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Central Freeway, San Francisco Shifting Urban Priorities: The Removal of Inner City Freeways in the United States By Francesca Napolitan BA in Architecture University of California, Berkeley Berkeley, California (2002) Submitted to the Department of Urban Studies and Planning in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master in City Planning at the MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY June 2007 @ 2007 Francesca Napolitan All Rights Reserved The author hereby grants to MIT the permission to reproduce and distribute publicly paper and electronic copies of the thesis document in whole or in part. Author V_ _1 Department offJrban Studies and Planning "---A ,--IMay 24, 2007 Certified by P. Christopher Zegras Assistant Profe sor Department ofVrban Studies and Planning Thesis Supervisor Accepted by Professor Langley Keyes Chair, MCP Committee MASSACHUSETTS INSTITTE Department OF TECHNOLOGY of Urban Studies and Planning JUL 18 2007 ROTCH LIBRARIES Shifting Urban Priorities: The Removal of Inner City Freeways in the United States By Francesca Napolitan Submitted to the Department of Urban Studies and Planning on May 24, 2007 in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master in City Planning ABSTRACT The United States Interstate Highway System transformed the nation's cities and countryside, accelerating suburbanization and leading to unprecedented levels of motorized mobility. While the interstate highways brought undeniable benefits, they also imparted social, environmental and aesthetic costs. Growing opposition to the paving of cities in the name of improved mobility resulted in a "freeway revolt" movement. Much of the original interstate infrastructure built in the 1950s and 1960s is reaching or is past the end of its useful life - requiring large investments for rehabilitation. At the same time, the freeway revolt has evolved into a more widespread movement, underlined by values such as sustainability. Thus, the vigorous debate over the future of urban highways and mobility continues. This thesis examines this future from the perspective of a fairly recent phenomenon: urban freeway removal. By examining three different cases where urban freeway removal was a seriously considered option - two where the freeway was removed and replaced with a lower capacity at-grade boulevard (Park East Freeway, Milwaukee and Central Freeway, San Francisco) and one where the freeway ultimately was not removed (Whitehurst Freeway, Washington D.C.) this thesis works toward a theory of highway removal. The analysis suggests that freeway removal will only take place when: (1) the one precondition is met: the condition of the freeway must be such, that there is concern over its integrity and structural safety, (2) a window of opportunity exists; the window may the precondition itself or another event that enables a freeway removal alternative to gain serious consideration and legitimacy, (3) the value of mobility must be lower than other objectives such as economic development, quality of life, etc., and (4) those in power must value other benefits more than they value the benefits associated with freeway infrastructure for the alternative of freeway removal to be selected over other alternatives. Thesis Supervisor: P. Christopher Zegras Title: Assistant Professor, Transportation and Urban Planning 4 Acknowledgements I am grateful for the many kinds of help, both institutional and personal, that made it possible for me to complete this thesis. At M.I.T. I would like to thank my advisor, Chris Zegras, for his helpful guidance, comments and assistance, as well as my reader, Fred Salvucci, for providing me with great historical insight and perspective. For their role in the development of my case studies, I would like to thank Elizabeth MacDonald, John Norquist, and Peter Park for allowing me to interview them and taking the time to provide me with invaluable insight. Their personal experience with freeway removal in San Francisco and Milwaukee was a key component of this thesis. Also, thanks to those in the San Francisco Planning Department and D.C. Department of Transportation who assisted me in tracking down many old planning documents and studies. Lastly, I would like to thank my friends and family, and in particular my friends at DUSP for their encouragement and support, without which I may have not survived this process. 6 Table of Contents In tro du ction ............................................................................................................................... 10 CHAPTER ONE: History....................................................................................................... 14 The Development of the Interstate Highway System: A Tool for Urban Revitalization...... 14 The Freeway Revolt.............................................................................................................. 20 Paradigm Shift- The Role of Mobility and its Relative Value............................................ 25 ....... ........ Urban Freeway Removal Movement?....................................... ...... ................ 28 CHAPTER TWO: Theory & Hypotheses .......................................................................... 32 Section One: Existing Relevant Theory................................................................................ 33 Frameworks for Decision Making .................................................................................... 33 Power Structures and Policy Entrepreneurs..................................................................... 37 Section Two: Towards a Theory of Highway Removal - A Series of Hypotheses........ 41 CHAPTER THREE: Methodology .........................................................................---....... 44 Case Study Method........................................................................................--......-.----.------ 44 Case Study Selection........................................................................................ ....... 44 Framework for Evaluating the Case Studies..................................................................... 47 Data Collection Approach.................................................................................................. 48 CHAPTER FIVE: Case One - Central Freeway, San Francisco................................... 50 Section 1: B ackground .............................................................................................................. 50 Timeline of Key Events ................................................................................................... 55 Section 2: C ase Specifics.......................................................................................................... 57 CHAPTER FIVE: Case 2 - Park East Freeway, Milwaukee......................................... 74 Section 1: B ackground ................................................................................. ..............----...----- 74 Timeline of Key Events ................................................................................................... 78 Section 2: Case Specifics......................................................................................... .... 79 CHAPTER SIX: Case Three - Whitehurst Freeway, Washington D.C ..................... 90 Section 1: B ackground .............................................................................................................. 90 Timeline of Key Events ................................................................................................... 95 Section 2: C ase Specifics .......................................................................................................... 96 CHAPTER SEVEN: Synthesis & Analysis ........................................................................... 110 Section O ne: Synthesis ........................................................................................................... 110 Section T w o: A nalysis ............................................................................................................ 118 Understanding the Path to Freeway Removal..................................................................... 118 Toward a Theory of Highway Removal ............................................................................. 123 Limitations of Analysis....................................................................................................... 124 CHAPTER EIGHT: Implications & Areas for Further Study ................ 126 Section One: Implications....................................................................................................... 127 A Paradigm Shift................................................................................................................. 127 A N ew Fram ew ork .............................................................................................................. 128 Section Two: Areas for Further Study .................................................................. ..... 129 The Decision-Making Process and Roles under a New Paradigm .................. 129 8 M obility Pre- and Post-Freeway Rem oval.......................................................................... 130 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................ 132 Introduction Throughout the 1950s and 1960s cities across the United States saw huge infrastructure investment in their downtowns in the form of freeways. At the time, these projects
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