87 Original Article NEW 19TH CENTURY DEFENSIVE

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Egyptian Journal of Archaeological and Restoration Studies

An international peer-reviewed journal published bi-annually

www.ejars.sohag-univ.edu.eg Original article

NEW 19TH CENTURY DEFENSIVE ARCHITECTURAL CONTRIBUTIONS IN EGYPT: THE BASTION SYSTEM (HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS)

Abdelwahab. M.

Islamic Archaeology dept, Faculty of Archaeology, Fayoum Univ., Fayoum, Egypt E-mail address: [email protected]

Article info. EJARS – Vol. 11 (1) – June. 2021: 87-100 Article history: Abstract: Received: 1-9-2020 Impressive fortification and renovation work was carried out in Egypt Accepted: 15-6-2021 in Mehmet 'Ali's reign (1805- 1848); the pasha rebuilt the old forti- Doi: 10.21608/ejars.2021.179499 fications, and erected new forts according to the new developments of weapons and defensive systems. So, he recruited the European scientific and military cadres to seeking their services. Therefore, the military architecture of his reign was distinguished with the European influences from Turkey, Italy, France and Albania. In other words, many new and uncommon architectural elements have imported to the Egyptian military architecture in the first of 19th century. The innovation introduced into military architecture by Mehmet 'Ali is the regular designs of the external and internal lines of the buildings, and the types of the towers to be compatible with attack and defensive weapons. This new type of military architecture was called the bastion system. The article's primary purpose is th discussing: the universal features of military fortifications of 19 century in Egypt by tracing the European influences and follows the origins of the fortification designs of Mehmet' Ali which so-called the bastion system. These fortifications carried out some relations on structure, designs, plans, and elements belonged to the prototypes of the European styles, like the Venetian, Ottoman and Frankish styles which transformed directly and indirectly by Mehmet 'Alito Egypt in the beginning of the 19th century. The study willed fine the types of the most important military architectural designs dating back Keywords: to the nineteenth century in Egypt and tracing its origins in Europe. Bastion system Also will enumerate the channels which imported this new technology and architectural features to Egypt and investigating the factors Fortification which had been arrived from deferent European sources, such as Mehmet' Ali the raise and the personal vision of Mehmet 'Ali, the educational Military architecture missions to European countries, the European scientific and military cadres and the field experiences of the Pasha in the deferent Defensive system countries of Ottoman Empire. 1. Introduction The literature sources and the archaeological with the most important architectural works remains alike contain a real wealth of inf- and the history of Mehmet 'Ali. As well ormation on the military architecture of as the history of Al-Jabarti [2] who cared Mehmet 'Ali and many academic studies about listing some architectural details in have been focus on his fortifications in this reign. Also, the orientalists were inte- Egypt. For the authors of two publications rested with the architectural development on the subject in Arabic, Al-Rajabi wrote in Egypt, such as the example of Wiet [3], a monograph with photographs investig- Mantel [4]. Furthermore, there are many ated in 1997 [1]. His purpose was deals Arabic studies on the subject: like Mahfouz,

who focused on military buildings in Cairo cture of the Ottoman army in the reign of [5] such as Al-Muqattam and Salah al- Sultan Selim III (1789-1807)(a). Although Din castles in the reign of Mehmet 'Ali the composition of the army set by Sulei- as the military architecture in northern man Pasha the French commander was very Egypt, Darwish [6] addressed the forts and practical and Ibrahim Pasha was convinced castles in the city of Rosseta, in which he of its implementation, Mehmet 'Ali preferred (b) focused on the most important architectural the model of the Ottoman army [5], the elements developed in the era of Mehmet Pasha explained to his leaders and his son; 'Ali. The study of the 19th fortifications "it is similar to the one Napoleon had used in Egypt constitutes a part of the broader to lead an army composed of several topic of the European fortifications and thousand troops. Our army however, is a defensive system. The majority of the cur- new and much smaller one and we have rent studies dealing particularly with the only recently begun to create it" [10]. The Egyptian military in Mamluk and Ottoman classical style of Mamluk and Ottoman periods, without focusing on the archite- military architecture were domain Egypt till ctural development of using the bastions the beginning of 19th with some renovations as a direct response to the requirements of and new architectural designs from the weapon technology. The previous studies Western Europe to the Ottoman military did not dedicate a comprehensive study architecture, were imported to Egyptian fort- to many of the architectural elements ification system [12]. In a few decades, imported from the Europe to Egypt in Mehmet 'Ali created a formidable network the reign of Mehmet 'Ali, which came of fortifications, the new and the old fortr- within the organized trend of Mehmet 'Ali esses in Cairo and Alexandrea formed the to modernize the defensive and offensive corner stone and the back bone of his systems of the modern Egyptian army. defense lines; these were renovated and This paper focuses on one of the most some of strongholds were built additionally. important elements coming to Egypt as a The Egyptian defensive system before harmonization of technological advances 19th century was composed of; the gates, by using modern artillery. The reign of towers and some defensive palisades by Mehmet 'Ali Pasha [7-9] started in 1805 definition are parts of enceintes or enc- as Wâli after he was appointed by the losure. But after that the historians of the Sultan of Ottomans and ended in 1848. Western military refers to the fortification In few decades the Pasha had taken consist of defensive palisades, ramparts, different radical measures to change the walls as curtains which were fronted by position of his province within the Empire moats or ditches [13]. The curtains act as in all fields; economic, social, culture, extensions of the shield and protecting the education and military force. He aims to defenders against the weapons of them att- make Egypt controller of the traditional ackers [14]. The very important part of borders of Egypt includes Sudan, Greece these fortifications is the external projections (c) (Crete-Morea), Anatolia, Hijas, Syria [10]. of a barrier and star forts [15] with the The new ruler has succeeded in exploiting bastions; it is large enough to hold large Egyptian capabilities and managing state number of defenders and weapons. Their resources in order to achieve a goal in purpose as mentioned; is to inflict flanking building a strong state ruled by him and fire on any attackers closely approaching his elite [11]. While the pasha planned his the curtains and adjacent bastions [13,16], new military forces, the Imperial army of fig. (1). Very quickly with the development Ottoman model was not far from his mind. of firearms and fortifications, bastions For soon after commanding Suleiman pasha style which its function was to direct fire (Seves) [5,8] and Mohamed Lazuglo to against enemies [16] became obsolete and continue their mission, Mehmet 'Ali ordered had to be rebuilt [17] and it can be said his son Ibrahim to adopt the official stru- that; these military principles and requir-

ements were very clear in the mind of and two faces protecting adjacent bastions Mehmet 'Ali, the founder of the modern and the curtain walls to inflict flanking Egyptian army. So, the primary goal is fire on the enemies [20]. revealing the architectural origins of the 1.2. The architectural origins of the bastion and it characteristics, which came bastion from Europe to the military architecture The processes of state formation and con- in Egypt during the French campaign current changes in warfare, mostly the against Egypt (1798-1011) [6] and became requirements to development of the new the distinctive architectural component system of fortifications, greatly increased of the military architecture in the era of needs for architects to devise an adequate the Mehmet 'Ali since 1805. fortifications and military architecture response to the technology of heavy artillery

[21]. So, architects should promote and develop some novel designs that could withstand the new technology; these fortresses are so called trace italienne(d) [18-22], which have many bastions in

the corners. The literature sources refers that there are two theories about the Figure (1) Shows the bastion system which achieved a origins of bastion design: perfect side protection and coverage to 1.2.1. The first theory the blind angles and allows the defense of curtain walls (after, Ioanas, 2018) Some authors [23] believe that it was th seen for the first time in mid-15 cen- 1.1. The definition of bastion tury. During the 2nd half of the 15th and Fortifications have been a part of the beginning of 16th centuries. The bastion defense of cities and towns for millennia. fortifications were developed primarily by By the time, it became increasingly effective Italian architects [21] against the French to meet the different threats and the develo- conquest of Italian lands with new artillery pments of weapons which proved that the (1494-1559). This Italian style is an accurate older fortifications comparatively became translation of designs of Francesco di useless [18]. The new technology of the Giorgio Martini (1439-1501)(e) [23] who firearms not only affected the fundamentals in his treatise; civil and military architecture of warfare but also triggered a revision (Architetturacivile e militare), supported of the regulations of medieval military an idea based on the widespread possession architecture [19]. It was obvious that the of cannon, fig. (2). His bastions are imp- military defenses should be designed acc- erfect, in the bases of the round towers ording to the developments of the firearms are not well covered by enfilading fire which made the fortress considered as a from other points. The new principles fully place for attacking and offensive actions, elaborated in Italy by the middle of 16th not only for defensive actions, where the century, and derived from elementary geo- troops within can control the outside areas. metry, are elaborately treated. The engineer Thus, it could be define the bastion or had to learn to set out the angles, slopes, bulwark as an external projection engaged and sides exactly to obtain the required to an external curtain wall, most usually protection [24]. The Italian military Eng- angular in form located in the corners, ineers took up the ingenious and perennial and it is large enough to have many challenge with attach and defense systems, defenders and their fire weapons [16], as and use the concept of Aristotle by a direct response to the development of which; " just as assailants are concerned artillery in the middle Ages. The final with finding the means to prevail, so also developed bulwark consists of two flanks those who defend themselves have found

some and must find and devise others" Maddalene Bastionin Verona (1527), which [17,25]. So for the protection and well- designed by Sanmicheli(f) [29]. Immediately being of the states, it was important to the new designs were found great accep- design the bastion, to replace the fortif- tance by Venetians and have been separated ications with the huge thickness of walls, to entirely Europe especially in the East which were not even this enough. From which concerned with the necessity of here; the military architects have proposing operations to defend its property against the Turkish attacks [18]. These similarities many new defensive designs [17]. Between of geometric designs prove that there was 1540 and 1570, the architects were heavily free exchange of scientific ideas between in demand throughout Europe to help the architects of the West and East in and supervision the new fortifications; this period. Thus, it is important to note replacing obsolete medieval city walls that the overall layouts of the geometric with bastion style fortifications. The or bastion fortifications were not a new Italian architects have introduced the invention of the Italian architects. This, new defensive system in Europe [21]. too, was transferred from the practices of the Ottoman fortification architects and their

creation of a geometric, scientific layout.

a b c d

Figure (3) Shows the early Ottoman bastions which

affected the European architect's designs Figure (2) Shows the basic example of angled bastions trace italienne style in 14-15th centuries by architect Francesco di Giorgio Martini, (after, Robert, 2013), a. a layout of Jalal Treatise on Architecture, National Central al-Din castle, b. a layout of Kasr al-Tina, Library of Florence (after, Robert, 2013) c. a layout of Kilid Bar, d. a layout of a trace Italienne 1.2.2. The second theory It. suggests the Ottoman origins of the 1.3. The principles of the functional polygons forts and bastion design, which aspects of the bastion was moved to Italy by architects whom lived th The fundamental feature of the new sys- in Constantinople in 15 century. Where tem -bastion- of constructions was; "the it adopts this trend; that the Romans and relationship between its parts is comparable Greeks were not the only influence on to that of the component parts of a geometric the Renaissance military architects; the design" [17]. For this; any deference affects Ottoman military architects also influenced the whole as in the geometric continuum of the Italian engineers in the scientific and the perspective and The connect between geometric layout of a fortification when the bastions and the curtain walls allow they were traveled to Constantinople Based the cannons to eliminate the blind points on an invitation of Emperor Mehmed II and offer only an oblique and not frontal [14]. And the fist examination of this new exposure to attacking fire, deviating its concept or method was the Rumeli Hisar direction and dampening the dynamic force 1452 [26,27]. Also this theory is based on [17]. Thus, the so-called bastioned form the general similarity in the engineering as a geometric design it was shaped a principles used in the castles of Jalal al- continuous system and was very appropriate, th Din, Kilid Bar and Kasr al-Tina (14 - especially when compared to the artillery th 15 centuries) and the castle trace bases used at the time because this system Italienne with five angled bastions on each has no any blind points or angles [18]. corner, fig. (3) [18,28]. According to the The previous rounded shape which had been first theory; the first clear example of the dominant the defensive designs in the med- pentagonal bastion could be seen in The iaeval ages, created "dead zones" which

were comparatively hidden from cannon's 2. The Case Study fire, because the open direct angles from 2.1. The contributions of military arc- external area outside the walls. To estop hitecture by Mehmet 'Ali these old shapes had extended into penta- It was necessary to Mehmet 'Ali to adopt gonal shape which deleted the blind points a military architectural policy based on the of the towers, fig. (4-a), it allow for a perfect firing lines, depending on the basics of latest warfare systems. Hehad decided from side defense, attack and coverage [17]. the first time to develop and implement Based on innovations; the new system was this architectural policy and the military a unified ensemble, in which the design, architecture of Mehmet 'Ali was distingu- shape and dimensions of every fortification ished by the appearance of many Western unit had specific geometrical relation with elements, which have been separated, which entire construction [25], fig. (4-b). By com- were not common in their counterparts bef- parative study to the design of the round ore in Egypt such as the so-called bastions. tower and the bastion design; the bastion Mehmet 'Ali's fortifications in Cairo and with its polygons dose not leave uncovered the northern coast consider a part of the parts or blind angles thanks to its shape broader of the military architecture and [30], and contain a greater number of gun defensive system in Egypt. Within a few positions to more cannons. While the round decades, he had erected a formidable lines towers have many blind points. The special and networks of forts in Egypt especially feature of bastion system is the flanking in Cairo and Alexandria. The reusing prev- coverage to the adjacent bastions. This ious fortresses were very important for the gave rise to the so-called bastioned front, Pasha's defense lines, these were renovated, conceived according to formal rules and but the backbones of these renovations geometric ratios and refined on the basis were the new fortresses which were erected of the range of the artillery in use [17], and from 1805. And the archaeological sources gave rise to the bastion bloc, designed and the written studies alike contain a wealth according to geometric proportion and rep- of information on these constructions of eated on the roles of the standard and the defensive projects of Mehmet 'Ali in Egypt domain filed of the artillery in use [14]. [5,7,31] proves his huge efforts in this filed. This new design was known as the bastion But there is an urgent question about the or pentagonal structures, achieved these channels which have transformed this new goals and protected all the points of the technology and architectural features to curtain, especially these bastions were Egypt. It could be said that; there were armed with powerful artillery that shooting many factors affected the Egyptian military sideways at the infantry of the attackers of Mehmet 'Ali, these factors had been attempting to pass through the gap [16]. transformed from deferent channels, through a b which European influences in general and Ottoman in particular moved to the new state of Mehmet 'Ali. It could be said that; Mehmet 'Ali's personal vision and his Euro- pean intellectual convictions was the essential channel through which European and Ott-

oman influences were transferred to the

Egyptian army and military fortifications Figure (4) Shows a. depiction of dead areas in front he established to defend his independ- of the round towers (after, John Lynn, ence country. That vision stems from his 1969), b. the angled bastions with loo- European and military upbringing, as his pholes from which archers, gunners and birthplace Kavala was one of the Ottoman artillerymen could fire from a hidden positions and extend covering fire for the cities more than three centuries ago. With adjacent tower of Mehmet 'Ali's castle his military experience, Mehmet 'Ali realized (after, Mahfouz, 1999) from the first time, that the war techniques

and firearms technology that he hoped, was uncommon to the Egyptian fortifyca- requires a series of advanced fortifications tion system before 1798, when the French which are compatible with the development have renovated the fort of Qaitbay in Rosetta of modern weapons [32]. The innovation [6] and in al-Gabal fort of Mehmet 'Ali [5]. introduced into military architecture by The layout had met the defy of attackers, Mehmet 'Ali is the regular designs of the whose trying to be in closest point as external and internal lines of the buildings, possible to strike from the side and the and the types of the towers to be compatible curtain walls of the defensive positions with attack and defensive weapons. This by the parallel lines. These modifications new type of military architecture was called were made to the defensive towers, due to the bastion system, which were adopted the deficiency resulting from the narrow with the new technological renovations by angle of view in the circular towers and lowering its walls heights with more depth consequently the narrow range of fire at and building square towers instead of the enemies in front of the fort. In other circular and semi-circular ones -Mamluk and words, the obtuse corners and the threat- Ottoman towers- and a new slope decline ening ribs of the bastion opened a greater the outer walls and supported it by huge field of vision to the cannons, fig. (5-d). quantities of earth to be anti-missile cannons. The use of angled bastions to elim-inate The Pasha had applied this new architectural the blind points was used for the first system, in the castle of the mountain (al- time in Egypt in Rasheed fort by the (g) Gabal) ,which is one of most conspicuous French architects. Depending on the com- archaeological structure of the Cairo. The parative studies to the remaining castles fundamental function of new fort was the in Eastern Europe that dated back to the protection of the governance center of Ottoman period, we find another evidence Egypt -the citadel of Salah al-Din- by that proves the direct architectural impact cannon bombardment from eastern side of these ottoman castles on the architecture [31]. Notable, this strategy is the same with of Mehmet 'Ali in Egypt, especially since the defense strategy of the Rumeli Hisar he had dealt with these castles directly 1452 [19,27]. The fort is formed by four during his war operations in Greece and curtains 22.5 m, flanked with four bastions other Ottoman states in Europe. The above irregularly shapes in the corners, fig. (5-a). investigation was a try to determine and The access is through an arched gate located follow the origins of bastion design which on the NW side. The SE side contains a used in the forts of Mehmet 'Ali; the earliest huge circular tower, fig. (5-b). Generally; example is the fort above al-Muqttam; the the distance between bastions is variable, layout of the fort consists of a square area but they are regular or systematic and to with four bastions in the corners; Some some degree predictable. This distance dep- studies suggest that the origins of this ends on the location typography. Lawrence planning are due to European influences had told us to build 2×4 an bastion at 20 m. in general and French in particular, as intervals requires constructing approxima- designed by Drofti and implemented by tely 140 m. of curtain [16] and almost these engineer Galice [5]. Another study indicates are the same proportions used in the the Mamluk origin of this planning, as it fortress of Mehmet 'Ali, where four bastions is similar to the layout of Qaitbay castle were built by two in each side, which swa- in Alexandria, However, there is a big llows its length around 73 m., fig. (5-c) [5]. difference between the two layout sand The optimal spacing between bastions could not be said that a Mamluk influence would be between one half and one third was effective in designing al-Muqttam fort the effective range of the principal defen- as well as Rosetta castle, fig. (5-e) [6], sive projectile weapons. This design is after the French renovation in 1798 [31], flexible for the maximum intensity of or indicating to the star castles [1]. In covering fire [16]. As mentioned; the org- general; the Ottoman models were not anization of the fort in accordance with the far from the Pasha's mind, however, when new technique had a modern layout which he planned his new army. As previous; he

explicitly ordered his son Ibrahim Pasha ctical experience that formed many political to adopt the structure that Sultan Salim III and military concepts of Mehmet' Ali; those had used in his own army [11]. Therefore, battles he fought in the Greek regions, and Mehmet 'Ali's mentality was affected by this direct contact with fortresses and Ott- the castles and fortresses that existed in oman defenses controlled by the Greek his hometown, when he chose the plans revolutionaries [8]. As known, Mehmet' and reforms of his defenses by building his Ali's army had participate in several wars bastion fort on the top of the al-Muqttam on European lands since 1824, for the mountain, fig. (5-b) opposite his seat of Ottoman Sultan Mahmoud II, who req- rule and other military architecture in Egypt. uested the intervention of Mehmet' Ali's By reviewing the genesis of Mehmet 'Ali forces to assist Rashid Pasha's forces in and learning about the common warfare controlling the Greek city of Mesolonghi. systems that were used in his hometown, After the victory, the Egyptian forces headed we can place our hands on the main inf- to Morea, then the Egyptian army, led by luencer in his warfare buildings. There is Ibrahim Pasha, again took control of the no doubt that the rise of Mehmet 'Ali in Peloponnese and Athens and brought it the city of Kavala(h) [33] had a great role back under Ottoman rule, but he was forced in forming his personality and military to stop because of the huge fortifications vision, it was formed the mental image in in Vergas [8]. We have a great example in his mind, where we find that this city since the city of Mesolonghi or Fence of Mes- 1391 was one of the Ottoman provinces olonghi, the city in which Ibrahim pasha in Europe, where they built and repaired fought himself and besieged its fortified many defensive fortifications, which is fortress with the bastion system in 1825- difficult to detect rather than other archite- 1826, fig. (5-i)(i) [37]. The real practical cture categories; due to the successive works experience which affected the choices of over centuries by Byzantine, Venetians, Mehmet 'Ali, was the Crete Island which and Ottomans as well [34]. The castle of was important station for the Egyptian Kavala is an impressive Ottoman fort in army, that he seized it and ruled it for ten the northern city; its current building is years (1830-1840). Of course, its fortificat- mainly from the reconstruction of the ions were a source of influences on Mehmet' Ottomans in 1425. Following the typo- Ali's military constructions in Egypt, where graphy of the land, the defensive system the island includes several important ex- girdled the mountain, and the walls were amples that have been fortified by the reinforced by bastions and circular towers. bastion system, such as a fortress Candia The perimeter is closed off by a transverse (Heraklio). Which the Venetians improved wall 449 m. in length, which climbs a on the ditch of the city by building eno- steep slope to the most inaccessible cliffs rmous fortifications, most of which are on the north side to a height of 64 m., fig. still in place, including a giant wall, with (5-f) [35]. Here, the similarities between 7 bastions, and a fortress in the harbor this Ottoman castle and Mehmet 'Ali's fort from 1212 to 1669, fig. (5-j) [38], and the are clear to us in terms of choosing the fortress of the city of Rethymno which location so that it defensively controls dates back to the period of the rule of the the city, as well as in terms of the ramp Venetians 1204-1669.The bastion as a road, and to the use of the bastion system. defensive system had represented in the In Balkan there are many remaining exa- walls of Chania also. This town fell into mples of Ottoman castles, especially in the hands of the Venetians in the mid-13th Albania; almost are identical to the scheme century, whose main priority was to defend of Mehmet' Ali fort in Egypt. Such as and protect the city. From 1538 to 1549 an the castle of 'Ali Pasha [36] in Butrint, engineer named Sanmichieli was appointed fig. (5-g). There were another indirect imp- to oversee the construction of new walls. acts have participated in the formation of The new fortifications, which also surro- mentality of Mehmet 'Ali, such as the pra- unded the port area, included a four-sided

wall fortified by a moat, a counterscarp, of the aforementioned defensive fortifica- heart-shaped bastions and ramparts. Mehmet tions represented the indirect influence on 'Ali fought and ruled the Peloponnese Muhammad Ali's military choices. Those region and signed a fortress in Palamidi(j) choices that were adopted in the implem- [39] under his control, it consists of eight entation of the French engineers since bastions and a long stairway slope and early in his rule, for this the castles design leads up to the fort. Here we can notice from the beginning of the era of Mehmet' the great similarity between his castle in Ali indicated that the bastion style was Cairo and between fortress Palamidi 1714 considered the dominant style in building in Nafplio, the strategic location which forts that were distributed on the Egyptian control the Peloponnese, the moat and the borders, especially the northern fortresses slid road, fig. (5-k). In 1715 it was contro- in Rosetta and Alexandria. Mehmet' Ali lled by the Turks and remained under their Pasha had order the French engineer Galis control until 1822, when it was captured Bey to restore the old forts and build new by the Greeks. It can be believed that the ones until he reached in his reign 25 Tabia environment in which Muhammad Ali grew as mentioned in the list drawn up by Hassan up and then the practical experiences in Pasha al-Iskandarani, the head of the Egyptian Greece and Anatolia that resulted indirect navy in 1848 [40]. Here we will present contact with the strengths and weaknesses some important examples such as: a b c d

e f g

h i j

Figure (5) Shows a. the plan of Mehmet' Ali fort al-Gabal, b. 3D to the fort of Mehmet' Ali, Cairo, military museum in the citadel, c. the regular and systematic distance between bastions of Mehmet 'Ali al- Gabal fort, d. the bastion ribs and elements which achieved a perfect side protection and coverage and allows the defense of the gate, curtains and the circle tower of al-Muqttam fort (after, Mahfouze, 1999), e. the elements of angled bastions with loopholes from which gunners and artillerymen could fire and extend covering fire for the adjacent tower of Rosetta castle after 1798. (after, Darwish, 1991), f. shows the bastions of the Ottoman castle of Kavala city https://www.kastra.eu/castleen.php?kastro= kavala, g. shows aerial view of the castle of 'Ali pasha in Butrint, with bastions and curtains (after, Carvajal, 2018), h. the bastions of Mesolonghi fortress with the defensive bastion system (after, Kastrologos, 2012-2020) https://www.kastra.eu/castleen. php?kastro=mesologi, i. 3D. plan to the bastions of Heraklio castle (by the author), j. the ramp of Palamidi fortress-Nafplio Greece https://www. kastra. eu/castleen. php?kastro=palamidi

2.2.1. The arsenal fort at Rasel-Tin Khedive Ismail period and was completed The arsenal fort at Rasel-Tin, which built by Khedive Tawfeek in the same design on the ruins of an ancient fort, it was called of Mehmet 'Ali's fortifications such as by Lauber in a book describing Egypt called the fort of Kousta Pasha. The layout of a battery [41]. The designs and plans for fort is a pendagonal bastion concloud the construction project of the arsenal, by two semi-bastions flanking the entrance, Sirzi Bey, were submitted in 1829 by Meh- fig. (8-a, b). Also in Al 'Alameya fort in met 'Ali, who approved it. Among these Abu Qir was designed with the same designs was the design of the fortress in external pentagonal layout with the two the bastion style to defend the arsenal semi-bastions to protect the gate and the (k) and the western port , fig. (6) [42]. external walls, fig. (8-c, d). a b a b

Figure (6) Shows a. shows 3D design the arsenal c d fort at Ras El-Tin built during Mehmet 'Ali reign to protect the harbor. (Military museum in the citadel, Cairo), b. plan of the arsenal fort at Ras El-Tin (by the author)

2.2.2. The Fort of Kousta pasha The fort of Kousta Pasha east of Alex- Figure (8) Shows a. the layout pentagonal design of Al Tawfekeya fort, b. the layout of andria in Abu Qir to defend Alexandria, Al 'Alameya fortress (by the author). is considered one of the most important examples of military architecture in the 2.2.4. Al Max fort era of Mehmet' Ali, as it dates back to the Al Max fort; the military architect have year 1840, based on the orders of Mehmet' replaced the known bastions by using the Ali to the ruler of Abu Qir Mehmet Kousa exterior walls designed with specific angles Pasha, which was named after with his and with the same elements of the bastion- name [43]. The layout of fort is a penda- Face, flank and gorge- that perform the gonal bastion concloud two semi-bastions function of protecting the external walls flanking the entrance, fig. (7). and overcoming the dead areas resulting a b from the ancient designs of the towers,

fig. (9).

Figure (7) Shows a. 3D design to Kousta Pasha for- tressin Abu Keir Alexandria, (Military museum in the citadel, Cairo), b. plan of the Kousta Pasha fortress (by the author)

2.2.3. The fort of El Tawfekeya Figure (8) Shows 3D layout and angled Curtin walls The fort of El Tawfekeya, it was known of El Max fortress from Mamluks reign also by "El Shaheeneya" fort, it is lies in and renewed during Mehmet 'Ali's reign. the west of Abu Keir. It was erected in (Military museum in the citadel, Cairo).

3. Typology of the Angled Bastions the Egyptian army were imported throw of Mehemt 'Ali's Forts four channels; With the development of explosive shells *) The emergence of Mehmet 'Ali's in Eu- and powerful artillery in 18-19th centuries, rope. the complexes star forts were replaced *) The supporting of the foreign education by robust and simpler polygonal forts, and economic and military expansion. exactly such as the forts of Mehmet *) Mehmet 'Ali recruited the scientific and 'Ali's reign. By analyzing the remains military cadres to seek their services forts of Mehmet 'Ali in Egypt, there are in establishing military. different types of angled bastions can be *) The real experience of Mehmet 'Ali in found and will tracing in tab. (1) the Ottoman army and the practical

Table (1) Different types of angled bastions experience battles he fought in the Greek regions, and this direct contact with fortresses and Ottoman defenses controlled by the Greek revolutionaries in Mesolonghi, Certe, Peloponnese and Anatolia have been formed many political and military concepts of the Pasha and represented direct and indirect influences on his choices. The distribution of the bastions of the Algabal castle were followed the same rules that were followed in the European Bastion system in Italy and France which had defined in sources which have told us to build 2×4 an bastion at 20 m. intervals requires constructing approximately 140 4. Results m. of curtain and almost these are the The main question of the study was the same proportions used in the fortress of origins of the bastion element which separ- Mehmet 'Ali, where four bastions were ated in large scale as a European influence built by two in each side, which swallows from the end of 18th and the first decade its length around 73 m. There are different of 19th centuries in Egyptian military arc- types of angled bastions can be found hitecture and what the channels of these and will tracing in tab. (1). influences are?; to answer this question it must be depend on the literature sources to 5. Discussion trace the universal features which maintains After Mehmet 'Ali assumed the reign of in Egypt. There are two theories about the Egypt, both western powers tried to attract origins of bastion design; Italian origins them in order to achieve their benefits, as and Ottoman origins. By tracing the objects he had the legitimacy it gained from the universal features of Ottoman defensive approval of the Ottoman Sultan, as well as architecture in castles of Jalal al-Din, Kilid from the popular support of scholars. France Bar and Kasr al-Tina (14-15th centuries); supported him so that England would not the Ottoman military architects also influe- be unique to him alone. As for the latter, nced the Italian engineers in the scientific she made a spearhead to use it, and its and geometric layout of a fortification. So relationship with the Ottoman Empire pus- the Ottoman bastion had affected indi- hed it to help it eliminate the forces with rectly the bastion system of Mehmet 'Ali a religious background in Arabic provinces by Italian and French engineers. -There and the Greek Revolution in Peloponnesus, new organization and developments in which almost eliminated the Ottoman

presence in Europe had it not been for he blended Ottoman and European styles Mehmet 'Ali at the behest of the England to assert a uniqueness, independence, and to support the Ottoman Empire. In order cosmopolitanism. The third; Mehmet 'Ali to devote itself to the Russian conflict to recruited the scientific and military cadres prevent it from forming bases on the to seek their services in establishing milit- Mediterranean Sea. There is no doubt that ary, engineering and medical schools while the style of the Egyptian army in the reign serving his reform policies in Egypt, of Mehmet 'Aliwas organized on the same such as Suleiman Pasha the Frenchman, style of the Ottoman army in the reign of General Boyerand Galis. The fourth; the Sultan Selim III, but the forts designs were field experiences of the army of Mehmet influenced by two motives; the engineering 'Ali, led by his son Ibrahim in the Eur- necessities of the gunpowder age and by opean lands, in which he fought many the architectural innovations rooted in battles to support the Ottoman Empire in Italy and seen in the trace italienne which the war against the Greek Revolution in was originate from Ottoman architects Crete and al-Morea, which resulted in the designers in castles of Jalal al-Din, Kilid control of Mehmet 'Ali over these areas. Bar and Kasr al-Tina. So, it could be This gave him the opportunity to contact said that the design of angled bastion defensive fortifications on European lands influenced by the ottoman military arch- and deal with the tactics of European itects. Thus, the angled bastions which armies, especially the navy, the Battle of were uncommon in Egyptian fortresses Navarino (1827). before 1798, were derives its origins from the Ottoman sources and Italian elements 6. Conclusion by French architects and its first examples It could access the architectural references were in the French additions at Rosetta that greatly influenced, directly and indirectly, the designs of military architecture that Moh- castle and was in response to new dev- amed 'Ali established in Egypt. We find the first elopments in the artillery. There were a impact were the concepts and will of the Pasha dramatic changes in the architectural layouts in forming a strong European-style army dep- of Mehmet 'Ali's reign and prevalent of ends on it in protecting its gains. Thanks to his genesis which helped to establish these using of the angled bastions, to eliminate concepts and form his vision. Without doubt the dead zones or blind areas, because the that the previous models have many similar bastions allowed for a clear lines or vision elements in the Mehmet 'Ali castles in Cairo of fire to all outer parts from the flanks. and Alexandria, which confirms the influence of these Ottoman castles on the military archi- Obviously, that angled bastions were sim- tecture dating back to his era. Mehmet 'Ali's pler than the complex star forts of previous joining of the Ottoman army helped to understand periods in Europe. These new military org- many of the rules that must be met in the anizations and architectural developments buildings of the military structure of the new army, where he saw many castles and acco- were imported to Egypt throw four indirect mpaniment to military technology in Kavala channels: The first; there is no doubt that where he grew up, and in Mesolonghi and in the emergence or the European raise of the castles of Chania, Heraklio and Rethymno Mehmet 'Ali Pasha was the main indirect on the island of Crete that Mehmet 'Ali ruled for ten years (1830-1840) under the cloak of impact in forming his vision for the country the Ottoman Empire. In addition to those sci- he dreams of forming and of course the entific missions that he sent to Europe, especially formation of its various institutions. The France and Italy since 1822, which resulted in the preparation of many military and scientific second; the policies of the Pasha; his reign cadres that contributed to the development is characterized by the active recruitment of military and industrial performance in the of foreigners and supporting the foreign era of Mehmet 'Ali, where they worked in many education and economic and military exp- areas besides foreign cadres and expertise that he brought in to benefit from their practical ansion. He did not entirely imitate European experiences in the army. The most common design or architecture; however, instead defensive towers before 19th century in Egypt

were rectangular, square or circular in plan. the artillery (cannon) had dominated These forms are roomy, providing the optimal the wars and were combined with the space for defenders and canons given their dimensions. However, there is an area of blind star fort. This style of fortification that ground which protects the attackers in front became prevalent after about 1500 of previous forms of bastions. Geometrically, which involved the heavy use of geo- pentagonal "break water" bastions were easily metric design and employed angled defended by fire from curtain walls because there is no blind or dead ground in front or bastions at all corners and some in beside of them, in addition, the former would between. crowd and limit the number of defenders dep- (e) Francesco di Giorgio Martini was an ending on bastion's militarily effective points. Italian engineer, architect, painter and By analyzing the typology of the angled bas- writer, he was born in Siena. As a milit- tions of Mehmet 'Ali; it have been erected on five types have classified in table (1). ary architect, he executed architectural designs and built the early star-shaped fortifications for the Duke of Urbino 7. Endnotes Federico da Montefeltro. His book is Sultan Selim III was undertaken a pro- (a) deal with the ideal protection city, overly gram of westernization and whose reign controlled within polygonal geometries felt the intellectual and political ferment memorial of the star fort and the wedge- created by the French Revolution. shaped bastions have been innovated. (b) It is very clear that the Ottoman infl- (f) Michele Sanmicheli was a Venetian uences included the basic composition military architect, he was born in San of the army of Mehmet 'Ali, who had Michele (1484-1559), he designed many decided to choose the Ottoman model fortifications to the Venetian Empire in for the formation of army divisions, Italy, Venice, Crete, Corfu, Candia and which started with six battalions - Orta Verona. By 1527 he worked on the - each with 800 Uttrah soldiers, then cannon-resistant city gates and had the number of these battalions incr- transformed the fortifications of the eased to become units - become units city of Verona to the new fortification - provinces - each with five battalions. system of angled bastions in corners. By this we can understand that Muh- (g) The castle of Muhammad Ali or al-Hesn, ammad Ali chose the model of the which was formerly known as the Tab- Ottoman army with its units and iah of Napoleon, until the error was ranks as well as its defense strategies corrected and restored to its origin to and military fortifications. Muhammad Ali's reign (c) A star fort, or trace italienne, is a (h) Kavala was a part of Rumelia Eyalet fortification in the style that evolved in ottoman period, now locate in Greek in the period of gunpowder when province of Macedonia. cannon dominated the field of battles. (i) Fort or Fence of Missolonghi in the It's first seen was in Italy probably in west of Greece on the Patras Gulf [37]. th the mid 15 century. In contrast, the (j) Palamidi (Gr, Παλαμήδι) the finest exa- star fortress was a flat structure com- mple of Venetian fortification in Greece, posed of many triangular or lozenge was built in 1714 [39] shaped bastions designed to cover each (k) 1. Al-Fanar Tabiya 2. Al-Fanar small other, and a (typically dry) ditch. Star cousin 3.The dirt pomegranate (sem- fortifications were further developed icircular) is located in the loop of fish in the late fifteenth and early 16th in Anfushi 4. The new dressing Tabia centuries primarily in response to the 5. Tabia Alatta 6. Al-Zafar castle 7. French invasion of the Italian peninsula. Charred cob 8. Tabia obelisk of Pha- (d) A trace italienne (a term derived from raoh 9. The cemetery of the ancient French, meaning Italian outline); is a tombs of the Jews 10. The Jewish cem- bastion fort evolved during the period etery 11.Tabia Tower Chain 12. Tabia of early modern of gunpowder, when Bab Sharqi.

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