristic of Los Muertos (Haury 19LS: 73) and Gila Pueblo (Shiner

1961: 10). Y-frame, modified Y-frame, and tripartite bowl interior birdwing meanders are not reported from Los Muertos (Haury 19h$t

71-78), but are present at the Kuykendall site in southeastern Arizona

(Mills and Mills 1969: Figs. 7U, 75, 76, 78, 80, 81, 85, and 90) and

Los Muertos (Haury 19b5: 7li> 78). These facts suggest that regional differences and similarities are present in Salado Polychrome layouts.

Buena Vista Salado Polychrome Design Elements

Not only do the layout forms of the Buena Vista site Salado

Polychromes bear strong resemblances to Kayenta-Hopi layouts, but there are also close resemblances in individual design elements. One highly distinctive Kayenta-Hopi element is the running diamond, a negative pattern usually centered around keys on stems (Smith 1971: 914-97).

The running diamond motif (Fig. iiOa) appears on 12 Salado Polychrome vessels in the Tatman collection. The running diamond is not reported from Los Muertos, where keys on stems are rare (Haury 191:5: 78), and is not illustrated in the sample of Salado Polychrome vessels from the

Kuykendall site illustrated by Mills and Mills (1969: Figs. 72-90).

The "bird wing" appears on eight vessels in the Tatman collec­

tion. The Buena Vista birdwing, in contrast to the Kayenta-Hopi

"claw" (Smith 1971: 118), is not hatched (Fig. 37). One example of

the bird wing meander from the Buena Vista site (Fig. UOb) bears on

the apices of the wing, small,attached key-like elements. These small

elements are common at Los Muertos (Hauiy 191:5: 78) but occur only

once in the Buena Vista collection. Figure UO. Buena Vista site. House jar,. Both ° 1#

The frequent use of the open square with center dots on the

Buena Vista Salado Polychrome vessels (Figs. 36b, 37a, 38a) presents an interesting problem. This element occurs commonly on Salado Poly­ chrome at Los Muertos (Haury 191*5* 79). Haury (191*5* 79) claims that the negative space with center dot is a Hohokam convention. It should be pointed out, however, that this element is also commonly found among

Kayenta-Hopi wares (Smith 1971* 11*6-150).

Though both the layout forms and design elements of the Buena

Vista Salado Polychrome vessels point to Kayenta-Hopi influence, pos­ sibly through a local Maverick Mountain tradition, the Salado Poly­ chrome tradition as a whole is very complex and seems to reflect a variety of diffusion patterns.

Summary

In this chapter the major characteristics of the Pueblo Viejo

Salado manifestations are outlined. Comparisons are made with the

Tonto Basin, Gila Basin, and Reeve Ruin Salado manifestations. A num­ ber of specific resemblances between the Kayenta-Hopi and Pueblo

Viejo Salado ceramic traditions are noted. CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSIONS

Reed (1950: 128) and Johnson (1965: 79) Include Salado mani­ festations within the Western Pueblo cultural complex* Evidence from the Pueblo Viejo portion of the Safford Valley supports this typolog­ ical placement. The Salado sites of the Pueblo Viejo region are cul­ turally affiliated most closely with the Western Pueblo sites of the

Point of Pines-Reserve region. Pueblo Viejo Salado sites, moreover, seem to be fundamentally similar to Salado sites in the Tonto Basin and to the Reeve Ruin in the San Pedro Valley. A preliminary report from the Oraand Village site near Cliff, New Mexico, on the Upper

Gila (Hammack, Bussey, and Ice 1966) indicates that this ruin, like the Tonto Monument, Reeve Ruin, and Pueblo Viejo Salado sites, is a pueblo with Tonto Polychrome and Gila Polychrome as the dominant painted pottery types. Pueblo sites with Salado Polychrome pottery, then, appear to be characteristic of a broad area of the Lower

Sonoran Life Zone extending from the Tonto Basin on the west to the

Upper Gila on the east.

It is a conclusion of this report that a distinct cultural

complex does exist on the northern fringe of the desert southwest.

This complex consists, basically, of Salado Polychrome pottery and

pueblo architecture. Local and temporal variations in Salado Poly­

chrome design elements, architecture, undecorated pottery, burial

15% 15U customs, and stone, bone, and shell artifacts exist within this com­ plex, It is, furthermore, my opinion that this complex is primarily

of northern derivation and that the social and cultural processes pro­

ducing it were varied and intricate.

Wasley (ip66) emphasizes the probable Mexican origin of much of

the "Salado" complex of the Gila Basin. In particular, he notes that

compound architecture and substructure mounds are of probable Mexican

derivation. If Wasley is correct, it would seem that there is a south­

ern, as well as a northern component to the 13th and lltth century

cultural manifestations traditionally defined as Salado. Indeed, the

distribution and design relationships of the Salado Polychromes appear

to be the result of vast networks of social relationships extending

from the Kayenta area on the north to Casas Grandes on the south.

Though the Pueblo Viejo Salado sites form but one element in

the vast and complex Salado picture, archaeological investigations in

the Pueblo Viejo region indicate that the Salado phenomenon cannot be

explained simply as the result of any single social process. Short

range migrations from the Point of Pines-Reserve region and a possible

Kayenta-Maverick Mountain migration may be involved in the development

of the Pueblo Viejo Salado pattern. Yet, the possibility of long-

range migrations of "Saladoans” into the Pueblo Viejo area is not

supported by the evidence. The apparent local manufacture of Salado

Polychromes in the Pueblo Viejo area and elsewhere indicates that

Salado involves more than trade relationships. The shift from White

Mountain Redwares and Cibola Whitewares to Salado Polychromes in 1 #

Pueblo Viejo sites with Point of Pines-Reserve cultural affiliations indicates, however, that a shift in trade relationships is a part of the Salado phenomenon, Salado, then, is a complex phenomenon and we should not, therefore, expect simple explanations for it. LIST OF REFERENCES

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