Theoretical Development in Ethical Marketing Decision Making

AMS Rev (2013) 3:51–60 DOI 10.1007/s13162-013-0047-8 Theoretical development in ethical marketing decision making O. C. Ferrell & Victoria L. Crittenden & Linda Ferrell & William F. Crittenden Received: 10 April 2013 /Accepted: 22 April 2013 /Published online: 4 May 2013 # Academy of Marketing Science 2013 Abstract The current state of knowledge about ethical mar- not been a critical assessment of what we know and how to keting decision making is explored from a historical per- continue to advance knowledge in this important area. spective. While much research focuses on ethical issues, our Over time, the ethical marketing literature has evolved purpose is to provide a holistic perspective of existing into three categories. One, normative frameworks—often theory, skills, and research. We address both normative derived from philosophy—areusedtodevelopdecision and descriptive approaches to ethical decision making the- models, scales for research, norms, and principles (Laczniak ory development. Additional dimensions of ethical decision 1999; Forsyth et al. 1988; Reidenbach and Robin 1990). Two, making such as institutional, resource-advantage, and value positive or descriptive models have been developed to explain chain theory are advanced for future research. organizational ethical decision making, organizational culture, and managerial practices (Ferrell and Gresham Keywords Marketing ethics . Ethical decision making . 1985;HuntandVitell1986). Three, conceptual articles Normative marketing . Descriptive marketing and research are often assumed to be ethical or socially responsible because they have self-evident, desirable The impact of Hunt and Vitell (1986), Laczniak (1983), and consequences to certain stakeholders (Martin and Smith 2008; Laczniak and Murphy (2006) in normative perspectives and Crittenden et al. 2011; Kotler and Zaltman 1971). Without a Hunt and Vitell (1986) and Ferrell and Gresham (1985)in holistic perspective, it is difficult to provide directions for descriptive frameworks has helped shape knowledge devel- advancing ethical marketing theory and research. Drawing opment and research in ethical marketing decision making. from a historical evolution of the field, our purpose here is In turn, these marketing contributions have influenced the to attempt to offer such a holistic perspective. Our focus is entire field of business ethics, and marketing ethical frame- ethical decision making theory, research, and scales. Under- works and models have been cited widely (i.e., both Hunt standing the background of theory development in marketing and Vitell (1986) and Ferrell and Gresham (1985) have over ethics provides the opportunity to suggest future directions a thousand cites each). While rich literature exists on mar- for advancing knowledge. keting ethics (Schlegelmilch and Öberseder 2010), there has The historical foundations of marketing ethics O. C. Ferrell (*) : L. Ferrell Anderson School of Management, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA In their historical review of research related to social issues e-mail: [email protected] in marketing, Wilkie and Moore (2012) identified three eras L. Ferrell of research. Most of the research reviewed relates more to e-mail: [email protected] social issues and consumer protection issues, not ethical decision making. Eras I and II (1900–1920, 1920–1950) V. L. Crittenden Babson College, Babson Park, MA 02457, USA focused on the marketing and society interface, with issues e-mail: [email protected] related to costs for consumers, the efficiency of the marketing system, elements of the marketing system necessary for W. F. Crittenden consumers, the role of advertising and sales methods, and Northeastern University, 305 Hayden Hall, Boston, MA 02115-5000, USA fair pricing Wilkie and Moore (2011). During these eras, e-mail: [email protected] most consumer protection issues were addressed from a 52 AMS Rev (2013) 3:51–60 societal or social issue perspective. This was not a time when In his model of ethical decision making in marketing, holistic theories or frameworks for ethical decision making Bartels (1967) theorized that some of the greatest influences were being developed. Marketing ethics was implied in deci- in ethical decision making were environmental issues such sions that benefited or protected key stakeholders, including as cultural and noneconomic factors as well as various roles consumers and marketing channel members. in the economic process. For example, cultural influences A snapshot of the types of marketing ethics issues that encompassed societal beliefs and institutions, including were addressed in Eras I and II is found in the first compre- laws and regulations, rights to property, religious beliefs, hensive business ethics textbook. Sharp and Fox (1937) national identity, customs, and arts. Under these influences, separated their business ethics textbook—Business Ethics: a marketer would analyze decisions as ethical or unethical Studies in Fair Competition—into four sections: fair service, according to society’s beliefs about such actions. The non- fair treatment of competitors, fair price, and moral progress economic factors involved a person’s sense of belonging. in a business world. The textbook focused extensively on That is, experience in social institutions such as family, moral standards, obligations, the individual’s capacity for military, government, and leisure groups determined the good behavior, and some of the reasons behind unethical individual’s development of values and ethical perceptions. behavior. Ethical behavior was thought to be driven by Bartels explained the importance of roles in economic pro- individual business people with good moral character. The cesses as “ethical standards [that] are created by the expect- textbook also focused on topics that are still relevant in ations which arise within the behavior patterns of the today’s marketing ethical environment. For example, the economy itself” (1967, p. 23). For instance, in the relation- chapter “Intentional Misrepresentation” discussed lying or ship between two economic roles, an employee and a cus- false information in contracts and promotion; the “Predatory tomer, the manager would be expected to be truthful and Practices” chapter examined interfering with competitors’ transparent with the consumer. production or distribution; and the “Organizations for the Bartels also believed in the influence of ethical sensitiv- Improvement of Business Practice” chapter focused on self- ity, an individual factor described as “the level of interaction regulatory organizations such as trade associations and the at which [the manager] finds within himself satisfaction in Better Business Bureau. his actions toward others” (1967, p. 24). This identification While this earliest business ethics textbook discussed of ethical sensitivity became extremely important in the ethics in the domains of product, promotion, and price, it future development of ethical decision models in marketing also emphasized distribution and marketing channel ethics. as related to stakeholder involvement. However, it is impor- In particular, the textbook highlighted ways in which organ- tant to note that Bartels’ model was not an organizational- izations have used anticompetitive distribution practices to level descriptive model of ethical decision making. Instead, drive out rivals. Sharp and Fox (1937) discussed underhand- it focused more on socioeconomic and individual behavioral ed tactics such as wholesalers becoming retailers solely to expectations rather than on organizational influences on drive competitors out of business, using one’spowerto decision making. induce suppliers to cut off materials needed for rival prod- Research and interest in marketing ethics grew more ucts, and sabotaging the transportation facilities of compet- prominent as the scope of marketing was broadened to itors. While these tactics are clearly illegal in the 21st include social and ethical issues (Kotler and Levy 1969; century, it is fascinating to see the early stages of marketing Kotler and Zaltman 1971). Still, this change focused on channel and distribution ethics. It is also interesting to note identifying issues and the domain of marketing ethics rather that although we hope that marketing ethics has evolved for than extending the descriptive models developed by Bartels. the better, unethical behavior in this area still persists. Toys Additionally, the Watergate scandal and cover-up prompted “R” Us, for example, has paid fines for pressuring manu- business ethics scholars such as Archie Carroll to begin facturers to limit sales to rival discount retailers (Kendall investigating managerial ethics. There was a growing inter- and Kell 2011). est in marketing ethics related to marketing research, new According to Wilkie and Moore (2012), Era III (1950– product development, advertising, and marketing education 1980) saw a dramatic shift toward an infusion of a scientific (Crawford 1970; Schlegelmilch and Öberseder 2010). Also, perspective and a managerial view of marketing. Beginning social marketing became of particular interest to marketing in the late 1960s and early 1970s, marketing ethics became scholars during this era. Although still in its beginning more focused on the social and economic factors that relate stages, several marketing scholars wrote articles defining to ethical decision making. A critical contribution in this era and conceptualizing what would later become an important was

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