U UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI

Date: May 14, 2009

I, Ryan Meyer , hereby submit this original work as part of the requirements for the degree of:

Master of Architecture in The School of Architecture and Interior Design

It is entitled: Integrating Architecture and Infrastructure: The Design

of a Solar-Powered Hydrogen Refueling Station

Student Signature: Ryan Meyer

This work and its defense approved by:

Committee Chair: Jerry Larson Tom Bible

Approval of the electronic document:

I have reviewed the Thesis/Dissertation in its final electronic format and certify that it is an accurate copy of the document reviewed and approved by the committee.

Committee Chair signature: Jerry Larson, Tom Bible Integrating Architecture and Infrastructure: The Design of a Solar-Powered Hydrogen Refueling Station

A thesis submitted to the: Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati

In Partial Completion of the Requirements for the degree of: Master of Architecture

In The School of Architecture and Interior Design

Of The College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning

2009 by

Ryan Meyer B.S. Arch. University of Cincinnati, 2007

Committee Chairs: Jerry Larson Tom Bible ABSTRACT

In the United States today, as well as the world, the means of energy production has begun to shift. The fossil fuels that have powered homes and businesses through the last century are on their way out, and new technologies are bringing renewable forms of energy to the forefront. The question now is, how can the transition from coal and oil to sun and wind be made smoothly and effectively? One of the answers is found in the way we build. Integrating devices that harness renewable power into new building construction can increase clean energy production, and allow architecture to take advantage of the spatial qualities that arise at the intersection of the two.

This thesis studies the boundary between infrastructure and architecture by thinking abstractly about the components of a solar concentrating device and those of a building. They each include two main parts: structural elements and surface elements. By designing a form that merges the architecture of a building with a solar concentrator, buildings can serve as both a shelter for human activity and a power plant for energizing the building systems. This idea is studied through the integration of a concentrating solar skin with the form of an interstate hydrogen refueling station. By using energy from a solar concentrating building skin to harvest the hydrogen from water, a completely renewable system is created that can function in a closed loop where there is no waste. The focus on energy infrastructure and the transportation network aim to address the shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy from an architectural perspective. As new types of infrastructure are more closely tied to surrounding context, they begin to move from the background to play active roles in the experience of the built environment.

iii

Table of Contents

Abstract ……………………………………………………………..ii

Illustrations……………………………………………………...….iv

Introduction……………………………………………………….…1

Section 1 – Infrastructure and Architecture………………...…...4

Section 2 – CSP and Architecture……………….……………..29

Appendix A ……………………………………………………… 38

Appendix B………………………………………………………..39

iv Illustration Credits

Figure 1 - Image by author Figure 2 - http-//www.crazyjunkyard.com/astounding-japanese-highways-bridges-interchanges/ Figure 3 - http-//www.crazyjunkyard.com/astounding-japanese-highways-bridges-interchanges/ Figure 4 - http-//www.travelblog.org/Europe/Spain/Catalonia/Barcelona/blog-111356.html Figure 5 - http-//www.ehu.es/bicos/images/Guggenheim-bilbao-jan05 Figure 6 - http-//image42.webshots.com/43/4/75/10/2849475100091984539ZWnjHV_fs Figure 7 - http-//www.growth-coach.com/wp-content/paris-Arch%20the%20Triumph Figure 8 - http-//www.nyc-architecture.com/BKN/TWA(8).jpg Figure 9 - http-//www.essential-architecture.com/LO/LO-008.htm.jpg Figure 10 - http-//www.pushpullbar.com/forums/general-chit-chat/8470-railway-station-case- studies.html Figure 11 - http-//chronicle.com/photos/2008/04/trainIIT400x267.jpg Figure 12 - http-//www.arcspace.com/architects/koolhaas/McCormick-Tribune/1.Koolhaas Figure 13 - http-//www.arcspace.com/architects/koolhaas/McCormick-Tribune/ Figure 14 - http-//archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfolio/archives/images/ 0610cincinnati_lg Figure 15 - http-//www.e-architect.co.uk/miami/jpgs/cor_penthouseatsunset_oppenheim_ 090307_ dbox Figure 16 - http-//www.sepal.org/gulick/graphics/gaudi-sagrada-familia_bg.jpg Figure 17 - http-//www.archinect.com/gallery/albums/userpics/Golfes Figure 18 - http://cmuarch2013.wordpress.com/2009/02/06/mos-lecture-notes/ Figure 19 - http-//farm4.static.flickr.com/3007/2747491486_a84aceabd1_o Figure 20 - http-//blog.lib.umn.edu/lies0070/architecture/art_reviews-1 Figure 21 - http-//www.rafsphoto.com/Milwaukee-Wisconsin-Art-Mus.jpg Figure 22 - http-//blogs.taz.de/wp-inst/wp-content/blogs.dir/44/files/2007/02/ 043%20 overcrowded%20train%20India.jpg Figure 23 - http://www.officeda.com/flash_files/architecture_portfolio_miami_2.swf Figure 24 - http://www.officeda.com/flash_files/architecture_portfolio_miami_2.swf Figure 25 - http-//www.itas.fzk.de/deu/tadn/tadn013/image37.jpg Figure 26 - Tiwari, G.N. Solar Energy: Fundamentals, Design, Modelling, and Applications. Pangborne: Alpha Science International Ltd.

Figure 27 - Tiwari, G.N. Solar Energy: Fundamentals, Design, Modelling, and Applications. Pangborne: Alpha Science International Ltd.

Figure 28 - http-//orbitingfrog.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2008/03/four_solaire_odeillo.jpg Figure 29 - Image by Author Figure 30 - http-//www.smud.org/en/community-environment/evs/PublishingImages/ hydrogen- refueling-station.jpg Figure 31 - http://www.edmunds.com/media/advice/specialreports/fuel.cell.future/ honda. solarenergystation.500.jpg

v Figure 1 diagram of intergrating architecture and infrastruc- ture in order to produce + 2H2O + Energy = solar energy H2O - 2 H2 + O2 H2

Introduction

This thesis investigates the architectural potential of the integration of infrastructure with architecture, with a specific focus on energy production through solar concentration. Incorporating energy production into building design is one means through which architects can combine architecture with infrastructure. The impact that energy-generating architecture would have on the reduction of fossil fuel use is significant. By incorporating solar concentration into new building forms, energy generation though architecture could increase exponentially with the construction of new buildings. However, besides providing clean energy, the topic of investigation is how the integration of the two would also benefit the architecture itself. The main focus of this thesis is to define the architectonic opportunities for combining infrastructure with architecture. By using solar concentration as a form driver for a building, architects can use the building envelope to focus the suns rays on a collector. Therefore, the skin of the building serves a dual purpose. The first is to provide shelter for the users while the second is to use its tuned geometry to create power. In

Introduction 1 addition to the material efficiencies gained by combining two functions into one, there is also land-use efficiency, in which one site serves two functions. As a limited resource, minimizing the amount of land that is developed on a site leaves space for nature to co- exist. Finally, unique and exciting design opportunities can emerge at the boundary of architecture and infrastructure. The dynamics at the intersection has the ability to enliven spaces and add to the richness of the built environment.

Smart Development As world population and the number of people moving to cities continue to increase, efficient use of land is needed to provide a sustainable growth. According to the principles of sustainability, people must find a way to meet their own needs without hurting the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. This statement pertains to many issues such as the way today’s cities use natural resources and how they treat those resources after they are done with them.

Smart land development is crucial to creating cities that use resources efficiently. As current development pushes city boundaries outwards and away from urban centers, more resources and infrastructure are needed to move people and goods. It is an ever- growing cycle that exponentially increases the use of natural resources. A study by the US National Resource Conservation Service found that land is being developed 1.5 times faster than it had 10 years ago. This growth rate is occurring faster than the growth rate of the population1.

Larger cities have led to longer distances between people and their destinations. These inefficiencies result in problems such as traffic jams and slow commute times. While people sit in traffic, more gas is consumed, increasing the exhaust released into the atmosphere. Expanding cities also begin to take over land that was previously used for agriculture. Therefore, as people increase, the amount of land available for food production is decreasing due to urban sprawl. In order to be sustainable, people must find a balance between urban development and natural land use.

The balance between the natural world and human development can first be achieved by efficiently using the land that has already been developed. By identifying points in a system where resources are mismanaged, and eliminating the concept of waste, more efficient systems can be created. In most cities of today, the infrastructure systems exist and operate independently of each other. For example, in the winter, power plants may be cooling the steam used to produce electricity, while homes and offices are running heaters to warm their spaces. In this case, the waste heat of the

Introduction 2 power plant could be used to heat the homes. Mismanaged and wasteful operations can be solved by interweaving the systems of today to allow them to operate in conjunction with each other. Finding the overlaps between such things as architecture and infrastructure can begin to point out where integrated systems can save on materials and operate more effectively. This is known as the systems approach2.

In systems design, each element is designed with the other areas in mind. In inter-connected systems, space can be used more intelligently and can reduce the amount of land needed to carry out activities. This is especially useful in urban settings. By connecting building infrastructure with transportation and energy infrastructure, the site footprint can be reduced and land can be developed at a more sustainable pace3.

Endnotes

1 McMahon, Edward T. “Green Infrastructure.” Urban Land May 2005: 73.

2 Lui, P.C. and T.S. Tan. “Building Integrated Large Scale Urban Infrastructures: Singapore’s Experience.” Journal of Urban Technology 8(2001): 50.

3 Lui, P.C. and T.S. Tan. “Building Integrated Large Scale Urban Infrastructures: Singapore’s Experience.” Journal of Urban Technology 8(2001): 53.

Figure 2 Tokyo Expressway

Introduction 3 Figure 3 Fukushima’s Gate Tower Japan

SECTION 1: INFRASTRUCTURE AND ARCHITECTURE

The importance of infrastructure

Architecture and infrastructure each has its own role in constructing the physical environment. Architecture molds spaces to fit the function of a building. It shelters. It provides security. It composes the building blocks within which we live. On the other hand, infrastructure is the glue that holds the built environment together. Infrastructure physically and virtually connects people and places. It powers our homes. In the creation of built form, both are necessary to develop places where people can live healthy and productive lives.

Infrastructure often refers to the framework upon which cities are built. The prefix of the word, “infra” meaning beneath, begins to hint at its character. It tends to exist beneath the surface, as it is buried beneath roads, buildings, or ever oceans. Because of its suppressed nature, it fades into the background and is easily forgotten. However, infrastructure encompasses the systems that keep the world functioning efficiently. It is made up of the water and sanitation systems, the transit and communication networks, and the energy grids. It exists all around us. From the roads and interstates, power lines and substations, to the pipes carrying water and waste below the surface, infrastructure is everywhere. However, infrastructure is a crucial part of human activities in today’s society and is a necessary part of future growth.

Infrastructure and Architecture 4 Figure 4 Montjuic Communica- tions Tower, Barcelona designed by Santiago Calatrava

To state it simply, if the systems of infrastructure do not continue to improve with the increasing population, the ability of people to meet their basic needs will begin to decline. In an interview, Thom Mayne, the founder of the internationally recognized architecture firm, Morphosis, commented on the current state of infrastructure in the United States. “There is a shift of resources, nationally, away from infrastructure and toward Iraq and other things,” Mayne stated. “You should see what’s happening in the rest of the world. They are spending on infrastructure, and do you know who is going to control the first half of the 21st century? Not us.”1

Therefore, the importance of infrastructure must not be overlooked. Sir Norman Foster stressed the role of infrastructure in the development of today’s cities in an article titled The Economy of Architecture. He begins by describing the improvements that are occurring in Bilboa, Spain after the construction of the new Guggenheim Museum by Frank Gehry. Foster argues that these changes cannot completely be attributed to the building alone, but that the cultural revitalization actually began underground, with public works such as the Bilbao metro system. The changes made to the Bilbao metro both “enhance the experience of the traveling public, and improve the civic realm.”2

Infrastructure and Architecture 5 As described by Foster, architecture can be a powerful tool when constructing public transportation. Architectural design can encourage people to use public transit and add to the payback on the initial investment.

The question might then be asked that if architecture’s influence applies to means of transportation, can its effects not also apply to the other forms of infrastructure. One might argue that a transit station is much more of a building than a piece of infrastructure. Train stations such as Grand Central Station, were meant to be occupied by people. To design them as a piece of architecture would make sense, even though they are actually a part of the infrastructural network. The network of pipes that deliver drinking water from building to building, on the other hand, are not meant to be occupied

Figure 5 Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain designed by Frank Gehry

Figure 6 Bilbao Metro Station designed by Norman Foster

by people, so this system of infrastructure is merely an engineering problem. Although this is not a simple question to answer, the following sections look to investigate it more. However, in short, all one should have to do is look to Pont du Gard in Rome. Even though the aqueducts were not made for people to interact with them directly, they are still part of the built environment, and their impressive presence is very much felt by those who view them.

Types of infrastructure

In order to better understand the design implications of the varying types of infrastructure, the different systems must be simplified into divisions by their characterizing features. Due to the complexity of infrastructural networks, there is no one way with which to classify the different types. For use in an architectural context,

Infrastructure and Architecture 6 systems of infrastructure can be looked at through terms that generally apply to the built environment. For one, this means characterizing the work according to whether it is public or private. Networks of infrastructure include both types. Roads, along with most types of water and sewage treatment and the power grid, are publically owned services. However, it is common for privately owned businesses to be part of the same infrastructure networks, just as the gas stations fuel the highways and often times privately owned power plants generate electricity for the power grid. The importance of public versus private infrastructure lies in the number and the types of users. When dealing with the social implications of architecture, making publically owned facilities accessible to all is an important aspect of the design.

As mentioned earlier, infrastructure is all around us. The main reason for its existence is to control flows of one thing or another. This means that another way to classify architecture is by the type of flow that the system is directing. In the architectural context, the interest lies in whether the system moves people or something else. Any form of transportation is made to move people from one location to another. The way in which this type of system is addressed is very differently from a network of electrical cables or of an array of wireless communication towers. Both have architectural importance, but the way in which each addresses people is the source of variation. After all, the purpose of infrastructure is a framework to support human activity. This makes people and their interaction with the systems a central issue to integrating infrastructure with architecture.

Infrastructural systems – Parts of infrastructure

The next necessary step to understanding infrastructure is to begin dissecting its parts. This analysis is kept abstract in order to be applicable to the diverse range of infrastructural systems. Speaking in generalities, a system of infrastructure is made up of three parts. The first, which is the primary means of moving resources or people, is the circulation artery. In the hierarchy of the system, the next level is the nodes at which the arties join together. The final pieces necessary to control these flows are grouped into a single category called the specialized components. Together these pieces form a system, which gathers resources, refines them, and distributes them to the users. As in architecture, at the top of the infrastructural hierarchy are always people. Combining infrastructure with architecture requires that each part be defined in order to understand the connections that are being made.

At the base of an infrastructural network is the circulation artery. The job of the circulation artery is to be the medium through which flows are directed. These arteries

Infrastructure and Architecture 7 Figure 7 Arch the Triumph in Paris, France sits at the node or intersection of 12 streets

take any shape and can be found in all phases of matter. Because of this, it is not always easy to label the means of circulation. For example, the most common phase, of course, is the solid means of transmission. This includes things such as pipes and wires. However, more and more systems are using wireless forms of directing flows, such as radio waves. There is not a physical connection, but signals are instead transmitted through the air. Shipping transit uses a circulation artery in the liquid state as it navigates flows of people and goods across the expanse of water. As in many of the infrastructural systems, the waterways help tie together the landmasses as they stretch across the globe.

As the arteries run together and approach a central location, they intersect each other to form nodes. The nodes can start small, as in the joining of one power line to the next. As the number of connections begin to increase, the size of the nodes also become larger. Take for example an electrical substation, which has hundreds of connections being made in one location. Often times, as in a substation, nodes can signify a change in the rate of the flow as well.

The final elements of an infrastructure network can be grouped into a category called specialized components. These pieces have a number of jobs that are essential to keeping the infrastructure in operation. Perhaps the primary job of one such component is to provide the control aspect of the network. This piece regulates the flows and determines the direction of the movement. Control centers include such facilities as the control tower at an airport, or the control room at a power plant. These may be centralized facilities such as the previous two examples, or the control centers may be distributed at various locations within the field of circulation arteries.

Other such specialized components that are necessary for the infrastructure

Infrastructure and Architecture 8 to function include the part that fuels the movement. In some cases, this occurs in the same location as the control facilities. Within the network of highways, however, the center for controlling traffic signals is separate from the gas stations, which fuel the movement of vehicles.

Maintenance facilities and storage buildings are also vital to the operation of infrastructure. Without proper maintenance, these systems and there moving parts will lose efficiency over time and eventually break down.

The circulation arteries, the intersecting nodes, and the specialized components each provide a necessary part of the equation for developing a framework to support human activity. In order to effectively design a system of infrastructure, the needs of each component and their relationship to the whole system must be understood. It is through understanding these basic concepts that the connections to architecture begin to emerge. These parts are also crucial to understanding where the opportunities are to increase that connection with architecture and to the users whom the systems are meant to support.

Infrastructure and Architecture 9 Defining infrastructure in relation to architecture

However, before diving more deeply into how the parts might intersect with architecture, it is necessary to understand the current relationship between infrastructure and architecture. The impact of architects on infrastructure has thus far been selective. Most occurrences of architecture being applied to infrastructure have been in the transit sector. Architects often apply the concepts of form and geometry to the pieces of infrastructure in which people gather. This includes public large public spaces such as airports and train stations. This often results in the bringing the infrastructure from its usual perception of being in the background to the forefront. It then becomes an icon that brings awareness to its presence, rather than being purely a programmatic necessity.

This is the case in many of the works of Santiago Calatrava. Frequently, the projects he takes on are works of infrastructure. This is complimentary to his style of design, which is very much structurally and sculpturally driven. Structure is one of the fundamental parts of infrastructure that overlaps between it and architecture. Calatrava has taken his structural aesthetic and instilled a new sense of beauty in the construction of bridges, as well in the radio tower in Barcelona, Spain which he designed. The bridge and the radio tower are two elements of infrastructure that are usually built as simply and cheaply as possible, with little interest for aesthetics. However, Calatrava uses principles of structure and the formal aesthetics to celebrate the function of infrastructure.

The other occasion in which architects take part in infrastructure creation is designing the boarding stations for systems of transportation. These include buildings such as airports and rail stations, where architecture is the transition from one means of travel to the next. There have been many great examples of transit design throughout the last century. Eero Saarinen’s designs for the TWA Airport and the Dulles Airport were two beautifully sculpted centers of infrastructure. As in Calatrava’s work, they bring infrastructure to the forefront as they serve as a focal point for air travel.

Since the form-follows-function era during the height of modernism, form has begun to fulfill purposes that go beyond sheltering the program. Recently, form has been used as an expression of art, such as in Gehry’s Guggenheim Museum. In addition to this, form has become the maker of icons, which in today’s society, is a powerful marketing tool. An iconic form has the ability to create an unexpected experience, which can take a lasting place in the observers memory. Also, icons that create an experience can attract a certain type of user to buildings and in turn, the activities they enclose. For

Infrastructure and Architecture 10 Figure 8 TWA Terminal in New York City designed by Eero Saarinen

this reason, iconic forms are finding their way into a number of program areas that have been static for a number of years.

In the book, New Forms: Architecture in the 1990’s, examples are given about architects who are already applying interesting geometries to transportation and communication hubs. This begins with the economic booms in Asia, which has brought a new emphasis to architecture in the region. The growing urbanization there has brought about a greater need to develop the infrastructure for transportation and communication.3

The rise in the importance of airport architecture has not been seen since the construction of the Dulles Airport and the TWA Terminal by Eero Saarinen in the early 1960’s. The heightened importance of the airport due to business travel has brought about mega projects, such as in the case of the Hong Kong Airport by Norman Foster that handles 40 million passengers a year. Another such project was the Kansai International Airport, designed by Renzo Piano, which involved first building a 4.37 kilometer long island for the actual building to be constructed on. The terminal itself was 1.7 kilometers long. The massive size of these projects and the caliber of architects working on them brought about architectural forms that went beyond the function of the airport to create icons that bring awe to arriving passengers.4

The emphasis on airport design can also be seen spreading to train stations. The Eurostar Line, which connects Paris to London, has several architecturally renowned

Infrastructure and Architecture 11 Figure 9 Waterloo Station in London by Grimshaw Architects

Figure 10 Lyon-Satolas TGV Station in Lyon, France by Santiago Calatrava

stations. At the London end of the line is Waterloo Station by Nicholas Grimshaw. Yet another notable railway station is the Lyon-Satolas in Lyon, France, which was designed by Santiago Calatrava.5

The impressive forms of these architectural public works has the effect of both promoting the use of mass forms of transportation and helps to beautify the city. When developing a new form of transportation technology, well-designed infrastructure can make it look more appealing to potential users. This can be another advantage to using an iconic form for a hydrogen refueling station. A building form that is inspired by the movement of the sun, and is used to capture the sun’s energy and transform it into fuel that powers cars as they travel the interstate transit system can send a powerful message.

Infrastructure’s intersection with building

Despite the attractiveness of these structures, they fail to serve the dual purpose of integrating architecture and infrastructure. Although Calatrava’s bridges have architectonic properties, they do not incorporate themselves with the program of a building. Equally, Saarinen’s airports provide the shelter and enclosure for air travel preparation, but are limited in the ways that they function dually as a piece of architecture and infrastructure.

Infrastructure and Architecture 12 Conventional infrastructure design is only made to intersect the surrounding environment at single points. The contact thus far between infrastructure and architecture has been kept to a minimum. In recent airports, the connection from the airplane to the airport is made with a movable passenger bridge. Although this appendage extends to meet the airplane as it arrives, the connection is still minimized to a single opening. The building itself does little to address the movement of the plane. This is perhaps the closest infrastructure and architecture come to resolving the intersection between the two.

The concept of integrating the airport directly with the infrastructure can be seen more clearly in an aircraft carrier. In the case of a naval carrier, the structure of the ship is serving as both a landing deck and the enclosure space for the crew and jets when they are not in use. This particular analogy pushes the concept a step further by adding yet another layer of infrastructure, the ship itself as a means of water transportation. This is an example of what has become known as systems design. The separate functions of the ship come together and are intertwined into a single, efficiently operating whole.

This type of systems thinking is being seen more frequently in architecture as urban environments become denser, and the importance of infrastructure to tie the global economy together continues to grow. Most of the examples to inter-connect the two have involved transportation with some building program. By sharing elements of structure and site, the architecture and infrastructure have been able to make sustainable development techniques into reality and create unique design solutions.

An example of this is the McCormick Tribune Student Center at the IIT Campus. The design by OMA takes a site, which is dissected by the elevated railway and creates a single building that spans the site and houses all of the program areas. Rather than stack the program on either side of the tracks, the one story building runs continuously beneath the rail. This allows the plan to enclose circulation paths that cut directly across the site to connect major walking paths through campus. The merging of the building and the El tracks is made functional by wrapping the tracks in a steel-clad concrete tube, which dampens the noise of the trains, as they pass through the building approximately every six minutes.

There are many advantages resulting from this inter-connection. First, it allows for smart land development by reclaiming land beneath the railway that would have otherwise remained unused. The building circulation to flows continuously beneath the tracks. The unique aesthetic that is developed out of the intersection between building and train tracks also creates an exciting experience for both the users of the building, as

Infrastructure and Architecture 13 well as passengers on the trains. While riding the El, passengers get the sensation of passing right through the building.

Even though the design makes a unique attempt to increase the intersection of architecture with infrastructure, the actual integration of the two is almost non-existent. Other than emerging through the ceiling at the one end of the building, the tube through which the train moves and the program space in the building remain separate entities. The spaces in the building fail to acknowledge any sense of movement or the flows of people that are continuously passing above them. This lack of integration misses the opportunity to promote the use of the El train as a means of transportation with an iconic building, as seen in the train stations by Calatrava and Foster. Even though the building envelope begins to merge with the circulation artery of the trains, no further attempt is made to link the programmatic spaces.

Another example of integrating the building with a need for infrastructure

Figure 11 McCormick Tribune Stu- dent Center Chicago, IL designed by OMA

Figure 12 McCormick Tribune Stu- dent Center

Figure 13 Sections of IIT Student Center shows the minimal intersection between the El Train and the building

Infrastructure and Architecture 14 takes place on another Midwest campus, at the University of Cincinnati. The Student Recreation Center by Morphosis uses the concept of building as infrastructure to span the large height differences from one side of the building to the other. Thom Mayne, the founder of Morphosis, saw the building as a bridge that could connect six main circulation routes that passed through the building site. This location encounters a 53-foot grade change, and the building acts as a freeway for students to navigate the extreme topography.6

In comparison to the IIT Student Center, the circulation paths are not juxtaposed against the form of the rest of the building in the way that Koolhaas separated the elevated train tube from the building architecture. This becomes an advantage in the UC Rec Center by allowing the building and infrastructure to share site and structure. Similar to IIT, this sets up an exciting user experience as many captivating sitelines are created between the different circulation paths on varying levels of elevation.

Figure 14 University of Cincinnati Rec Center designed by Morphosis

Infrastructure and Architecture 15 Although the IIT Student Center and the UC Rec Center do a good job at addressing the challenges created by merging the two building functions, they do not attempt to tie energy infrastructure into the design. This is especially a missed opportunity in the IIT building, which could have incorporated wind turbines into the tube structure. If turbines were used, power could have been generated from the wind created by the passing trains. Although this technique can not be labeled as an energy generating technique, it is a form of energy recovery, which uses the passing trains as its source of reclaiming energy that powers the trains. The electricity from the turbines could be used to power the building and at off-peak times, return power to the grid.

One building that is currently in the late stages of design that attempts to connect power generating infrastructure and building form is known as the COR building by Oppenheim. The building has been designed for a site in Miami, Florida. An exoskeleton structure incorporates an aesthetic devised of 1-story high circular cutouts. Within the section of the structure that rises above the penthouses, wind turbines are installed to capture energy from the wind moving over the building. This collaboration between building structure and energy generation, in which the turbines are worked into the local aesthetic, creates a seamless integration of architecture and infrastructure.

The potential for this type of design can also be found with solar concentrating

Figure 15 COR Miami, Florida designed by Oppenheim Architecture + Design

Infrastructure and Architecture 16 technology. By function, solar troughs contain many architectonic features that can be translated into a building skin and may be scaled to the appropriate amount of power generation. The integration of solar concentrated power into architecture can therefore produce advantages equivalent to the buildings described here, and create the unique design experience to help market the ideas of sustainability.

Achieving iconic architecture using complex geometric forms has become a much more common scene since the start of the new millennium. This radical new style of design is now pushing the limits of form based solely on the artistic vision of the architect. The design processes of some of the most renowned architects of today make form the ultimate priority of design, showing little ability to reconcile the form with more practical forces, such as constructability or economy. Because the building is based primarily on creating a beautiful form, according to the eye of the architect, the forces that otherwise guide the architecture become secondary. This free-form architecture, as attractive as it might be, must still answer to the rules of constructability. In order to improve upon the creation of aesthetically pleasing forms in architecture, some architects, like Antonio Guadi, have turned to nature for inspiration on how to build.

One of the impacts of modernism on form has been the relationship of form to function. There are a number of degrees of functionalism, which vary the prominence of form when compared to a buildingís function. This is discussed in-depth in the book Aesthetics of Built Form. On one extreme, architects can use tent structures to play with the form in order to create an aesthetic experience. Here form is the dominant element. On the other extreme are buildings such as factories, where the building is almost all function. The envelope is simply an enclosure system to provide shelter. The exterior has contains no intelligence about what is going on in the interior. A balance of these form or function can be said to occur in programs such as power plants or manufacturing facilities. Despite the functional rectangular shape of the building, the overall form or composition of facilities is informed by the machinery and the processes that are going on inside.

In order for a building to incorporate solar concentrative properties into its enclosure, form will become a dominant element in the design. This would be similar to the design of a gothic cathedral. The aspirations of height and maximum window area to produce light largely drove the form. In this same way, to focus the sunís rays on a collector, the form must take priority, and the interior spaces must be arranged within the established building shell.

Aesthetics of Built Form also looks into the identification of beauty as a result

Infrastructure and Architecture 17 Figure 16 La Sagrada Familia Barcelona, Spain designed by Antonio Guadi

Figure 17 Casa Batlló Barcelona, Spain designed by Antonio Guadi

of form. The book gives the example of a desert solar power plant that is made up of an array of solar collectors. The solar collectors are made up of what appears to be a satellite dish with a reflective surface that focus light on a box suspended in front of the dish. The array of collectors is described to have both visual and intellectual appeal, but also says that it may only be evident to technologists. The book quotes, “Beauty, or atleast a kind of formal perfection, results automatically from the most perfect mechanical efficiency, or that perfectly engineered creations achieved beauty without a conscious search for it.” 7

Antonio Gaudi takes the idea of beauty and form in architecture to another level. In the article, “Antonio Gaudi: Structure and Form,” the author explains how Gaudi implemented his works of art with the precision and structural integrity of an engineer. The beauty and craft of his architecture is only made possible by his tedious calculations and studies, which allow his designs to become a reality.8

Gaudi learned his structural techniques from the craftsmen of his time. Juan Torras, a Spanish engineer, once said, “The architect of the future will construct by imitating nature because it is the most rational, durable, and economic method.” 9 The approach that Gaudi took, however, was not to copy nature, as was common during that time, but instead to respect the forces of nature and find solutions for them that were derived directly from the architectural problem. “Nothing in his work is really arbitrary: all is calculated, orderly, consistent within itself, and to repeat- is in harmony with the geometrical and physical laws of nature.” 10

Infrastructure and Architecture 18 Another design idea of Antonio Gaudi is that the form and structure go hand- in-hand. As he puts it, their identities are very similar. It is the process of creating this relationship that is truly interesting. Along with being an architect, Gaudi was also a scientist and engineer. As he worked on a design, he carried out material studies and classified the materials by their specific gravity and their performance in his tests. He then used the results to design his buildings.11

This compares similarly to the ideas of solar concentration. Plants and trees provide a conceptual idea of how energy can be derived directly from the sun to power our activity. However, solar concentration does not try to imitate photosynthesis. It uses its own method of tapping into the sun’s energy, which is comparable to Gaudi’s approach to structure, working in harmony with nature without directly imitating it.

A comparison can again be drawn between Gaudi’s approach to understanding the natural forces of structure and the laws of solar concentration in relation to form. In addition to material tests, Gaudi tested his structural designs by creating scale models. The physical models allowed him to determine the shape of columns and arches of the full-scale building. In order to discover this, Gaudi hung a series of weighted sacks that were proportional to the building loads from stings. This revealed the inverse shape of the arch that was needed to carry the building loads. By using a meter to test the tension force at the hanging supports, the resultant thrusts of the arches were found. This information was then used to build an arch that stood upright and was proportionally larger. The tests showed that this arch could then support the loads of the roof and carry

Figure 18 Hanging Chain model by Antonio Guadi takes the structural form of the catenary arch

Infrastructure and Architecture 19 them to the ground.

Gaudi took to using parabolic forms in his arches to reduce the thrust. Similarly, the parabola plays an important role in solar concentration, where instead of concentrating forces of gravity into the supports, the parabola is concentrating the rays of the sun. Surprisingly, there are many similarities between the natural forces of gravity and the fundamentals of light. There is something to be learned from Gaudiís approach modeling these forces and how they can transfigure the building form.

Simply by using the ideas of Gaudi that were discovered over a century ago and applying them to the integration of solar concentration into architecture, the potential for connections to be made between buildings and infrastructure becomes more apparent. The qualities that tie the two together have the potential to shape the form of a building. However, the form of architecture only begins it tie it to the complexity of infrastructure. To attempt to resolve the intersection between a building and an infrastructural network, there are other inherent qualities that must be taken into account.

Infrastructure and Architecture 20 Figure 19

Architecture addressing movement

Although on the surface, it may appear static, the very idea of infrastructure is based on directing flows of movement. This means that at its heart, a system of infrastructure has a dynamic nature. Within cities, the flows of resources, or even changes in the state of those resources are occurring within a network that humans have developed for that purpose. In the natural world, these flows and state transformations occur naturally in the water cycle. However, in order to increase the capacity of these natural cycles, cities require infrastructure to enhance movement. As an extension of the natural resource flows, one can experience infrastructure’s ability to activate its surroundings.

Another analogy that illustrates the dynamic nature of infrastructure looks at it from a biological perspective. According to Flavio Albanese in his article “Intersecting Infrastructures,” infrastructure can be compared to an organic nervous system. He explains that the infrastructure network is “like a circuit of nerves punctuated by nodes.” The branches of the system support the movement of goods and link supplies to those who need them. The nodes are the intersections between the branches, allowing for resources and information to flow between branches until it reaches its destination. Having different levels of intersecting paths gives an extra level of flexibility, which instills a higher level of intelligence and connectivity in the system. The connection

Infrastructure and Architecture 21 of infrastructure to the nervous system could go further as to relate it to an organisms respiratory and circulatory system as well.12

As resources flow through the infrastructure networks, patterns begin to emerge within the movement. Such occurrences are experienced in the energy grid. During the day, the use of electricity is at its peak. At this time, the majority of businesses are operating at full capacity and the need for energy is great. In the summer, daytime energy use is driven up due to high cooling loads. As the sun goes down, the need to cool buildings drops off. At the same time, people begin to get off work and the energy needs of businesses are cut, combining for a sharp decline in nighttime energy use. The cycle is then repeated with the rising of the sun the next morning. Fluctuations in energy demand keep the power grid in shifting cycles. Although this is not noticeable visually by observing power lines, the variation is occurring at an atomic level, and requires flexibility to be built into the network to account for this.

In the case of infrastructure that is used to harness solar energy, cycles are important to determine the flows of energy produced. The output of electricity for a field of concentrating solar collectors thus coincides with the solar cycle. The amount of energy generated per day varies according to the amount of daylight per day. This is determined both by the movement of the earth around the sun, and also by atmospheric conditions that affects whether the sun’s energy is blocked by clouds before it reaches the earth’s surface. In contrast to variations in the power grid, which are largely determined by the patterns of human work cycles, the amount of energy generated from solar power is determined by a natural cycle.

These cycles also translate to the traffic system. Similar to energy use, peak periods are determined by peoples’ work schedules. As commuters begin leaving their homes to travel to work, street and interstate networks are flooded with vehicles. A smaller peak can be found at around the noon lunch break, and then the maximum level of cars returns as drivers head home after the workday is over. These cycles are at the heart of any infrastructure system and the variations they possess have many design possibilities when combined with architecture.

Not only are the dynamics of infrastructure found in the flow of its resources, they are also inherent in the ways that infrastructure grows over time to fit the changing needs of society. Similar to a stream, which, over decades, changes course as it erodes new paths, the infrastructural systems are constantly in flux. There is not a day in the year where road construction does not alter the transportation network in the US. These changes can slow the flow of traffic or divert its path along a detour. In order to facilitate

Infrastructure and Architecture 22 these ebbs and flows in traffic conditions, “branches” and “nodes” are constantly being constructed and removed as the need arises.

Infrastructure is often considered a support structure for helping buildings to operate efficiently. However, the users of buildings rarely experience the activity that surrounds the systems. When architecture and infrastructure cross paths, the dynamics of the infrastructure have the ability to collide with the spaces in the architecture, and energize them in ways that otherwise, would not have been possible. Through its cycles and fluctuations over time, the integration of infrastructure into architecture can heighten the user’s experience and increase their awareness of the space. By varying the levels of activation within each space, the atmosphere surrounding each programmatic use can reinforce its function. Also, as the intensity levels of infrastructural activity shift with its natural cycles, the function of each space can also begin to shift, depending on resulting spatial conditions that are created.

In an increasing number of buildings, movement is becoming an active player in the design of architecture. In some cases, static elements are able to convey a sense of movement. This is one technique that has been tested in a number of building applications. Another technique that is still being explored is how active systems of

Figure 20

Infrastructure and Architecture 23 movement can be applied to architecture. One architect, who was mentioned earlier for his work with projects of infrastructure, has also began experimenting with movable elements in architecture. Santiago Calatrava has made movement a poetic part of experiencing architecture.

In one of his most famous buildings, Calatrava has expressed movement in a pair of shading devices, which cover the atrium of the Milwaukee Art Museum. They are shaped to resemble the wings of a bird. As the museum opens in the morning, the winged shading elements are spread open, revealing the glazed roof of the large gathering space below. This kenetic action is mainly visible from the exterior of the building, but it animates the interior by changing the amount of natural daylighting that the interior receives.

In this application, the practical need for a shading device is transformed into an architectural element, as opposed to a conventional set of venetian blinds. The blinds may be able to do the same job, but the poetics of Calatrava’s design makes the building an icon for the users of the building and for the city as a whole. When movement becomes a goal of the project, the conventional solution can be re-examined to potentially add to the experience of the building and increase its ability to interact with the people inside. In the case of infrastructure, the typical methods of controlling flows may use similar techniques of making jumps in the scale of movement, as in the Milwaukee Art Museum. The design then becomes more about the people recognizing the building at work, and less about using standard engineering techniques to solve a problem.

Figure 21 Milwaukee Art Museum designed by Santiago Calatrava

Infrastructure and Architecture 24 Figure 22

People and infrastructure

Addressing people is one of the important topics when intersecting architecture with infrastructure. In the previous section, movement is suggested to be a means of visually expressing the workings of infrastructure to the building users. In addition to using kenetic elements to enhance the user experience, there are many more architectural qualities that should be used in the detailing of infrastructure to make them suitable for use in occupied spaces. Several architecture firms are beginning to investigate these elements by engaging in the design of infrastructure.

One architectural firm that began to cross the boundary into the sector of infrastructure is Office dA. Their work in the field is focused in a number of projects in Miami, Florida. A comment taken from their book, which has the same title as the firm, Office dA, reads, “The realm of infrastructure has all too often been relegated to the domain of the civil and traffic engineer, whose disciplines do not have the means to address more fully the complexities – architectural and social – involved in planning a city.” In their effort to adapt infrastructure to the environment of the city, Office dA aims to tie a cultural identity to their work, which will be a “catalyst for public life.” 13

In their infrastructure projects, Office dA uses several techniques to give highway structures a human dimension. The three projects, on which they focused were the highway overpass, a draw bridge, and an elevated metro. Much of the redevelopment is a result of adding a human scale to the projects. The current scale has been derived

Infrastructure and Architecture 25 from the automobile, which has resulted in enormous dimensions that show no concern for human traffic. Because of this, there is much space surrounding the infrastructure that goes unused. By rethinking the design of roads, elements can be incorporated to create spaces for people to enjoy.

In the project for the drawbridge, Office dA uses arcades on each side of the roadway to shelter pedestrians. The rhythm that is set up by the columns of the arcades break up the continuous stretch of road. As people walk along the arcade and pass by the repetitive row of columns, the sense of movement is stressed for people and not just cars. By covering the arcade with a roof, a programmatic requirement is also met. While people may be stopped waiting for the drawbridge to drop, they can be sheltered from the elements.

Another approach to reducing the grand scale of highway infrastructure is by shrinking the unit size of construction materials. The utilitarian detailing of concrete of highway overpasses emphasizes the continuous flow of traffic and the speed of the car. However, in order to make spaces that appeal to people, the surfaces must become more articulated. This helps create interest in the eye of the slowly moving pedestrian. For these reasons, Office dA incorporates ornamental screens into the walls of the highway overpass. A shingled concrete curtain wall is just one example of such a screen that is used to enclose the industrial sized spans.

Figure 23 Miami Infrastructure studies designed by Office dA

Figure 24 Miami Infrastructure studies designed by Office dA

Infrastructure and Architecture 26 By creating spaces around the infrastructure, which people can inhabit and move through, Office dA is hoping to reconnect Miami’s public to the river. Water is one of the most influential resources to the city of Miami. It is often a source of recreation and it has become a central attraction around which people like to gather. However, due to increasing development around the area, there is often a disconnect between the people and bodies of water. As the infrastructure becomes more accessible to people, crowds are able to once again access the water routes and experience them in new ways.14

When infrastructure is made accessible to people, its ability to connect individuals with the resources which they transport is a powerful opportunity. In the case of this investigation, connecting people in California with the sun as a source of power is a unique chance to experience the sun in a new way. California has always been known for its sunny climate, which is ideal for outdoor enjoyment and recreation. The use of the sun to power human activity is often overlooked. This is yet another outcome of increasing the connection between infrastructure and architecture.

Endnotes

1 Mayne, Thom. “Thom Mayne urbanist [interview].” L.A. architect July-Aug 2005, 38-41.

2 Foster, Norman. “The Economy of Architecture.” Back from Utopia. ‘Ed’. Hubert- Jan Henket and Hilde Heynen. Rotterdam: OIO Publishers, 2002: 27.

3 Jodidio, Philip. New Forms: Architecture in the 1990’s. Taschen, Apr 1997. 53- 54.

4 Ibid

5 Jodidio, Philip. New Forms: Architecture in the 1990’s. Taschen, Apr 1997. 59.

6 Amelar, Sarah. “Morphosis intertwines programs and forms for a Campus Recreation Center at the University of Cincinnati.” Architectural record 194.10 (2006), 100-109. 100.

7 Holgate, Alan. Aesthetics of Built Form. New York: Oxford UP, 1992. 223.

Infrastructure and Architecture 27 8 Collins, George R. “Antonio Gaudi: Structure and Form.” Perspecta 8 (1963): 63-90.

9 Collins, George R. “Antonio Gaudi: Structure and Form.” Perspecta 8 (1963): 71.

10 Collins, George R. “Antonio Gaudi: Structure and Form.” Perspecta 8 (1963): 89.

11 Collins, George R. “Antonio Gaudi: Structure and Form.” Perspecta 8 (1963): 77.

12 Albanese, Flavio. “Infrastructures.” Domus Oct 2007: 100.

13 El-Khoury, Rodolphe (Ed.), and Oscar Riera Ojeda (Ed.). Contemporary World Architects: Office dA. Rockport Publishers, Dec 1999. 120.

14 El-Khoury, Rodolphe (Ed.), and Oscar Riera Ojeda (Ed.). Contemporary World Architects: Office dA. Rockport Publishers, Dec 1999. 122.

Infrastructure and Architecture 28 Figure 25 Kramer Junction Solar Field in the Mojave desert in California

SECTION 2 - CONCENTRATION SOLAR INFRASTRUCTURE AND ARCHITECTURE

For this thesis, the goal is to combine solar concentration technology with architectural form in the design of a hydrogen-powered refueling station. The concept for the design is that the sun’s energy will be concentrated by the building skin to heat a liquid medium to high temperatures. The hot liquid, is then sent through a heat exchanger to boil seawater from the Pacific Ocean. As the water evaporates, it is both distilled and transformed into steam. The steam drives turbines to produce the electricity needed to power the facility. A part of the electricity powers the building, but the majority of it is used for electrolysis. In this process, an electric current is passed through distilled water, which is formed after the steam condenses. The energy in the water separates the molecules to form pure oxygen and pure hydrogen. The hydrogen is captured and stored in large tanks to be used to drive alternatively powered cars.

These cars contain fuel cells, which produce an electric current by rejoining the hydrogen with oxygen in the air. The current drives electric motors located at each wheel of the car, and the only exhaust of the process is the water formed when the hydrogen

CSP and Architecture 29 and oxygen unite. Several car companies already have these car models commercially available, but most hydrogen is produced from methods that involve burning fossil fuels. The advantage a solar powered hydrogen refueling station is that the only resources going into the process is sunlight and ocean water. The intelligent design of the building form becomes the catalyst for energy production and no additional infrastructure or site area is needed.

CSP Technology

Solar concentrators are gaining popularity in the search to produce solar power. They have many advantages such as the ability to increase the sun’s intensity over a small absorber. Because of the reduced area of the absorber, heat-loss becomes less of a factor due to a smaller surface area. Also, the small scale of the absorber helps to lower cost, as the surface collecting the sun’s rays is replaces the absorber with a cheaper concentrating material.1 There is a wide range of classifications for these types of devices. The first way to describe a solar concentrator is whether it uses refraction or reflection. Refraction uses lenses, more specifically a Fresnel lens, to bend the light beams toward a single receiver. The reflecting concentrator, however, uses mirrored surfaces to direct the light beams toward a focal point. Using reflective surfaces will be the focus of this thesis, as they can be achieved using the geometry of a metallic building skin.2 The next category of classification for solar concentrators is the type of absorber. The concept of the absorber is to be the element onto which the sun’s rays are focused. Depending on the type of concentrator, this can take a number of different arrangements. The first such configuration is known as a two-dimensional concentrator. This means

Figure 26 Dish Solar Concentrator

Figure 27 (right image) Linear Trough Solar Con- centrator

CSP and Architecture 30 that the absorber takes the form of a line, and the light is focused anywhere on that line. In contrast, the second arrangement for the absorber is a single point. This is known as a three dimensional concentrator because light must be angled in three dimensions to form a single focal point no matter where the light strikes the collector. Each of these arrangements has their own qualities of efficiency and levels of concentrating power. In comparison, if each used a collector of equal footprint area, the three-dimensional concentrator would reach greater intensities because the rays are focused on a single point rather than over a line.3 The configuration of the absorber ties into the last type of classification, the type of movement. Unlike photovoltaic panels that can remain stationary, most solar concentrators track the sun to keep the sun’s rays focused on the absorber. There are several, less precise types of concentrators, that do not track the sun. These include the flat plate concentrator, which may include mirrors that direct more sunlight to a PV array. However, by not tracking the sun, much efficiency is lost and they are often used for low temperature applications. The non-tracking concentrators are also a much cheaper option. As for concentrators that do track the sun, the simplest type is the one-axis tracking concentrator. Because it rotates around only a single axis, one-axis tracking is usually tied to a two-dimensional absorber, which is the type that forms a line. An example of this is a parabolic trough concentrator. These are already found in several large-scale solar power fields and are used to provide electricity to the grid. Their main advantages are they have an improved efficiency due to their movement and they are easily replicated. This is because their fundamental shape can be extruded to cover large areas. The last classification of movement systems is the two-dimensional tracking concentrator. These have the ability to rotate around two axes, and because of this precise system of tracking, they are very efficient at capturing the sun’s energy and are capable of producing extremely high temperatures. Two-axis tracking is tied to the 3-dimensional form of absorber, focusing the light on a single point. Although the advantages are many, the sophistication of the tracking system usually drives up the cost of these solar collectors.4 As far as tracking goes, there is another variable that can be altered to allow for even more flexibility. Because a concentrator is conceptually made of two elements, the collector and the absorber, the movement can occur in either part. The most common approach is to have a movable dish or parabolic reflector to which is attached a fixed absorber. However, the other approach, which this thesis looks to utilize, is a fixed reflector around which an absorber moves in order to remain in the focal point as the sun moves across the sky.5 This lends itself to the idea that a fixed building skin could

CSP and Architecture 31 Figure 28 Odeillo Solar Furnace Odeillo, France

function as the reflector, while a smaller absorber element moves across the façade to collect the sun’s energy.

Odeillo solar furnace

One building that incorporates solar concentration into the form of the building is the Odeillo Solar Furnace in Odeillo, France. The building is located in a rural area of the Pyrenees. The area has a history of working with solar thermal due to the fact that it is said to get over 300 sunny days a year. The Odeillo site began operation in 1970 during the oil scare.6 The Odeillo solar furnace combines the structure needed to define a parabol ic surface in space, with an occupiable building that houses equipment and program areas for users of the facility. The Odeillo site is composed of a field of heliostats that track the sun, as well as an 8-story building, which acts as a parabolic concentrator to focus the suns energy. The 63 heliostats are laid out on tiers that step up the side of a hill, as to not block the sunlight from the ones behind. They cover a total area of 2,835 square meters. The heliostats track the sun, directing it toward the north, concave face of the building. The building’s mirrored parabolic surface focuses the sunlight to a spot that is 80 cm in diameter. At the focal point, temperatures reach up to 3,000 degrees Centigrade, and produce 1 megawatt of energy. These high temperatures are used to do a number of things, from melting iron ore to produce steel, to testing materials at extreme heat, to testing new solar technology.7

The 8-story structure that is used to concentrate the sunlight, contains a number of different program areas. In addition to the large-scale concentrator, the facility also

CSP and Architecture 32 houses nine smaller solar concentrators that are used for experimentation. The building also includes offices, a library, conference rooms, a workshop, and other spaces for research activities.

The design behind this building focuses all of the sun’s energy onto a single receiver. Although the extremely high temperatures produced by this technique results in high efficiencies, the temperatures needed to generate steam for electricity generation are only a fraction of this. Therefore, the single point concentration technique is not a method that lends itself to a hydrogen refueling station. In the case of the refueling station, many smaller concentrators will suffice to generate the temperatures needed to create steam. However the ability for people to occupy the spaces around the concentrator, despite the high temperatures, proves that the application of CSP to architecture is feasible.

Figure 29 Site Section diagram of the Odeillo Solar Furnace

Hydrogen Refueling Stations

The next step in the process is to use the sunlight to produce hydrogen. This is already being done at several stations in California. They are mostly experimental, but with time, have the potential to become a large player in powering the cars of the future. This project by the Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD) was created to as to experiment with using solar energy to produce hydrogen from water to power fuel cell vehicles. The testing is being done in partnership with BP, Ford, and Daimler- Chrysler. The project incorporates photovoltaic cells into sunshade devices that cover the parking area for the station. This serves the duel purpose of shading cars while providing usable space below for parking area.8 The building simulates a tree, which uses photosynthesis to take the sun’s

CSP and Architecture 33 energy and turn it into sugars, which it can store for food. The refueling station, however, will use he sun’s energy to produce hydrogen, which it will then store. The 80 kw array of photovoltaics has the potential to fuel up to 14 cars a day. However, current testing will only require that 2 to 3 cars refill at the station each day.9

In its quest to bring hydrogen-powered vehicles to market, Honda has also built a refueling station at its California R&D center. It is looking to use the hydrogen to in a fuel cell, which would produce electricity to run the electric motors, which power the concept cars. The new station includes developing technologies that have the ability to use less water in the electrolysis process to more efficiently produce hydrogen. Honda is also using the station to test various ways to store hydrogen.10

See Appendices A and B for diagrams documenting the process of converting energy from a solar concentrator into hydrogen.

Figure 30 SMUD Solar Powered Hy- drogen Refueling Station Sacramento, California

Figure 31 Honda Solar Powered Hydrogen Station Los Angeles, California

CSP and Architecture 34 CSP vs. Photovoltaic Cells

The current examples of fueling stations use photovoltaic cells to capture sunlight, but have yet to capitalize on the advantages of concentrating solar. Perhaps one of the largest advantages of CSP is its ability to easily generate large amounts of power for a minimal amount of embedded energy. Current PV technologies require huge amounts of energy to manufacture. Therefore, in large applications, they are costly and do not generate enough energy to offset their creation for number of years. However, as seen in projects such as Nevada Solar One, solar concentration can be used for energy generation in mass quantities. Another advantage to the solar concentrator is the flexibility of design. When incorporating it into architecture, it must be able to fit the needs of the users and create an experience for the user. This flexibility can be achieved with current metal façade construction, as exemplified by Frank Gehry. Yet, photovoltaics are limited to a rigid unit size, which cannot be manipulated to meet custom design decisions.

CSP and Architecture 35 Building Program

In general, the solar-powered hydrogen refueling station will have a similar program to current examples of interstate rest areas. It will contain a small shopping center and information center, a food court, as well as the supporting elements such as restrooms and a small amount of administrative space. However, on top of this it will have hydrogen fuel pumps to refuel cars and the necessary mechanical spaces to take the energy from the sun and use it to separate the hydrogen from water (see Appendix C for diagrams documenting the areas of CSP required to power a given number of cars per day). Also, there will also be space set aside to educate the public on the building systems and processes.

Gross Square Footage Food Court: Dining Area 5,000 Restaurant Kitchen 500 Restrooms 400 Loading Dock 150 Storage 150 Total 6,200

Retail / Information Center: Display Racks 1,000 Cashier 300 Storage 200 Tourism Kiosk 400 Total 1,900

Building Learning Center: Education Center 300 Total 300

Mechanical: Solar Thermal Tanks 300 Electrolysis Equipment 300 Distillation Equipment 300 Total 900

Building Total 9,300 Total (Including Circulation) 11,160

Site: Car parking 50,000 Truck Parking 125,000 Fuel Pumps 25,000 Total 200,000

CSP and Architecture 36 Endnotes

1 Tiwari, G.N. Solar Energy: Fundamentals, Design, Modelling, and Applications. Pangborne: Alpha Science International Ltd. 258.

2 Tiwari, G.N. Solar Energy: Fundamentals, Design, Modelling, and Applications. Pangborne: Alpha Science International Ltd. 260.

3 Tiwari, G.N. Solar Energy: Fundamentals, Design, Modelling, and Applications. Pangborne: Alpha Science International Ltd. 256.

4 Tiwari, G.N. Solar Energy: Fundamentals, Design, Modelling, and Applications. Pangborne: Alpha Science International Ltd. 258.

5 Tiwari, G.N. Solar Energy: Fundamentals, Design, Modelling, and Applications. Pangborne: Alpha Science International Ltd. 255.

6 Ryan, V. “A Solar Furnace.” 2005. 12 June 2008 < http://www.technologystudent. com/ energy1/solar4.htm>.

7 Ibid

8 “Proposed Smud Hydrogen Refueling Station”. Sacramento. SMUD. 27 August 2008. .

9 Ibid

10 “Honda Starts Experiments with Hydrogen Production and Fueling for Fuel Cell Vehicles at New Station in California”. 2001. Honda Worldwide. 27 August 2008. .

CSP and Architecture 37 Appendix A - Solar-to-Hydrogen Process Diagram seawater sunlight inputs transfer fluid transfer fluid heat salt water heat distillation process + = steam salt heat turbine steam steam exchanger/ condensor steam heat electricity water fresh water electricity + electrolysis = Hydrogen Oxygen outputs hydrogen

Appendix A 38 Appendix B - Solar-to-Hydrogen Calculations Diagram 45% 1. sunlight into heat (according to Power Roof) (380,175 sq ft) which is the average for a gas station 35,332 SM to produce 1500 kg/day 1,040,500 Btu 91.6 SM of CSP for 10 hours = 1136 BTU/hr / SM 60% .ha oeetiiy3. electricity to hydrogen gas 2. heat to electricity kwh 624,396 Btu = 183 3412 Btu/ kwh tributed Energy Systems powerpoint) (According to Proton Electrolyzer -Dis- 183 Kwh for 3.888 kg 47 kwh for 1 kg 73% 4. hydrogen to movement (According to Honda FCX Clarity) about 18% efficient) 60% efficient (conventual gasoline is miles 3.88 kg hydrogen to 280 driving 72 mi /kg 60%

Appendix B 39 Appendix A - Site Area-to-Hydrogen Production Diagram =750 cars/ day = 760,350 sq ft of CSP x 2 gas stations = 375 cars/ day 380,175 sq ft of CSP Baseline Case REFUELING CAPACITY Site Developed Areas 451,500 sf = 445 cars Site Areas 1,334,900 sf = 1316 cars Developed Areas + Interstate 1,424,600 sf = 1405 cars

Appendix C 40 Appendix D - Design Process 12 7. 3 6 4 5 glazing 7. perspective - concentrating wall assembly with envelope 6. section - solar dishes punctuating building 5. section - roof clerestories focusing on solar tower 4. detail section - roof clerestory as concentrator 3. perspective - roof clerestory as concentrator 2. solar dish concentrator 1. solar trough concentrator 1

Appendix D 41 Appendix D - Design Process 11 NTS PLAN truck parking car parking roadway food court truck refueling car refueling atrium N the needs of each program area 11. site plan - various types of CSP, customized for 10. vertical parti of CSP building next to interstate 9. section - solar concentrating facade over interstate concept 8. perspective - concentrator building over interstate 10 9 8

Appendix D 42 Appendix D - Design Process 20 16 12 21 17 13 22 415 14 819 18 22. elevation - CSP facade study 21. section - CSP element showing solar asymmetry bring movement into building 20. section - CSP flows moving through column structure to 19. plan - overlapping CSP elements 18. elevation - CSP facade study 17. perspective - roof stucture/ CSP study 16. perspective - roof structure and CSP study 15. truck parking CSP study - dish and linear elements 14.roadway CSP study - linear elements 13. food court CSP study- two-way elements 12. car parking CSP study - linear elements

Appendix D 43 Appendix D - Design Process 24 23 25 26 27 25, 26, 27. perspective - CSP facade study ous flows 24. section - CSP system allows coninu- daylighting entering at column 23. section - CSP system study flows and

Appendix D 44 Appendix D - Design Process 53 37 36 35 32 28 33 93 31 30 29 34 the ground to act as a column 37. parking canopy diagram - form touches down 36. parking canopy diagram - form moves 35. canopy diagram form moves up 34. perspectve - CSP parking canopy canopy 33. section - cut through CSP parking 32. Interior perspective - under CSP canopy 31. perspective - CSP building study 30. perspective - CSP building study 29. perspective - CSP building study 28. perspective - CSP building study

Appendix D 45 Appendix D - Design Process 41 40 42 43 38 39 44 44. CSP at hydrogen car pump 43. Perspective study - CSP over roadways 42. Perspective - Outdoor CSP canopy 41. Section - people move over canopy 40. CSP concept - outdoor canopy individual fueling stations 39. CSP study - mirrors focus sunlight on collectors by exercising 38. CSP study - people control direction of

Appendix D 46 Appendix D - Design Process 47 46 45 47. South Elevation - CSP massing study 46. East Elevation - CSP facade study 45. South Elevation - CSP facade study

Appendix D 47 Appendix D - Design Process 48 52 55 49 53 56 50 54 51 56. Articulated CSP facade 55. South elevation - massing study 54. Articulated CSP surface 53. Interior perspective 52. CSP facade detail 51. CSP facade study - articulating surfaces surface 50. CSP facade study - articulating vertical 49. CSP facade study - articulating surfaces from mass of building 48. Perspective - CSP canopy extending

Appendix D 48 Appendix D - Design Process 57 truck fueling N car fueling car parking truck parking seating outdoor food court car parking seating outdoor truck parking hydrogen production hydrogen production car fueling truck fueling 57. Site Plan - Winter Quarter 57. Site Plan - Winter

Appendix D 49 Appendix D - Design Process 59 58 59. Interior Rendering - Winter Quarter 59. Interior Rendering - Winter Quarter 58. South Veiw from highway - Winter

Appendix D 50