Revolutionizing Romania from the Right

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in Partial Fulfillment oftheRequirements forthe Degree ofDoctor of THE REGENERATIVEOF THEROMANIANTHE LEGIONARY PROJECT Presented tothe Faculties oftheCentral European University REVOLUTIONIZING ROMANIA FROM THE RIGHT:REVOLUTIONIZING ROMANIA FROM THE Professor ROUMEN DASKALOV MOVEMENTAND FAILURE ITS Valentin Adrian S Adrian Valentin Supervisor of Dissertation ______Budapest, Hungary A DISSERTATION (1927-1937) Philosophy History History 2010 in

ă ndulescu ndulescu

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w g a e r e .c o m published by another personunless otherwise noted. other degrees inanyother institutions andnomaterials previously written and/or anymaterials for containsthis dissertation acceptedno declare that hereby I may not bemade without thewritten permission ofthe Author. instructions with such accordance copies madein Further made. such copies Details mayobtained be from the librarian. Thispage must form ofa partany Library.EuropeanCentral the in lodgedAuthorand by the instructionsgiven theaccordancewith onlyin made maybe or part, full either process, in Copyrightthis thetext in ofdissertation restsCopiesthe Author. with byany ii

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w g a e r e .c o m elections. camp system, the social base of thelegion and its political success inthe1937 history. outcome are part of the one of the darkest chapters in twentieth-century Romanian the young generation. Its ultimate failure, together with itsviolent record andtragic radical solution, andalso satisfied theneed forpolitical activism foragreat part of creating a“new man” anda“new order” was regardedby many as aviable, albeit regenerative project aimed atsaving the country from aperceived state of decay by adherence of the adherenceof of interest, such asthe“1922student generation” andits political commitment, the 1937 being its most successful one. Furthermore the thesis focused on certain topics mind thechronological aspect, with 1927asthefounding year oftheLegion and Legion, especially from theyoung generation. Thethesiswas structured having in to explainthe 1930s and the elements thatattractedso manyfollowers to the have attempted to understand the mass-appeal enjoyedby fascism inRomania in garnered and themass appeal that assured its political success in various contexts. ideological construct,wantedI tobetter understandthe diverse social support it “newand a order.” Analyzingfascism fromwithin,considering and solidita as to regenerate aso-called state of decay and decline by bringing abouta“new man” revolutionary political ideology which putsforward as its principal aim thenecessity whichassesses that fascism“coherent isa body ofthought” (RogerEatwell) a the proximity of the “culturalist” approach I have started from a research hypothesis and development of fascism inthe Romanian context. By placing thedissertation in sense ofa past time suchasthe interwar period, and especially of theemergence Peter Burke aptly stated. The current dissertation aimed atfindingway a to make translator,a betweenpast andpresent represents thefunctionhistorian,of a as iii What I What have tried toshow throughout the dissertationwas that theLegionary Using archival material andinterwar newspapers, journals andpublications, I Rewriting andrethinking history in every generation asaway to mediate, like

Axa group ofintellectualsto theIron Guard,the legionary work ABSTRACT ABSTRACT

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w g a e r e .c o m unnamed. here manyothers Lucianaand Ghica, Davis, Chris Turda, Lambru,Marius years andfor thatIwill beforever gratefulto them. Loredana, mymybrother supportedandencouraged parents and these me all improve my research. and rethink stimulatingmeto intellectualenabledhighly environment which Bucharest weretwogracious hostsformy academicprojects, andprovided a Stancu, NarcisTulbure,Vasile, CristianAnca usefulfeed-back whenever I needed it. Thus,express I myEugen gratitudeto willingness to help. and dedication their Committeefor Studies DepartmentDoctoral History Iordachi,Alfred J.Rieber, Balázs Trencsényi andMarshaSiefert andalso tothe support throughout the years. thank him forthat. Iam to SoringratefulAntohi forhisconstant and generous have incurred were numerous. dissertationI havebeenguidedmanyI helpedand by and thedebts people, iv Professor Roumen agreed Daskalov tosupervise my researchandI want to thisof writingand preparation the for neededyears Throughout the Last but not least, I owe my greatest debt of all to my family. Mywife, to myfamily. ofall Iowe mygreatestdebt least, Last butnot forSofia and theNewEuropeThe Centre AdvancedStudyin in College Many friends andcolleagues Many my encouragedand provided friends study mein express Constantin like to warmest my toProfessors also I would thanks ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

܇ incan, R ă zvan Pârâianu, Steliu

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w g a e r e .c o m Chapter II:Establishing Legion:the the Founding Legionthe of of the Introduction List of Illustrations Abstract v Chapter I. Corneliu ZeleaCodreanu and the “Prehistory”the Romanian of Acknowledgements I. 1. The Bases of Codreanu’s Radicalism: from the War Front to the to Front Radicalism:Codreanu’s theWar of from Bases The 1. I. II. 2. theProvincesWorking –the LocalCharacter oftheLegion inItsIncipient I. 3. Old and the New Together: Codreanu’sNew Together: theCuza’sA.C.within and Activity Old 3. I. II. 1.Separatingthe Boysfrom of theFounding Legionofthe the Men– 3. Sources,Methodology andStructure...…...………………………………… 30 2.2. Developments in Romanian Historiography on Fascism……………. 21 2.1. Developments in Western Historiography on Fascism ..……………. 11 2. Fascism asaRevolutionary, Regenerative Ideology: theQuestion ofthe 1. East-CentralEurope after the‘Great andRomania’sWar’ Challenges inthe I. 2. The 1922 anti-Semitic Student Strikes and the Birth of the “1922 the of Birth anti-Semiticthe 1922 Student Strikes and The 2. I. “New Man”“New andthe Order” –aHistoriographicalAppraisal ...………10 Postwar Context ...……………………………………………………………… 4

...………………………………………………………………………………iii Years andtheFirst ElectoralBreakthroughs...... ………………………92 Structuring oftheMovement ……………………………………………. 63 Conflict..…………………………………………………………………….54 National-ChristianDefense League,from Cooperation toGenerational Generation”.……………………………………………………………….. 43 University Front(1916-1922)……………………………………………39 Archangel Michael:Archangel Existence (1927-1932) .……………………………………………… 63 of Yearsfirst the Developmentin its Archangel Michaeland Legionary Movement -1927) ………………………………… (1916 39 ...... …………………………………………………………………..vii ...………………………………………………………………...iv Table ofContents 3ă mântul Str ă mo о esc , Generation Conflict and the 1

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Bibliography ………………………………………………………………………...230 Conclusions …………………………………………………………………………221 Chapterthe Legionary V.1937asthePeakof Regenerative from Project: Chapter III:the Year 1933as ofGreat Transformations …………………….104 vi Chapter IV. The “Silent Work”: How the Legion Put its Political Project into V. 2.Fighting Againstthe State: theLegion’s Quest for Electoral Success in V. 1. IV. 3. Social ComponentsSocialtheIV. 3. Legionary of MovementExpansionthrough - System Camp Work Legionary the Regeneration: towards Working 2. IV. Repression,DissentRecovery:IV. 1. and theLegionaryMovementthe in III. 2. The 1933 ElectoralBattle: Antidemocratic Views, Violence, and Political The 1. III.

1937 …………………………………………………………………………203 Legionary Leaders IonMo ………………………………………………………………………….…….150 SacralisedPolitics Action: theFebruaryin Burialof theRomanian 1937 Women andtheLegionWomen ………………………………………………...161 the Workers; StudentBodyand of the of RoleDiversification:the Years 1934-1936.....……………………………………………………133 Assassination………………………………………………...…………...129 Movement: Intellectuals andPolitics within the Movement ....………105 the Mo Practice andBecameaMass-Movement ……………………….133

Axa Ġ Group and the IdeologicalLegionaryCrystallizationthe of the and Group a –Marin Burial totheParliamentary Elections .…….180 Ġ a and Vasile Marin ………………..………..180a andVasile

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w g a e r e .c o m V. 6: A group of priests during the Mothe priests during of A group V. 6: Mo The V. 5: V. 4.Legionaries inuniforms, forming across with bodies during their theMo V. 3:Thousands of Legionaries perform the Mo V. 2:TheMo V. 1:The Legionary group ofvolunteers for theSpanish Civil inagroup War IV. 5:Female legionariesfrom Cern Mure streetsof Târgu the on IV.3: Studentsmarching IV. 4:Students doingthelegionarysalute infrontoftheOrthodox Cathedralfrom IV.2: Group of legionaries intheRar IV.1: Outline ofthe siteofthe legionary work campRar on II. 4: Page from legionary journalII. 4: the II. 3:Thefirst group oflegionariessaluting the leaders in1927...………………..91 II. 2:Theleatherpouch thatcontained the samplesthatof soil weregiven to II. 1:The“Christian CulturalHostel” from Ia vii 1937).....…………………………………………………………………………199 Bucharest (February1937)……………………………………………………197 funeralMarin procession (February1937)...... ………………………………197 Railway Station in Bucharest (February 1937)...……………………………195 Bucharest (February1937)……………………………………………………194 photo, beforedeparture (November 1936)…………………………………..185 (April 1936)...……………………………………………………………………174 Târgu MureTârgu (1936)……………………………………………………………………………166 police (1934)………………………………………………………….154the local enthusiastic terms theNazi congressfrom Nürnberg, August 1928..……..92 every legionaryat the November1927ceremony...……………………….90 8, ܊ a-Marin funeralprocession on the NorthRailway Station platform in Ġ a-Marin mortuary cart during the procession on the streetsof the during mortuaryprocessionon cart the a-Marin ܈ (1936)……………………………………………………………167 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ILLUSTRATIONS OF LIST ă ăX܊ u work camp (1934)………………………156 3ă i at thestudentcongressi Târgu Murein

mântul Str Ġ a-Marin funeralprocessiona-Marin (February ܈ i (1927)……………………………...82i Ġ a-Marin Oath in front of the North ă mo о ܈ esc in legionary in uniforms ă u Mountain done by which described in in described which Ġ a- ܈

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w g a e r e .c o m European History origins, theevolution andthesuccess of fascism asapoliticalmovement were fascism underremain researched. Themaintheoretical constructs regardingthe abundant, the“peripheral”Germanyetis cases suchasRomanian one salient endpoint. majorphenomenon stillfrom the twentieth century is political far reaching its of Europe: On theUses and Disadvantages of an Analytical Category,” “‘PoliticalTotalitarianthe Religion’ and Inter-warDepartures of Roberts, D. David and its aftermath,” in 396, Neil Gregor, “Politics, culture, political culture:recent work ontheThird Reich ReligionTheory,”in (2004):326-375, RichardSteigmann-Gall, Politicalthe Revival“Nazismand of CriticismInterpretation,”on an of “Fascism, Totalitarianism and Political Religion: DefinitionsCritical and Reflections (2001): 609–20, Paul Betts, “The New Modernism”in Roger Griffin“TheReclamation of Fascist Culture”, an assessment ofthese trends one can rely on, among others, the contributions of the analysis offascist culture andits relationship with modernism andmodernity. For decade, such asthe use of the concept of‘political religion’ inthe study of fascism, 2 historian”, 1

1 Various researchfields beenexplored have by present-day scholars inthe last Peter Burke, “Invitation tohistorians: An intellectual self-portrait, or the history of a Despite several decades of intensive research, the study of fascism of fascism as a several thestudy ofintensive research, decades Despite 2 Rethinking History While the literature While onparadigmatictheorthe casessuchas Italian intelligence, perception (psychological, political or whatever) and the ability between past and present. This function involves rethinking and rewriting Journal of Contemporary History „It is worth asking right at the start whether history needs to be rethought between ‘traditional’ and ‘modern approaches. However, I also feel very to communicate well, qualities that have nothing to dowith any division 18 (2009): 381-414. strongly that the function of a historian isto mediate, like a translator, Journalof Modern History Totalitarian Movements Politicaland Religions at all. In myview, what makes a good historian is a combination of

, 13 (2009): 269—81. INTRODUCTION Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions

Fascination with Fascism: The Case ofNazi 78(2006): 643-683 (2006: 643-683), 37 (2002):37 541–58, EmilioGentile,

European History Quarterly history in every generation.”

in 5(2004): 376- Contemporary Peter Burke 31 31 5 1

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w g a e r e .c o m under the guise of ethnic (mainly Jewish) and political enemies. modernliberalism. The“agents” ofthis degenerativetendency are alsoidentified 5 Analyses, Interpretations, Bibliography Europe, themost relevant being Laqueur Walter (ed.) 101–26.Severalworks casestudies undertookvariousdifferentfrom of parts 4 1976) and Stein U. Larsen U. Steinand 1976) European Fascism, Fascism: “The Man ofthe Archangel” Rogger), (Berkeley: University of California Press), 1965 or his study on Romanian Nostrand, 1964), Nostrand, assured that mass its garnered appeal and the supportit diverse social the and consideringas asolid itideologicalconstruct, Iexpect tobetterunderstand by bringing abouta“new man” anda“new order.” Analyzing fascism within,from principal aim the necessity toregenerate aso-called stateof decay and decline seminal worksvarious types onfascism:of 3 body ofthought,” decaying system of emerged the interwar in period asanalternative towhat fascists considered the revolutionaryregenerative,projectsthat of history the fascism in Romanian positionsdissertation The field. the methodologicaldevelopmentsin and Romanian fascisma comparative in framework, based onthe latest theoretical specificitiestheto investigate thisgap and of to partiallydissertation fill is as Scandinavia, Eastern Europe or the Balkans. cases. Little attention has been paidto manifestations offascism regionsin such additionsGermany,the French,withsmalland, sometimes, ofSpanish British Hitler’sMussolini’sand Italy analysisof the almoston exclusivelybased 2 Asmentioned before, this state of decay is identifiedwith the turnof the century RogerEatwell, Someauthors attempted tofill this gapasearly the 1960s.as See Eugen Weber’s The starting research hypothesis assesses that fascism is a “coherent fascism is startingresearch hypothesisassesses that The Fascism: Fascism: a History The European Right: a Historical Profile 4 a revolutionaryforwardits politicala puts as ideology which (Bergen: Universitetsforlaget, 1980) fin-de-siècle

et al. al. et liberalism. , (London: Vintage, 1996), xix. (ed.)

in ,

Journal of Contemporary History (Berkeley: University of CaliforniaPress,(Berkeley: University of Who Were the Fascists:the Wereof Roots Who Social Varieties ofFascism 3 . The aim of the present the of aim The Fascism:Guide:Reader's a

(co-edited with Hans with(co-edited , (Princeton:Van , 1 (1966):1 5

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w g a e r e .c o m 7 Modern History mass popularity.Stagesof Fascism,”Robert Paxton, “TheFive See 6 (Detroit: State UniversityWayne Press, 1987), 6. young the of dimensionemphasizessocialthe importance The research. solely asanaesthetic and discursive product. a historicalplacedregeneration,notregardcontext in does fascism itis and or as culture,ideology such history, issues intellectual on focuses on study modern,valuesnineteenth bourgeois ofthe century. However, even thoughthis based inacomplex contextthat containedthe setforth opposition ideas in tothe is Guard. It Iron theanti-establishment, as radical, movementsuch fascista theis study of that ideological milieu whichproduced the motivating force behind intellectualtrends thatdominatedthe political lifeoftheperiod.More precisely, it bringabout“newwouldan analysisthe country”anda“newman,” a of is spirituala revolutionnationregenerative that projectthe through renewing of the of fascistideology,and Romanianthe of studyThehistory. political and history social intellectuals, history of history, intellectualas such fields emerging generation conflict. fascistyouth movementsthe of the in an analyzingoutlining of therole andto their regenerative quest for a“new man.” idealization of‘manliness’” asthedynamic components thatwereresponsible for and “the age” against old considersdissertationof youthas fascism’s “worship political success variousin contexts. 3 George L.Mosse, Nowcommonsensical, it tookalong timefor somehistorians to accept fascism’s Thus, elements ofpoliticaland social historyremainindispensable for this The currentdissertationresearch placed is at the junction between several 70 (1998): 2-3. 2-3. (1998): 70 Masses and Man: Nationalist and Fascist Perceptions of Reality

6 Another salient hypothesisthat guidesthis 7 Thus,special attention will begiven to Journal of Journal ,

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w g a e r e .c o m and for thedefeated. The feelings ofrevoltagainst modernity that were brewing horrificexperience of thewar markedall illusions, theendof bothfor thevictors nations went towar 1914 dreaming in about their future greatness and might, the massivethe humancontextof casualties broughtaboutbythe“Great If War”. radicalcharacterthenationalrethinkingthecommunitiesof of anxiety, in dissertation. fascism,constant references sotointerwarpolitics be made will the throughout contexts lend greaterinsight into theemergence anddevelopmentRomanian of politicalEuropean and national fascism.The Romanian of underpinnings receivespecialattention, enable asthiswillbetter understanding a social ofthe adherence of categories such as workers, priests and women totheLegion will both names throughout the thesis. Movement itsin political manifestation. Forpractical andstylisticreasons I will use 9 University Press, 1997), 174. History of Young People in theWest and Revolutionaries, 1789-1917” in Giovanni Levi and Jean-Claude Schmitt eds., 8 a morea comprehensive pictureofthe development oftheIronGuard. students and intellectuals cameunder scrutiny duringtheresearch andconveyed impacted Europeaninterwar political life. cult ofviolencethe emerged traumaticout of experiencethethat Great of War generation afterthe experience ofOne. Afeeling of solidarity Warand World a 4 “IronGuard” was whichanother name designatedthe Romanian Legionary Fordifferent aspects ofthese issues please see Sergio Luzzatto, “Young Rebels . East-Central Europe after the ‘Great War’ and 1. Romania’s Challenges The interwar periodwas regarded by many, andjustifiably so,asanage of in the Postwar Context

, vol. 2, (Cambridge: Belknap Press ofHarvard 8 Certain social categories such as such categories social Certain 9 Also, the A

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w g a e r e .c o m phenomenon), (Alba Iulia: Editura Fronde, 1998). eoeuu legionar fenomenului wrote about thisencounter:wroteabout Julius Evola, 12 11 II, Iron Guard. penetratedideas andalso attached tofascistestablishmentpolitical the the of Guénon. This trendalsoinfluenced youngRomanian intellectuals whobecame René orEvolaJulius as figures of such the lines alongamong intellectuals, the war. Thus, a retreat in irrational,mystic and occult ideas becamemore visible reason, wasfounded on consideredresponsiblefor thedestruction broughtby civilization, Western “Great War”. the especiallyafterEurope, in audience who advocatedthedeclineof civilizationWestern withall itsvalues, foundalarge mushrooming Europe. throughout Skepticalthinkers,as Oswald Spengler, such modernization. startedprocess, andsothey to beregarded as potentially newpathstowards modernizationthe failures of debatesregardinggreat the the withcoincided 10 well-prepared and fertile soil.” easily toCentralEasternEurope, and since theseedsofrevolt hadfallenonto nationalism theWestern partofthecontinent,and fascism, “transplanted bornin arena. Somemainideological ofthe trendsoftheepoch,suchascommunism, public of the perfect momentthe center comecentury found the to of the to the intellectualin and political circlesof many European countries sincetheturn 5 In 1938 Julius Evola paid a visit toCorneliuCodreanu, whom headmired, and Ibid.,50. IvanT. Berend, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 49. This was also the time when thetimeanti-rationalistThis wasalso anti-liberal and were ideas 12

Decades of Crisis: Central and Eastern Europe before World War (Nationalismlegionaryasceticism.the and Reflectionson

10 The embracing of these ideas in the regionthe in these ideas embracingof The Na Ġ ionalism ú i ascez i ă . Reflec . Ġ ii asupra ii

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w g a e r e .c o m Editura Alternative, 1999), 141. Sociologie politic movement. the 1920s,sharingthe spotlight for brief periodsoftimewith MarshalAverescu’s România interbelic 16 102. 15 (London: Routledge, 1997), 31. 14 Russia, and the Middle East, 1914-1923, (London: Routledge, 2001), 157. 13 in 1926. constitution was adopted. An Italian inspired electoral reform was carried also on agrarian reform and universalsuffrage were implemented, in1923 while anew situation.of reformsimplementto adjust orderthe current series The to in a Bukovina). Facedwith thesenewchanges, the Romanianpolitical elite started to the “GreatUnion” (the addition of the provinces of Transylvania,Bessarabia and country, as moresize it in thandoubled andpopulation Poland, Czechoslovakia, andYugoslavia, 1919-1920 peace treatieswhichmarked theemergence ofnewsstates suchas territorialthe populationsizableAfterlosses.Hungary, suffered and such as Romania, benefited from the drawingof new, postwar borders,others, while nationalistictensions Central in andEasternEurope. Somecountries, suchas empires fellapart. unprecedented territorial changesmultinational totheregion,asthreebig 6 Forthis, pleasework seethe of sociologist Mattei“Dansul Dogan– electoral în Lucian Boia, Lucian R. J. Crampton, J. Crampton, R. Aviel Roshwald, EthnicNationalism Empires: the Fallof Central and Europe,

The end of the war also broughtextraordinarypoliticalandalsoturmoil war of the end The 16 The liberalpart The ledbyIonel Br Romania Borderland of Europe, ă . Opere alese ă Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century – and After ” (The Electoral Dance in Interwar Romania) 13 These changes only amplified the already existing already the amplified only changes These

(Political Sociology. Selected Works) ă 14 tianu dominatedthe politicalscene of Romania virtually becameanother virtually Romania (London: Reaktion Books, 2001), 15 after what was whatafter called

Mattei Dogan, Mattei , (Bucharest: , 2 nd edition

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w g a e r e .c o m Generation of1914 “generationof 1914” asidentifiedfor Western Europe byRobert in hisWohl 18 Hitchins, 17 formedZeleapeopleCorneliu young around exploits,of group daring a and 1920s. Discontented with thefact that Cuza’s doctrine was notbased on action the anti-Semiticultranationalistenjoyedsomepoliticianwhoin and success an Cuza, C. Alexandru of National-ChristianDefense(LANC)of League joinedtraditionalgenerationnationalist andas The partiessuch anti-Semitic during the 1922 anti-Semitic student strikes. young generationthat would laterbeatthecoreofLegionary Movementwas the historyof Romania theinterwar in period. flourished, andalso made animpact onthe public scene. fascist movementsof theArchangelMichaelemergedthe Legion suchas and context,whichwaschangedbeginningthe radicallyemerge.in This to had regarded thetime theywere leaving as acrossroad,in a point from whichnew, a older generation.Much like their counterparts other in European countries, they a feelingnot find of belonging inthedesignthe new of state, controlledby the and eventemporal wascrisis addedtothemix,with ayounggeneration thatdid feeling of unrest that was growing thein society asawhole. Also, acertainmoral of 1929-1933addedmorepressureforthe decision makers,favoredthe and consolidatingalso the state new anditscentral authorities. Theeconomic crisis of ethnic minorities that were now part ofGreater Romania(almost 30%),while 7 In theRomanian case one can speak of a “generation of 1922” rather than of a of the One best accounts of interwar Romanian history may inbe found Keith The historyoftheRomanianLegionary Movementwas connected deeply to Romanianpoliticians had tosolvetheissue ofintegratingthe bigpercentage Rumania 1866–1947 , (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1979).

, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994). 17 Thefirstpoliticalaffirmation ofthe 18 After this event, the young the event, this After The The

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w g a e r e .c o m footbridges, building housesfor the poor orhelping out the peasants. movementpreformed voluntarylaborrepairingconsisting manual churches,of founded by the Iron Guardprimarily in thecountrysidewhich in membersofthe 19 Romania. the youth,bothphysicallyand spiritually, for becomingthe future “new men” of embodiment“legionary school,” of the anexampleof regeneration that prepared epitomizednew trendthethispolitics of Legion. in the Itwas considered the project ofcreating a “new man” anda “new country.” Thework camp system regenerativeof the the guise underdoctrine,character of their constructive Prime I.G. Duca December Minister in the 1933, Legion beganto emphasize the assassinationbannedbeingAfter becauseofits ofliberal make itself heard. platform, actedwithboth violent theIronGuard andpeacefulmeans orderto in thecountry.Permanentlyunification contested of authoritiesradical forby its politicians1918aftertheRomaniathe harm by the ridof promised done to school thatwould train youngpeople tobecome“new men”tomorrow. the of It an incipient massIt presentedrevolutionary base. itselfas a movement,a as movement’stransferthe Bucharest of leadershipto 1933, theLegionformed in did notsolve thesocialand economic ofthe crisis country. Beginning withthe the growing dissatisfaction ofthepopulationthe various withgovernments that Michael was formed. materialand the ones.Thus,summer in of 1927theLegionofthe Archangel advocated action andthe primacy ofthespiritualvalues asopposed toeconomic platform that moreradical a embracedfromseceded and LANC Codreanu 8 Thework camp system consistedcamps orsmallwork construction of sites Located attheperiphery ofthepoliticalsystem, capitalized theLegion on

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w g a e r e .c o m Nature ofFascism “abortive fascisms” together with theAustrianand Hungarian movements cf. 21 20 Mure mass1936support amongat the StudentCongress from students(e.g. Târgu 9 living forcesofthis nation.” following: “anyway, ahugework ofmoralregeneration has tobestarted byall the stateand the ofdecaythat he considered symptomaticfor thetime, wrote the militaryCodreanu, his doing service, discontentedmoralvalueswith thelackof the votesand became thethird most important political party in Romania. by theresultofDecemberelections, 1937 whenLegion gained the 15%of become amass-movement andaredoubtable politicalforce. This was confirmed Guard.1937 In of theIrontoeveryone itwas thattheIronhad obvious Guard present research. students, intellectuals, workers, priests and women ofinterestwill alsobe forthe towardslegionary regenerative whomwas the projectof the directed. Therole One will alsoconcentrate onwho constituted the social base of theLegion, and mainthe causesofitsinitial success andwhatbrought aboutits final failure. order tothat,Iwillfocus onhow thisdid regenerative project looklike, what were regenerativeanalyze this project envisaged byCodreanuas earlyas 1921.In Ion Mo Roger Griffinincluded Romanian fascism of the Iron Guardinthecategory of

Cuvântul, ú ) and infactamong) population the in general(during themassof funeral The successenjoyedbythework alongwiththedisplaysof camp system, In a letter sent on August 30,1921toone letter sentonofficershe metwhileof the In a Ġ a and Vasile Marinand Vasile in1937)showed a thetremendous growth popularity in XVII, No. 49 (December 1, 1940). 1, 1940). (December 49 XVII,No. , (London and New York: Routledge, 1996), 116–145.

20 The purpose of this dissertationunpack ofthis and to purpose is The The The 21

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w g a e r e .c o m 22 the Italian communist AngeloTasca attempt andtheorizing ofdefining fascism ofactually writing consist its history,as analysis of variousfascistmovements more intellectually profitable?Shouldthe theoreticalbasesthe case-by-case, forfuturehistoricalwritings? Isa empirical define a“fascist minimum,” orthetraitsofa“generic fascism” thatwouldprovide theoryCan anyvalidthisphenomenon on accuratelybe stated? ever Canone historicalof this phenomenon.one approachthestudyoffascism? How should answer severalkey questions thatwouldhelp explain the emergence andgrowth 10 fascism: theories, causes and thenew consensus GriffinRoger (ed.),or University 441Press, 1995), of Wisconsin process. andideological somepolitical writinghistory of theinfluencesthatmarked the and post-communistto map Romania, themaintopics ofdiscussion andto trace European,Westernmainly Anglophone, historiographycommunistalsoand in the evolution ofthe historiographicaldebates surroundingthe studyof fascism in undergone adramatic evolution. The aim of thissection ofmywork topresent is fascismstudyof consensus, has culturalistquest fora the present andliberal “totalitarian theory” developedperhapsCold and duringthe ending withthe War old andstill ongoing. emerged the in minds ofscholars of fascism, andthe debate surroundingthem is See Stanley G. Payne,Stanley G. See . Fascism as a Revolutionary, Regenerative2. Ideology: the Question of Studies concerningfascismdecades, developing haveto fortrying been the “New Man” and the “NewOrder” –aHistoriographical Appraisal From the communist influenced theories of the interwar period, to the interwar period,to theoriesinfluencedof the From thecommunist

A History of Fascism 1914 –1945 22 suggested? These are all questionssuggested?These areall that , (London: Arnold, 1998), 12. , (Madison: The (Madison: , International

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w g a e r e .c o m 23 bourgeois State.” the disintegrationof the capitalistprogressiveeconomy of of dissolution and describedfascism as “acharacteristicphenomenon reflection ofdecay,a ofthe interpretation was advancedbythecommunists, influentialphenomenon.politicalthisAn of nature the as well as causes and aims the atplacing debateswithin their historical context. fascism isselective on the studies myof existent Thus, literature. assessment hugeempiricalof meanspossible duetothe body worksonfascism by no is historiographicaldevelopment. and accountthe theoretical Acomprehensive of actual its with intertwined was study of field this of basis conceptual and the theoreticalevolution.Thus, andorigins explainingits fascism and various monographspublished hadto beginwith thearduous taskofdefining thethistheorizingphenomenon.Indeed, politicalwith fascism struggled on the endof1970s Western historiography onfascism fromtheend oftheSecond World Waruntil 11 (ed.), Griffin Roger in fascism 24 97. Fascism: Theories, Causes and the New Consensus For a view Marxiston theories offascism seeRoger Griffin(ed.), See the extractsSee theresolutionCommunist froma of theInternational regarding 2.1. Developments in Western Historiography on Fascism The various debates concerning fascism legitimately insisted on the on insisted fascism legitimately concerning debates various The Since the1960s,whencluster a ofsalient studies was published,works 24 This simplisticThis andpoliticallymotivated language wassoon

Fascism , (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), 260. 260. 1995), Press, University Oxford , (Oxford: 23 who as early as June 1923 as whoearly as , (London: Arnold, 1998), 59– International

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w g a e r e .c o m 27 Paradigms” in S.U. Larsen Kühnl,“ContemporaryR. and Hagtvet Survey of Fascism: Approachesto a bgiw Brzezinski, Zbigniew FriedrichJ. and Carlworktotalitarianism.respect,of century, i.e. the this In twentieththe phenomenonof broad more complexand a manifestationsof the consideredof wascategory.totally one unique It as a fascism not totalitarianismEurope,overdominationan important theory of of part the saw favored the development ofthe theory of totalitarianism. Inthecontext ofStalinist theMarxistthan andtotalitarian onesemerged.Notedhistorian Eugen Weber and obscured the evolution of fascism as apolitical phenomenon. because it tended todownplaythe differences between fascism and communism criticized totalitarianism was of concept fascism.The of vision Marxist the proved tobemuch motivated, toopolitically oftenfunctioning asacounterpart to Totalitarianism work Arendt’s Hannahwas influential Equally manipulation. massthroughparty andimposingitselfterrorideology,andby a propelled paradigmatic.outlined They traitsof totalitarianism the a revolutionary asbeing Payne, 26 Communist International, Palmiro Togliatti. See Ibid., 263–4. 25 after theSecond World War. militants from Europe. Western the communistpropagandaSovietthealsobutonlyby appropriatedby not 12 Stanley G. Payne, G.Payne, Stanley An excellent An overview of interpretations offascism may be foundinStanley G. Anexample is the conception on the nature of fascism of the Italian member of the Fascist studies received a real boost in the boostFascist 1960swhenstudiesreceivedrealtheories other in a However,more far complex theoriesoffascism emerged among scholars A HistoryofFascism (first published in 1951). However, the theory of totalitarianismHowever,theorypublished 1951). the in (first A history of Fascism A historyof Totalitarian Dictatorship andAutocracy et al.

, 441–61. Another useful work in this sensewould beB. 26 , (ed.) , (ed.) 25 The beginning of the Cold War in the 1950s in beginningthe Cold War of The

op. cit., op. , 448. 26–51. 26–51.

27 The Origins of Origins The 15) was (1956)

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w g a e r e .c o m as foritsrestrictivedefinitionas well the“fascist minimum.” of However, Nolte’s philosophicalapproach work came difficult criticism fascism, under for its Nolte’s principle ( anti-conservatism,totalitarianmilitarizedwill, the a structureand theleadership minimum”it downnarrowingsixmaintraits: to byanti-liberalism, anti-Marxism, the communistFurthermore, one. mapped Nolte what heconsidered the “fascist of “transcendence,”radicallyother modelschanged against –and – especially developed as anideologyaimed creating at a neworder:itcamea reaction as fascism historian, German the to According phenomenon.metapolitical fascistcomplexityconsidereda uniqueemphasizedof the he ideology which and was soontranslated into English. 28 and Winston, 1966). His mostknownwork,His stressing differences theobvious thatexisted between andcommunism. fascism the 1960s. studies He shiftedin thedebate from Coldthe left-right War logicby Eastern Europe during theinterwar years. providing detailed accounts offascistmovements emergedin Centraland that by field the contributionto original madean approach.comparative Weber a suggesting Europe across movements fascist on focused studies case work, his published 13 29 century Fascism, National Socialism Eugen Weber, Weber, Eugen Thebook wastranslated as German historian Ernst Nolte also had an important impact on fascist importantimpacton an also had Ernst Nolte Germanhistorian , (Princeton: Van Nostrand, 1964). Fuhrerprinzip VarietiesFascism:of revolutiontwentieth of doctrinesthe in Varieties ofFascism Der Faschismus in seinerEpoche ). Although it marked an innovative shift in the studymarkedinnovativeshiftthe an of Although it in ).

transl. byLeila Vennewitz, York: (New Holt, Rinehart Threefacesof fascismFrançaise, :Action Italian 29 , 28 A student of Heidegger’s, Nolte in 1964 and presentednumerousand 1964 in waspublished1963 in

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w g a e r e .c o m country-by-country case studies. focus onthe study of fascism as agenericphenomenon buttendedto focus on Allardyce’s viewanimportantthe had 1980s,whenhistorians echoin did not differences and particularities itpresented various inits manifestations. the to due defined,accurately be fascismmaygeneric that denied and as GilbertAllardyce who tendedtoseefascism ofnationalas aproduct histories reference point formany scholars of fascism the decadesin tocome. American Historical Review 33 Historical Perspective”, 3–121, and Zeev Sternhell, “FascistIdeology”, 315–75. 32 Bibliography 31 traits offascist ideology. seminalstudy on the comparative approach while the latter attempted tomap the a and Sternhell,firstprovidingthelong Linz orZeev Juan as fascism such 30 Fascism: aReader’sGuide Laqueur’s, by Walter coordinated effort collective the in shown as fascism, today. contribution theorizingin theconcept of “generic fascism” widely acknowledged is 14 Gilbert Allardyce, Fascism “What IsThoughts Not: on theDeflation ofa Concept,” JuanLinz, “Some Notes Towards aComparative Study of Fascism in Sociological (ed.) Laqueur Walter Roger Griffin (ed.), Griffin(ed.), Roger 30 The 1970sclosed, however, withthetrend established byhistorianssuch In the 1970s,In thesome triedwork scholars to withintheparadigm of generic

, (Berkeley: University of CaliforniaPress, 1976). Fascism 32 Fascism: a Reader's Guide: Analyses,Interpretations,Reader'sGuide:Fascism: a Thebook coordinated byLaquer proved to be a strong 84(1979): 367–88.

. 31 , 297. , 297. It brought together Itbrought some experts of oftheleading

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w g a e r e .c o m 36 as areactionaryfascism movement,only as a instead that emergednot but by acharismatic leader. controlling these energies andchanneling them masstowards a movement lead this revolt, taming process of theofconsisted key theHowever, century. againstrevoltthe liberalismof of positivism,turn whichemergedand the at ed., ed., 35 Journal ofContemporary History 34 embody vision ofaclasslesssociety.” their satisfy adeeply-feltneed foractivism withcombined identification,seemed it to shouldbe acknowledgedmillions did ratheranticommunist)that: “for it it but or reactionary as (only negativetenets its on only based analyzed be not its own,trying tocreate a new order anda“new man.” Hearguedfascism should acknowledged that fascism was arevolutionary movement thathadaproject of approach.Mossecultural a suggesting politics, even economyor the than studies before him. Hesoughtthesource andnaturefascism of other in areas history. contemporaryrealmthe of contributorsin the leading of one emergedas Mosse. Mosse was nonewcomer the1970s in and80s,assince the1960s he L. Georgetherethework the1980s of emergedand developed and 1960s 15 Ibid., 15–6. George L.Mosse, “The Genesis ofFascism,” in Walter Laqueur, George Mosse He actually co-founded1966, in together with Walter Laqueur, the prestigious International Fascism 1920 –1945 Mosse also dismissedMosse also theoversimplifying Marxist view of fascism, arguing Simultaneous with these theoretical debates on fascismtheoreticalthe these betweendebatesSimultaneouson with The Culturalist Turnin Fascist Studies: George L.Mosse 34 His works His on Nazi Germany provided abroader view than many ofthe 36

. (New York: Harper Torchbook, 1966), 25. 35 Fascism based itself on the sensethe on Fascismbaseditself

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w g a e r e .c o m (New York: Howard Fertig, 1999), x. 40 39

38 37 the 1979 article “Toward aGeneral Theory ofFascism,” momentwhen was conceived. it Onehis of most cogentcontributions remained thantheoreticalat the frameworkthe long run proved morein influential that for decades, even when stood it against prevailing historiographical orthodoxies: culturalistof his approachtothestudyoffascism, anapproachthatheadvocated synthesized his view on fascism: essence,in a“cultural revolution.” movement withits own program of reshaping andregenerating aworld in crisis, 16 In theintroduction ofhisbook was generously embraced byasignificant number ofhistorians only inthe1990s. George L.Mosse, Ibid., pp. 194–5. Republished in Stanley G. Payne, G.Payne, Stanley

This culturalist appeal andappeal itspower.” judgeit we out,truly can fascism have grasped fromtheinside understand themovementthen,ownOnly whenweits terms. on followerssaw andasits sawit,toattemptitself to fascism asit of which Mussolini spoke; or Hitler’s ‘German revolution.’” social change byretreatintoideology –the‘revolution ofthespirit’ economicseekingescape concrete and to and capitalism,still but a revolution,also attemptingto find‘third way’ a between Marxism mystiquenationalmight vary whichfrom was nation tonation.It Fascism‘attitude waseverywherean toward life,’ basedupona Masses and Man “Fascismculturalmovementas a means considered seeing A history of Fascism A historyof The Fascist Revolution: Toward aGeneral Theory of Fascism approach, firstsuggestedby asthe1960s, Mosse asearly

The Fascist Revolution , 159–96. 37

40 Mosse formulated his views on fascism in a views Mosseformulated his onfascism in

, 450–1. , Mosse summed upthegist 38 in which he 39

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w g a e r e .c o m see 41 1990s in his now famous synthesis, famousnow his in 1990s as 1980. thein twentiethcentury, he suggested athree-folddefinition offascism as early ofWisconsinat theUniversity history atMadison,and inthe ofSpain aspecialist as a“newconsensus” infascist studies. embracingthe works ofMosse, Payne and Griffin, this new trend was marketed historians of numbergrowing theas well as scholars,these of strength cultural-ideologicalacademicand institutionalits the components.on Due to Emilio Gentile andotherspushedforward anewinterpretation offascism, based Griffin,RogerPayne, as StanleyG. work,scholarssuch Mosses’s theoretical whichsought tore-evaluate andredefinethefascist phenomenon. on Building fascist studies such asStanley G. Payne, Roger Griffin and Roger Eatwell. be favored bysome contemporary historians, mentioning thenames ofscholars 17 Payne saw fascism as perpetrating and idealist, vitalist andvoluntarist philosophy styleand andorganization.In sofarasideologyandgoals were concerned, layers ofhistheoretical endeavor were ideology andgoals, thefascist negations, In developing this definition, Payne acknowledged the influence ofJuanJ. Linz, A HistoryofFascism The work of Stanley Payne is crucial in this Payne respect. crucialThe workofStanley is in AcolleagueofMosse The 1990sprovided aresurgence of studies dealingwithgeneric fascism, consensus”a “new RogerStanleyGriffin Payne,quest for inthe and sameIn the context, underlined Mosse also thatthisapproach began to 41 Hereiterated this definition inamore favourablecontext the mid- in , 6.

A History of Fascism of History A (1995). The three The (1995).

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w g a e r e .c o m 42 hisfascism.ofdefinition In providewhatwassingleunthinkable or threedecadesago,a twosentence managingto providehis own approachtogenericfascism. Heevenventured to while workPayne’s and Mosse’s on built and 1990s early the studies in taken byBritish historian RogerGriffin.Griffin fascist emergedthe sceneof on umbrella ofan“idealtype” concept. dismissthe diversity ofthefascist phenomenon,placingdefinition its underthe not “new order” “new man”.Payneon thedesiretocreatea and a did of all, proposed byfascism,which based onyouthful,itself masculine ideasand,most theculturalmovement.this regard,theemphasiswas revolutionplaced on In importanceseeingfascism of asanideology,notsimple and asa reactionary other hand, addedit new elements, building onMosses’s research, stressing the looking atfascism bymaking negations its only apartof substance.its On the defining fascism. Itmarked adeparture from Marxistthe andevenNoltean way of command.” of style personal charismatic,authoritarian, “an towards tendency the the masculinityprinciple, exaltation oftheyouth, massmobilization,as aswell of fascism he stressedtheparticular styleand organizationof fascism based on anti-liberalism, anticommunism anticonservatism.and complete his To depiction authoritarianstate. Paynealso hisdefinition included in thefascistnegations: nationalista and culture secular modernnew, a create to wished that 18 Stanley G. Payne, G.Payne, Stanley A step further down the road of the work on generic fascism generic the work hasbeen on downroad of A stepfurther the Payne’s undertakingto be,byfar,themost proved complex attemptof 42

A History of Fascism A Historyof

The Nature of Fascism , 7. , he summed up fascism as summedup he

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w g a e r e .c o m 43. 43. Consensus within Fascist Studies” 45 CD ROM Encyclopedia, 1999) Routledge, 2001) and even ineven Routledge,2001) and 1998 reader 1998 mainstream. coming from the left, i.e. communism. Thus, fascism presented itselfas theonlyalternative to the revolutionary threat themselves perceiveddeep state asa ofcrisis oftheold, liberal-bourgeois order. projectand“new man”.order fascist justified a to what The was fascists due regenerative/palingeneticnew,purified its creating a focusedprojecton that underscored theimportance ofmyth inunderstandingfascism while emphasizing 43 (New York: Routledge, 1998), Routledge, York: (New fascism. growingnumber ofscholars used a similar set ofapproaches when writing about embraced byscholars, but wasit rather anassumptionbased on the fact that a unanimouslywas“new the consensus” considerthat did not himselfGriffin based precisely on the “primacy of culture”. theof fasciststudies, growingemergence field consensusin of a the favor of permutations isapalingenetic form populist ultra-nationalism.”of various its in core mythicwhose political ideology of genus "a being: 19 Century Social Thought variousimportantencyclopaedias as such 44 26 (first published in 1991). RogerGriffin, “The Primacy of Culture:The Current Growth (orManufacture) of Roger Griffin, Roger To show the popularity of Griffin’s definition one should mention that it was used in Griffin’s theory synthesized the culturalist approach andoffered rendered it 44 International fascism: theories, causes and the newconsensus Taking this a step forward,thisTakingGriffin a thepreface argued,in ofhis The Nature of Fascism , (Blackwell, 1992),

Encarta 2000 Encyclopedia Encyclopedia ofFundamentalism Journal of Contemporary History , (LondonandNew York: Routledge, 1996), The Encyclopedia of Politics andReligion The Blackwell Dictionary of Twentieth- 45 It has to be acknowledgedto be has that It (Microsoft Publications Publications (Microsoft 37(2002): 21– Nw York: (New 43 He , in in ,

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w g a e r e .c o m 47 ibidem-Verlag, 2006). Extreme Right InternationalConcepts Debateon andCasesthe Comparativein Study of the 48 Princeton University Press, 1998). 49 Italy later reprinted asabookunder the title issue published by the German journal Griffin’swork onfascism (including the idea of a “new consensus”), please see the 46 politics politics and culture infascist Italy. Italy, providing interesting case studies from the two countries. betweenFrance and fascismconnection intellectuals(artists, theorists)and in essays edited byMatthew Affron andMark Antliff. exampleof how the culturalistapproach was puttogooduseisthecollection of and theexamination ofthe cult of youth within fascistmovements. Aremarkable emergence fascistof fascism,conflictgenerational culture of the analysis of in half of the 1990s. J. Gregor, it nevertheless offered abasis fornew works onfascism thein second fascism criticism of from Bosworth,scholars A. Paxtonsuch asR.J. Robert and severe consensuscameunder AlthoughGriffin’sfor a push theories. own example,found, for Mosse’s inspirationalapproach usefulforconstructing their aforementioned trendor embrace theconsensus, suchas Michael Mann, historians, 20

Michael Mann, Matthew Affron, Mark Antliff eds., eds., Antliff Mark Affron, Matthew Marla Stone,Marla For alengthy debate betweensizablea number ofscholars regarding Roger (Princeton:PrincetonUniversity 1997). Press, Marla Stoneconducted afruitfulstudy regarding the relationship between These studies focusonheretofore under examinedissues such asthe role debated by fascist still is studies consensus”in “new of a idea The 46 but even scholars who do not necessarily come from the the from come necessarily not do who scholars even but , ed. by Roger Griffin, WernerLoh, andAndreas Umland, (Stuttgart: The Patron State:The Patron Culture and PoliticsFascist in Italy Fascists , (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 2.

49 Fascist Visions: Art and Ideology in France and Sheemphasized the contribution of culture in Erwägen, Wissen, Ethik Fascism Past and Present, West andEast: 48 The essays focus on the essays focuson The 15,3(2004).was It (Princeton: 47 have

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w g a e r e .c o m between fascist regimes andthehistorical past. analyzedthe relationshipreligionpolitical regardedfascism or a youth, as inform the IronGuardfocusedpolitical the studyof onthe socialization the of 51 California Press, 2001). Politics of History in Fascist Italy Fascist in History of Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996); Claudio Fogu, Gentile, Italy, 1922-1943 theoretical culturalist recent, the with accordance in conducted studies 50 standing problems ofthenational past”. modernity thatwouldresolve boththecontemporary Europeancrisis and long- of modelnew a “as manyintellectualsregeneration” to nationalappealed development offascism. Ben-Ghiatalso emphasized that fascism as a“project of thegenerationalandyouthcultinsistingon importance of the thinkingthe in expansionistspecialchapterShe devotedto fascism’s plans. a youthpolicies, Mussolini’scountry’stowardsenergies targeting the societyby modernize to culture. Sheargued that, inspite ofseveral “reactionary” traits,fascism’s aimwas fascistof importance highlightingwhilemodernity the fascism and between through manifestations such asthe 1932 Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution. the legitimizationregimeof thefascistsenseof nationalcreating a unity, by 21 Tracy H. Koon, TracyH. Ruth Ben-Ghiat,Ruth 2.2. Developments in the Romanian Historiography on Fascism The historiographyThe of theRomanianLegionary Movement generallylacks In a highly creative book, Ruth Ben-Ghiat addressed the relationshipBen-Ghiatthe Ruth addressed creativebook, highly a In The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy (Chapel Hill:UniversityCarolina Press, ofNorth 1985); Emilio, Believe, Obey, Fight: PoliticalSocialization ofYouthinFascist Fascist Modernities: Italy, 1922–1945

(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003). 50 Other meaningful works that can that worksmeaningful Other 51

, Trans. by Keith Botsford,Keith Trans.by , (Berkeley: University of of University (Berkeley: The Historic Imaginary:

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w g a e r e .c o m 53 54 Romania after the Fall of Communism ”, Political Sciences Murgescu, “TheRomanianHistoriography 1990’s” in the Europe eds., Apor CommunistHistoriography” Romanian Sorin Antohi,inTrencsényi, Balázs Péter Petrescu, “Mastering vs.Coming to Terms with the Past. A Critical Analysis of Post- – 208. For post-communist historiography please see Cristina Petrescu and Drago Historiography Under Communist Rule” Review “Historiography of the Countries ofEastern Europe: Romania” in acknowledgeto one has KeithRomaniaSecond WorldHitchins,afterthe War 52 maintainingprofession in historical amongthe most vocal the were They theassociated withthe InstituteRomanian History ofthe for Communist Party. history was “subordinated toparty interests” War. Second World the country after of the Soviet-backed communist tookcontrol that dictatorship entire society,Romanianhistoriographyradicallytransformed wasalso by the Romanianhistoriography decades.theover Similar towhathappened tothe examples. revealing analysis of fascismgeneric phenomenonas a most ofone its significant and archaic,mystical,simple-minded,pastiche of deprives “core-cases” the Western Romanianexamples.use ofWestern fascism with thea exclusively Seeing as theoriesalmosttest variousdevelopedhistoriographicalhelp debates, would framework.A thoroughanalysisRomanianof fascism, the lightofcurrent in 22 special brand of historians emerged – emergedhistorians of brand special (RCP). Party Communist legitimacyhistoricalRomanian the to Keith Hitchins, Hitchins, Keith ܇ Amongthefew reliable accounts regarding the historiographical developments in erban Papacostea, The international debates presented above were not emulated by the emulatedinternationalpresentedby debatesaboveThe not were (Budapest: Central EuropeanUniversity 311-408, Press,2007), Bogdan 97 (1992):1064–8397 and NarrativesPost-CommunistUnbound.HistoricalStudiesin Eastern op. cit. op. 3, 1(2003): 30-59, andIrinaCulic, “Re-Writingthe History of 52 op. cit. op. Along with all the social sciences and the humanities,the and sciencessocialthe all withAlong , 1081.

, 181. 181. , ܇ erban Papacostea,erban “Captive Clio:Romanian History Compass History Compass European History Quarterly at historians party 53 and wasto orderascribe and usedin 3 (2005): 1-21. The RomanianThe Journalof – those who were who those – American HistoricalAmerican 54 , 26 (1996):, 26 181 As a result, a ܈

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w g a e r e .c o m 56 Guard. Terrorist organization of a fascist kind) 2 Politic aspirations of theRomanian people.” mostburningthe betrayal“brutalof a nation”and our heritageof spiritual mass-appeal.natureThe Guardwas and “aliento the Iron regarded asbeing manipulated byNaziGermany, uncharacteristicRomanian for history andwith no movements. Itconsidered theIron Guardasareactionary, terroristorganization by nowwell-knownpolitically and biased visioncommunists of regardingfascist communistandperiod canon, wasreflected a turnedinto conceptually asit the remainedmonographthe only concerning theIronGuardpublished during the

55 Sp interpretationRomanianfascismof writtenF byMihai wasthat communisthistoriographythe paradigmaticof workregime. The communist material inorder toprosecute, often abusively, personspolitically unfaithfulto the knownpolice,as the secret communist Romanian the Moreover, researchers. to open not was study a such for substance topic,Movementand thearchivalmaterialthatprohibitedprovided was a the Legionary the of study fascism.The communistof interpretationhardcore remaineda theconfinedconstraints ideologicalescape to of theRCPand the communist regime. historiography undercontroland building party themuch legitimacy needed for 23 Ibid., 385. Mihai F ăOăĠ ă elu - elu This is why the historiography from the communist period could not couldperiodcommunisthistoriography from the the why This is , 1980). ă tu, Ion Sp Garda de Fier. Organiza ăOăĠ elu,

Garda deFier. Organiza 56 Ġ ie terorist

ă detip fascist nd Ġ Securitate ie terorist edition, (Bucharest: Editura(Bucharest:edition, ă , used the archival the used , detipfascist . 55 This book also book This ă tu and Ion andtu . (Iron

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w g a e r e .c o m Life of Romania 1930-1938), (Cluj-Napoca: Editura Dacia, 1981), 92. Romaniei 1930-1938 59 58 Ia interbelic that theIronGuard gained“somemass among base” thosedesatisfiedby the her. Unlike some historiographical ofhis counterparts, Nedelcudid acknowledge Germany,only and enjoyedgreat a success because of thehelp receved from that movements suchasthe IronGuard orLANC were “thefifthcolumn” ofNazi one ofthe Nicolae Ceau Nedelcu described theascension offascism after1933 byusing aquotefrom career. successleader, the thatactuallythefuturehispoliticalstood at foundation of to understandthereaderyoungCodreanu’sstudentdifficult a for successas rather than aprofessional historian. emphasizing hisforeign ancestrya tonemorecharacteristic in pamphleteer toa time.constraintsoftackledthe the issueofCodreanu’sethnic Neagoe origin, ideological the by hamperedbook was the promisingtopic, a on Although dedicated asignificant part totheradicalizationthestudentsthe1920s. of in analyze universitythe cityof Ia lifein 57 Codreanu’s activity at the University of Ia dealt with aspects of the history ofRomanian fascism. 24 Florea Nedelcu, Florea Ibid., 91-2. Stelian Neagoe, Stelian ú i), (Ia Writing about the political life in Romania in the 1930s, historianRomaniathe Florea thepolitical in about Writing life in In 1977,historian StelianNeagoe published animportant workthat also ú ă i: Editura Junimea, 1977).

(TheTriumph reason of against violence: the interwar university life of Triumfulra De la Restaurala De (From Restauration to the Royal Dictatorship: from the Political ܈ escu’s speeches.

Ġ iuniiîmpotriva violen 58 р ie la DictaturaRegalla ie He also describedmuch same He in the vein ܈ i in thein interwar periodandthusNeagoe i ܈ i. Suchi. descriptions wouldmake itvery 59 Nedelcu alsoto demonstratetried Nedelcu Ġ ei: Viaei: 57 ă The book sought to soughtbook The Ġ : din viadin: a universitara р a politica ă ie ú ă an a ă

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w g a e r e .c o m relationship between thelegionary ideology and literature. as the suchmuchdiscussed,that werenot that issues alsobut Guard, ofstruggleworkers the movementof thecommunist and party against theIron topics such astheeconomicand ideological relationshipwithNaziGermany, the variouscovered aspectsoftheRomanian historyof fascism, preferred favoring ܇ Constantinescu,Popescu-PuMiron Ion Roman, Florea Nedelcu, butalsoimportant politicaland intellectualnames suchasValter 61 60 “the usual suspects”Mihaiusualas F such“the party. Thisworkmentioning worth is inthisliterature review groupedbecause it Institute for Historicaland Social-PoliticalStudies of the Romanian Communist SciencesPoliticalandand SocialAcademy the conferenceof organized by activity ofthe burgeois parties. 25 fascismului published duringthe interwar periodwas thecollective volume entitled mass theinterwar appealin period. confer politicaland historical legitimacy toapartythathadanalmost non-existent the IronGuard. This kind ofdiscursive elementmainly was employed in orderto exaggeration ofthe role oftheRomanian CommunistParty in thestruggle againt Nedelcu’work,historiographywascommunistthe presentin on fascism, also erban Cioculescuerban andGeorgeIva *** Ibid.,96-7. Împotriva fascismului One interesting contribution to the literature on Romanian fascismRomanian on literature the to contributioninteresting One (Against fascism).(Against (Against fascism), (Bucharest: Editura(Against fascism),(Bucharest: Politic

61 The volume represented the outcome of a of outcomethevolume represented The 60 Another characteristic symptom for the for symptom characteristic Another ܈ cu, to name just a few. The contributors cu,few.to namejustThe a ă tu,IonSp ܊ uri, Constantin C. Giurescu,Constantin C. uri, ăOăĠ elu, StelianNeagoeand elu, ă , 1971). Împotriva

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w g a e r e .c o m Legionary Movement in Dobrogea), (Constan 2006); Puiu Dumitru Bordeiu, Politics 1938-1944) 1938-1944,Politics(Bucharest:1938-1944)Universit Editura 63 Archangel Michael from Myth to Reality), (Bucharest: Editura Enciclopedic Zamfirescu, Movement: Myth andreality), (Bucharest: Editura NouaAlternativ the time, focused butalso on howtheLegion evolved atthe local level. the history ofRomanian fascism withthe wider politicaland ideological context of general public. There were alsocontributions that integrated issues connected to materialthat was used,andthusmadeto fellow available historians andalso the 62 historiography onfascism. internationalthe synchronizewiththem would that way a interpretationin and analysis on focus little too event-oriented,withoverwhelmingly were the latestdevelopmentsthe in field. Professional historians published works that years didnotprovide adebate onRomanian fascism that was synchronized with during communism. However,many ofcontributions published thein lasttwenty historicalprofessionmaterial benefited confined from access toarchival greater historiography. byresearchesgoodmaycommunistregarded as sourcesan analysisof for era and non-academicmakes manner that themverydifficult touse.However, they thatperiod touchedthe upon historyIron ofthe were Guard writtenbiased ina 26 Florin Müller, Müller, Florin osatn Petculescu, Constantin After 1989, themajor changeinwriting about fascism was thefactthat In general, the contributions byRomanian historians during the communist Legiunea Arhanghelului Mihail dela mit larealitate Metamorfoze alepoliticului românesc 62

Mi The merit of such works was the immense archival the immensewasworks archival merit ofsuch The Mi ú о carea Legionar carea Legionar ܊ a: Ex Ponto, 2003). ă ă mit înDobrogea între 1933-1941 (Metamorphoses of Romanian ú i realitate (TheLegion the of ă܊ Te Legionary (The ă ii din Bucure dinii , 1997); Drago 63 ă , 1997).

(The (The ܈ ti, ú

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w g a e r e .c o m Romanianrealities), (Ia Monographs, 1990). Sword ofthe Archangel: Fascist Ideology in Romania concepte universale ed., PippidiMungiu Alina “Legionarismul” in(Legionarism) Pavel, Dan 1998).Univers, (Bucharest,Paradox),Editura Romanian (The Editura Funda legionare 65 Editura NouaAlternativa: 1994). scientists. politicalsociologistsor historians, by literary published werethat accounts severalreliableshapeof fortunatethe outcome thisThe camein of interest publicRomanianthe interestacross of entire intellectualmilieu.a lot generated remain veryusefulworking tools for allthose interested inthetopic question.in innovativeor theoreticalmethodologicalexplanatory studies. Nevertheless, they by moreoften accompaniedwouldhave been theydocuments published if professionhistoricalotherandmorewould from these have benefited even been published sofar,they and coverperiod the between 1919and1943. The misleadingly entitled misleadingly rather series, this In extreme-right. interwarRomanian the concerning for theStudyofTotalitarianism Romanianhistoriography ontheIron Guard recently, quite especially through the relevant texts; see Alexandru Florian 64 documents concerningthe history ofRomanian fascism. 27 Z. Ornea, Ornea, Z. Many of the books published on Romanian fascism also contained documents and The issue of Romanianas it concern historiansfascismnot alone, issue of did The The up-to-date international historiographical developmentshistoriographicalpenetratedup-to-dateinternational The Some post-1989 historians engaged in a useful process of publishingprocess of useful a in engagedhistorians Somepost-1989 65 (TheIdea that kills: thedimensions legionary of ideology), (Bucharest:

Anii treizeci. Extrema dreapt ܊ iei Culturale Române,1996); Sorin Alexandrescu,

ú i realit Ideology and RightwingFormations, ú i: Editurai: Polirom, 1998), pp.213–228;Ioanid, Radu ăĠ

i române published a multi-volumedocumentsa of published series et al. ú ti (Political doctrines: universal concepts and ă , româneasc Ideea care ucide: dimensiunile ideologiei ă , revised edition, (Bucharest: , (Boulder: East EuropeanEast(Boulder: , 64 The seven volumes have volumesseven Paradoxul Român otie politice: Doctrine NationalInstitute The

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w g a e r e .c o m Orthodox Church, State and Society in the 1930s), (Ia 69 Julliard 68 century), (Bucharest: Editura Universit XX 67 Universit naissanceRoumain du nouveaurégénéré parrévolutionla droite”de in Traianarticlel’antisémitismeSandu’s well“De as Roumanie:fascismeen au Trondheim: Trondheim Studies on East European Cultures and Societies, 2004, as Politics andViolence: The Legion of the “Archangel Michael” in Inter-war Romania 66 offascism emergewill cluster from young this scholars. entities. twobetweenconnectionthe entangledthis those interestedin to thought forveryfoodtopic,offering sensitive a debate for Orthodox Churchopens %ă circumstances under which he manifested his support for the Iron Guard. the werewhatalso and religionshistorian wrote, of lived the which interwar Romanianfascism, the thusallowing reader tofully thecontext grasp in thehistory of on very insightfulEliadecontainspages Mircea monograph of “new consensus” anddebated its application totheRomaniancase. worksyoungseveral historians of who havewritten within close proximity tothe 28 fascism in general andRomanian fascism in particular. historicalon writingthe analytical review of muchneeded accomplished a whoChioveanu, Mihai of that wascontribution usefulAnother Guard. politics,charisma producinga seminalin approachthehistory to oftheIron of useMaxWeber’sthe roleto reflectionsgood Constantin Iordachi on put Mirel B Mirel Florin Mihai Chioveanu, Forthese recent developments, please see Constantin Iordachi’s work nic (ThefacesFascism: of Politics,Ideology andHistorical Writinginthe XX-th ă , ’s book on therelationshipbookbetweenLegionaryMovement’s the the and 69 (Paris: Editions LaDécouverte, 2003). ăр ܉ It is highly Itis thatlikely innovative and meaningfulresearch on Romanian ii Bucure ă urcanu, nic ă , BisericaOrtodox о Mircea Eliade, Le prisonnierMirceal'histoire,Le Eliade,de ti. Seria Fe р ele fascismului: Politic

н tiin р e Politice ă Român ă܊ ii din Bucure , 10(2008): 31–46. ă ă , stat , ideologie ܈ ti, 2005). ܈ о i: Polirom, 2007). i societate în anii ’30aniisocietatei în 67 о

Florin Florin i scrisul istoric însecolul

préface de Jacques de préface ܉ urcanu’s salient Charisma, Charisma, 66 68 Analele Analele Thus, Mirel (The .

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w g a e r e .c o m Hungary and Rumania, NicholasNagy-Talavera, Right: A Historical Profile 71 in Argentina, in 1951. Legionary), (Bucharest: Editura RozaVânturilor, 1993). The bookwas first published Resurrectionof Romania. History The Legionary ofthe Movement Writtenby a României. IstoriaMi 70 manner. comparativea Romanianfascism in Hungarianand analyze attemptedto work,1970 a Michael Nagy-Talavera,in fascism while generic of facet a substantial piecesontheIronGuardsince the1960s,treating themovement as contributedwhofirst historianhistoriographical Eugenis the debates. Weber internationalongoing the with synchronize often were that accounts written withnoorscarce accessto sourcesfrom Romania, provided veryuseful historians.camethatmonographs,from foreign those remainalthough Their mostsomethat the importantcontributions thehistoryGuard to oftheIron literature from the 1920sand 1930s. manythisaccess to writtenoriginal with purpose,butalsoto works legionary free blogs offer and wheredozens ofwebsites internet, movedthe have to financed these publications. Currently, theefforts torehabilitate theIron Guard whogroupslegionariesfrom encouragedby mainlyabroad of tendency was rehabilitate the Iron Guard asanhonorable partofRomania’s past. attemptsto that literature republishingof or editing the was 1990s, the 29 SeeEugen Weber, “Romania” in Eugen Weber, HansRogger eds., To quote one example:one quote To In reviewing the literature on Romanianfascism, to acknowledge onehas A peculiar anddangerous turnthe in post-1989 context, visible mostlyin 71 Inthe1980s,historians ArminHeinen andFrancisco Veigapublished úFă (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1970). rii Legionarescris , (Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, 1965), 501–74; The Green Shirts and the Others: A History of Fascism in

ù tefan Palaghitefan ă de un legionar deun Ġă , Garda de Fier spre Reînviereaspre Fier de Garda (TheIronfor the Guard The European 70 This

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w g a e r e .c o m 72 two important works onRomanian fascism. 30 G Istoriaedition: Romanian 1989). Romania, 1919–1941, Francisco Veiga organizatiesocialasi miscarepolitica, (Bucharest: EdituraHumanitas, 1999); (München: R.Oldenbourg, 1986). Romanian edition: Legiunea Arhanghelului Mihail: politische Organisation: ein Beitragzum Problem des internationalen Faschismus, introduction awidevariety ofsources hadto becarefully examinedwith themost would also attempt toprovideastarting point for futureresearch in thefield. theenhancing academicquality of theRomanian historiographic discourse and a majorprovide contributiontothefieldof fascist studies. Itwouldcontribute to fascism, basedonthemost recenttheories and methods discussed above, would Guard, and it isyettobesurpassed. monographmostIron work remainsthe historythe bestandreliable ofthe on treated,his of issues vastness the analysisand of complexity the to Due internationalfascism, preciouscontributions study offascism. thusadding tothe Heinen managedto place theRomanianwithin case thelargerframework of important,contemporary with theoreticaland methodological approaches. Armin mostand, materialarchival(Veiga) Italian and Spanish (Heinen), German Romanianarchives,twohistoriansto compensated the this shortcomingwith ultrana Armin Heinen, Ġ In order to followIn order theresearch hypothesis the discussed firstpart in ofthe 3. Sources, Methodology and Structure Consideringthis historiographical snapshot, afreshanalysis ofRomanian ionalismului , LaMisticaUltrantionalismo: del Historiala GuardiaHierro, de de Die Legion "Erzengel Michael" inRumänien: soziale Bewegung und , (Bucharest: Editura Humanitas, 1993). (Barcelona: Eds. de la Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona,

ă rzii de Fier 1919–1941. Mistica 1919–1941. Fier de rzii 72 Although they did not have access Althoughtheydid not

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w g a e r e .c o m 7, (2007): 153–74. Corneliu Codreanu,but also VasileMarin and Ion Mo Image ofPolitical Enemies (1927-1937)) 1937) students, for example newspapers which addressed specific social and professional categories point ofview, including focused onintellectualand cultural aruncat 73 Bucovinei,Jiului,Garda Vla as such levels, local regionaland on newspapers,effective Local newspapers indistinctively,may one distinguish severalcategories among them. pro-legionaryand legionary treatedthe have researchers manyAlthough analyzingcontenttheirnewspapers.ofby be tracedcountry” could also the “new a and man”a “new discoursecreation regenerativeof the regarding legionary the of dynamic The events.current regardingoptions political discourse ofthelegionaries:favorite topics, representationsof political enemies, Iron Guard’s message andrevealthe continuities and discontinuities thein public the spot”perspectiveevents. on Theywerethe mostthe carriers important of and posters. Legionary newspapers provided usefuldata and offered afresh, “on writings,photographs,doctrinairenewspapers,manifestos,caricaturessongs, legionary were sources primary The tools. methodological appropriate 31 For a taxonomylegionaryFor a ofthe press,Valentin see S („The Seed Thrown bythe Devil”: Legionary Press and theConstruction ofthe Doctrinaire writings ofmajor within figures thesuch Legion, as,first ofall, ă dediavol”: Presa legionar Cuvântul Studen Axa, Revista Mea, Rânduiala, Însemn

ú ca Legionar ăú

debates, but whichreflected theIron Guard’s i construirea imaginii inamicilor politici (1927 - Ġ in esc Studia Universitatis PetruMaior (Historia) ă , . 73 and

Cuvântul Arge Ġ a provided the point ofviewa provided ă ndulescu, ă ri Sociologice ú ului ; newspapers ; „ 6ă

such as Garda mân ; and Ġ a

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w g a e r e .c o m 1936), Legionaries), and Ion I. Mo Nest’s leader handbook), (Bucharest, 1933) and 1933)(Bucharest,handbook), leader Nest’s Crez de genera 74 evils. to radically changethe state, perceivedas old andcorrupt andthe source ofall consideration that themaingoal ofthe legionary regenerative project was exactly movement, activity andgoals. its Thiswashigh importance, one of if takesinto theperspectiveoffered state, of theofficialpower, the regarding thelegionary authorities,theythe realized as theypropagandaarchives potential. The also disseminate themessage ofthemovement were and avidly collected and filed by to used artifacts”were and intellectual “culturalThese there. found be propaganda materials,confiscated the by authoritiesthe interwarcan in period, other and books song as wellas posters,photographsmanifestos,and Legionaryextremelyinformation.providedvaluablealso Archives, Historical of themovement thattookplace starting withthe years 1932 –1933. people. Theywere also testimonies forthedramatic inthepolitical discourse shift interwarRomaniaas fortheanalysis aswellthe Legion’s appeal of to young writings arehighly relevant forthestudythe of generational conflict emerging in providedthe perspective ofyoung intellectuals belonging totheIron Guard. others, and Bernea Ernest Constant, AlexandruBanea, Ion Polihroniade, Mihail as such publications,doctrinaire their and characters important of those who shaped the ideology ofthe movement. 32 Corneliu ZeleaCodreanu’s dogmaticworksare

(Sibiu: Editura „Totul pentru Archival material, abundantly present in Bucharest’s National CentralNationalBucharest’s in abundantlypresentmaterial, Archival

Ġ (Sibiu, 1936); also ofgreat importance are the writings of Vasile Marin, a, Ġ ie Cranii de lemn. Articole 1922 – 1936 (Creed ofageneration), (Bucharest: Editura Majadahonda, 1997),

ğ ar ă ,” 1936). (Wooden skulls. Articles 1922 - &ă 74 rticica etu Legionari Pentru However, a focus on other ù efului de Cuib de efului Fr the (For

Their Their (The

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w g a e r e .c o m it on its own terms, and “only then, whenfascismown then, on its wehavegrasped the terms,“only from it and culturalmovement seeing presupposes asitsawandit tryingto understanditself methodologicalassumptions. As George L.Mosse argued,considering fascism a question. offeringa viewinto us theirperspectiveand way thinking about o theeventin samedocumentsthose whocreatedthem, the about have time speakin also authorities couldassess its appeal among militants. legionary Inaway, archival the Legion hadtosay regarding regenerative its program, precisely because the no ideologicalconsistency, after1933 theystart payingmorewhat attentionto 1930s thepolice regarded themovement solelyasafringe groupoffanatics with arguments regarding the menace posedthe Legion. Ifin the late 1920s and early passionate to reports, professional from cold, registers,various detect can The languageofthepoliceandsecretservice One isalsoworthy ofanalysis. an enormous in increase policereports, surveillance notes and synthetic studies. especially 1933, one canonly findfolders especially dedicated tothe Legion, with and1932 starting withoff, movement momenttakes the movement.The communistthe about those withtogether even organizationsand right analysesotherfar filed togetherreportswiththose concerning are and police political importance ofCodreanu himself.Duringfirst its yearsofexistence, the political affirmationthe 1920s in the material scarce, is but grows alongwith the separate study of its own. Onecan notice howthe beginningsin ofCodreanu’s 33 This rich variety ofsources analyzedThis has been startingfrom some basic The archivalmaterial regarding theIron Guardanditsdynamic a deserves

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w g a e r e .c o m achieving acomprehensive image oftheinner development ofthemovement. notanalysis will be‘from the outsidein’butfrom out’ asculture‘inside helps of Contemporary History Current Growth (orManufacture) of Consensus within Fascist Studies”, 78 and Hitler 77 76 75 themethe manyprevalenceregeneratingtheRomanianstate, under its of of predominantthemesthe press.assessmentThus, amorethorough in the of certain of presence the tracing helped which newspapers), legionary context. aesthetic or discursive program without analyzing it in its historical and political depoliticizedahistoric, an as mainlyfascism seeing of pitfallpostmodern the avoiding at aimedemployedmethodology the ideology, on interest movements.Semitic InGriffin’sownwords, fascismwas: movement suchastheIron Guard andother far right, ultra-nationalistic and anti- tripartite definition, washelpfulorderdifferentiate also to in betweena fascist inside out, can we truly judge its appealand its power.” 34 RogerGriffinwarns ofthis dangerinhis article “The Primacy ofCulture.The Griffin, Roger Griffin, Roger George L. Mosse, Although withinthe proximity of theculturalist approach,with declared its Griffin’sStanleydefinitionrecentPayne’sof fascism,alongsideRoger 78 , (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007). The methodological toolsemployed included textual(for analysis the nation.” ‘new the rebirth,order’ anda era’) basedon orpalingenesisof the by bringing about am alternative modernity and temporality (a‘new allegedlydegenerative forces ofcontemporary history (decadence) the combat to is missionwhose centurytwentieth early the The Reclamation of Fascist Culture, Modernism and Fascism: the Sense ofaBeginning under Mussolini The Fascist Revolution “a revolutionary“a speciesof politicalmodernism originating in 77

, Vol. 37, No. 3, (2002), p. 29. 29. p. 3,(2002), No. 37, , Vol.

, x. p. 612. 75 The direction of thedirectionThe of The Journal 76

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w g a e r e .c o m both chronologicaldissertationand thematical. The also complements, develops focusing onmaintaining special organizations for women. at times, theLegionalso targeted workers, the military andthe clergy, while also by themovement atvariousperiods time.in Besidesrelying onthe student youth, issued byseveral legionary leaders, one could detectthesocial categoriestarget first decadeexistence.its of By at the lookingwritings andofficialdocuments conflict” toshow butalso thesupportgatheredbyLegionthe dynamics in in especially forhighlighting theexistencedimensions andthe of the“generation much asthesourcesallowed, was also an important methodologicalcomponent, offering more complex associations.symbolic respects other in written textbut themessagea sometimes simplifying of by means,such throughtransmitted messages encoded the revealing with the workmass campsin the demonstrations. orat Images theresearcher help as prototypes of the “new men” oftomorrow,especially when they were inaction photographicelement theLegion helped intransmitting the image followers ofits through images thatwerepresentthe very in press, especially inthe1930s. The useofsymbols,movement,uniforms,and its andritualswasbest transmitted visual a wasMovement Legionary The tool.methodological rewarding a also wasimages study of theAlso, established. permutations,be may 35 The structuraldesign ofthe dissertation was doneinsucha way astobe Movement,Legionary thecompositionsocialof as the of An analysis

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w g a e r e .c o m in view: Bruno Wanrooij, “The Rise andFallItalian of Fascism as Generational Revolt,” 81 also about thesocial background ofthe first followers. maderegionalwithrespect tothe character oftheLegioninitsbeginnings,and wayswithmentor theformer A.C.Cuzatake place. Some are also observations book 80 European University, 2003. Man’ in the Ideology of the Romanian Legionary Movement (1927-1937), 79 first legionaryfirst publication, structuresfirst anditsritualistic foundation.main The sourceforthisperiod isthe C. CuzaandCodreanu, and the reasons for its deterioration. regeneration. generationalespecially theideaof needrevoltforstartingforthe asthe point analysisbe the willmain1922 studentfocus movement ofthe agenda, its and “Great andendingbeforeWar” theformation ofthemovement 1927. in the yearCodreanuin in whichwith1916, the starting attemptedtake part to decade of existence. on theissues that helpthe analysis ofthe legionary regenerativeproject in its first the Legion,as there arenumerous contributions thatalreadydid it,butwillfocus ‘cultualist’focusing ona approach, onewill notofferan event oriented history of and enhancessome ofthetopicsthatIhave dealtwith myin MAthesis 36 Somescholars have already analyzed the rise of Italian fascism from this point of The term “prehistory” ofthe Legionay Movement was also used by Z. Ornea in his Valentin S Journal of Contemporary History Anii treizeci. Extrema dreapt The second chapter looks at the Legion in its first years of existence, its yearsof Legion first inits at the second chapterlooks The firstThe chapter dealswith the“prehistory” of theLegion, i.e.theperiod ă 81 ndulescu, Specialattentionwill alsobepaidtorelationship the between A. Young Romanians into Legionaries: the Quest for the‘New 3ă

mântul Str ă 22(1987): 401–18. româneasc ă mo о ă esc , 10. , 10. , wherefirst attempts the topart Central 80 79 The . In .

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w g a e r e .c o m Quarterly Transformationtheand Inter-war CultofYouth in France,” in leaders (IonMo focuses on a very important moment, thedeath andmass-burial oftwo legionary Legion’s politicalof the the chapter highest pointsuccess.main bodyof The presence of women the movement. in assessing also while development between1934and1936, the the Legion of followers. a “newman”youngcreatingthethe bodiesmindsby transformingof its and exemplified bythework camp“legionary system, considereda school” aimed at the most concreteattempttheputting regenerative at project intopracticewas see Samuel Kalman’s article “ commonfor various interwar fascist movements.French case-study Fora please 82 adherence ofthe December attheanimosities 1933,andlooks that existed theLegionafter in the December 1933. following theassassination of prime I.G.Duca minister bythree legionaries in ideological thrust.This upsurge wastemperedthe reaction by of theauthorities its also nationwideand popularity enhancedits greatly who intellectuals constituted amajor boostfortheLegioninan electoral year. TheDecember 1937 sympathywavethepublic of generated opinionin andalso amongsupporters movementthe adherencethrough especially of totheLegion the 37 Themoral andphysical transformationyouthof the byvariousmeanswas The fifth and final chapter deals with the year 1937, considered1937,the withchapter year fifth deals and final The The fourth chapter focuses on the rebuilding of the movementthe rebuildingafter of the focuseson chapterfourth The The thirdthe chapterdescribes1933hadon The year theimpact that the 33(2003): 343–66. 82 The chapter also examines the role of the student movement in the ܊ a and Vasil Marin) who fought in the Spanish Civil theSpanishTheMarin)who Vasil fought in and War. a Axa intellectuals who became toCodreanu. very close Perhaps

Faisceau Vsoso hsclad Moral and Physical of Visions European History European Axa group of group

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w g a e r e .c o m effectiveness in some periods and will also account for its failure. the authoritarian regime instituted in 1938. beginning ofitsdownfall, asitsproject was crushedbytheauthorities soon under greatestelectionsmarked the electoraltheLegion,success but also the for 38 The conclusionsThe assess the will development the Legion’sproject, of its

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w g a e r e .c o m "victors" or"victims" ofthewar their influenced political development. Theirpost- “democratization”the university of system. betweentheir interplay statusas The those who were inthe universities in theearly 1920s, benefiting from the recent primarily ofthosewho wereteenagers duringwarand the to fight, unable and hadRomaniato facewas theso-called the “young generation.” Thisconsisted theyif had played theirhistorical partand had only toconsolidate these gains. on thewinning side and“Greater Romania” had beenaccomplished, they feltas the politicaland social environment ofinterwar Romania.Because Romaniawas Great -the veteransWar -wouldnot become distinctive a and decisive force in exemplary inthis regard. thewar,after andserved twiceas prime minister (1920-1921; 1926-1927), is nation. The case of GeneralAlexandru Averescu, who becamemythicalfigure a accomplishmentthe whoto its contributed directlyas heroesof wererevered Great Union” was regardedasthe culmination of centuries ofstruggles andthose

39 Corneliu Zelea Codreanu and the “Prehistory” of the Romanian Romanian of the “Prehistory” the and Codreanu Zelea Corneliu Romanians wereonthewinningside oftheFirst The“1918 World War. I. Bases ofCodreanu’s 1.The Radicalism: fromthe WarFront tothe In this context, the most important political challenge that interwar that challenge political importantmost the context, this In However, unlikeinotherEuropean countries, those who foughtduring the University Front (1916-1922). Legionary Movement (1916 - 1927) 1927) - (1916 Movement Legionary CHAPTER I

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w g a e r e .c o m 2 Born 1900 to1908 in and Revolution,”War 1 first leadershiphis politicaland awakeningCodreanu hisnarrated Forest,” these young boyswere characterized byone or morefollowing ofthe traits: majoritycountry’stheirsuperiority.Donson,the vast of According to belief in theirsocialmilieus,in anutmost withGerman for the admiration soldiers and theyWar, were broughtupundertheinfluenced of“war pedagogy”inschooland Corneliu ZeleaCodreanu himself. trajectorystrikingmovementthetoNazithe life similaritya of joining bears became supportersofNazism. Germansindicativewho casestudyon between and 1908 later born 1900 turned tofascismother countries in aswell. Thus,Andrew Donson providesan socialage and compositionthose groupswho atthe if onelooks of be traced behaviour that targeted minority students, especially Jews. xenophobicturnedeconomicfrustrationsandculturalinto soon social, war 40 Ibid., 338. Ibid.,338. Andrew Donson, “Why DidGerman Youth BecomeFascists? NationalistMales In the first chapter of his bookhis chapterof first the In 1908 and 1900 betweenbornpeople descriptionof young Donson’s The Romanian case is not an exceptional one, assimilar experiences can by theworker-supported Republican government. armywasconquered not onthe battlefield but stabbed intheback theirmanhood,to prove theybegantobelieve thelegend thatthe they couldvolunteer. Stunnedbydefeatand denied theopportunity Nazisearlycohort thisdreaded in that before thewarend would attempted registration withthe army rejected becauseofage. The an games,or victorieswarmilitaryand enthusiasm for great more from stint inamilitary likely, 1914 to1918a youthcompany, a nationalist… avery family, anmilitary education a in academy or,

1 Although they did not take part into the GreattakeAlthoughtheypart the into did not Pentru legionari Social History Social 31 (2006): 337-58. , entitled “In the Dobrinathe “In entitled , 2

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w g a e r e .c o m 5 Tipografia Viitorul, 1932), 59. 4 3 Monastery, founded in1912byNicolae Filipescu. military training thein woods. secret, conferencesthe town,organizedthey underwent,in They open in but too youngtofight, Codreanu followed father his tothewar front,withthe intention -in the battleswaswhen 17yearsold only he of theGreatWar.Althoughhewas claimed highschoolhave acquiredwas desiretakepart,1916 to in to his - in formation:his about thetremendous influence thatthemilitary educationacquired there hadon weapons, andthentofoundanational-culturalsociety atthe Hu enemy. stepwas Thefirst toorganizeparamilitary training intheforest,withreal and maintainorganizea movement military resistance againstwould-be of the nearsummonedthea forest Moldavian to townHu of comrades,kidswhom he schoolhigh 20 of around a group withtogether exploit, marked bythefearofapotential Bolshevik takeover Romania.in In1919, 41 Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, C. Ni C. Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, Prior to thismoment, Codreanu attended the Military High Schoolat Dealu The first resultof this deeply entrenched military educationthat Codreanu ܊ escu, escu, later make mejudge everything through the angle of this science. salon. Notionsmilitary of sciencethatIhave acquirednowwould thedespisethe trenchand I have learnedto like herethat It is … activity. future throughoutentire mythread red constitutewilla dignity feelingsof militaryyoung ageinmynexttothe at a blood, own myfollow meOrder, discipline life. all andhierarchy, poured down matterAs a offact,themilitary education from Monastery willthe Mân ă stirea Dealu Pentru legionari, Pentru legionari,

о i Liceul Militar “Nicolae Filipescu” 12. 12. 11. 11. 4 In his book, Inhis Codreanu testifies ú i, Codreanu decidedi, to ú i high school.high i , (Târgovi , ܈ 5 te:

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the peasantry, and ‘solving the Jewish question’. Romanianpeople:national unity, the appropriation of land andpoliticalrights for Accordingto Codreanu, reading thisliteratureinduced three‘life the ideals’for *ăYă whowere upholding nationalist ideals: firstand foremost A.C.Cuza, butalsoIon impressedby thenationalistic heritage ofthethose city,andby few professors Transylvania andBukovina, entitled ‘Avram Iancu’ and led byVasile Ia student group heconsidered of‘Romaniancharacter’ was thatofstudents from impressive numbercommunist of students that came Bessarabia. Theonly from studentvery beginning, inthe movement,becausethe inruins of considering it articles of N. Iorga and A.C.Cuzafrom N. Iorga articles of asserted that: “Besidesthe usualwritings ofRomanian readclassics all Ihad important role intheupbringing ofthehighschoolstudents ofthat time. Thus,he the “sensationalist literature, which pervertsthesoul” andwhich suchand played he approached hisstudent years, placing it incontrast with what heconsidered and describedhis in bookthe ideological andintellectualbackground withwhich 7 6 education andenrolled intheMilitary Infantry School Boto in military his complete to CorneliuCodreanuon disappointed went home.A sonofficers,severalwar,the insistenceCodreanu’s father, senthis of the at of becominga volunteer. Not wanting totake responsibility forhis participation in 42 Ibid., 16. Ibid.,16. Ibid.,14. nescul and Corneliuand nescul Going to Ia to Going In theFall of 1919, Codreanu becamestudent a atthe University of Ia ܈ i for his university studies, Codreanu was very much very wasuniversitystudies, Codreanu his for i

܇ umuleanu. He was also highly interested,also umuleanu. He was from the Sem ăQă torul

and Neamul Românesc ú ani. ܈ inschi, ܈ .” i, 7 6

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w g a e r e .c o m steagul cel ro 8 student movement. They were soon to find this mission under the form of anti- younggeneration, actions ofthe most throughtheir bodythatwasthe active their parents’greataccomplishmentdrivingthe forcesbehindof the was one the successof their parents alone, haunted the younggeneration. Romania’snot actuallycontribute toandthatthissuccesswas they did victory, could nottakethe part militaryin campaignsGreat ofthe The feelingWar. that wartimeenclosed also generation Codreanu’s bitterness andfrustrationthat he Semitic strikes that occurred in 1922. of student leaders suchashim can provideanexplanation forthevirulent anti- would getinvolved inthestudent movement theearly1920s,and thepresence in whowouldlater become most important oneofthe legionary leaders. Codreanu 43 generation everthat seenbythissoil israisingus.” happiestthefighters,of today’sgeneration hero of brightof a a hero, is future fascist leaderCorneliu ZeleaCodreanu wrote: “Eachandeveryoneofyou directed towards theworkers whowerealso warveterans, young studentand whetherbelonged they tothe‘victors’to or the‘victims’1920In a article side. Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, “Uncuvânt c Generation” Also, the feeling ofactually finding ahistorical mission oftheir own, after I. 2 After an initial enthusiasticAfter aninitial stage, Romanianso sure werenot students . The 1922anti-SemiticThe Student Strikes and theBirth ofthe“1922 ܈ al du ܈ manului” in

Con о tiin р a,

ă tre muncitorii românitrecut care sub au II,No. 17 and 18 (February 9, 1920). 8 This high praise to the the to praise high This

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w g a e r e .c o m Bucharest and adopteda resolution that made veryclear the student demands. in gathereduniversities from all students Romanianof assemblygeneral containedethnocentricanti-Semitic overtones.and 1922,December a 10, On bodies fornedical schoolswas apretext only broader for a studentagenda that in across thecountry’suniversities, especially Ia in school. medicalthe in students Jewishsignificantnumberof the dissections,given wherestudents Romanian demanded thatJewishbodiesshould alsobe used in 10 universities. 9 students medicalschoolsin example, for was asit also thecaseforIa the early 1920s,Hungarian, JewishGerman or studentsoutnumbered Romanian students from the ethnicminorities, who weremainly based in theurban areas. In acquired provinces,competitionfacethe Romanianstudents alsohad to of newlyevenaveragethe income.In withcominglow or from families those laboratories,dormitories canteens and madeeducation accessto veryhardfor Romanianconditionsuniversities infundingfrom perfect:werefarfor lack of protests.Studyingstudent 1922 the ignitingin part importantan played regenerate the nation bycreating a “newman” anda“new country.” Semitism, ethnocentrism, ethnic homogenization and, finally, fascism as away to 44 Maria Some Ibid. Anuarul Institutului Român deIstorie Recent It wassurprise noa that the 1922 protests started atthe University ofCluj, Besides these cultural and spiritual aspects,andspiritualthese socialand economic factors Besides cultural 10 The issue sparked fierce debates and violent outbursts that spreadoutbursts andviolent that sparked fierce debates issue The 9

܈ an, “Mi

܈ carea studen

܊ easc ă din 1922” (The 1922 Stident Movement) ă

1 (2002): 192. ܈ i and Cern i ăX܊ i. Theissueofthe i. ܈ i and Cluj i

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w g a e r e .c o m 11 13 Social Studies HungarianUniversities, 1932-1936: IstvánBethlenGyulavs Gömbös”, in Klein,“Anti-JewishBernardsee Demonstrationsplease 1930s,in the from period, as it was often employed in various political battles. For aHungarian example 12 violenceandanti-Semitism. Journalist TudorTeodorescu Brani League ofNational-Christian Defense (LANC), formed 1923. in students.the Inturn,thestudents joined ingreatnumbersCuza’sparty, The society. Ultranationalist andanti-Semitic politicians such asA.C. Cuzasupported order toassure thepre-eminence oftheRomanian element the in universities. their proportion thein overall population: numerus clausus national problems,” the interests ofanyone, andthatitshighersolving goalis severalhigher cultural, student movement doesnothaveananti-Semitic character, thatitdoes notserve 45

Thiswas issue alsopresentinother European countries duringthe interwar Universul Universul Several democraticcriticized newspaperstheirstudent proteststhe for Romaniantheacrossfiercestudent movement debates sparked The Even the social andeconomic demands ofthestudentswere formulated in Thus, thesecond point ofthe resolution stated what was latertermed as thefirston stated pointresolutionthat“the the factthat spite of In XL, No. 284 (December 13, 1922). , XL, No. 284 (December 13, 1922) ethniccharacter ofour culture […]” the population. (especially Jews)the proportion according to represent thatthey in who arenotRomanian citizens (especially Jews); […] the foreign element overwhelms thenational one,we demand: , Vol. 44, No. 2(Spring, 1982), pp. 113-124. , which asked the limitation of minority students according to accordingstudents minority askedthe limitation of which , 11 c) Encouragingthe nationalelement order in to maintain the citizens non-Romanian for university in Admission b) universitiesourRestrictingadmissionstudents a) the in of of opportunitieslack tostudybecause Due tothe and “2 – what followedwas aclearly anti-Semitic list ofdemands.

܈ te,argued that Jewish

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w g a e r e .c o m criticized theviolence ofthe student protests: cause,becausehe the have to betrayed nationalism, considered wasnow Romanianspiritualfatherof althoughthe Iorga, acknowledgedas Nicolae movement,the Nicolaeas historianIorgaand sociologist such DimitrieGusti. Dacia). Studentarticles attacked intellectuals andpoliticiansnot support thatdid Romania: Origins, Manifestations, Evolution) others, (eds.), (eds.), others, 15 in their journalstheirin against thegovernmentboycotting classes by by publishing and virulent articles de dreapta în România: Origini, manifest Aurora discriminate between thecitizens of the samecountry. Hungarianfacta foreign,consideringconsidered import. illegalto He in it the rejectedgovernment, clearly Liberalthe representing ConstantinEducationAngelescu,Dr. JanuaryMinister,the 1923, Deputies in students, it did not supportthe students, itdidnot 14 became upsetting even for theauthorities. movementcamestudentsthe whengovernmentonlyrepressed strikes the direct theattentionaway from the economicfailures thatwere quitevisible. The minoritiesby thedraftnew Constitution. ofthe government The wanted also to ethnicdiminishrights to theto awarded order them in useto triedwhich government,anti-Semiticby the firstthe encouraged demonstrationsat were 46 The Debatesofthe Chamber ofDeputies, January 31, 1923, in Ioan Scurtu and Tudor Teodorescu Brani , February 4, 1923, quoted fromIoan Scurtu andothers, (eds.) The students did not give upthe However, although thegovernment fulfilled severaldemands made bythe Totalitarismul dedreapta înRomânia, Cuvântul Studen Cuvântul ܈

te – “…Dar rezultatele?” (What About the Results?) numerus clausus. р esc (The Student(Theand Word) numerus clausus ă ri, evolu 14 ,

(Bucharest: INST, 1996), 309 –311. In a speech InintheChamber of 290–291. р ie (RightwingTotalitarianism in 15

, and carried on the fight fight the on carried and , numerus clausus Dacia Nou Totalitarismul ă (New (New

in ,

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w g a e r e .c o m 18 Studen Sociologist Gusti) 17 16 ultranationalist studentstook overthe protests the enforcing anti-Semitic points also onewithapoliticaland generational stake. and Anactive fanaticgroup of street protests. proportionalityresultPoland,to a lawwasin bysenatorsandnotas passed theAustria,also inHungarianeducation and argue system. thatthe also They students argued thatsuchalawalreadyfunctioned attheViennaPolytechnicin effectinothercivilized lawwouldwhen Europeanbe in similar countries. a The Ministry ofEducation also claimedenforce thathewould a Theeven Bulgaria. and Hungary,with war Russia Romania to a lead would accusations brought againstthem governmentby the claiming thattheir request Romanianstudents withthe wider European context. lungs?” “is ‘sociologically’ withit students putit:another’s tobreathe possibleforabody waswarned toprovethat aJewishproblem does not exist inRomania or,asthe Universities.the consideringmovementsGustithem thedisintegrationof and 47 I. Simionescu, “Nu strig “Nu Simionescu,I. “‘Argumentele’ ‘distinsului’ sociolog“Distinguished”Gusti”Argumentsof (The “V ă lenii Munte,”de in It soonbecamethat themovement clear was notonlyasocial conflict but Another article aimed to compare the demandsAnother articlecomparethe for aimedto Thesociologist Dimitrie Gusti was attackedfor criticizing the student р esc 17

I, 31 (September 11, 1923): 1. troops, and asa parent hescattered his children; …” politicking and Jewish invasion,this man, asaGeneraldesertedhis

in Cuvântul Studen “The man who woke us up to the danger of phanariotof danger to the up us wokewhoman “The Cuvântul Studen

ă Europa?”(Doesn’tinShout?) Europe р esc р I, 23 (July 17, 1923): p.1. p.1. 1923): 17, (July I, 23 esc I, 23(July 17, 1923):1. 18 The studentsThe refuted the numerus clausus numerus numerus clausus numerus 16

Cuvântul law by by

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w g a e r e .c o m 20 România, Nou social,” (Ouris Cause Justin Moral Order andSocial Serves Progress) in

whoappreciatedleaders, attentionyouth.the special fascistsplaced onthe recent Italian exampleof Benito Mussolini was embraced bymany ofthe student fascismthepoliticalturned toasoneof solutions forthecountry’scrisis. The 19 clausus Jewshas arrived.he concluded:and rivethe out whip Thus “Our argued thatthetime to“turntheother cheek” haspassedand thetime totakethe behind the strikes. Mo fed thestudent movement. Itdisclosed anti-Semitism as oneofthedriving forces Ion I. MoI. Ion annulled.The movement fortraining ground became futurefascistpoliticians. a demand, thestrikecontinued, andinplaces suchasIa Althoughthe governmentthe not accept the agenda. on did 48 article published in published article an example.In on Franco’sfightingCivilobvious side,was Spanish an War

Ion I. IonMo Ibid. ă , December 22, 1922, inI. Scurtu andothers (eds.),

Mo The anti-Semitism and ultra nationalism of the student movementanti-Semitismnationalism The the soon ultra of and ismoraland itserves the progress ofRomanian society.” 264–7. ܊ ܊ a placed thestudenta placed movement this in clearly anti-Semitic context and a, a law student in Cluj and futurefascist studentinCluja law who and leader,died inthe a, ܊ a, “Cauzanoastr the world.” unworthy ofbecomingGod’s chosenpeople, thatis,themasters of are whotheChristiansenslaving the world, rule aim:to one theyon have basingit even,advocated intheirown religion and selfishness, savage by mastered is program Their Talmud. nationforeignthe having same from program, emerging the same overthe worldrepresentcompactfrom unitary all a a and body, “In judging the Jews we start from a basic truth: the Jews the truth: basic Jewsa from the westart judging “In Dacia Nou ܊ a asserted: 19

ă e just e ă , Mo , ܊ ă a unveileda therampantanti-Semitism that înordinea moral ܈ Totalitarismul dedreptaîn i, theacademic yearwas ܈ ă i serve numerus clausus numerus 20 ܈

te progresului numerus Dacia

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w g a e r e .c o m (January 19, 1923): p. 1. 21 reformation of all otheraspects. student generation. Thereformationof the “souls andminds”would bringalong the mature generation, whilethe cultural front primarily is theduty of the young, threats, arguing that thepolitical andeconomical sides ofthisfront isthe duty of frontcalledanymore.fora united and external againsttheinternal author The believe“heresy” wasdo not and statedthatthestudentsit Hungariansa in and Jewsassimilation of the that argued generation.studentHe the for article entitledwrotean Napoleon N. Cre 49 became a reality. ideological backgroundthe 1920s was setandin andespecially inthe1930s, it N. N. Cretu, “Fascism cultural” (Cultural Fascism) in Fascism) (Cultural “Fascism cultural” Cretu, N. N. At this stage,althoughdeclarative,At this theturntofascism wasonly the cultural fascism.”cultural regeneration. it is still alive.” consciousness where asleep orlost,and is it to strengthen where it impetus.” driven well and disciplineperfect fighting, methodical means fascism greataim.Our the energiesthat serve the gathering all meansFascism avant-garde.[…] the constitute will students ܊ u, thepresidentof Letters andPhilosophyStudents Society, “… our nationalaim the awaken to is fascism our of aim “The is: shall“We baretheflagofaculturalfascism which under the Cultural Fascism

The souland the reason point out onlyatthe rescuing 21

n nrei cmag o national of campaign energetic an in which he designed a fascist whichhe designeda in mission Cuvantul Studentesc Cuvantul I, 3 I,

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w g a e r e .c o m 24 23 Struggle, 1918-1930 PoliticsCulturalRomania:GreaterRegionalism, inEthnic Building, Nation& Romanian fascism has also been underlined by historianIrina Livezeanu in herwork, 22 Contemporary History Codreanu described December 10,1922: generation asthelegitimate major heir. Inhis doctrinaire work, managedvery beginning, helateron spiritembodyappearhis to its andto to Althoughthe studentmovement Codreanu wasthe forefrontof notat the since describedhavebefore. I generation1922that potential”the “fascistof the Romanian Fascism: theRoleof theYouth and Anti-Semitism 50 by acharismatic leader. controlling these energies andchanneling them masstowards a movement lead revolt, tamingthis of process of the key consisted However,the century. the a senseofrevolt against liberalism and positivism,which emergedof attheturn ultra nationalism” theaction underwhatguise of historianRogerGriffin hascalled “palingenetic pointmoresky”)startingwasneed of radical the fortheir political the sun in RomaniaOld (corrupt anddemocrat) andthe New Romania (just and“holyas the George L. Mosse,“Introduction: L. GeorgeFascism,”GenesisThe of in Roger Griffin, Roger The ideological connection between the‘1922 student generation’ and the birth of The 1922 Student Movement as a Legitimizing Starting Point for LegitimizingPointStarting a as MovementStudent 1922 The The generationalThe conflict betweenwhatyoung generationconsidered the The Nature of Fascism 23 Also, according Also, toGeorge L.Mosse, fascism based itself on , (Ithaca, N.Y. : Cornell University Press, 1995). 1995). Press, University :Cornell N.Y. , (Ithaca, holy war, which would require so much strength in its soul its much in war,whichrequire so wouldholy strength the declare determination.to Determinationact, of day to this generation tothelight itsaw its soul.Itismarkedin asa It isagreat daybecause ofthe miracle of the awakening of 1(1966): 15 – 16. 24 This was exactly what Codreanu accomplishedwhatwasCodreanuexactly withThis

, 26. 26. , 22

Pentru Legionari ora of Journal ,

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w g a e r e .c o m 26 25 27 not solvethe problem. maintained rather thanreducedtheJewish proportions andconsequently itcould solutionthis.solutionbecausea Jewishproblem, for Ita was not it but not ethnicity. politicalpluralism anditalso awardedequalcitizensrightsno matter to their Democracy wasas the seen supreme because itdivided evil thenation with its democraticsystem.supportedpoliticiansthewho the by also and Jews, minorities,especiallyethnic the the by GuardIron ideology, the toaccording wasdevelopmentand externalenemies.internalnation hampered, The of the importance ofeducatinga “newman” to decaying able savethe nation from its 51 emphasized thesuperiority ofsome againstthe others. ultranationalistsocietiesregardingand ethnocentricculturesthatvisions and was racist notnecessarily intheNazisense.” some ideologyintense “fascist fascism research, haveargued that of historians However,debate.afterHolocaust,thethis influenced horrific endpoint in its historians.cruel The biological racism proposed byGerman which Nazis, found talking points of theIron Guard. Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, Stanley Payne, Ibid. , 65. , 65. For Codreanu, For Codreanu offeredcomplex a politicalframework, emphasizedwhichthe The issue ofracism within fascist movements washeavily debated among A History of Fascism A Historyof much known andunknownsacrifices, somuch graves! so maturity, much muchheroism,so youth, so from this numerus clausus 26 Thus, anti-Semitism remained one of the constant the of one anti-SemitismremainedThus,

Pentru Legionari , 11. 11. , was only a useful tool in addressing the , 64 27 Fascist movements did foster movementsdid Fascist 25

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w g a e r e .c o m 31 30 Pittsburgh University Press, 2002), 113. 28 29 stance. substantiateorderhis articlesto in his anti-SemiticNietzsche among others) in 1924 Marinquotedseveral thinkers(H.Western Chamberlain,R. Wagner, andF. international viper, the pathogenic microbe ofthenations.” Jews,“Galitian of presence the on commentedhatefully Marin Vasile practice. Onhisway the toSpaintakepartin Civil goingthrough War, Poland, legionary leaders disseminatedanti-Semitic put them wanted ideasand tointo turned into scapegoats in orderto explain thecrisis deep Romaniawas The in. the Romanianharmednation.“health” of Jewish population the The was often menacing“other”,that regardeda foreign,the Jewsa as parasitical bodythat biological racism when expressed it itsanti-Semitic views through violent remarks control.” and eugenicists who soughttoexplain “objectively” theneedfor “biological self- sharply with thepresumably “rational”scientific and arguments theorists ofracist contrastedthis has argued, MariahistorianBucurreligion.As Romanianwith country, thisprocess was aspiritual, seenin non-rationalguise, oftenconnected Althoughmaintopicof thelegionarydiscourse the wasregenerationof the the ideological apparatusofthe legionaries lacked aNaziinspired racial theory. 52 Ibid., 101 –104. Vasile Marin, Armin Heinen,

Maria Bucur Nevertheless, the Legion did employ the language and the tropes of tropesthe and the language employdidLegion Nevertheless, the A similar claim madecan be abouttheLegionary movement Thewell. as 31 29

Crez Crez de genera , Eugenics and Modernization in Interwar Romania,

Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail

р ie , 20. , 20.

, 126. , 126. 30 In fact,asearly as (Pittsburgh: 28

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w g a e r e .c o m conspiracy: here. Afterthe subjection oftheRomanianpeople followed finalaim the ofthe 33 32 clausus by the1922generation. The legionaries were themain advocatesofthe fertileground amongthe universities, students in continuingthe tradition initiated “saviors ofthe nation from the Jewish threat.” The Legion’s anti-Semitism found a legionaries’ violent actions against theJews, andtheirself-proclaimed positionof peasants tothelifestatusofslaves.” envisageddeath several byCodreanuas“thereductionmillion of Romanian Jews actedtowardsinflictingdeath against theRomanianpeople, a“metaphoric” conspiracy, Codreanuorder said, notto in alarm Romanianmajority.the The figure was around 2–2.5 million. JewsRomaniawas inthanofficially higher stated a complicated theory this in regard. Hestartednumber bysayingthatthe ofthe Codreanu’s writings andwas basedonaconspiracy theory. Codreanu developed 53 36 35 34 Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, The 1930census counted a little over728. 000 Jews inside Greater Romania. Ion I. Mo Ibid., 118. Ibid., 71 –72. This type of anti-Semitism was perpetrated in order to legitimatethe orderanti-Semitism of in type perpetrated was This One of themostanti-Semitismformsdocumentedacute of be One can in principle thataimed at limiting thenumber ofJewish students. ܊ a, Cranii delemn, easily beconnected by sea to the other Palestine.” of Romaniatowards and half Black Sea, could the fromwhere it the Baltic Sea,encompassingparts ofPoland andCzechoslovakia “the creation ofanewPalestine, onalandstrip starting from

Pentru Legionari, 218– 25. 33 The real figure was kept secret by the by secretwaskept figure real The 34 However, the “conspiracy”stop didthe However, not

69. 32 and claimed that the real the claimedthat and 35

numerus

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w g a e r e .c o m various regions, an experience that would prove highly useful for him in the experienceanhighlyvarious regions,himfor useful thatwouldprove in and Codreanu’s energy.Codreanu gotinvolved organizing in movement the in generation. 1922the destructiveof broughttheend regenerativeproject alsoGuard their parentsdid duringtheGreat violent However,War. the failurethe of Iron fulfilling itshistorical mission, that theywere forthenation, makinghistory just as a ‘new country’. By Codreanu’sjoining movement, theyouththoughtthatitwas which aimed ataccomplishing aregenerative project bycreating a‘newman’ and a fully-fledgedof theyouthinto energies fascist movement,Guard, theIron i.e. thus,strictlyfascism relatedto is the post-war studentmovements. politicalto fascismform asa of representation. Theemergenceof Romanian antidemocraticfeelings onbehalf oftheyoung generation that eventually turned andanti-Semitic fueled affairs of state This field. every in minorities democratic system whattheyperceivedtheand of growing as assaultofethnic considerednewlyimplementedalsoyoung generationas avictim ofthe itself interwarAlthough Romania. Romanians were among inthewar, the thevictors protestsstudent 1922the representedthatwent wrongwith everything War, awakeningfor hisgeneration.Born outofthe troubled timesthe following Great 54 The foundingMarchLANCThe 1923brought in of together Cuza’s prestige Benefiting from this trend,channelpoliticalthemanagedBenefiting Codreanufrom this to Codreanu often praised the1922studentstrike asthemoment ofpolitical Generational Conflict to Cooperation from League, Defense National-Christian and NewI.Old Together: 3. Codreanu’s Activity within A.C. Cuza’s

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violent potential, theauthorities sentanew prefect ofthepolice tothecity Ia of impressed him. deeplychurch prison the icon from whoseMichael,Archangel the after experience that Codreanu offorming camea movementwiththe idea up name Radu Mironovici – the – Mironovici Radu Codreanu, IonI. Mo group that would lateron be thecore oftheLegionary Movement: Corneliu Zelea managedtogetherandfeelingbringof solidaritythe plot createa within to a 39 38 37 werepart init easily arrestedandsent tothe and frontin ofme anenemy andatraitor, I would shoot the traitor” and only afterthattheotherenemies. Inhisownwords:bullet, “IfIhadasingle argued that the most important thing was tofirst take down theRomanian traitors followers considered being responsible forthe aforementioned deeds, Codreanu Autumnplotting inthe shoot severalpersonalities1923 to of whom his he and thecountry.theconstitutionstatethe generalwellof included as When in alleged injustices avenge the order to militantsin closest his someof with muchof Codreanu.the dislike consequence, to Asa hestaged aplottogether the constitution was adoptedand it conferred civilrights forJewish the minority, influence theongoing debatesregarding the new constitution. future. Onethe of goalsofCuza wasthe student touse movement orderto in 55 Codreanu, Codreanu, Francisco Veiga, Codreanu was eventually acquitted anreturned toIa The plot,however,a sloppymanner,The those who in was took and planed Pentru Legionari, Pentru Legionari, 39

Istoria G Istoria Ġ a, IlieGârnea 9ăFă ă

rzii de Fier, Fier, de rzii 138. 130. re о teni. Ġă , Tudose Popescu, Corneliu Georgescu, and By his own account, it a wasthisduring account, ita By hisown 74. 74. 9ăFă re о ti prison. Although failed,prison. it ܈ i. Fully i. aware ofhis 37 38 Nevertheless,

܈ i,

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w g a e r e .c o m 43 41 42 documentary one. additions thatwill enrich help theareaofinterpretation:typological a oneanda the ideological clarification ofthe Romanianfar right, onewould liketomake two trial was movedFoc to 40 their radicalism.because of LANC,of policy becamethe morefor thatconservative they undesirable sign Codreanu to France, with the declared intention of continuing their studies, asa and Cuza around 1925-1926, with respecttotheways ofconducting political actions. differences amongLANC establishment,leadership sinceits of the particularly werethere thatrightfullyHeinenArmin mentionedGermanhistorian Cuza. separationdeveloped betweenCorneliumentor, CodreanuAC Zelea andhis and hisyounger disciple began to diverge. Thus, agradualprocess of ideological continuing his studies Grenoble.in declaredpurposeof the to France,with decidedto go and 1925,May in With many ofhis partisans coming tosupport him, Codreanuwas finally acquitted Codreanu got intoafight withManciu, shooting andkilling him. police occurred, astension reigned overthe city. Following thetrialofstudent, a Manciu.ConstantinviolentSeveral encounters students the andbetweenthe 56 Francisco Veiga, Armin Heinen, Drago Drago Someplaced historians theemergence oftheconflictbetween Codreanu After this initialstage ofgood politicalcooperation theviews ofA.C. Cuza ܈ ܈ Zamfirescu, Zamfirescu, Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail Istoria G Istoria Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail delamit la realitate, Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail de lamit larealitate, ܈ anithen and Turnu-Severin, because of publicpressure. ă

43 rzii de Fier, Fier, de rzii On this precise episodewhich On isvery importantfor 42 while others saw the departure of Mo departureothers of while sawthe 86. , 119. , 119. 41

40 The ensuing The 154. 148.

܊ a and a

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w g a e r e .c o m 45 46 for fascism andthe national-Christians as embodying the radical right. 44 consequences) ofcreatingthe this,“new man”. all of adynamic To generational would-bethrough regenerativeorder a (but visibly destructiveprojectits in fascist politicalscaffoldwhichproposed thefundamental existingchange ofthe Codreanu’s movement)of a (more withthe case radical violentlybut also in The elements separating these two projects areconnected withpolitical practice represented byA. C.Cuza andfascist project proposed byCodreanu since 1927. thatextreme suchas authoritariannationalismradical right wasbetweena of the field thethe fighton period,conservativeweakened interwarright in Westernequivalent extremeRomanian aclearly hasan case. inthe right, With majorchanges social and any cultural revolution.” moderate thanthe fascists, witha more traditionalist approach, seeking “to avoid moreauthoritarianthe mid-30s,right was conservative in especially clearly and symbolic),and currents (aestheticthese by commonshared the elements to between fascistmovements andthenon-fascist authoritarian right. madebe shouldseparation a clear Payne, Accordinganalysis.theirto in (conservative right,radical right andfascism),and thisgenerates someconfusion authoritarianthreethese typesof the coexistencenationalisms witnessedof called the “three facesofauthoritarian nationalism.” Fascism 1914-1945 57

Stanley G. Payne, G.Payne, Stanley Ibid. Ibid. , 15;for the Romanian case, Payne mentions the Iron Guard asrepresentative , 19. , 19. Payne's typology,mostly based onreferences drawn of from the evolution workhis valuablePayne,historian Stanley AmericanG. in A History of Fascism A Historyof , insisted onthedifferentiation tobemade between what he

, 14 – 19. – 19. 14 , 46

44 The interwar period interwar The 45 A History of History A In addition In

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w g a e r e .c o m for thefirst year ofdoctoral studies. economy necessarythe preparationpoliticalreceive thebooks for ofthe classes professorto towardshis Codreanu’s with request below, ended reproduced lifetime andfromwhich Icould also taste. The Truth ofthe Nationality. “that mymind inthe the lives light ofbright truth asked Cuzaforforgiveness forhaving leftthe struggle,political but assuredit him completedeference towards Cuza as apolitical leader and asteacher. Codreanu policepositionthefutureManciu, prefect,andreveals a legionaryleader of in Constantinfollowingassassinationof was the jailed wherehe Galata prison (France). Ia The first letter was datedNovember 30,1924andsentfrom prisonthe Galata in Bucharest, there aretwo sentby Codreanu letters toCuza,inless thanoneyear. Cuza personalarchival fund,located atthe CentralNationalHistorical Archives in Romanian interwar extreme weepistolary interlude. right, resorttoan IntheA.C. clarificationsthe amongpoliticalpractice and doctrinal the to consistency preceded ithadbetrayed missionits toguide them towards thefuture. programviolent radicalstrongly the generation whichthat because it believed conflict must beadded,witha younger generation who entitled felt toexercise its 58 ܈ i, while the second was dispatched on November 3, 1925 from Grenoble Novembersecond1925 wasthe on whiledispatched3, i, November datedThe letter was30, 1924byCodreanu sent fromthe give documentaryto moreimageand completeprovidea to order In that you have preacheda that youhave for ” Theletter,

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Cuza, Dosar 47 / 1924, p. 1. p.1. /1924, 47 Dosar Cuza, 47

59 CentralNational HistoricalBucharest- Archives (hereafter ANIC),C. Fond A.

and toDodo. from the faculty library. can borrowthesetomesalsoso thatI tointerveneprepare and economy, requiredfor year. first in vain. multipleMyrequests foratome onRoman law havebeen (Girard) economics.doctoralthebooks necessary forpreparingyearin first of Galata,Iwould liketoaskyousomething. I wouldneed herethe who rejoice in untruth, shall suffer. the ground.And all those by Satanruled will befrightened. the lightofsun. my nation. evening, foryour healthandtriumph,the fighters, andof andofall each God to pray candleI the of light the insipidIn prayers. contribute,tryingam to I still through my fightingfor it, who are of theNationality. preached for a lifetime andfrom which Icould also taste. The Truth you, thatmymind livesinthelightofbright truth friends ‘Amicus Plato,sed magis amica veritas’ – feel all right. me from the heavens,from God. Being like that,Iam healthy and I I havereturned tomy own Mine things. arethose thatare given to Madam the alsoto receivemy respectful regards, Please to have I that recommendto all you ask respectfully I That iswhy Ihavedecided tostart withthe study ofpolitical Now, beforeending andsending you my salutefrom the hill thoseAnd all sufferingforthe truthshallrejoice, andthose Then, the empire of darkness, of Satan, will beshakingfrom Thistruth shall triumph.the triumph Andlet brighterthan be Rest assure, however,mymind that is notsetondeserting Forgive me fordeserting you. Fordeserting my fiancé… EsteemedMr. Professor,

And if faith pulled faith ofthose me Andif of theranks out Corneliu ZeleaCodreanu” * November 30,1924 47 “Galata prison,

that you havethat you

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w g a e r e .c o m events have shown that differences between the two were irreconcilable. youngerof reassure Cuzaoftheloyalty politicalits partners,subsequent but struggle. The letter, which is reproduced below,withparagraph meant ended a to of action,which canbe understood asthe desire for radicalization of theirpolitical over the years and emphasized the desire of the youth topreserve their freedom Codreanumisunderstandingsstressedright. the LANCthat tookplaceinside Romanianalreadypracticebetweentwo emerginggenerationsfar of the the differencesvision,doctrineand politicalto lightthe of bringingdocument for valuablediscontents accumulateda during year.Thisrefusal the last letteris the down,all slightlytoned evenif it, in that included refusal a withmet the LANC, which A.C.Cuza madetoCodreanuthrough the agencyof Mo on November 3,1925,from Grenoble. The offer toenter the central committee of France tostudy as his relationship withCuza deteriorated visibly. isolated (as he isolated confessed), (as later 48 49 political movements encounter soseldom.” great tacticalgooduseadvantagethatto a put not know “to Cuza, whodid have takenL.A.N.C. topower, anopportunity thathadbeenmissed becauseofA enthusiastic crowds. Codreanuregarded thisasacrucialmoment, whichcould Turnu Severin, wheretook place, Codreanuandfront thetrial Cuzaspokein of figure,public recognized thewayCodreanu intoa nationwide.backfrom On 60 Corneliu Zelea Codreanu,

Ibid., This state ofaffairs was confirmed bythe letter sent by Codreanu to Cuza 206. The trial that followed after the assassination of C. Manciu turnedManciu C. assassinationof the followedafter that trial The

Pentru legionari 49 in the fall of 1925 Codreanuofchose thefallto 1925 togo in , 195. , 195. 48 With this bitter taste, and feeling taste,bitter this With ܊ a, was

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61 University order tocompletein ourstudies. the at enrolled have wethat and right all weare know that is betteris to tell thetruth – we preferthe freedom of action. respect to theways ofaction. From this point of view – andIthink it youth, holdsomehow different views thanthe LANC committee with reasons. Among wouldbe, firstfact them ofall,the thatwe, the manythiscommittee, for part in take to not better be would its own. the youthwouldberepresented thiscommittee memberin by a of ordered my inclusion inthecentralcommittee of L.A.N.C., so that ù committee,Ia a the of part me relationor for in to thecommittee. inconveniences fortheLeague,members forthe ofthecommittee, creatingLeague,thewhoentireknows organizationwhat of the the spiritcommittee, ofthe in thisto engage committee and even we don’twant ouractions,which atacertain momentmightnot be the nationaldefence movement, of thelife its leader thehonour and always ready to defend withour own livesthe honour andthe life of needto instantlynot havethe a partofthecommittee. be are We person couldoccupy with muchmore use. activity ofthe committee,and Iwould occupyplace that a another doctoralexam well. Therefore,as it anis absence ofalmost ayear. take the to whichtimehope rest, in I period health, alongerof country for moreI haveexpected. than Ineed,sake forthe ofmy against agovernment thatbetrayed its nation. eliminatedfrom the actionthat committeewecarriedfor that out thebeen on committee“RomanianAction,”of the hassince been you areawareofthesituation ofMo committeeSeptemberother hand,Idon’tknowif in On the 1924. umuleanu. For theumuleanu.For reasonexpounded the aboveI hadtoleave At his arrival,Mo At his agoMoSeveral days EsteemedMr. Professor, Hearingthis news, Ihasten to write youmy Ithink opinion: it As amatter offact,Youmightknow that I have already been As a matterAs a offact,Youknow theyouth,do better thatwe, contributeI couldtimethink to the All this anythingI don’t Then, besides all this, there thefactthatis Iwill beoutofthe Ġ a brought me the news that you have you that newsmethe brought a Ġ ú a also arrived here. We wantarrivedto here.also We you a i regional one, as secretary of Dr. of secretary regionalone, as i Ġ a who in 1923, havingwhoin while a “Grenoble 3Novembre 1925 19, rueJoseph Chaurion Because

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w g a e r e .c o m 50 politicalmap ofinterwar Romania. distinct regenerativeprojectthat would place the Legionary Movement theon a gradually evolved into easy,but it not This processwasformercomrades. Legionary Movement own its identity byrejectingkey elements ofthedoctrine of the of creatingfor discourse aboutbe part partisansof A.C.Cuzawould the legionary TheLegionary1927. the Movementestablishmentin the of after of thetwo aboveacquiredreadingdoctrinalby the stake letters a immediately 62 ANIC, Fond A. C. Cuza, Dosar 48/ 1925, pp. 1 – 2. – 2. 1 pp. 1925, 48/ Dosar C.Cuza, A. Fond ANIC, The differences ofvision regarding the manner ofpoliticalaction revealed allegiance until ourdeath. eternaltruthand ofthe embodies thathe andwhichwe for swore Please accept once again theassurance ofmy devotion.

Corneliu ZeleaCodreanu.” 50

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w g a e r e .c o m LANC, Codreanufound himselfa position in wherehe hadto somethingbuild withoutfollowers.support Left the of animportant party suchasA.C.Cuza’s closest his and betweensolidaritiesCodreanu groupcertain of formation break away from mainstreama party and form a rival movement. “politics asusual”, witha groupof dissenting politicalactivists that decided to tradition, theemergencethe Legioncan alsoberegardedan of as exampleof interwartypicalwasfor the recent Romanianpoliticalmilieu. something this In that hadharmed LANC.Theoccurrence ofpolitical factions anddissident parties connected with everyday politics, and stemmed from the stringofinnerstruggles wayLegionthe important,was less also of that, andinnothegenesis to young generationthatregenerate would and rejuvenate thecountry. Inaddition to energizecore a groupofardent followers who the of sawinhim theleader doing politics thatwas characteristic of LANC andwas basedalsoonhisabilities marked byCodreanu’sdecisionbreak to upwiththe traditional wayand rigid of the Structuring Movement ofthe 63 of the Archangelof Michael: Archangel Michael and its Development in the First Years of Years First the in Development its and Michael Archangel Establishing the Legion: the Founding of the Legion of the ofthe Legion the of Founding the Legion: the Establishing This early stage in the existence of the movementmarkedthe the by theof existence is stage in earlyThis foundingThe oftheLegion oftheArchangel Michael June 1927wasin II. 1. Separating the Boys from theMen – theFounding ofthe Legion Existence (1927 - 1932) - (1927 Existence 3ă mântul Str CHAPTER II CHAPTER

ă mo о

esc , Generational Conflict and and Conflict Generational ,

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w g a e r e .c o m slowly but steadily fading away. In addition to that, his fathera becamehisthat, additionto steadilyIn away.fadingbut slowly was – 1925 attentionpopularitythe 1924 andand was gainedin diminished geographical components intheearly daysof the movement. socialand the and roles, component,and gender ritual life Legion, the daily regeneration,thethestructuringsalient ideologicaltrait,of anti-Semitism a as for need the and conflictgenerational following issues: the on placed wouldlater becomethe Legion.Special emphasis important of be leaders will current chapter investigatesthe contributionsthenmilitants emergingwho of Romanianfascism,of the numberhistorians of a used by have been which besides the articles written byimportant figures suchas Codreanu andMo to reminisce about this episode in his work,his episodein this about reminisce to writings aboutthat period, andeven Codreanu himself usedthepartynewspaper agitator. Also, not many ofthosewho took part inthefoundingof the Legion left Codreanu,althoughsurveillance, under waspoliticala local only regarded as abundant,as not Legionis the ofyearexistentfounding material fromthe Str newspaper, Legion’s the by reflected were they as existence genesis ofthemovement tolookatactionsits is duringthefirstsix months ofits unchallenged until 1933–1934. Aninteresting andoriginal wayof assessingthe on go would movementand the beginnings of the for essentialprove These solidarities, forgedthroughoutthe studentmovement, the1920s in would followersanew,used thisgroupofyoung and the hardcorefor as thisproject. 64 ă mo Codreanu founded theLegion atamomentwhen status his within LANC о esc . This choice has aplurality of motivations. First of all, the archival Pentru Legionari Furthermore, . 3ă ܊ mântul a, and

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w g a e r e .c o m Codreanu articulatedcontempt his towardsprograms political showcasing while his in point this at It is inhabitants. its and country and hisfollowersbeen have entrustedwithhistoricalmission a toreshape the terms,withfeelings of loneliness and despair intertwining withthesense thathe political mistakes that would come atavery high price. moment. Cuzaacceptedtheirdeparture advisingthem make of not to thekind not believe anymorethepoliticalpath hewasthat theydo the in pursuingat they askedhim toundothe oaths they took whenjoined they hisparty,stating Cuza baptized him group28 yearsago.Thesmall readalettertoCuza whichin emotionaltone, emphasizing that the meeting took place in thesame roomwhere obviousepisodean withhome.narratedhisthis Codreanu visitto group a the tiesyoung legionaries hadto A.C.Cuza, andthis wasaccomplishedafter meeting was thereadingofashort order by Codreanu himself: o’clock ameeting thatlasted onlyone minute tookplace. The onlyevent ofthe 2 1 the the foundingmoment austere in terms, that admitting he was surrounded just by dissenting voice against Cuza’shandling ofthe LANC’sleadership. Hedescribed 65 Codreanu, Codreanu, 9ăFă The aftermathwasthe break-upThe describedof Codreanu decisiveby in This actofbirth was followed thenext day bythesymbolic unravelingof re о Pentru legionari, Pentru legionari, teni the icon’sguard. Corneliu Z.Codreanu should remainoutside. InominateRadu Mironovici asthechief of doubts ranks. Thosewhohave these unboundedly may comein MICHAEL” ARCHANGEL THE OF “LEGION the evening, the in o’clock , and a fewa students.ofand June 24,1927, Intheevening10 , at Today, on FridayJune 24, 1927(Saint Johnthe Baptist), ten

is founded under my leadership. Those who believewhomy leadership.Those under founded is

230. 229. 1

Pentru legionari where

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w g a e r e .c o m a rhetoric thatemphasized generationaldiscrepancies was very revealing: alluding toCodreanu’s own actionswithin LANC. Theirpoint ofview, presented in disaster andstatedthat theireffortssave to itbeen had goingonfortwo years, Cuza’s followers. Theyarguedthatthenational movement ofa wasthe brink on the foundersby all ofthe Legion. Thearticle justified the politicalundertaking of leading article in thefirst issue had thesametitle asthepaper, and wasit signed disseminatingoutlet intermsof their political worldview.ideas andtheir The qualities ofour race.” strugglepermanentforcalland bravery, theawakening warrior and“the of ancestorswhich rest,a country,the the of connectionin soilthewith the 5 4 - 61. The Caseofthe Romanian Legionary Movement,” in and have also published an article entitled “Fascism andits Quest for the 'New Man:' Romanian Legionary Movement (1927-1937) Romanians into Legionaries: The Questfor the "NewMan" inthe Ideology ofthe stagesof itsdevelopment. tackled Ihave thesisthistopicmy MA in the Legionary Movement wascrucial a thread one, a that connectedthe various 3 name, area of influence, to formulate our life normsand toconduct our actions.” “feltthe need” tohaveanewspaper thatcould order“tobroaden beusedin our thein blood of our people.” wouldbe able tomaximize “all the potentialof humanmagnification sown by God tobidhis createa“newman” withhero-like maker qualities, a history that of 66 Codreanu, Codreanu, Codreanu, For CodreanuFor his and followers, thepaperbecamemost the emblematic On thepragmaticnewlyof his foundedpolitical end movement, Codreanu 3ă mântul Str Pentru legionari, Pentru legionari, Pentru legionari, ă 5 mo

о esc 3

244. 244. 239. The question of the ‘new man’ in theideology of (Landofour Forefathers)meant was tosymbolize

(CentralUniversity,European 2003), Studia Hebraica , 4(2004): 349 Young 4 The The

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w g a e r e .c o m I, 1 (August 1, 1927): 3. 3. 1927): 1, I, 1(August by IonI.Mo recent past asa legitimizing substantiation took place. years,1922 studentstrikes.five the startingwiththe Aprocess of reconstructing solidaritybornoutthe of sharedpolitical experiences thatspanned aperiodof 7 gets after reading the first issue of issue first the reading after gets the perceived putridandweakthe national partsof movement. sense one The purifyingact thatpresupposedprocess ofself-cleansing a and cuttingawayof discourse was highly visible, asCodreanu saw the birthof hismovement asa movement, organized on the principleof the hierarchy.” voluntary and youthful idealistic, an create shall “we stating movement, justify thedeparture from LANC showcaseand also theiremerging project. membersfounding backwardthe Legion,forward ina of and attempt looking to enemy!”firstcontainedslogan “Facethe The issue articlesfivewritten byall the own,of their under form alegion to break awayfive leaders decide and their vision, thefutureofyouth andtheir nationalist andanti-Jewish the fight, 6

67 Codreanu, “E ceasul vostru: Veni

3ă mântul Str The roleofsecond commandin the inside Legion issymbolically occupied Codreanu’s first article outlined the main principles of the newly born newly the of principles mainthe outlinedarticle first Codreanu’s statedisunitythreatened,Faced withthisperceived that according of to ܊ a, who stoodbyCodreanu’s side duringthe politicalstruggles ofthe for theforgiveness ofeveryone’s sins.” didn’t vote, we propagandize didn’t butwesatthe churchpraying in nor theoneof nation.So we didn’t takepart intheelections, we issues that disrupted them, theydonotdeserve ourencouragement the enemymoment,this difficult in matter no thepersonalor other ă mo о esc ”If theelders did not understand theneed to unite in frontof I, 1 (August 1, 1927): 3. 1,1927): I, 1(August

܊ i!” (It isyour time: Come!), 3ă mîntul Str ă 6

mo о esc 3ă is that of a group 7 The regenerative The mântul Str ă mo о esc

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w g a e r e .c o m 1 (August 1, 1927): 11-12. 9 9-10. Codreanu andMo articlestheofaftercomingcharacteristicgroup. wereEven if that of the articles tothe first issue of the Legion’s paper, inabidtoshow the unity of ideas movement. constitutedthe mysteriouscells the disciplineof force by a attracted who, Codreanu’s leadership.A leaderthatwas notelected,butacquiescedby those under justthat, movement doing theirwasandorganized, to be needed forcethisthat argued savingNevertheless, force. divinethe he of recipients student movement1922,the constantof reference forthe point legionaries in cadaver”. humanityand eternalpeace buttheatmosphere “started tohavethe smellofa “envelopthe process ofdecaythenational body”withsuch conceptsas to triedforeignpoliticalthe interestssold and to partieswere argued that aforementioned leaders thein days first ofthe Legion. Thus,Corneliu Georgescu twotheofthe beyond went ideas what sense on of the readera give 8 of theRomanian nation. elaboratingmystical in asynthesis language betweenand the God’swillsaving andnation” a of lost soul the message,new fertilization“thisof discussing regenerative a outlined also issue inauguralthe in article movement.His spokespersonsmainthe forone ofthe gainingbe legitimacy1920s the to 68 Corneliu Georgescu, ”N Ion I.Mo The other founding members of the movementwithcontributed the membersfoundingalso otherof The 9 ܊ According to Georgescu, the awakening was determined by the by determinedwasawakening theGeorgescu, to According a, “LaIcoan ܊ a, their contributions area, their alsointerestingtothey analyze,as ă ” (At the Icon), ă dejdi sf 8

According to Mo to According ă râmate” (Broken Hopes), 3ă mântul Str ܊ a, the legionaries would act as act legionarieswould the a, ă mo о esc 3ă I,1 (August1, 1927): mântul Str ă mo о esc I,

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w g a e r e .c o m 3ă rejoicing andtriumphant forheknows that discord theis vanguard ofdefeat and enemyLANC,that“the is whilevituperating in wentstruggleson inner that could bereadinthe“poisoned proseoftheJewishnewspapers” because ofthe 10 same lines, Gârneasamelines, the is, Here it Ilie GârneaIlie hiding theirdisappointment withthe currentstate ofevents,Radu Mironoviciand focusing onthe relationshipwith A.C.Cuza’s LANC, butinadifferent key. Not impression thatitwas similarto the other politicalparties. the givingweakeningand its to bickering,thus leading inner disunity and feltgenerationbetrayed byLANC becausetheorganizationshowedsignsof for A.C. Cuza, followed bythemassivejoining party. ofhis Intime, however, that these early daysoftheirmovement. Outofthat moment emerged theadmiration 69 His solution was to “slowlyremainder, onlysome housesmoked haveremained.” darkand oftheold walls within LANCtotheburningone’swords, of house.Inhis “today, a painfullike disturbances thatoccurredhe likenedfellow fromthecountryside the had and situation. Mironovici addressedtoa wrote pieceunderthe formofaletter his stated thesheer joy thattheirperceived enemy witnessingwhile had this political Radu Mironovici,Radu ”C mântul Str The othertwo foundingmembers oftheLegionwrotearticles their likewise ܊ă ă decriedthelackofunitywithin thenationalist movementalso and mo Legion о esc ܊ă I, 1 (August 1, 1927): 12. 12. 1927): 1, I,1(August towhichwe havejust afirst corner laid stone.” expressedhis dissatisfactionthe“satanicjoy”that with ă tre un frate delasat”(Toun trebrotherfromthe village), a

rebuild anew house that shouldtwiceas beautiful: 10 Along the Along

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w g a e r e .c o m Str 13 12 13. brothers – the joy of the enemy), helped withthe propagandathetwo for newpartyandweretoseethe happy politicallymindedentouragehis Nationalist-Democratic 1910.He and party in political hopeswere elevatedwhen Nicolae Iorga andA.C.Cuza founded their By hisown account,hismain readings were thoseofVasile Conta. main agendaissues onthepublic suchasthe Jewishthe peasantquestion. and 1905 whenbut alreadycoming thefallof hewasonly16 awareof agein ofthe politicalhisabout Climetalked Reality”, “Dreamsentitledarticle,Hopes - – 11 Str the of introspective articlewrote actions, firstissue an Climefor his LANC whodecided tojoin theLegionatitsinception. As manifestoa personal for illustrativethis inregard. Climewas asympathizer ofCuzaand a local leader of ideological background was ofthosewho joined.The case ofGheorghe Clime is whatthe andattractmovement leadership, managedemerged its to newly defeat is theprologue of eternaldeath.” 70 become predominant inthese first years ofthe movement: Gârnea Legion, the Gh. Clime, “Visuri.N – Ibid.,13. Ilie Gârnea ă ă mo mo Other contributions tothepapergive ustheopportunity toassess how the о о esc esc I, 1 (August 1, 1927): 13. 13. 1,1927): I, 1(August presenting hispoliticalupbringing andhopesforthefuture. Inthis with its facewith towards its the enemy! whereat anytime,and night,there day isaguardthat is watching thislet themknow has come, countrythere- thatin acorner is hover aboutthesacredaltars believingthat thetimetheir rule for ܊ă , ”Neîn

So, the Jews that are joyous today and who, like ravens, like who, and joyoustoday are Jewsthat the So, ܊ă ܊ elegerea dintrefra used a threatening anti-Semitic language that would that languageanti-Semiticthreatening a used ă dejdi. –Realitate” (Dreams –Hopes -Reality),

3ă mântul Str 11 ܊ i –bucuriadu Justto strengthen the determination of 12 ă mo

о esc , I, 1,(August 1, 1927): 12- ܈ manului” (Discord among 13 3ă 3ă His first His mântul mântul

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w g a e r e .c o m 1927): 7. asked towritetheir articles. Instead, the editors said, this demonstrated theunity thematically unitary, the contributors were not thein same when place theywere to justify thesestriking resemblances andargued that, although thearticles were obvious similaritiesof the contributionswas published.The editorsthe need felt fought against the enemies ofthe country and as anexample forthelegionaries: the movement,for he wasregardedas“anMichael” as Archangel whofiercely Ferdinand’s patriotism was The was highlighted. king appropriatedas asymbol and praised monarchywasRomanian the death,king’s the after written Romanianmonarch,whenthe King Ferdinand, passedaway.In theobituary 15 14 witha cleargoal: ”Saving themovement anddefeating theJews”. forregroupingolder age,calledaroundof an a young Codreanu the andMo that thenationalist movementwasand demoralized andhe,although scattered point when Climeto whatconsidered turned he thecurrentreality, movement everybody believed andwhich in trouble.wasgreat Itwas nowin this Iorga, anewglimmeremergedwhenof hope C. Cuzafounded A. LANC, the leaders enteringthe parliament. After thewar andthediscord between Cuzaand 71 “A murit “A Regele nostru”(Our King Died), 14. Ibid.,p. As a conclusion to the fist asmallAs aconclusionnote regarding itscontent tothefist issue, andthe The launchingof themovementpaper coincided withand its thetime the same. From the heavens,hewouldregard us with happiness. archangeldo that wouldmanythis soil Romaniangrown have on country, hitting andscattering theenemies,then undertheeyes of and people his happinesssoughtthe of hand his swordin the our Kingif FerdinandhimselfwasArchangelMichael, an whowith Enemiesfrom within and from without, (…)should know that

3ă mântul Str ă mo о esc , I,1, (August , 14

i. e. i. the fact the 15 ܊ a

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w g a e r e .c o m wasfourth the oneandwas intended togroup theRomaniansfrom abroad in section, hadthesameas theprevious objective one.The Internationalsection Christian, Romanian,and disciplined life.” The thirdsection, entitledthe Helping want tosupport, encourage and protect the effort of the Legion’s youth for a new, yet 19years old. TheLegion’s Safeguard section contained maturemilitants “that witha subsectioncalled “Cross Brotherhoods” designedfor those who were not RomanianincludingLegion) principlesthat would everyyoung ofthe obeythe end “anew Romaniarests, awaited byevery Romanian.” youth inorder todoawaywithsystem,the old andtoactasaschoolatwhose Legion pictured itselfas a“SchoolJustice”. of TheLegion intended tounite the and discipline. Byfightingaccordingto theseprinciples againstenemies, its the component,while themainprinciples of action were work, faith, order, hierarchy “youthfulnessThe meaningthesoul,was oflife” core purityin considered its national,voluntary,“a as independent wasorganization”.andyouthfuldefined principles andthe projected structure. Thus the Legion oftheArchangel Michael mainits to describeandorganization of theLegion the explain attempt to Str 16 Str published articles in the best reflectedin mannerare coherent a is destined to win, notto fail. thoughtin andfeelings among thoseentering theLegion,that and suchanarmy 72 Legiunea “Arhanghelul Mihail” (The Legion ofthe “Archangel Michael”), ă ă mo mo The LegionwasThe four dividedsections: into theYouth section (aimedat The slow ofthemovementbirth firstwell asit effortsto as organize itself in о о esc esc I, 2 (August 15, 1927): 3-4. . One of such articles publishedof sucharticlesmid-Augustfirstwas . One1927 in the

3ă 3ă mântul mântul

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w g a e r e .c o m 18 17 reinterpreted them in view of Romanian national symbols andaspecific socio- salvationalbent that “sharedmost ofthefeatures ofamillenariansalvation, but stronga “charismaticLegion, withIordachiConstantindid,the a genesis” of clarifyto the relationshipalsoneed LANC.as historian identify, Onecan with their newspaper, theonlytwo constanttopics were anti-Semitism fierce and the the young legionaries. Asonecanperceive also bylooking atthefirst issue of organizationalconstruct hasrevealed state theinitial ofconfusion thatmarked withthe aim of savingthenationalmovement from defeat.”total Legion was established because of the disunitywithin the League andprecisely dedicated tothe relationshipwithLANC, describedas“very close, because the programmaticLegion. Inthis wasenddocument,special paragraphat the a the highest authorityof wasolderas the regarded or and persons aged50 of advisory body an institutedLegionas the was Senate of categories. The socialmembers from other wellas student as of former leaders comprised Michel the Jews, through ajournalto be published in Parisunder thename order to“propagate thetruthabout theinvasionthe Romanian of fatherland by 73 Ibid., 4. Ibid.,4. Ibid. ”. At a closer look, this rather ambiguous and sloppyandambiguous rather ideological this and closer look, a At councilcommitteea andLegionby a advised by waswasled The 17

L’Archange

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w g a e r e .c o m Str 22 3ă 21 Religions Totalitarianof RegimesInter-War in Europe,” 20 19 guilty ones to the ladder. exploitingblamedfor the country,andRomanianssummoned are the to bring rudimentaryLegion. Thiswasforeigners aare xenophobic whichthe poem, in texts forthelegionary marching songs. and format,served asanimportant it mobilizing factor, especially when usedas itsdiscourse,employedLegion in andalthough clearly differed bythe it inquality spânzur process ofwinning bysuffering andself-sacrifice: describedCorneliuGeorgescu whichhe as a the legionaries the in actions of articlediscourseviolentby an of through means. this type is exampleof An fromsiege variousenemieswhichalsothreatenedbut tosolvethese issues vengefulness,constantvictimization describing and under crisis, amovement in resembled, atamicro level,a certain type of“palingenetic politicalcommunity”. political context.” 74 IustinIlie CorneliuGeorgescu, “Aprinde RogerGriffin, “The Palingenetic Political Community:Rethinking the Legitimation Constantin Iordachi, mântul Str ă mo The discourse of the first legionary militants shifted easily betweeneasilyshifted militants legionary first the discourseof The A change in tone could beafter tonecouldpoem reading noticed the “Vom în A changein о esc ă 3, 3 (Winter 2002): 24 – 43. – 24 2002): (Winter 3,3 tori”written byIustinIlie I, 2 (August 15, 1927): 10. ܈ ă path tovictory. And we sufferbecause the sufferings are the thorns spread onthe abideourexpiateWe because it is dutyto the ofourparents. sins and batteringus; still tooweak tocrushthem, we and suffer. abide crisis. areindeep Numerousstrong enemies We and are chasing u, “Vom în u, mo о 19 esc Or,toput inRoger Griffin’s conceptual framework, theLegion I, 2 (August 15, 1927): 5-6. 1927): 15, I,2(August Charisma, Politics, andViolence, ăO܊ 22

a spânzur a 21 Poetry would become one of the genresthe heavilywouldbecome of Poetry one

܈ ܊ i f u, oneofthe and first most poetsofthe prolific ă ă cliacredin tori”Shall(WeGallows), Build TotalitarianPoliticalMovementsand ܊ ii!” (Light the Torch of Hope!), Torchof ii!”(Light the 45, 51. 51. 45, 3ă mântul ăO܊ 20 a

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w g a e r e .c o m withthe former introducing topics that came from Transylvanianhis background. distributors who was byaJew. led article stated that the journal was rejected for distribution bythe centraloffice of short Bucharest.A bitter, as placessuch more in difficult much followers, is Codreanu’sof scarce presence “firsthour”the which to connectedjournal, is expressedjoy their fortheemergence ofthismovement. Thepenetrationof the Bukovina, Putna, Hunedoara(Or Putna, Bukovina, same:the strongholdswere and the an impact, had Legion,the implicitly journal,whereplacestheand the sense of by theLegiongavea received Hunedoara. Aswell,thepagededicated tothesupposedlynumerous “fanmail” and Sibiu as such places also but Bukovina, Tecuci), (Putna, Moldova movement:the strongholdssouthern of future comefrom first donors The Thus, donations were given smallin amounts, ranging betweenand 200 500 lei. reflections regardingthe social component ofthe movement its incipient in stage. allowLegion,andstrongholds some first the the aboutdetails of us give columns,These thathavenotbeensources sufficiently explored by scholars, journalcolumns.specialwerementionedsubscriptionsthankedtothe in and journal.thereceivedby Occasional arranged multiple donorsandthosewho buyingaffected evenbasicanswering stampsneeds suchas for theletters Str 23 Legion’s attitude towardsmoney was highlyvisible inthefirst issues of 75

3ă ă mo mântul Str Mo The issue of financingThe issueof movement the publications,as theits aswell and о esc ܊ a and Codreanu remainedthe mainmessagea and carriers fortheLegion, . The publishers complained about thepermanent lack of money that ă mo о esc I, 3 (September 1, 1927): 13.

23 ă܈

tie). These are letters from people who from people letters are Thesetie). 3ă mântul

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w g a e r e .c o m 1927): 7. 7. 1927): Legion and for Thos Who Want to Be) to Want for ThosandLegion Who pentru cei cari doresc s 25 Word for “Lord” Rothermere, 24 Mo 76 Hungary and Romaniawould betackled. divergencescountries betweenthe like after that, end, and an to brought brotherhood” wouldnotsucceed. Mo Christian “the disunite attemptto their that Jews the towards warning vicious anti-Semiticof his anti-Hungarian and and concludedone witha rants Informationtook place. leader,of thelegionary sisterregarding the ceremony, of politics, as on August 18, 1927 Moof politics,as onAugust18, 1927 friends that want toenlist inthe‘Legion ofwork andbattle.’” about the initial numbermembers, of becausehecounted 300 persons as“all our idea subscribers.shortarticleaboutgivesus an of 3000 The issue also this Codreanu aimed atassuringthesustainabilityjournalby reaching ofthe a target principlemilitants. objective among Asafirst ofthis his commonwork endeavor, accompaniedby order anddiscipline, asCodreanu sought toensure aleadership movement waswork asaway of lifting the nation from servitude. was to Work be whowanted tobeintheLegion,stressing that oneofthemainrules within the a bidto disciplinein hisyoungfollowers. Helaunchedacall toworkthose forall Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, “Activitatea Legiunii. Pentru cei cari sunt în Legiune Ion I.Mo ܊ a talked abouta talked the doublethreat -Hungarian andJewish- over Transylvania, The bondbetweenthetwo legionary leaders also transgressedthe realm Codreanu focused onthe means toforge a new work-ethicfor the Legion, ܊ a, “Ovorb ă ardeleneasc ă fie” (The Activity of theLegion. For Those Are intheWho

3ă mântul Str ă pentru ‘lordul’ Rothermere” (ATransylvanian ܊ a consideredthat firsttheJews havetobe ܊ 3ă ă a wedding withIredenta Codreanu,the 24 mo

mântul Str о esc I, 3(September 1, 1927): 6-7. ă mo о esc 25

I, 3 (September1, I, 3 ܈ i

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w g a e r e .c o m “quick-witted mind, agreatsouland afist of steal.” Romania”, inordertobeupthestruggles thatwouldrequire them to have a subsection ofthe youth division, aimed tocreate the “good soldiers of tomorrow’s headquarter in Ia in headquarter Legion’sthepostcardwritten andsent to on a The applicationhad tobe should be“baptized inthefaith oftheLegion within amaximum months”.of 5 quarter ofan hour of daily work forthe Legion, andtoconvert five individualsthat enterLegion.one to Afterenrolment, the memberswere to dedicatea asked subscriptionsdemonstrated themoral “both work warranty the potential”for and subscriptionsfivebringing of tothejournal. According toCodreanu, thosefive 28 dividedfour into sections. sympathizersdesiredorganizational the themovement,structureof he which 27 26 the pages of pages the effort to avoid what heconsidered the mistakes of ordinary political movement. In of themovement.attemptedstructure He to itaccordingto hisown an willin priests and the founders ofthe Legion was inserted thein Legion’s newspaper. “Christian a nationalistheld in and and spirit” with the participationof numerous 77

3ă 3ă 3ă mântul Str mântul Str mântul Str eto I, Section The organizationalaspect was akeyonefor Codreanu atthebeginnings Structuring theMovement 3ă ă ă ă mo mo mo mântul Str the Youth section о о о ܈ esc esc esc i. Also, the “Cross Brotherhoods”, which was an elite an wasBrotherhoods”, which“Cross the Also, i. I, 6 (October 15, 1927): 3. 3. 1927): 15, I, 6(October I, 4 (September 15, 1927): 3. I, 3 (September 1, 1927): 14-15.

ă mo о esc, , had as requirements for enrolmentrequirementsthe for as had , Codreanu explained in great detail to his detailCodreanugreatexplained in 28

26 27

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w g a e r e .c o m 31 30 wanted tocreatethemoralelite ofthe nation. minimum ofthreeandmaximummembers. of13 From the Legionthis section “thecallednest”),groupeda whichorganizational nucleus (later was unit the 29 woman ofwork, andthe woman ofaction. modelsdesigned by theLegion female forits followers:woman the faith, the of members.of thesegroupsThe meetingsaimed were at preparing the three nucleus that, just like thenest, consisted of at leastthree andmaximum of13 the organizationalwaswomen’salso equivalenttheforJews. The sections orderfight toprevent in Romaniancountry girlsfrom becomingservants for the Paris” toopposetheimmoralby the“Jews from and unhealthydancesto in lifereject atheism their childrennot tolet fallvictims tothefashionsmade up mothers the Legion: from toraise theirchildren asChristianswhoon wouldlater because she can create either heroes or villains.” woman,mother,the strengthmoralof the the related directlyto nations is Help Section

78 allegedmediafor calumniesParis,monitoringnewspaperpublishing in the a Romanians from abroad andwanted to usethem for anti-Semitic propaganda by Christian, Romanian anddisciplined life of theLegion’syouth.” new,a the effortstowardsprotectencourage“support, and wantedto who

3ă 3ă 3ă mântul Str mântul Str mântul Str The thirdThe the sectionmovement of was entitled Section II,entitledthe The fourthsectionwas oftheLegion theinternationalone, andittargeted and the leaders of the Legion claimed that “the rise and fallof and rise the Legionclaimed“the of that the leaders and ă ă ă mo mo mo о о о esc esc esc , I, 5, (October 1, 1927): 4. 4. 1927): 1, (October I,, 5, , I, 5, (October 1, 1927): 3. 3. 1927): 1, (October I,, 5, , I, 4, (September 15, 1927): 4.

Protection section, 31

contained all theadultmembers 30 Four principlestheguidedFour the RomanianWomen’s the

The

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w g a e r e .c o m (Bucharest: Ed. Academiei Române): 70 –83. histoiremémoire et Roumaniel`entre-deux-guerres ende àl`après communisme, Garde deFer:deux letters deIon Mo Maurras, please seetheletters published by Florin Poli to the minister offoreign affairs, NicolaeTitulescu (ANIC, Fond Direc involvement in I. G. Duca’s assassination, as he would claim in avicious letter sent wasinvestigatedSwissbrieflypolitical by the authorities activity for his and 32 Marras. closealso in contactwith important leaders such astheFrench politician Charles acted asarepresentativeof the Legion some in internationalcontexts, andwas unity. not allow any dissident views within its ranks, as thatwas seenasdisruptiveto its a politicalparty, the Legion was notmeant totake part in elections and also did higher number wouldbe difficult toachieve. Designed as a movement andnot as a thatquantity,secondlyoverand becausehe realized emphasizedquality becausehe all first of 3000, membersto numberof the Codreanu limited its message abroad thein following years. IonelMo published. This, however, didnot mean thatthemovement not try toexport did sectionwassay, this effective, andthe never proposed newspaperwas never meansmovementCodreanu’s at itsdisposal early days.Needless had inits to as aclassic caseoforganizationalwishful thinking, taking accountinto the limited organizations withsimilar goals. Onecanperceivethis lastsectionof theLegion internationalwith contacts establishing close and Jews the by perpetrated 79 Mo ܊ iei,Dosar 102/1933, p. 324). For Mo ܊ a tookpart in the CAUR meeting from December 1934 in Montreux, where he Nevertheless, still aware of the limited power ofthe newlyfounded Legion, 32

܊ a àCharles Maurras,” inIdem, ܊ a’s 1925 correspondence with Charles ܉ ܊ a was oneoftheleaderswho urcanu in “Auxorigines dela ܊ ia General Intellectuels, ă a

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Iuliu St found inashortmessage bythepaperandsentayoungstudent, published Movement and it What Wants Mi 1937). 34 Str campaign, propagandaelectoralpamphletthe 1937 as a that provedveryusefulwell in hagiographical bibliography of Codreanu, entitledCodreanu, of bibliographyhagiographical Transylvania. Hewas also an important doctrinaire for themovement, writing the important region, Sibiu, providing oneof the first strongholds forthe movement in very penetratea Legionthe He helped legionary leaders.mostimportant his politicalcareer alongside Codreanu. Ionel Baneawasbecomeof the to one launched by one ofthe future leaders of theLegion who was atthebeginningsof as 1927 revealing.as 1927 is Str Banea, who startedpublishingvitriolic articles in served asthebreeding groundforthe futureelites oftheLegion. ThecaseofIon 33 3ă 80 Ion Banea, Ion Among someof his articles, onemayquote “La lupt ú ă ă mântul Str carea Legionar mo mo Another relevant example from the first months of the Legion is to beLegionAnother relevantexample to the monthsfrom first is of the A closer look at the youngmilitantscontactthe close with lookat whocome A closer into Elite formation, communal life andlocalstruggles ă о о esc esc nescu. His welcoming remarks towards theLegion read asfollowed: I, 6 (October 15, 1927): 10-11. 10-11. 1927): 15, I, 6 (October I, 5(October 1,1927): 12; “Mi Ce este for the determination and energy that you demonstrate in the youdemonstratein that determinationenergy and the for you onmyand behalf on thebehalfof my friends from plainthe Jiu ă mo &ă pitanul о ă esc (What is theLegionary Movement it andWhat (Sibiu: Wants), It is my“hooligan”It is dutyasa andChristian student tosalute 33 о Thearticles served as battle cries and mobilizing attempts in its earlyoftenthethat thejournaldays revealedits fact in i ce vreaMi (TheIdem,Captain),(Sibiu:1936);

) . 34

о carea Legionar ܈ care nou 3ă ă &ă ” (New Movement), mântul Str ă ă pitanul

!” (Let’s!” Fight!), (What is the Legionary the is (What Ce este Ce (The Captain) (The ă mo о esc ú i ce vrea ce i 3ă 3ă as early as mântul mântul , as as

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w g a e r e .c o m force behind itsdevelopment. how Hereis the newspaper described thepicture: maindrivingpatchyitself: unfinishedenthusiasmworkas the with and acting cross.state themovementrecently erected Inmanysymbolized of the waysit costumes enjoyed aphotoopportunity ontop of it, performingthe salute near the Legion. The building wasunder still construction but agroup of legionariesfolk in Christian“Culturalbuildingdesignedthe headquartersof the Hostel”, be a to 36 development ofitsmembers. the markon its leave wouldeducational system parallelthat a instituting the world.” room containing “nationalist andChristian journalsfrom theallover country and as singing, swordandthe practice boxing,aswell establishingreading ofa accounted forthedailythe lifeof legionaries, showcasingcurrent activities such across Oltenia. theCraiova,Guard), cityof basedin andwhichenjoyedimportant an success administrator and editor in chief ofthe legionary publication of theIronGuardprovince inthe of Oltenia. InDecemberhe became 1932 the 35 core groupoffollowers. IuliuSt

3ă 3ă mântul Str mântul Str One ofthefirstpictures published in futurepresentviewsand alsothe paper ofleaders, Going beyondthe voluntarykind of this enthusiasmwason It thattheLegionbuiltitsfirst 36 These werethe first steps initiatedby Codreanuhis on wayto far intototaldispiritedness. disappointmentstheperseverance notto encounteredwe’vethus commencedforas wellyourpraiseas tothankand you battled ă ă mo mo о о esc esc I, 4 (September 15, 1927): 14. I, 4 (September 15, 1927): 13.

ă nescu would to become oneofthefutureleaders 35

3ă mântul Str ă mo Garda Jiului о esc was thatofthe (The Jiu Jiu (The

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37 plenty of expenditures.” an undertakingpleasesend inyourcontributions,construction forthe needs still construction doesthesame thing. Those ofyouwho graspthemeaningof such shy, thespringof their hopesandaspirations; downroof, onthe the headofthe Hostel holdwhile acrossinone hand joyfully raisingthe other arm towards the “When theyhaveput the in HolyCross, fourof the aspirersfor theerection ofthis 82

3ă mântul Str II. 1: The “Christian Cultural Hostel” from Ia from Hostel” Cultural “Christian 1: The II. (September 15, 1927) 15, (September ă mo о esc I, 5 (September 15, 1927): 15. 37

܈ i in 1927( i in 3ă mântul Str ă mo о esc

I, 5

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w g a e r e .c o m isolated one. exampletheThe youngof student IuliuSt andespeciallythe countrysuchasWalachia Bucharest. penetrate vastareasof militants.couldthe mostwas quiteobvious thattheLegion It not active also establishedsome connections, Corneliu with Georgescuand IonBaneabeing collaborator.closest TransylvanianwasSibiuanother the Legionwhere area whoseMo son,Ionel Ioan Mo TransylvanianOne strongholdFather to theinfluence wasof Hunedoara, due as Vrancea,Bukovina, and around Ia supporters came, asexpected, from Moldavia, andespecially from suchregions Codreanu’spolitical geographyof sympathizers.vastthe majorityThus, the of residence,thecityaccompaniedby onecanpartially of reconstruct the early Iuliu St Iuliu 1927): 12-13. Solomon, Gh. Clime, Ionel Banea, Neculai Totu, Ilie GârneaBanea, NeculaiIlie Solomon, Totu, Ionel Gh. Clime, Mironovici,HristacheSilaghi,supporters:Radu Victor and legionary leaders 38 Father IonMo movement,who launchreached 2586,andcitedthose the helped with starting which subscribers, of numbertheannounced Work” Legion’s “The entitled article movement thean NovemberInsupport itsinception. 1927 dominated 83 “Munca Legiunii” (TheLegion’s Work), The constantmeanspreoccupationThe money findingthe withwith to and ă ܊ nescu,wasCorneliuGeorgescu.each name and Duethe factthat to a, aRomanianOrthodox priest who was anoldnationalist militant and 38 ܊

a from Or ܊ a, was one of the founders of the Legiona, wasthe foundersof andCodreanu’s oneof ă܈ tie andothers. Among them one canrecognizefuture

܈ i, with some from additions the Bessarabia. 3ă mântul Str ă nescu in Oltenianescu in was therefore an ă mo о esc , I, 7, (November 1, (November I,7, , ܊ă , Traian CotigTraian , ă ,

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w g a e r e .c o m were graduatestudents: fragmentwithrespect totheself-image young legionarieswho,him, ofthe like attract young intellectuals toitscause.Mo lackofbrainpower,letter “M”.Awareof its nevertheless,Legion, the sought to an articlein entitled “Towards Young at Heart Intellectuals”, signed onlywiththe person in the Legion’s leadership toopen this debate was IonelMo ofintellectualsthe issue and theirpolitics. involvement with Themostlikely 39 sideburns”, “importers ofpoisons”, and “agents ofinfection”. with “jackals branded being Jews the with country, the confronting issue whichby NicolaeBolcaconsidered Jewish mostmenace the important asthe an article entitled “From the Students ofthe Theology Academy Sibiu” in signed particularly attracted tothemovement,same ofthejournalincluded asthe issue Legion’stheologythepoliticalwerestudentsYoung disseminationideas. of and newspaper the subscriptionsfordonations, financial through support alsowhile appealing topriests and retired army officers, who often offered their 84

3ă mântul Str The Legion’squest towards various social strata also briefly touched upon In terms of the social component,socialtermsthe the Legion attractedmanyIn of students press only to be mocked andderided; we arenot presumptuous, we ministries,mentionedbigourfree passesinthe the names in are fiefdoms”;weextended don’thave with relations influential people, “politicaldistinctions,clubs or special have the don’t authorityin Motherland, We the devotedentirelyto have nothing. weheart a Exceptstudies forthe for acareer, afaithful andJesus loving soul, system.literary science and today’s in positions important solid, consequence,so called inthe “politics”)andnot we have also do a as (and, experience business rich works, fashionable vast, not inflatedweare thewisdom with ofthetime,not have wedo ă mo о esc “Well, we that think our strength liesprecisely the factin that I, 7 (November 1, 1927): 6-7.

܊ a’s articlealso containeda’s arevealing 39

܊ a, who so did

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w g a e r e .c o m 41 3ă 40 Mo preparing hispleaforattracting young intellectuals to the causethe ofLegion. emphasizedreligiousaimeddevicetheirand rhetorical at beliefs. Thiswas a medieval,even and archaic, old-fashioned as theyoung legionaries of values intentionallyexpressing an inferiority complexcore thatdepictedsomethe of discourse,powerof nonlinguistic“the includingits forms (rituals,myths, and of its core members. significant numberintellectuals, of and itsdevelopment on theshoulders rested intellectuals. Forthenext decade, half theLegion did notmanageattract to any Semitism did nothavean impactthe on targeted group, e. youngi. Romanians 85 Antichrist.” the armiesof true Jews,the the dominationthethroughof us over spirit himself,and thatthewordJesus of was overriddenof thesatanic by“the rule Ibid. “C mântul Str ܊ a emphasizedthat theideasinformedLegion stemmed the a Jesus from ă treintelectualii HeartIntellectuals),suflet”Young la(Towardstineriat He approached the intellectuals with an obvious sense of selfirony, of senseobvious withan the intellectualsapproached He As historianSimonetta Falasca – Zamponihas pointedout,one may take Ritualistic Foundation 41 This article, devoid of any political ideas yet filled with delirious anti- ă that theycan happen today …” even believes so-calledwonders,and the Archangels,believes in a ridiculous,soul– Medievaloldour thing: believesinGodand automobiles andfortunes,of ourhands theskindamaged, is and sign ofthecross when wemeals; sitdown there’s forour nosign of don’t havearefined profile,worship we our icons andwemake the mo о esc , I, 6, (October 15, 1927): 5-7. 1927): 15, I,, 6,(October

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w g a e r e .c o m that was anaturalandorganic endpoint forcenturies ofRomanian history. indicative fortheself-image oftheorganization, itsattempt toactasamovement fivelast years.” Thenarration ofthis moment theLegion’s newspaper in was very whoon “carried their shoulders theheavy load ofthenationalmovement the in movement were the center in ofthe ceremony, andthey were regarded as those day ofSaint Michael, thepatron saint of the movement. Thefivefounders of the ritualisticfoundation oftheLegion took place inIa The well. fascism as of Romanian case the validity in their fascism retain performances ofpolitical theatre ormass spectacles.” help oftheatricalelements,Emilio as Gentile argued,“weather intheformof presupposed‘aestheticisation anacute of politics’,often done which the withis 44 43 Mussolini's Italy, 42 the delineated purposes,its negotiated itsmeanings, andbuiltauthority.” its contours,fascism shapedits through which process„the of an idea get also power.” identity, theconstructionanddefinition goalsmaking ofits ofends,the ofits images), asanessentialelement theformation in ofthefascist regime's self- 86 (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2003), 110. Modernity: Nationalism, Futurism, andFascism, Emilio Gentile, “The Theatre ofPolitics inFascist Italy”in Idem, Ibid.,3-4. Falasca-Zamponi,Simonetta sacralisation ofpolitics The aforementionedassertionThe historiansimportantof belongingto two 42 Examining elementsas symbols, discourses such andrituals, onemay (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 3.

, which is so important for fascist movements, fascist for important so is which , Fascist Spectacle: the Aesthetics of Power in PowerAesthetics of the Fascist Spectacle:

foreword by Stanley G. Payne, G. Stanleyforewordby ܈ i on Novemberi 8 44

The Strugglefor The th 1927, the 1927, 43 Also,

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w g a e r e .c o m collectedsoilfrom Sarmisegetuza, theancientDecebal, fortressof the kingof also brought from other symbolic places. Ion MoIonsymbolicfrombrought places. other also CorneliuGeorgescu, lawyer andco-founder oftheLegion. Sampleswereof soil and fromprofessor Turda school high samples,a the collectedwho those battles. Thepackages containing thesoilwere accompanied by letters written by 5ă Brave’sthefrombrought from the onebrought tombin Turdawith Michael past of the country, the ceremony ofthe oath started with the mixing ofthe soil organicIn adisplayMichael.nationalism, of rooted inthehistoricalheroic and members officialwasthe first Legionof theArchangel theoathtakenby ofthe between“firstfollowers. Codreanu’s hour”faithfulmost moment important The speciallyexample)or designed bythelegionariessolidify orderto in thebond swastika,Cuza’s movementtheofC. (theeither for from A. borrowed use (November 15, 1927): 1. 45 prayers, marches, symbols, songs, andappealto history, to name just afew: come:to years the in practicediscourse and legionarypolitical the of part 87 “ZiuaLegiuniiIa la zboieni,hismosta placewhereStephantheGreatone of fought important The ceremonyThe traditionalsymbols combinednew ones, withrituals and The beginning ofthemeetingmany had ingredients ofthe thatwouldbe a legionaries took place. first the of pledge touchingthe ceremonyof There, the hostel. Marching andsinging the anthem of theLegion, we returnedtothe Romanianthedefendsoil (…) againstenemyorder to invasions. memoryall therulers andsoldiers of who on fell thebattlefields in Cri Moldavia, Michaelthe Brave,Mircea, Ion Vod prayerThere, a wasofficiated,soulsStephen Ruler forthe of- of hearts. nearour swastika big costumes,withnational a and caps At 10 o’clock we all left for the ܈ an, Avram Iancu, Tudor, King Ferdinand and for ‘theeternalAvraman,King Iancu,Tudor, Ferdinandand for ܈ i” (The Legion’s(TheIa Dayin i”

St. Spiridon Church ܈ i), ܊ a and CorneliuGeorgescu and a 3ă mântul Str ă , Horia,Clo ă , dressed in in dressed , mo о esc ܈ ca and I, 8

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w g a e r e .c o m Înalt, Suceava, Hotin, M exchange was between Ion Mo Ion betweenwasexchange pouches were filled with itandgiven toeach legionary to wear. Thefirst symbolic country’sallover the mostmixed wasleather number sites important of anda Anastasescu, Hristache Solomon andIuliu St first yearspeopleof theLegion.suchwasthe as thecase of This ceremonyin a veryimportantwouldbecome leadersplay part andwould local that somewho ofthose carriedonthetaskof bringingthe sample of soil tothe From the point of view of the leadership ofthe movement, it is interestingto note denominatortheself-sacrifice ideaof blood and tributeforhigher paid cause. a commonas having them, however, of all defeated, werearmiesRomanian history,withview ofgreatvictorywereLegion’s standing nextto places sites underlinethe salience ofthechosen places. The choiceswere revealingfor the to order in inserted werehistory heroic paragraphsshortof article journal Each samplecamewith a confirmation letterregarding itsauthenticity, andinthe accompanied by a pledge specially designed for this moment. The pledge moment.thisThe speciallydesignedfor pledge a accompaniedby brought from other important Romanian historical sites such asC blocks oftherecentlyfoundedLegion. Theceremonysoilbeingwithwenton soilwereelementscomingblood and together as constituted thebuilding that the Romans,redsymbolized nuance its the and thebloodof ancestors. Thus, of soilwas collected from thata place was burnedduringthe siege conducted by Dacia. The letter signed bythetwo leaders emphasized thefactthat the sample 88 The ceremonyThe yet another concludedwithritual. gathered Thesoil from ăUă܈H܈ ti,Oituz, Turtucaia, and the tomb ofAvram Iancu. ܊ a and Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, and was and Codreanu, Zelea Corneliu and a ă nescu. ă lug ă reni,Podul ܇ tefan

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w g a e r e .c o m dreapta înRomânia 25iunie 1927 –2ianuarie 1931 48

identified. event, which tookplace a peacefulin manner and thatall those present hadbeen surveillancestudents,people,mainly40 under attended that only noted the 3ă 47 46 Legion: the hardcoreof the constitutedthat betweenthose bond strengtheningthe crucialsummarizedsucceeded in the ceremony importance the how it of and for thisyounggeneration. Accompanying writingprocession, in the Banea Ionel Legion: newlyfoundedthe creedof questionswhichunderlined the five contained 89 The note has beenThenote has published in and others, (eds). Ionel Banea, Leg Ibid.,6. mântul Str Far from this romanticized view, thesecret service who kepttheceremony The entireceremony thefeeling solidified that was ofbelonging socrucial 48

ă march,never will gooutof it wayits andwillnever backoff. In its forward.firststep its took Novemberon8 which Legion, strongerthan‘avant-garde’is the core thatiron, of the form a masswithout anyaim, purposeorgoalother thantoparty –butwe Michael? -Theanswer: Yes! answer: Yes! The - ancestralland? our of liberationcleansingdefense, and the withus for fight spiritualdestruction,you, brother,vowto do your longingsandpersonal interests?-The answer: Yes! mo о esc ă Today we are no longer divided and lost in the middle of a inthemiddledividedand of no longer lost Today weare And youwill notleave us?-The answer:will I notleave! Will youpiously wear thispouch? -Theanswer: Yes! Archangelof the Legion theobey you fight,will this In Jewsourselvesbringsover of the that therule Admitting Do youvow, fortheJustice oftheMotherland, torestrain all mântul primilor Legionari (The Pledge of the First Legionaries), I, 8 (November 15, 1927): 8. 15,1927): I,8(November

, (Ideology and Rightwing(Ideologyand , Ideologie ú i formai 47 Ġ

iuni de iuni 46

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Institutul Na FormationsJanuaryRomania1927in 2,1931)vol.June 25, – II,(Bucharest: at legionary every to weregiven that of soil samples the contained that pouch leather 2: The II. different form of political appeal andpractice. attachment tocorepeasant values and the desire to construct a movementwith a mixturefolkcostumes of the fascistsalute and tohybridized point a display of group oflegionaries, dressed folkcostumesin andsaluting.The ratherconfusing soilsamplestheof meeting, given at second while the onepictured thefirst of thefirst legionaries. Thefirst one showed the leather pouch that contained the 90 the November 8, 1927ceremony. ( 1927ceremony. 8, November the

Two photoswere publishedin connection with theceremony ofthepledge Ġ ional pentru Studiul Totalitarismului, 2000), p. 79. 3ă mântul Str mântul ă mo о esc I, 9 (December 1,1927) 9(December I,

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w g a e r e .c o m attention ofthe legionaries. control.politicalAnti-Semitism feature that was,again, the attractedthe once the prevailing modelfor fascists especially from 1933, aftertheNazis gainedfull because isimportant and Germanyhis party to Hitler becomesearly reference constituted aGerman movement anti-Semitic “stronger thanever.”This thatwas leadershiphis under whoscatteredfighters reorganized”“energeticallythe August 1927congresspictures from NSDAP,the ofthe outlining thatHitler presentedIt Germany”. Anti-SemiteMovement headline“The in the under

91 In thesame issue, a full pagewas dedicated toAdolfHitler andhis party, II. 3: The first group of legionaries saluting the leaders. the ( saluting legionaries of group 3:The first II. (December 1,1927) (December 3ă mântul Str ă mo о esc I, 9 I,

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w g a e r e .c o m several local legionary fiefdoms such as southern Moldova (especially the (especiallyMoldova southern as fiefdomssuch legionary local several movement,monthsthe analyzed of as fromthepartyjournal,onecan identify or were loyal to the Codreanu family. Based on aclose reading of the firstsix wereleaders capturedfromoflocal with thehelp whoLANC desertedA.C.Cuza strongholdsincipientsympathizers.strongholds of determinedthese Someof

92 II. 4: The page form the legionary paper legionary the page form The 4: II. (December 1,1927) (December terms the Nazi congress from Nürnberg, August 1928.( Nürnberg, from congress theNazi terms The Legionmanaged had on thoseregions where togrow by focusing it II. 2.Working the Provinces –the LocalCharacter of theLegion in Its Incipient Years andthe FirstElectoral Breakthroughs 3ă mântul Str mântul ă mo о esc which describes in enthusiastic enthusiastic in describes which 3ă mântul Str mântul

ă mo о esc I, 9

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w g a e r e .c o m extreme side rightwing ofinterwar Romanian politics. These aresome symptoms ofthe first ofacompetition for predominancethe on movementmostmembersnewborn prominentthe LANC. amongsomeof Codreanu’sappealof suggest thegrowing way to a wasalso thisexplicit, praised theendeavor ofthefounding members oftheLegion. 49 thejournalfor theCluj region, of president journal, they republish the article written byI.C. C member.of thereceptionthefirstUnder thebanner oftheLegion’s of issue ofOne exampleCluj that the professor is I.C.C for Sibiu, or prestigious local leaders such as the elder Ion Mo Other strongholds were established through zealous militants suchas Ion Banea movementthe helpedandfinancially. politically,suit followed logistically and from as GeneralMacridescu Foc hissupporters such of whereasold fromleaders Ia disagreementsLANCtheir Cuza whenbecame public. not Codreanus and LANCcan bededucedbylooking atthose leaderswhothe with chosetoside followers. and thevastmajority ofTransylvania remained uncharted territory for Codreanu’s as such Wallachia Moldova, regions while scattered across weresympathizers of pockets OtherHunedoara). and (Sibiu regionsTransylvanian of couple countiesof PutnaandCovurlui),and Bukovina,a significant with presence ina 93

3ă mântul Str geographyfirstThe politicaltheexistencefiveLegionyearsthe o of of This geographical-ideologicalnexus came existence different into in ways. ă mo ܈ i, Gala i, о esc I, 2 (August 15, 1927): 12 –13. ܊ i and Cluj almost immediately sided with Codreanu,sidedwithClujand almost immediately i

Ac р iunea Româneasc ă ă tuneanu, who was theLANC tuneanu,prominent a LANC ܊ a in Hunedoara. 49 Although not Although ă in which he which in ܈ ani also ani

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w g a e r e .c o m Jews)”, (MemorandumRelationshipRomâniaRomaniansRegardingbetweenthe and Mironovici,“Memoriu informativraporturilor asupra dintreRomânii 51 Joy), 50 territory contributedthe to processofconstructing theJewishevil minority asan American Jews.” of the agency throughJewishthe internationalalliance by President Wilson and acquiredPalestinedecision “imposed politicalbecauseonlyrights ofa on transforminginto Romaniaat aimedwho as invaders regardedwere latter hardworkingformercourageouswiththethe whileand opposed, standing as beliefs, thearticle presentedRomanian the and theJews asbeingirreconcilably Jewish minority.to the Expressingmovement deeplyrespect anti-Semiticwith the attitudeof underlined the manifestothat a of the importanceacquiring Romanians andJews was signedby allthe “foundingfathers” ofthe Legion, thus period. Anarticlethat attempteddescribe thestateofrelations between to ideologicalandpolitical a statethat voice, dominatethewould1927– 1932 ownits find strugglingto stillCodreanu’smovementregions, was various stick the ‘Swastika’ flag on the top ofall Romanian institutions.” decisiontogetherto fight with theLegion “towardsvictoryday,when we shall hisexpressedmovement,Cuza’s and C. A. misunderstandings fromwithin the deplored invasion, Jewish the termsanti-Semitic rabid in criticized Gala 94 Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, IonI. Mo M.I. Lefter, “Dup ܊ 3ă i LANC organization who sent a letter to the Legion’s paper in whichhe the Legion’spaperin LANC to organizationi whoa letter sent in strongholds local for LANC with competitionthis withConcomitantly Another interesting case is that of lawyer M. I. Lefter, president of the of president lawyerM.I. Lefter, of that case is Another interesting 3ă mântul Str mântul Str 51 ă The very The organicvisionthe of Legionwith respecttonational mo ă ă mare ‘ngrijorare, - mare bucurie” (After aBig Worry – Great mo о esc ú esc I, 4 (September 15, 1927): 7.

II, 2 (January 15, 1928). ܊ a, Ilieaa, Gârnea ܊ă , Corneliu Georgescu, Radu

܈ i Jidanii din

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w g a e r e .c o m Str 52 movement was thesurgeonmost suitable to remove it. emphasize theideathatJews were ofBukovina thecancer while Codreanu’s toordermetaphorsmorbid tone,employing a language filledwith Semitic in Jews inBukovina,Baneauttered aself-definition oftheLegion in a violently anti- the aforementionedthe Ionelshowed.Banea clearlyby about written Writing of anti-Semitickind discourse was supportedbyother legionaries,as one article enter thenatural legalityand thenatural order of thelives ofthenations.” Jewishdelinquentsdefend it,thus “the to work would and ownbe forced and inspired from A. C. Cuzanamely thattheJews shouldbegiven aterritory of their been expressingdecades. Theirsolution for “Jewishproblem” forthe was also exhibited intheabovementioned textwas deeplyinfluenced bythe oneCuzahad ideologicallyto breakaway from formermentor.their kindof anti-Semitism The and politicallythem wasfor how difficult it Cuza and A. C. owedto still the Archangel Michael. this organic law, promptingtheemergence ofmovements suchastheLegionof nations, and exploiting them an in inhumane manner, theJews supposedly broke defended byitsinhabitants. Living parasitically onterritoriesthat belongother to centuriespeoplehave workednations, thespacewherewasfor and which considered thenationaldevelopment territory asthecornerstone forthe allof “other”, hampering theexistence ofthe Romanian nation. The Legion’s founders 95 53

Ionel T. Banea, “BucovinaIonelT. Ibid. Ibid. ă mo This typeofdiscourse showcased just howmuchyoung legionaries the ú esc II, 2 (January 15, 1928).

܈ i Jidanii” (Bukovina and the Jews),the i Jidanii”(Bukovina and 53

3ă 52 mântul This This

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outlook onculture.” Cuza’sMr.hideous of coulddegradeitselfsuch a mindsuch astheone to into anoffensivepolemic withthe statement: am “yes,I not clear how a genial 56 55 (September 15, 1928). for national salvation.” whynot hedoes grantany importance tothe economical factorsover themoralones, concluding that“we clearly understood Mo economy.For nationalnationalityandof product a alsoreligionmaking economy,thus culture, whileproduct culture wasthe of nationality androoted inthenational culture. AsMo Cuza’sprofessor’spredicamentscontentionwith conceptof from the came to touch the doctrinaire system of ourformer professor.” everybodycarefully statedthat:“we ensure thatitwasnoteasyforustodecide and deferential tone employedby Mo I amnotclear!) 54 fall of1928with article an signed byIon I.Mo ideological cohesion. termstogetherof group holding in alsomasses the the with while popular anti-Semitism levelwhichmovementas adiscursive sought tomake the more 96 Ibid. Ibid. Ion I. Mo The firsttimidsigns ofideologicaldissent towards Cuzawere visible inthe It is telling thatthefirstIt is yearofthemovementmarked was by increased ܊ a, “Da, sunt nel ܊ a summed it up,Cuzastatedthata summed religionwas it of thefoundation . That this was a daring act, wasone couldassesfrom . Thatthis adaring thecautious ܊ 56 a, this was a highly materialistic view, which praised the praisedwhich materialisticview, highly wasa this a,

Towardstheendof article,Mo ă

murit!” (Yes, I am not clear!), ܊ a in thebeginninga in of the article, where he ܊ a entitled “ moral element Da, sunt nel 3ă 54 Mo ܊ mântul Str a’s deferenceturned from endeavorsour ܊ a’s mainpoint of a’s ă murit!” ( ă mo о esc Yes, Yes, II,

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w g a e r e .c o m period, with theNational Peasant Party gathering 77.76% of the votes. p. 173. These electionswitnessed the biggest winin anelection during theinterwar 58 and others (eds.), 57

97 more radical approach to politicalpractice, Mo “ideologyof the deed”asthe main differentiating trait,withthe Legiona taking formerfromCodreanumovementitself mentor. their emphasized Ifthethe of outline its moraland spiritual side oftheir regenerative project andto differentiate the researcher areconstructionof theslow butsteadyregionalexpansion ofthe Legion camethe scrutinypolice ofthe andthesecretservice. under This allows startingwith– 1929andtheestablishment 1928 militants, of acoreofactive the movement. LANC’s electoralof1,14percent result ofthevoteswas disappointing forthe place his son as a candidate while limiting the supportfor LANC’scandidates. Legion nothavingitsowncandidates, Codreanuquestionedto Cuza’sdecision A. C.Cuza,especiallythecontext in the November of elections. the 1928With numbercriticalstatements of made byCodreanuwith respect to theLANC and decay. nationalist chauvinistic overtones, and aperceived solution stateoftotal tosolve new generationanxietiesspiritual,of the whoalthough fora longed alsowith an “old-school”typenationalism of Cuza andthepost-warprofessed byA.C. Thearticleideas aswell. wasasnapshotofthe conflictingworld views between The results were published in November 19,1928circular letter signed byCodreanu, publishedIoan in Scurtu Mo If for the first months of the movement firstmonthssourcesquiteIf forthe ofthe are scarce, archival growingthewastranslatedthroughpoliticalpractice,this terms of In ܊ a’s virulent critique was yet another sign of the Legion’sto strivingssign critiqueofthe wasanother yet a’s virulent 58

Ideologie о

i forma Monitorul Oficial р iuni de dreapta onDecember 19, 1928, see loc. cit. ܊ a tried to innovate on therealm of , vol. II, 171. II,171. , vol. 57

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w g a e r e .c o m 61 Jewish Ritual Murder”, “Representation1105, and Knowledgeand inMedieval Modern Accounts and of meurtre rituel”,meurtre articles: “Antisémitismesavoir ou social?Sur lagenèsedu procès modernepour includingTisza the Eszlar affair, hasbeentackled byHillel J.Kievalin twoofhis 60 59 anti-Semitic propaganda in order to impress thecommon people. for community,towardsthe Jewishmurder wasused set of ritual accusations eager toreport toBucharest ajob well done. politicalmilitancy that filledthe filesthe law of enforcement that were agencies mistakenfor theentire activity oftheLegion, butratherregarded asisolated Legion’s ad-hoc committee forpro-Arab propaganda. Arabs”for“justice from“Christian England”. Themanifesto wassigned bythe bizarre manifesto ended withthe words “Long live thebrave Arabs” after asking Palestiniansupport for Arabs. The orderto showits Michaelthe Archangel in confiscated bythepolice departmentGala of were disseminated intrains. postcards entitled“Thehorrible Jewish crimefrom Eslar,Tisza Hungary,1882” Dorohoi,northern in Moldova, mentioned thefact thatonJanuary 23, 1928some populationamong throughthe other means. a policeThus, reportsentfrom disseminatedalso werefar-right press the expoundedin ideas xenophobic policeSomereportspractice.the reinforced of fact thatanti-Semiticthe and observing andpoliticalLegion, whilealso development termsideology its of in 98 ANIC, FondMinisterul Interne-Diverse,de Dosar 4/1929, pp. 11 -12. Theaccusationtopicritualof of Jewish murdersagainst the communities, ANIC, Fond Ministerul Interne-Diverse,de Dosar 9/1927, f. 53. These rather naïve and outdated means of propaganda should notoutdatedbe meansshouldpropagandanaïveratherand of These Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales Jewish Social Studies

59 The famous Tisza Eszlar affair,whichEszlarfamousincluded Tisza The 1,1(Fall 1994): 52-72. ܊ i wasi distributed bythe Legionof , 49, 5 (Sep. - Oct., 1994): 1091- 61

60 A manifesto A

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w g a e r e .c o m a notefrom the intelligence services revealed. front ofanaudience of400,where Codreanu spoke aboutthe new generation, as necessary for payingthe printing costs could not be paid. 63 62 announced thereopening ofthe student movements forthe“holy war” thatwas startingconquer thecities”,Capital.thatCodreanuthe withorder to do In The maincharacteristic of thenew generation was a“disciplined offensive to re- inspiring thinking”, while thelatter, starting with1922, hadasitsgospel the deed. and thenew generation by arguing that the former was focusedonwriting “goal and endingwithA. C.Cuza. Codreanu outlined thedifferences between theold Codreanu focused onthehistory oftheoldgeneration, startingwith Vasile Conta 3ă organization. Thenotealso mentionedthe fact thatthejournalof themovement, organizedseriesanti-Semitic a of conferencesthe counties in thathad legionary always payof,butsome successes electoral have beenregistered. new areas suchasBucharest, Bessarabiaand Maramure where hadagoodpresence, healready while the samein time topenetrate tried regionsperiodoftimethisconsolidated somethe followers.Codreanu In of fanaticalof group core amongCodreanuhis by enthusiasm and generated chronic lackofresources, andthis situation was compensated only bytheenergy 99 ANIC, FondMI Diverse, Dosar 1/ 1923, p. 281. ANIC, FondMI Diverse, Dosar 1/ 1923, p. 280. mântul Str A police notestated datedJanuary19,A police 1929 that Codreanudecidedto Between 1929 and 1932 the activity of the Legion sufferedfromactivityLegiontheof the the 1932 and Between1929 The first conference in the announced series was held in Bucharest, first conferenceannouncedwas in The in inthe series held ă mo о esc, was about to be suspended because the 60 000 lei000 suspendedbecause60 bethe to wasabout

63 Aftertheusualanti-Semitic rant, 62 ܈

. Thisstruggledidnot

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w g a e r e .c o m decision tostep themasses),into thushighlighting importance.its aforementioned reportforesaw,policetook the action. Codreanuwrote howhe the However,1927.as the Legionin joinedwho formerleader LANC the Covurlui,in thefirst stage of thetour, were arranged withthe help of M. I.Lefter, was later on presented“Hotthetitleon under waslater reissue the journal the reissue other plans, i.e.theintentionto addBessarabia as region ofinterestalsoto and Legion, but also warned the Bucharest police decision makers aboutCodreanu’s present-day politicalsituation. The report confirmed theinitialstrongholds of the aboutthe personality StephenGreattalk strongwithreferencesof the the to tour was apublic conference tobeheld inBere to thoroughly organize bygoingthere person.”in Turda, which represent the centers stronger where hefeels andwhichheseeks intense propaganda thein counties ofCovurlui, Putna, Dorohoi, Câmpulung and more“much a through achieved wasbe activity.Legion’s political This to the mainheadquarterthe inBucharest,regarded Codreanu’sintentionjumpstart to continued to remain aregional movement until1933. political awarenessinBucharest,asit enjoy order to real years in wait several Legion depended also onitsimpact urbanareas.However, in theLegionhad to address the Bucharest public,being wellaware thatthepoliticalsuccess ofthe 66 65 64 abandoned severalyears ago. 100 Codreanu, ANIC, FondMI Diverse, Dosar 1/ 1923, p. 297. Ibid. A police report sent in Decemberthe Ia A policereport sentin 1929 by 19, Pentru legionari, 3ă mântul Str

285. 64 This was,This perhaps, Codreanu’s first attempt to ă

mo о esc . Codreanu’s own account of the tourCodreanu’sthe . account of own ă rârea de a p a rârea de ܈ 65 ti(Covurlui) where hewanted to The first plannedstage Thefirst ofthis ܈ ă܈ i regionalpolicei to i în mase”(The în i 66 The events The

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w g a e r e .c o m stronghold. after Foc conclusion, Codreanu proclaimed“secondCovurluiaspillar”the Legion the of 68 67 penetrateunable intoothers. Legioncertainthe wouldgain a degreeofsupport somewasparts it,butin annoyance. Codreanu’smuch to begin, to wassupposed it whenday the marchon rivers. Realizingthe violent potential ofthisendeavor, the authorities bannedthe July1930, whenin Codreanuplannedamarch betweenPrut andDniester the contributed tothe development ofthemovement. created amongas theopinion thelegionaries,as well impact among thepublic solidarities Nevertheless,the entirety. its movementin the for characteristic haiduci likepeople amongriderswhodescended the horse romanticimageof The contributed march tohis makingthe Legionamass-base towards organization. where politicians, with their borrowed programs, couldnotdescend.” managing, hisown in words,“topenetrate those indefinabledepths ofthesoul, tourof severalvillagesa instead,horse, andto peopleto do ridinga talking was preventedbythelocalauthorities toholdhismeeting,and howhedecided 101 Ibid., 299. Ibid.,288. It was actionssuchasthese thatboosted Codreanu’s self-confidence and The projected offensive togainmore supportinBessarabiawas attempted , against thethe will, against of authorities, mayconsidered be cliché a andnot ܈ ani,thus establishingsouthern Moldova ashismost important regional 68 As a result, the Legion’s influence Asaresult, Bessarabiahad tosuffer,as in

67 As a As

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w g a e r e .c o m 72 71 Maramure 70 Inside. Legionary Memoirs), (Bucharest: EdituraLucman, 2002), 26-27. 69 Codreanuthus sendingthe Parliament in whichhe could,a strugglein by after elections tookplace the Neam in 1.05% ofthe votes,anddid enter not theParliament. actions. Atthe 1931elections they had candidates in 17countiesbut only gained became personalsecretary his inthemid-1930s. priestmilitantmovementIon Dumitrescutheusefulwhoeven joined in and Legion never built oneofits strongholds inMaramure Hungariansupport, toinvadethe region andbuyallofits riches. Maramureto squad Codreanu who explained tothem the goals oftheLegion andpromised tosend a Codreanu and to letthem know about thesituation Maramurein the two priests decided to go on a triptoIa the twodecidedto goon priests Dumitrescu (Orthodox) andAndrei Berinde (GreekCatholic).After the incidents, thetownoccurred of Bor in of Maramure 102 Maramurethe of causes there. Drago Armin Heinen, Ion Banea, Ion Ion Dumitrescu–BorIon 69 The Legion tried to also capitalizeelectoralpoliticalalsototerms in from its Legion tried The Another interesting attempt new territories into toexpand was thecase in Inspired by the two priests, Ion Banea wrote a book describing the describingbook Banea wrotetwoa priests, Ion the Inspired by ܈ Zamfirescu, ܈ ), (Ia ܈ . Codreanu tried to exploit a seriesanti-Semitica to exploit of tried incidents that . Codreanu Cauzelemi ܈ Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail, i: 1930). ܈ Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail delamit la realitate, ܈ in order to make propaganda and organize a sectionorganizea and make propaganda to order in a, Cal troian intra muros. Memorii Legionare оFă

܈ unrests, arguing that the Jews managed,withJews that the unrests, arguing rii din Maramuredinrii ܈ a in1930,withtwoas protagonists:priests Ion ܊ CountyandtheIron Guard managed towin, 476. 476. о ܈

i in order to meetwithin orderto Cuza and i (The Causes of the Movementthe in(TheCauses of ܈ , Codreanu didgaina very 71 In August 1931 partial August 1931 In ܈ . Theymet with 70 (TrojanHorse Although the 170. 72

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w g a e r e .c o m of the votes 73 recently gainedmomentum. movementand theLegionsoughttobenefitfrom of1933, the beginning its at the for stake wasat what is Thisoutreach.nationwide a withcontender political a become to wasready movementsignificant becomethat a had presence was still harmedpresence was still ofresources. lack bytheconspicuous large presence thistime, withcandidates running forofficecounties, in36 but its the country, newgeneralin elections in1932.TheIronGuard werea had held managedmobilize toits followers andwin.Duethe to political instability existent 1932,electiontimewas this heldin in TutovaCounty,wheretheLegion also his own account, onlyrely on100militants for hiscampaign. 103 75 74 Codreanu, Armin Heinen, Ibid., 341-342. 75 Pentru legionari, theLegionmanaged toenterthe Parliamentshowing thus that it Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail,

317. 477. 477. 73 Another partial Another 74 With 2, 37% 2, With

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w g a e r e .c o m expansion, theIronGuardLegion. Codreanu in With published markingwell, some ofthefirstattempts toattractthis category tothe ranks of the justice.” factory inBucharest, talkinghungerthirst about“the of theworkerand his for Stelescu, one ofthemost activelegionary leaders ofthetime. were attheinitial action. bigcrowd increasegathered7-8000, afromthe1000demonstrators a of who cross the place to attemptsecond The backers. its amongCristea Miron sizable degree ofpublic support, with thenewspaper police. cross attheMonument fortheUnknown Soldier, causingviolent clashes with the theOn January24 IronGuardorganized ademonstrationa inordertoplace muchcapital will providethe the Legion’spolitical neededexposure for project. country’s the towardsfact that wellawareBucharest,the Codreanubeing of Romanianforefrontpolitics. of at themovement focusofthe shifted The now 1 3 104 2

Armin Heinen, Cuvântul Învierea 1 Codreanu alsosupportedFebruary workerstrikesfrom the the During theyear1933IronGuarddideverything initspower toremain Eventhoughthe authorities reacted against thisinitiative, itdidgarnera 3 Otherlegionary leaderwrite would articles indefense oftheworkers as I, 1 (April 15, 1933). 1933). 15, I,1(April , IX, No. 2787(January 27, 1933). 1933 as the Year of Great Transformations Transformations of Great Year asthe 1933 Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail, 2 The mainorganizer The demonstrations ofthe was Mihail

Chapter III Chapter

211. 211.

Universul and the and Patriarch &ă rticica о Grivi efului р a

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w g a e r e .c o m this group would be of great interest,been group especiallybe of fact thatithas wouldthis giventhe deeply influencing its politicalproject. Thus,a look atthe formationand activity of whothe movement joined 1932-1933 in and enhanced its ideological strength by lawyers (Alexandru Cantacuzino, Alexandru Constant, Mihail Polihroniade). Amz Br (Traian sociologists Panaitescu), P. Petre Dumitrescu, Vladimir Christescu, development. ofthese Aninventory intellectualswouldhistorians include (Vasile its on genuineimpact a had andGuard Iron thejoinedformally even intellectuals from the younggenerationthat sympathized with, andinsome cases for theyears to come. an eventthatwouldchange thepoliticaland ideological outlook ofthemovement the adherence ofastronggroup ofintellectualsfrom journalthe and thetenetsof its political activism. had tohave,how meetingsthe hadtotake place, the objectives ofthemovement structure ofthe movement,mentioning the exact number ofmembers thatanest cuibde 105 ă ileanu, Traian Herseni,Ernest Bernea, Leon ă r), men of letters (Dragomenof r), Among these intellectuals, a special part was played by theby wasintellectuals,partspecialplayedAmong these a Staring with 1933, the Iron Guard attracted a sizable number of numbersizable a attractedGuard Iron the 1933, with Staring Legionary Movement: Intellectuals and Politics within the Movement The 1. III. To allthis,To something trulyessential fortheIronGuardwould be added, (The Nest’s(The Leader Booklet) which in hecodifiedthenew organizational Axa Group and the IdeologicalCrystallizationtheand Groupthe of ú Protopopescu, Acterian,Haig Radu Gyr,)or ğ opa), philosophers (DumitruC. Axa Axa (The Axis), Axis), (The group,

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w g a e r e .c o m Jacques Julliard monographof Florin Franco’son side. FormoreEliade’son life,please seethe well documented Guard (Ion I. Mo reaching his climax in 1937by showing his admiration forthe two leaders of the Iron newspaper articles that openly supported the“spiritual revolution” ofthe Iron Guard, of fascismthe riseRomania, and in Ornea, Germania” (Letters from Germany). For this episode of Cioran’s life, please seeZ. praisedand Hitler inseriesarticles of inthejournal 5 (Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 2006). A Generation ‘Without Beliefs’ and theIdea ofExperience in Romania (1927 -1934) (2001): 649–77. Another salient contribution on this topicis Philip Vanhaelemeersch, Ionescu, Eugène Ionescu, E. M. Cioran)” in Romania: Friendships andIdeological Choices (Mihail Sebastian, Mircea Eliade, Nae Cioranas Emil and later Mircea Eliade. intellectuals moved totheright,invaryingdegrees, including leading figuressuch young many however, 1933, From trends. democratic and communist clear politicalstand, their debatescontained representatives ofpro-fascist, pro- Guard are those of professorthoseareGuard Matei of C young generation” of Romanian interwar intellectuals andits adherence tothe Iron 4 leading figure was Mircea Eliade. revolutionary way towards modernity. politicalshaped their views,alternative ideasfor extreme an andtheir right-wing temporalthe crisis thatinterwarRomania hadtoface,howthattimehorizon and activities. Anotheruseful goal would betolookattheir radicalresponse to understudied inRomanian with historiography political its convictions respectsto 106 During his 1933 visit to Germany, Cioran was deeply impressed by the Nazi regime Some of the mostSome of prodigious contributions available Englishin regarding“the Intellectuals this hadcloseties within group “the younggeneration” whose

The Anii treizeci, treizeci, Anii Axa

Groupandthe Intellectual Foundations oftheIron Guard , ܊ a andVasile Marin) who died in theSpanish Civil whileWar fighting (Paris: Editions La Découverte, 2003). 189 -192 and also Marta Petreu, ܉ urcanu,

Mircea Eliade,prisonnier Le l'histoire, de 4 Until 1933, “the young generation” had noyounggeneration” had “the 1933, Until (Chicago:R. Dee,2005).Ivan Eliadewrote 5

ă linescu,Generation1927 see:“Thein East European PoliticsSocieties & European East An infamous past: E.M. Cioran Vremea

entitled “Scrisori din “Scrisori entitled préface de préface 15 ,

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9 intellectualsfrom the withCodreanu was severed,thathespentmonths tryingto convince theyoung Legionary Movement,” 6ă ideological scaffold. 9; osatn Iordachi, Constantin 295; poet RaduGyr Protopopescu, AlexandruConstant,Christescu, Vladimir Vasile Dumitrescu and intellectuals such as Mihail Polihroniade, Ioan Victor Vojen, Drago Vojen, Victor Ioan Polihroniade, Mihail as such intellectuals Codreanu’s movementprovidedbrainpower the and thefor Iron Guard. Young a groupof intellectualsvoicethebecame whosupportersof turned into of (Circulars andmanifestos 1927 -1938), 5 FranciscoVeiga, was highlighted bymany authors, butnot did yet enjoy anextensivetreatment: 8 1981), 30. young intellectualsthatfound wouldlateron duties to it. Cf. Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, Zelea CorneliuCf. it. to duties 7 Gândirea, 1991), 230-1. Orthodox faith. the in rootedwas constructivenationalism displayinga that regarded as 6 1932, Codreanu earlier thatyear.Crainic previouslylaunchedhis newspaper own in OrthodoxistCrainic,toan influentialNichiforbecame who intellectualclose and IoanVictorVojen, andenjoyed,early stage, inits themoral patronageof

107 Nichifor Crainic, The importance of the Axa group for the ideological development of the Iron Guard Codreanu refers to these intellectuals asbeing notenlistedthe Legion in butwith Nichifor Crainic, Nichifor ndulescu, „Fascism andits Quest forthe 'New Man:' The Case ofthe Romanian Founded Octoberin 1932,the journal Calendarul 7 6 , althoughnotofficially membersmovement ofthe buildits helped

Istoria G Calendarul op. cit. op. Zile albe – Zile negre. Memorii , and decided to support Codreanu’s movement,to supportCodreanu’she decided whichand , 8 Crainic claimed Crainic hismemoirs, in written after hisconnection Axa Studia Hebraica , 237. , 237. ă group to join theIron Guard. rzii de Fier 1919 – 1941

also served as a training ground for somethe of training groundfor servedas a also Charisma, Politics and Violence, 4(2004): 355-6. th edition,Colectia(Munich:“Europa,” Axa Circul Axa , vol.I, (Bucharest: Casa editorial was leadbyMihail Polihroniade . Soon afteritspublication, . , 159-61; Z.Ornea, ă ri о i manifeste 1927 -1938 9 However,the readiness 36 Valentin 63-6; Anii treizeci Axa ă ܈ ,

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w g a e r e .c o m envisioned a“temporalrevolution” Reich Third the Griffin,Roger Accordingtorecentliterature available. the FascistItaly andNaziGermany something is historians have begun to uncover in was inEurope. developing Thattherelationshiptime with was crucialforboth new revolutionaryreconfirmationthatantitheticala wave,communism, to one

Today was neededinorder tosatisfy thelongings of the youthfor a better future. an extraordinarytransformationto animprovementand so the present, lead of 11 (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 2003), 27. the 10 concept. historicity”,newuse Françoistomarked “regimeHartog’sof a very loose, temporalcrisis, when the articulations between past,present, and future became temporalcrisis that couldonlyresolved be by creating anew order. Thisstate of felt bythe “1922” generationwas amplified a decade later, and took theform of a meaningsand weredevelopedmore ina complexThepanic temporal fashion. nationacquirednew or certaingroup a of the identityshaped that factors strikes.questions“generation”and“regeneration’ The initiated of the 1922 as coarsestudents whoa manner by the andthemes the concepts forth in set contrary. the quite movementembracedCodreanu’s indicates group this whichwith 108 RogerGriffin, “Party Time: the Temporal Revolution ofthe Third Reich”, in François Hartog, François Axa 49, 4 (1999), 43-49. The same way the1922movement tappedinto theriseof Italian fascism, The youngthe intellectualsof The journal and the ensuing movementthe ensuinga andregarded Nazism as Germanjournal 10

It was It with anew relationship time: fortheseradicals, thepasthad not Régimes d’historicité: présentisme etexperiences dutemps

11 for its followers, while scholars such as Rik Rik as scholars such while followers,its for Axa group refined andreaffirmedgroup someof History ,

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alternative.” more‘spiritual’ a nameof the in industry, usuallycommerce science,and modernismmodernity” “other thatchallengedas an the‘modernizing’ forcesof regeneration’ through thesecular-religious quest for ‘new values’.” Adamson saw enteringthe European culturalscene between 1900and1914:that ofa‘cultural Adamson defined modernism as “thecentral project ofthe intellectual generation analyze theconnectionbetweenmodernism and fascism,Adamson. L. Walter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993), 7. distantthe pastbut recentandin terrifying experience oftheGreat War. “modernist” rather than“romantic”, especially because itwas the groundednotin vision typeof termsthis appeal.Fogu coreof its at the consciousness” lay tomass “present make it to and history makerof a as topose imaginary, historic a into transform “actualism”to fascism’s ability Fogu, to according “actualism”,present.belongingconsideredas the historythat Furthermore, to of bannerhistory, philosophicallythe under GentileGiovanniformulatedby of ownvision hasfascism its argued,fascist ideology.ClaudioFogu had As componentworldsalient wasa new vision of the historicala in their for past 14 Italy Fascist in History of Politics historicalhismonographtime,Claudiopleasesee Fogu, 13 Imaginary,” and Theory 12 presentism ClaudioItalianandFogu haveexploredfascismPeters of throughthelens 109 atr Adamson, Walter For moreonFogu’s conceptualizationof therelationship between fascism and RikPeters,“ In thismanner, continuesthe Fogu workofonethefirst historiansto asacore ideological component. 45 (2006): 362-74; ClaudioFogu, “Actualism andtheFascist Historic History andTheory 14

Actes de Présence: Avant-Garde Florence: From Modernism to Fascism

42(2003): 196–221. , (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003). Presence in Fascist Political Culture”, in in Fascist Culture”, Political Presence 12

Also,

the problem of integratingproblemthe of The HistoricImaginary: The 13

History ,

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w g a e r e .c o m current crisis: Crainic argueda revolution for the as younggeneration’s onlyway outfrom the Crainic. Inhis article, ” 16 to the first primacy ofRomanian cultureand family. Butoneofthemost contributions salient issue of solution, arguing forthecreation ofanewRomanianethnicstate, based onthe young intellectuals: regenerate thecountry. The searchforthis main idealwasmission the forthe wouldgeneration,a higherangoal Vojen deplored ideal,of that the lackof was sharedbyPolihroniade’s colleague, Ioan Victor Vojen. Inthe name oftheir 15 Polihroniade: and aloomingtemporalcrisis the were on mindsofintellectualssuch asMihail 110 Ioan Victor Vojen, “Predoslovie” in Mihil Polihroniade, “Mo The firstThe issueof After this plea for a political ideal, Vojen also stated his suggested stated his Vojenpoliticalalso ideal, for a pleathis After This concern with the perceived state ofdecay experienced in the present emerge andourstraying commences.” the differencessearchinga newcreed, us betweenforthis, in through machines. need‘somethingsearching We in else’, for and beinghumanthe elevating democracy,nor in of demagoguery do not believeWe inthehappiness brought about bymoney,the in an ideal. the crisissurpass us,enliventhat would oflacking us– youth:tragedy, theabsencethought tragedyofthe the a great of “Old beliefs aredeclining andnewonesare not rising. This our is these are, brief,in today’s burdens and tomorrow’s perspectives. possibilities,as worldwar andefficient, revolutionsocial prove its waytoliquidated, being and new economicsocial patternsyetto Starving anddisappointed crowds, disoriented elites, capitalism on Axa Spre stânga sauspre dreapta?” Axa ܊ uri, mofturi belonged to the then mentor of the group, Nichiforgroup,mentorthenof the belonged tothe

made clear it that the dissatisfactionwith the present Axa ܈ i pampoane” in I, 1(October 20, 1932). Axa 16 (Tothe left, or totheright?)

I, 1, (October 20, 1932). 1932). 20, (October I, 1, 15

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w g a e r e .c o m History and Utopia in Romanian Culture), 2 18 his works: his palingenetic projects in theRomanian context. For more onthis, see, among others, 19 17 regeneration ofthecountry andto avoid itsdegeneration: theassure to wayonlyon corporatistrevolution,principlesthebased as most important element. Thus,he pleaded for anantidemocratic, anticommunist Crainic went ontodefine character, its because thiswas, according tohim, the

111 “awakening” thenation. and world the changing in proclaimedconfidencethat tone optimistic palingenetic, utopian project visible is inthe1848revolutionary moment,withan revolutionaries.1848 developedA clear century, especiallythosethat bythe Romania.Such adiscussion recallsthe revolutionary projectsnineteenth ofthe must takeinto account also thehistorical evolution ofthese kindsof projects in

I am indebted to Sorin Antohi for the insights regarding the historical meaning of Nichifor Crainic, ”Spre stânga sauspre dreapta?” in Ibid.

Once the solution wasOnce thesolutiona revolutionyouth, as residing identified ofthe in Focusing on the Legionary palingeneticproject,one Legionaryregenerativeand the on Focusing Civitas Imaginalis: istorie caused bythe ruling democracy. findssomewherealso itselfbankruptcystate,the else: inthe of hungry bodies andheatedbrainstheyounggeneration. of But it inevitably coming. It is in the general spirit of the time: it is in the way: one only has Let’s face thisgeneration,it: should notit accept todieofstarvation, negation of theRomanian people andthe state ofgovernment. a government;willstatebe of and thedegeneration it people if Romaniancorrespondof the Regeneration, willspirit ifit withthe degeneration.or regenerationmean could however,revolution, In order to live,Romaniaantidemocratic needs an In order revolution. This

19 Much of this optimisticorientedwhichwas this projectMuch – of

revolution ú i utopie încultura român nd edition (Ia . It is what will come; it is what is what is is come;it will what It is . 17

Axa ú i: Polirom, 1999); see also I, 1 (October 20, 1932). 1932). 20, I, 1(October ă (Civitas Imaginalis: Imaginalis: (Civitas 18

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w g a e r e .c o m 2009), 36-8. (Our Romania.(Our Berlin Conversations), secondedition, (Ia antropologie rasial remarksVirgil in Nemoianu,Antohi, Sorin Romania, 1874-1944), (Bucharest: Ed.Cuvântul, 2008),pp.5-12, wellas his as Ed. Cuvântul, 2008), 7-15, his “ (ModernismAntimodernism:and Interdisciplinary New Perspectives), (Bucharest: ܈ dtd volume edited Le stigmate et l’utopie its French version, ideology. xenophobia,anti-communism the legionary anti-liberalismof and becamepart anti-Semitism,washow That nation. Romaniandevelopment the organic of the for obstacles as seen wereenemiesexternal and component. Internal as therenot alwaysimportantwasautochthonousfrom the outside, come an calibrated to fitthe Romaniancontext. However, inspiration for themovement did overtone, similar to that used byother fascist movements interwar in Europe but apocalypticpessimisticand it had and reversed wasproject Romania. The crisis,theof whichstate legionaries believedthreatenedsurvivalthe veryof projects suggest a national rebirth, the legionary one comes asaresultof a deep both 1848. generationof Whereas the nationalof projectromanticliberal, legionary palingenetic project appeared asan alternative. crucialmomentthis the values democratic liberal increased.Itwasthat and in crisis. After1918,distrustin stateof projectbroughta thisto First War World nation-state. However,of thenineteenththe centuryand theend experience of nineteenthof thecentury andresultedthe the modern in buildingRomanian of towards andinspired by EuropeanWest models –was pursued inthe second half 112 i ultim’al specificului na The legionary regenerative project is therefore a dark reversal of the reversalof dark a thereforelegionaryregenerativeproject The is Modernism ă Imaginiare culturel et réalité politique danslaRoumanie moderne. în România, 1874-1944 (Paris-Montreal: L’Harmattan, 1999) and theforeword tohis ܊ ional”, now the prefaceto MariusTurda, о i antimodernism: noiperspective interdisciplinare Argumentum biologicum. (Eugenicism and Racial Anthropology in Românianoastr Despre ‘stadiul cel mai înalt ă ܈ . Conversa. i: Institutuli: European, Eugenism р iiberlineze о i

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Imported State), in 20 nation-building projects: its modernbeginningRomanianthe of state,backthe goingcharacter to of originsof the Romanianstate. Vasile Marinattacked the “foreign” and “imported” providedby Vasile Marin,withrespect tothe deeply flawed,his in view, historical 113 Vasile Marin, “Na

An example of this kind of thought in the legionary establishmentthought thelegionary kindof in this was of An example

with antagonistic interests.” thedevelopment buildingprocess classes experiencein its of not who mimicking Marxism are inRomania,the Romanian nation did not acertainand class.Becausefortunately andinspiteofthose of thosethe nation who work thewhole, andproduce, nationasa nineteenth century, now the entirenationstands asaunique wave, the of internationalfreemason the by createdconstitutional, and parliamentaryEuropean, parasitical, and artificial nation, Iuliu Maniu. learned, to theJesuittinctured democrat ofacertainBlaj extraction, Romanian politicians from C. A.Rosetti, Freemason andhalf- handsthatstate ofthetoolstheseforeigners,werein the the of foreigners –Germansthe until Great FrenchWar, afterwards –and time, asanaturalconclusion of the war fornationalunification. toable acquire astate, aneventthat hastotake placenow, our in Romaniannation, forthesimplereason thatthis nationwas notyet premature andpernicious, was neveratechnical reality ofthe real for independence.state,so happenedcalled warAnd thatthis it mostbut with ofall theboundlesshelp ofthegeneration oftheso- 1848 revolutionariestheemphatic fooledby revolutionary phrases, support of the Romantic the of support economic oftheEuropean interests powers, withthe paidorhonest “The imported State,today’s state was invented bythepoliticaland Axa Against this state without any organic adherences with theadherencesorganic with state without any Against this protective the state, theirremained state invented The ܊ iuneaîmpotriva Statului deimport” (TheNationAgainst the , II, No. 6 (February 5, 1933). 5,1933). 6(February II, No. ,

Fă 20

rvunari from 1821, the 1821, from bonjuri о ti , the ,

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w g a e r e .c o m communist revolution: the Romanianpeople,Crainic alarmed young generation the tothe perilsof a the present and the future. Considering communism as anegation of the spirit of the other revolutionary competitorthat sought to impose project its formanaging dying world thatwas about toend. Communism was regardedasthe main threat, true competitor,a astheyconsidered itobsolete andpart ofthedecayed and 21 state, moremasseswithindividuals concernedwiththe than and their liberties. antidemocraticand anticommunist character, wouldaboutethnocentricbring an its in revolution, This revolutionarymeans. though solution regenerative temporalcrisistime.The experienced findyoung generation bythe its hadto characterthese articulated of visions incontrast tothosealreadyexisting atthe time, environmentthe ideologicalRomanianof the groundbreaking,for the temporalold order paidthe ultimate for their price acts. that many oftheyoung intellectuals whom summonedCrainic torebel against the However, was thefascist it revolution thatwould “devour itschildren”, meaning intellectuals,the Crainic and communism 114 Nichifor Crainic, ”Spre stânga sauspre dreapta?” in What has to be underlined in the light of the topic of the present work hastobeunderlined of thetopic What the light is in prophetic.tragically prove would phrase last this enough, Ironically In definingIn thepolitical-revolutionary missiontheyoung for generation of The Axagroup anditsdemocracy, conservatism,The view on Cuzism and to beburiedalive in its ruins”. meant todictate?Thisgenerationwouldunleash thisrevolution only of intellectuals acommunist in revolution where oneknows who is „But what would betheperspective forthe young generation

Axa group did notregardthedemocraticgroup did system as 21

Axa I, 1 (October 20, 1932).

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w g a e r e .c o m popularity among thestudents. PetreintellectualsPandreasuch as whoprofessor’s relished inthe demisein and couldno longer follow the imperatives of the time. regarded asthe representative ofageneration thatendedhistorical its mission Nation andthe Generation of the State) in 22 of theyouth: nation, butfailed togenerate acultof the state, which now missionhad tobethe “Great Union”, accusing of beingjustit thegeneration that created andunited a Dragnea questioned the historical merits of the generation that accomplished the the ideaof a generationalconflict became pivotal.Ayoung intellectualRadu like - andleft-wing movements. Thus,the generational element was exacerbated and the generation” during theirstrikes gained amore complex andrefinedexpression. student“generation” “1922 the“regeneration”andof sketched by The ideas The resultwould be theformation ofanew identity forthenation andthecountry. 115 RaduDragnea, “Genera Axa Iorga also cameheavyIorga alsoattack under fromMarxist wing,the left young generation,being young thefor target a wasNicolaeIorga Again, In ordertoarticulate this ideological project, theyoung intellectuals from groupemphasized theirdifferences from democratic,the traditional right national andnationalhistorian imperialist brilliantlya way, epitomizedthe countryproblemsouras themain a As long posed in were in never acquainted with thecult ofthe State.” glory andtheflaw thegenerationof being ofthenation. Theywere NicolaeIorga would beplaced –they all could enterhistory withthe them,misterthanmore all national theother,and one on topofit Ia our recentpoliticalUnion’theGenerationin history: ‘the of from “No matter which waytheelderswould liketorepresent themselves ܈ i-Chi ܈ in ă u- Alba-Iulia; no matter from whichparty would we pick ܊ ia neamului

܈ i genera Axa I, 2 (November 10, 1932). 1932). 10, 2 (November I, ܊ ia statului” (The Generation ofthe 22

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w g a e r e .c o m Axa 24 (December 18, 1932): 3. 23 dwindling cliquepartisans ofthe ofthestatus-quo cost”,and atany definedbeingoppositionright,”conservatism,in whichas he with “the ever PolihroniadeMihail mappedcharacteristics the the “modern ofwhathelabeled other than through fighting: currentlya gapbetweentwo the generations,thisno way and forsolving issue countrytherunthem. before whohad Chrsitescu concluded was thatthere Christescu’s opinion, because mainly theyrepeatedthesamemistakes asthose in failed,generation” “trench the where was This generation. upcoming the guidingto spiritual and proper moraloffer wasto power generation in accomplishedUnion”.AccordingChristescu, the“Great of a the meaning to conflict between theyoung generation and the“generation ofthe trenches” that generationalpowerfulvery a Christescuunderlinedthe existenceof Vasile the of intellectuals

116 Vasile Christescu, “Pr Petre Pandrea, “N. Iorga II, 10 (April 9, 1933). 9,1933). (April II, 10 Continuingwiththe demarcation between theoldandnew generation, the for enduringtopic an be generationalto conflictprove The would social… anachronistic. Intheculturalrealm, theprimacy now there is ofthe became Iorga N. twilight,ideological entering idea national the With line. the same on werewho those allof aspirations spiritual guiding for the future. concerned with narrow, selfishinterests, arenotable toprovide the Romania,thosewho so have accomplished ournational unity, now small Romania -were notable tounderstand the meaning ofGreater Theway same whothose prepared have thewar- people of Axa 23

ă group. In an article published in April 1933,historian April article publishedin an In group. pastia între genera

܈ i studen ܊ ii” (N.Iorgaand theStudents) in 24 ܊ ii” (The Gap Between Generations), in

Cuzism Stânga , the , I, 6

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w g a e r e .c o m highlight thesymbolic, revolutionary competition withcommunism. Inatime when and Member ofParliament, was oneofthefirst(alongwith Victor Ioan Vojen the Legion’s relationship withcommunism. Stelescu,Mihail anIronGuard leader (Novemberanother10,1932).critique For of 28 1933). Question in the Old Kingdom), in in relation with democratic, conservative,democratic,or withrelation in best intentions andthemost admirable programstotally are illusory.” political regimesourbecause –and case,withoutin a reform the of thestateall a radicalreform of thestate–democratic regimemost the is conformist ofall accomplish that“because nowherenever ademocratic and did partyaccomplish Polihroniade, citing fascism as arelevant example.A democratic partycould not stated - one democratic a not - state transformreform the and could wasmore important thantheJewish question. Only ayoung, rightwing movement article“Na 27 question.For Polihroniade, asforfellows, someof thequestion ofhis parliamentary system theproblemsto solve country, ofthe including theJewish Cuzism parties,considered aspotential competitors. Polihroniade criticized thepolitics of “traditional”extreme-right,anti-Semiticdelimitedthe as it research, this for Mann, power thatcharacterized manyfascist movements. Formore, please see Michael 26 (November 10, 1932). 25 doctrine ofA. C.Cuza. 117 Ioan Victor-Vojen,Ioan “Problemacomunist MihailPolihroniade, “Dreapta româneasc This term is employed byMichael Mann in orderto describe theworship ofstate MihailPolihroniade, “Dreaptaromâneasc Fascists While PolihroniadeWhile struggled toprovethe superiority ofthe “modern right” for its tacticalanddoctrinairethereliance its primitivismon its for andfor ܊ ionalism , (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 13-4. ܈ i cuzism” (Nationalism and Cuzism)in and (Nationalism i cuzism” 25 The attitudetowards The

Axa I, 4 (December 22, 1932). ă ă în VechiulRegat”(TheCommunist ă ” (The” RomanianRight) in ” (The Romanian Right)in(TheRomanian ” Cuzist cuzism Cuzism projects, others focused on focused others projects, , please see Polihroniade’ssee please , is of particular relevancy of is Axa I, 5 (January 22, I,5 27

statism Axa Axa 28 I, 2 I, ) to 26 I,

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w g a e r e .c o m ap strikesbigafterthe from 30 and the Proletariat) in 29 generation relationin to “competitors” such as communism and conservatism can the IronGuardtypically failstopoint out thisstriking feature. Germany thecategoryofrevolutionaryand Nazi states.Thevastliterature in on wasThat wasUSSRplaced why onsamewith the often Fascist the Italy level regenerationnon-democratican alternative,through and for revolution future. for competitorreal only the consideredcommunismas they because fear, notice, besidesthe visceral usual anticommunism,respect andeven asenseof Iron Guard organization Gala Iron Guard in order toprovethat, hequotedconcrete examplesfrom the establishment ofthe an authoritarian one thatwould destroy the minority ruling capitalist strata.” bourgeois andaims atdemolishing thecurrentsystem ruling and replaceitwith that could happen so long as the political actionwas “revolutionary, anti- attractedmovements.to rightwingbe workerscould that thought Accordingly, Stelescu party, communist the by controlledoverwhelmingly or developed worker unrestwas quite commonthe working and movement waswell notthat 118 attract alarge part of theworkers in thecity. Stelescu wrote another virulent text regarding thefaith of the workers immediately Mihail Stelescu, “Dreapta româneasc ăUă muncitorii?”(Who Is Defending the Workers?) in

The issue of the intellectual and ideological positioning of this youngintellectualthispositioning and ideologicalof the of issue The When analyzingWhen texts ofStelescu suchasthose The FrenchConnection: Charles Maurras Axa I, 4 (December 22, 1932). Grivi

р a factory inFebruary 1933- Mihail Stelescu, ”Cine ܊ i by young workers, and how it managedworkers,how it to by young and i ă܈ i proletariatul” (The Romanian Rightwing Axa II, 8, (March 5, 1933). 30 and Vojen, one can Vojen,one and 29

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w g a e r e .c o m University Press, 1994), 85. Ideology: from Cultural Rebellion toPolitical Revolution 34 February 19, 1933. 33

32 1997), pp. 91–7. fundament offreedom.” the becausethe individuals, orderis freedom of than the moreimportant articles, which stated: “the order of societies, any way youwouldaccomplish it, is Constant selectedhis aquotefrom mottooneof to serveasa Maurras for Historian VladimirDumitrescu called him genius a legionaries and Maurras was hisfierce anti-Semitism.Maurras oncesaid: been publishedbeen Vasilein Marin, 31 frommostby theintellectualsdoctrinaires the the quoted of one “realthe monarchist, France,” nationalistic andanti-Semitic. Maurraswasalso eulogistic letterstoCharles Maurras,whom consideredthey therepresentative of that leaders of the Iron Guard such as Ion Mo radical right,radical especially Charles Maurras andhis French the inspiration:of source paradoxicalsomewhat major and another also is Mussolini’s Nazism, influencedby fascism andHitler’s there heavily but developments from abroad. The intellectuals from the similar the of some the comparativelyat looking by grasped be also 119

Alexandru Constant, “Economiadirijat Vladimir Dumitrescu, “Linia general Oneof Marin’s letters to Maurras, written after the assassination ofI. G. Duca has Apud One of the most important ideological meeting points betweenthe points meeting ideological mostimportant the of One ZeevSternhell (with Mario Sznajder and Maia Asheri), sense ofopportunity. Semitethrough patriotism, onewould become onethrough a simple be arranged,smoothed over,andsimplified. If one were notananti- providential appearanceanti-Semitism. of everythingenablesIt to Everything seems impossible or terriblyEverythingseemsdifficultwithout the impossible or 33

Crez Crez de genera 34 ă

avremii” in ܈ ă i statul viitor”in р Axa ie Action Français. , (Bucure , ܊ a andVasileMarin , An. II, No. 8, March 5, 1933. March 8, II, No. , An. 32 Axa while lawyer Alexandru lawyer while groupwere,of course, , (Princeton: Princeton (Princeton: , ܈ ti: Ed. Majadahonda,ti:Ed. Axa The Birth ofFascist It is well-known Itis , An. II, No. 7, No. II, An. , Axa 31 wrote group.

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w g a e r e .c o m contestersthegenerationsRobertthe first from Belot of historian as two and the founding of France’s first fascist party in 1925 revolutionary fascism. separation The ofGeorges Valoisfrom Charles Maurras and traditionalists conservative style old between rupture clear the to extreme such right asultra nationalism and anti-Semitism. had very tolittle dowith leftwingactivism and focused on the usual themes ofthe grouphis withactivity of leftwingfascism. Infact,afterhesecededfrom the Legion, Stelescu’spolitical legionariessuch asStelescu andVojen, without, however, designingsome sort by agendanation’sbody wasthekindof pursued unityof the organic exactly a beautifulfits hand.” democratic andcosmopolitan elements canfitnationalism awell-madelike glove from the mass”. order from the socialists was not in matterssocial of from wasnotin the socialists Maurras himself. AsEugene pointedout,Weber “where Maurras Charles differed care fortheworkers arealso tobefound,paradoxically enough, the thoughtin of 37 36 French Historical Studies 35 xiii. xiii. 120 the Third Republic

AllenDouglas, Qutoed in Ibid. Eugen “Nationalism,Weber, Socialism,National-Socialism and France”,in in

– denouncingequalitarian their mythsbelief andtheir thatauthority stems Similarities with Frenchrightwingpolitics were present also when comes it Views such as those expressed by Stelescu especially when it came to especiallywhenit expressedby Stelescu those Views suchas 35 From Fascism toLibertarian Communism GeorgeValois Against , (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1992), Or, as Maurras put it, “… a socialismas Maurrasput it,“… Or, been freed that has of 36 This sort ofconcern This fortheworkers inordertoassure the Cruciada Românismului 2,3(1962),

277. 277. (The Crusade of Romanianism)Crusadeof (The concern 37 aredescribed byFrench , but in matters social in of , but

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w g a e r e .c o m Anton Stahl,H. Henri targets,notably constant were school, sociological establishment.hisfollowersyoung of whoDimitrieGusti,wereThus, part of intellectualthe with associated were they especiallyif generation, own Dimitrie Gusti, the members of the membersof the Gusti,Dimitrie Besides criticizing the intellectuals ofthe old generation, such as Nicolae Iorga or there wereheatedthere polemics variousamongits groups. Movement, andaddedtothe already known Italian andGerman influences. emergencedevelopment and the ideological of core oftheRomanianLegionary sympathy ofFrance. strategicallyensureto the to desire rebalanceinternationaltheirposition and French counterparts inthe 1920s and1930s, respectively, were also linked toa argued, theattemptsMo ofI. the young legionarieswho foundinspiration in them. Charles Maurras”, Charles 38 39 ownits counterrevolutionary rhetoric. consideredValois thatMaurrascourageous was not enough and wascaptive in the same thelegionaries thought about A. C. Cuza’s movement inthemid 1920s, traditional Maurrassian line ofreactionary and anti-republican ideology. 121 Fer,” 40 RobertBelot, “Critique fascistela de réactionnaire: raison Lucien Rebatet contre Constantin Iordachi, Traian Sandu, “Droite française,Sandu, fascisme italien: Traian influences croisées sur la Garde de Analele Universit To besure,theyoung generationof intellectuals wasnothomogenous, as Social Aspects of the YoungGeneration: Right andLeft in Comparison To be certain,To be Maurras andtheprinciples of Mil neufcent ăр 40 Charisma, Politics andViolence ii Bucure This entangled relationship contributed to the complexentangledrelationshipThis the contributedto

܊ 9, 1 (1991): 49 –67. a and V. Marin Marin closercontacta andV. to getinto withtheir о ti - н tiin Axa р e Politice group also criticized thosetheirwithinalso criticized group (2004): 77. Action Française , 34–5. , 34–5. 39 Ashistorian Traian Sandu Axa was noexception appealed to appealed 38 Inmuch .

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w g a e r e .c o m virtuallymajorevery on groups differed the twopersonal attacks,as hosted betweentwo the journalswere fierce. They often crossed the line ofcivility and polemicsprofessor,Gusti.DimitrieThe his politicalof influence the under and evenfuture fellow travelerthe of IronGuard, Traian Herseni,who wasstill RaleaPandrea, MihailPetru Comarnescu, leftwing Petre intellectualssuch as important ideologicalcompetitor foryoungrightwing intellectuals,as itgathered the review the emergence, November1932, almost in the simultaneously with the interwarintellectualsofgenerationRomanian is young the dynamicsof minority component. state, whilea Romanianizationalso arguingstrong for of thecitieshad a that Polihroniade suggested that adeeply urbanized culturesustain coulda modern turn, In state. Romanian the characterrural of the for allegedpraise his articlesthenational-peasantisthisfollowing in oneof newspaper Vulc Regarding peasants. and workersCodreanu’smovement of appealto the showcasing Hersenieven become animportant doctrinaire oftheIron Guard, writing booklets Left … but also aCertain Right), in and Vulc were accusedofcareerism, butironically enough, some ofthem, suchasHerseni 42 Gustism), in 41 Golopen 122 Mihail Polihroniade, “Oanumit Foranexample, please seetheshort note titled “Gusti An interesting yet under researched issue regarding the intellectualthe regarding issue researchedunder yet interesting An ܊ ă ia, Petru Comarnescu, Mircea Vulc nescu, will later become on to close theintellectuals ofthe Stânga Axa I, 4(December 22, 1932). ă nescu, he was severely criticized by Mihail PolihroniadeMihail by criticized severelywas he nescu, . During its short-livedexistence,its During . 42

ă stâng Axa , I, 4 (December 22, 1932). 22, 1932). I, 4(December , ă …dar ă nescu and Traian Herseni. ܈ i oanumit Stânga ܈ i gustismul” (Gusti and ă dreapt became the most the became Axa Dreptatea ă ” (ACertain journal, of journal, Axa 41 group. They for

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w g a e r e .c o m withthe legionaries. To make theireliminationist stance even clearer, thearticle its editors to prison, the same way awould-be communist government would deal that alegionary state would likewise terminate ajournalthat, like and would send style of Polihroniade. Polihroniade. of style anonymous small article was publishedwasin article anonymoussmall positions was a“shameless hypocrisy.” diplomaticand seats scholarships,parliamentarycapitalist enjoying while deplorethatstatingto thehighunemploymentand capitalismcaused by rate of editors the were who notdisputethefactsbut did launched a personalattack againstthose who polemic answer fromanswer the polemic Left”), in Left”), 44 Generation), in highly qualified young intellectuals discussed theexisting social injustice that led toabignumber ofunemployed yet Comarnescutalked Petru Generation), Young the Unemploymentof (The 43 young generationof intellectuals. In anarticle entitled politicaland cultural issue.the Onesuchissuedealtwith socialcondition ofthe 123 Mihail Polihroniade, “Tabloumarxist pentru ‘Stânga’” (Marxist Painting for“The Petru Comarnescu, “ High unemployment among intellectuals was a somber reality. The reality. somber a was intellectualsunemployment among High When When Axa II 6 (February 5, 1933). equitableand creative way. honest, an in cooperate to idiocy and incapabilitypeople’s of gift thatcouldbe brought bytheseholy daysthatarepoor because the only forvery soonbecome everybody.Itis willgood lesson a Stânga Stânga The almostunemployment general our younggenerationof Stânga, was shot down by the government in March 1933, an March 1933, the governmentin by shot downwas , I, No. 7, (December 25, 1932). 25, 1932). 7,(December , I,No. Axa ܇ omajul tinerei genera took pleasure inthetook pleasure closingdown of Axa

accusingthem ofhavingwell-paid,jobs bourgeois side wasPolihroniade given,side as usual,byMihail 44 43

܊ Axa ii” (The Unemployment of the Young

, which resembled the polemicresembledthe which ,

³܇ omajul tinerei genera Stânga , arguing arguing , ܊ ii”

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w g a e r e .c o m 2767 (January 6, 1933). whatwouldbe thefoundationnew that helabeled ofa order, something Protopopescu,amountednothing. For to ofrealimportance wassearchfor the competition betweennation,the stateand becausebothstateand nation generationthe symbolicNicolae betweenIorga’sand their the grounds of on difference no wasProtopopescucritique.there considereddevastatingthat state, Drago the of importancethe on focused intellectuals.In aresponse toRaduDragnea’s aforementioned article andwhich youngthe by thatwereproposed discoursesof identitythe to respect with Sebastian, “O genera Question of the Youth inItaly), in Stânga “Raporturilegeneradintre 46 developments overthenext decade half provewill them a somberright in way. conflict and eventothefuture oftheir own generation. generational the of outcomethe to pessimismrespect withexpressedtheir at or Comarnescu Petru 45 “1927 generation”,members bethey ofthe out ourenemies.” adds, “we shall,thereforebe consistent with ourselves andweshallbrutally wipe 124 Forthis discussion please seethese relevant contributions ofPetru Comarnescu, “Adisp One interestingtheOne polemicwithin By the year 1932-1933,By theyear somethe most of importantthe components of Intellectuals, Identity andPolitics within theIronGuard II,8 (January 1, 1933); Mircea Eliade, “Problema tineretuluiItalia” în (The ă rut ”Stânga” (“The Left” Disappeared), in 45

܊ ie înc ܊ ă ii” (The Relationshipsii”(TheGenerations),Between the in

Cuvântul tân ăUă Cuvântul, ” (A Generation Still Young), in like Mircea Eliade and Mihail Sebastian,Mihail and Eliade Mircea like Axa IX,No. 2783(January 23, 1933); Mihail Axa group, however, proved revealinggroup,however,proved group, journalistsat group, Axa ܈ Protopopescua launched II, 10 (April 9, 1933). 1933). 9, (April II, 10 46 Cuvântul, h political The Stânga IX, No. IX, No. etnicul like like

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w g a e r e .c o m National), in 48 47 consideredHe a newstate. whole, that or a as identity, whichshouldbe reformed before wellshouldtalkabout one thenation translate,difficultposed to thefounding thequestion of elementRomanian of

discoursepoliticalof the to sensitive so makeit wouldthat regeneration forgenerationthisneed this at as forits particulartime, moment as well in drive testifiesthe to sortofradical identitycrisis thatwasbeingexperienced by nostru 125 relevant excerpt: revolution thatwould bring about the state and thenation. Here isanextensive, the for basis form the wouldRomanians,fromand Transylvanian acquired

Drago Ibid. Ibid. This blendofphilo-barbarianism, self-hatred, and anextreme revolutionary (“our ethnicity”). ܈ Protopopescu, ”Întreetnic possible, theirin sheer nothingness, in their immense parody. being, theearnestness of ourexistence, our identity. nation.Romanianexpectplasmaour we (…)Fromthem the of can weourScythianscannotexpect race of state theRomanianor the brave andasclean. It theis only thing for which Isalute our people. nationality isatracianism,whichI think isnowhere tobefound else as Romanianism.barbariansTheirtheof are them – amongfound be to rigidity is mattermuchRoman-like how no Transylvanians– Latinity.suspect and ambiguityRoman of shape the into us formationthatthe tosay,itisa lacks shallownessThat is diluted that autochthonism. Itisnot theRomaniannation, but theRomanianethnic. RomanianTransylvanian?is the It Kingdom.then, is Old the What, multiform monster,jelly-like, flacid and thatwe accustomedin are to Axa For the moment, both need to be revolutionized;destroyedif be to need moment,both the For After we obtainthis identity, we cantalk about state and nation. From these –socivilized –barbarians ofournation (…)from these understandtheRomanianRomanian? I By a the Transylvanian Is I, 3(November 27, 1932). 47 The text, both lyrical and delirious, and thus, quitedelirious,thus, andand lyrical text,both The

܈ i na ܊ ional”(Betweenthe the Ethnicand etnicul nostru etnicul could only be only could 48

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w g a e r e .c o m Guard politicians anddoctrinaires was soonto follow. themselves the in grey clay of anonymity.” theirlivesbury profoundexperience spiritualcrisisindividualsnot in who do Peoples without revolutions remove themselves fromworld history, the sameway frightenanyone.cannot“rebirththroughrevolution words, his In revolution. regenerativethroughwouldabolish world the a force that generation old asa 49 situation was propitious. next generation, “our generation”; and thatshould bedone quickly, because the physical andmoral impotence. ForMarin, endshould its be accelerated bythe of its because dying controlgenerationwasslowlythe wherein Romania, Fascist Italyfound in andinSovietRussia. however,This, the casein was not makingthe next generation either its partner oritsslave.model Thiswas be to revolutionary“confiscatestheleadership,”assumed goal the that generation 50 I, 5 (January 22, 1933). new one thatisabout toemerge: moment” thatannouncesthedecisive thestrugglebetween order theold andthe The notion oftime rethought is under the guise ofapanicking “pre-Revolutionary revolutionary momentwas also echoedbyIoan VictorVojen one in ofhis articles. fascism.Romanian Asynergybetweentheyoung 126 Vasile Marin, “O singur

Ibid.

In an article publishedIn anarticle January in 1933, Vasile Marin talkedaboutthenew constraining for the lively forces that imperativelyforces livelydemandconstraining that fornew the a to becomeframeworkshave old the that collapse, to about provisional,transitional settinglife, thattheentireexistingsocial is Each and everyone feelingtodayEach and living ofusis thatheis a ă ideologie: FAPTA” (A Single Idology: The DEED)in 50

The feeling of a temporal crisis heralding a heraldingcrisis temporal a of feeling The 49 Also, according to Marin, the Marin,to accordingAlso, Axa intellectuals and theIron and intellectuals Axa,

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w g a e r e .c o m 1933). (TheTermination ofConservatism and Marxism in Germany), in 52 5,1933). 6(February II, No. gave apoliticalshape to thethoughtsexpressed different in ways by theyoung Italian fascism in tworealized years. how managedhe tocompress time, byaccomplishing onlyin threemonthswhat Hitler’spraised swiftnessaccomplishing in the totalitarianstate inGermany and MihailPolihroniadenote included by foreignhispolicycolumn, in whichhe in new modelfor political action. Tomention just oneexample,one canrefer toa of intellectuals,group Hitler’sachieving way Germany ofpowerin became the revolution.”“nationalthisa most of example For as the was recent regarded character oftheIron Guard, under the influence ofHitler’s seizure of power that revolutionary the on emphasisfell the February-March1933, with starting stable andtotalizing state as Fascistin Italy, which servedasamodel. However, as agroup in late1932, the focus was predominantly on the power ofthe state, a 51

127 discourse of theyoung intellectuals from the Mihail Polihroniade, “Lichidarea conservatorismului Ioan Victor-Vojen, “Moment pre-revolu Nevertheless, intellectual members oftheIron Guard such as Vasile Marin Articles such as those of Marin and VojenMarinthoseof and suchthe as a dynamic Articles highlight in has begun. strugglebetween thenew, creativeorder andthe old,agonizing one out ofnecessities and organically grownfrom realities. order, onedifferent from andpowerlessthe old discipline, oneborn revolutionary anddestructive –arecalled upon toimpose adifferent thatpanic predicts astorm. momenttheyarethatlife: everyonerealizesthrough living of a And today, each and every one of us realizesthethat us of one and every each today, And new forces,to now these, consideredup the In times like 51

܊ ionar” (Pre-revolutionary Moment), in Axa group ܈ i amarxismului în Germania” . When theyfirst When emerged Axa II, 12(May 14, Axa ,

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w g a e r e .c o m whirlpool ofdestructive Iron Guard politics. they1933, wereplunged intotherealm ofpolitical revolution, sucked intothe against oldRomania,the generation; the oldstateand old however,of byend claimed tobecarrying out the in 1920s.” Mussoliniwhatmodernist“precisely intellectualswere by some championed of Italian Fascism, of where theideas “cultural renewal” and“spiritual revolution” Iron Guard,and canbe likenedwhat with Walter Adamson identified inthecase 55 (Cambridge Mass., Harvard University Press, 1993), 257. 54 the 1933 – 1932 in that Sternhellat theendofhisbookonbirth offascist ideology, of Codreanu’s movement. &ă nests that contained intellectuals; for thelist ofthese topics, please see Codreanu, 53 inreturn,formedmembersthe group, the of hosted somethe most of intellectual importantmembers the Iron ofGuard,the group ofintellectualspolitical intothe sphere Guard.Ifthe oftheIron Ion Mo Axa 128 Zeev Sternhell, Adamson, L. Walter Codreanu highlighted the topics discussed by the rticica intellectuals. Marin’s emergence asacolumnistthe for journal,together with

To apply to the RomaniancaseTo applyto conclusions the drawnZeev byhistorian ܊ a and Mihail Stelescu,Mihail signified a and theideologicalenrolmentyoung this of о efului de cuib The Birth ofFascist Ideology , 13 53 Avant-garde Florence: from Modernism to Fascism,to Modernism fromFlorence: Avant-garde th Axa

edition, (Bucharest, 2000), 19 –20. This synthesis This would provide ideologicalfuel forthe group was playing the card of culturalrebellionof thecard wasplaying group 54

, 257–8. , 257–8. Axa nest, becoming elite memberselite nest, becoming Axa nest as exemplary for other

55 onewould argue Axa journal

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w g a e r e .c o m 59 58 57 Romanian citizens. Jewsinto enforcingauthorityof millions turnedof incapable and people,is RomaniaRomanianthebecausegreat menace destroyedfor theunityof it development oftheRomaniannation. According toCodreanu, democracy was a organichistorical,the nineteenth-centuryabrupt,intrusionin an as seen Democracywas for. democracystood that everythingquestioned legionaries state based ontheold ideologyof theFrench Revolution ruined.”is French Revolution and the nineteenth-century experience generally. Forhim, “the 56 liberals. the criticizecontinuedto Legion electoralcampaigns the the In party. political a as elections participatedin democraticsystem and the of advantage took thewhile democratic parties were regarded as“emptiedof Romanian soul.” democraticstate of“encouragingthenational aggressiveness minorities” ofthe French and tools, French German),to their and a parasitical,creationcentury as Masonicthatto foreigners belonged (namely thisthe nineteenthto Marin,nation. According importedstateemerged out of wasthean invention,body ofthe whichwasfor values and animport alien Political Assassination 129 Vasile Marin, Idem, Codreanu, Vasile Marin, III. 2. The 1933 Electoral1933 III. Battle: 2. The Antidemocratic Views, Violence, and

However, althoughitposedasafierceopponent ofdemocracy, theLegion In a1933article VasileMarin argued that the statebased ondemocratic Pentru Legionari, 56 &ă Codreanu also argued against thevalues oftheEnlightenment, the Crez Crez de genera Crez Crez de genera rticica 58 Arguing alongthesameVasilelines, Marinaccusedthe о efului de cuib 325–7.

р р ie ie , 114. , 114. , 176–8. , 176–8. , 78. , 78. i.e. the Romanian politicians, especially 57 59 The

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w g a e r e .c o m they propagated the politicalproject oftheLegion to awider audience. copies. circulationtotalpublicationthat the of the18 December1933 was35000 in countlessfilled withare whichtime the legionaries violent incidentswere in employing solely theprintedword. Thepolice reportsand thenewspapers ofthe (Timi 61 60 leaders toorganize anofficefor thelegionary press. newspapers numberedpublications, 18 an increase that promptedlegionary the ale wo upre them, supported who dailies importantpublicationsnumberregional of thatcomplementwould national the second halfof theyear1933. TheIronGuardalso managedto establish an be detectedalso from the increased quantity ofarchival materialexistentthe for authoritiesthe increasedtheirsurveillance movement,ofthe can thing than a year. Aware natureofsomemanifestations oftheviolent ofthe oftheIronGuard, campaign,from gained throughoutthe trying toprofit momentum the political it thisresources in Legionlot of IronGuard.a The the invested of expansion the to containwouldbe able new elections,that Duca toorganize hoping he when attempted it tocapitalize on its increasing popularity across the country. first The most important electoralfor battle theLegion wasthe endof1933 at to advocatedemocracytotalitarianand a thecountry’s solutionfor leadership. 130 Horia Sima,Horia Garda Bucovinei ܈ oara: Editura Gordian, 1994), 153. Nevertheless, thestyleof campaigning chosen bytheLegionwas farfrom Towards theendofyear, King Carol appointed the liberal leader I.G. 61 Thesepublicationswere veryusefultoolselectoral inthe campaign, as IstoriaMi , II, 1 (13 ianuarie 1933). оFă

rii Legionare Calendarul (TheHistory oftheLegionary Movement), and 60 Cuvântul Legionary sourcesclaimed Legionary Ti ntok of network This .

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w g a e r e .c o m (Bucharest: Humanitas, 1991), 313. 65 64 63 67 66 62 authorities caused two deaths and 1,700 arrests among theformer. bloodiestRomania’s in history andtheclashes between thelegionnaires and the closest militants toprocure handguns assoon aspossible. three personsforvictim each ranks,from their Stelescu Mihail while urged his samewhenmonthcirculated information thatlegionariesplanned the toshoot the detectedsatisfactionThisby thelegionaries. in satisfactionalso later was rightwing parties. orderin tofightthenew governmentwhose intentionswereextremeban all to order tohisorganizations whichin heallowed them to useanymeans necessary involved. 131 hesitated before doing it,butthebanningtook place, nevertheless. elections, andtheconflict reachedclimax. its Duca Someclaimedthat sources derailed. counties,placeplanswanted65 buttheirsoon to candidates wereGuard in time violence was usedatthehighest level. The newspapers rushed to notethat episodethe evolutionmarked ofRomanianfascism, in special the first a asfor a mountainSinaia, resort thathostedthe residenceKing of CarolII. Thisevent Belimace)platform assassinatedPrimeMinister Ducaontherailway station at three legionaries(NicolaeConstantinescu,Doru Caranicaof Ion and group a Armin Heinen, ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 10 / 193, Vol. 1, p. 177. ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 10 / 193, Vol. 1, p. 175. Grigore Gafencu, Grigore ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 10 / 193, Vol. 1, p. 207. Drago As historian ArminHeinen stated, the electoralcampaignwas oneofthe ܈ 66 62 Zamfirescu, OnDecember 9,Ducaoutlawed the Legion only afew days beforethe A police note Apolice from November 14statedthatCodreanu issued asecret Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail 63 The notehighlighted that this orderwas received withgreat Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail delamit larealitate, Însemn

ă ri Politice 1929-1939 ( , 240–1.

Political Notes 1929-1939 64

67 Inresponse, 182-3. 65 The Iron The ) ,

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w g a e r e .c o m to I. G. Duca), in I. Duca), G. to 68 conservative BarbuCatargiu was shot. also the previous assassinationof aprime minister took placeback 1862,in when the 132 order tokeep the Legion together. clearer, and this wasthemost important challenge thatCodreanu hadtofacein movementthe even becamewithin groups the of amonganimositiessome on theorganization ofthe movement almost asit toits dismemberment. led The actualassassins, hewas found notguilty. Evenso, thisevent hadahuge impact disappointingthe and lenient.tried togetherwithCodreanu Although also was authoritieswasthe of the reaction crime.However,the of author moral considered responsiblethecrime,foratCodreanuthe and many as pointed Constantin Bacalba

Universul ܈ a, “Dela Barbu Catargiu la I. G. Duca” (From Barbu Catargiu , LI, 3 (January 4, 1934). 4,1934). (January , LI,3

68 The Legion as a whole was whole a as Legion The

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w g a e r e .c o m 3 Constantinescu, Ion Caranica andDoru Belimace) received lifesentences. Argetoianutestifiedfavor oftheIronGuard, in only theassassins and (Nicolae 2 278-9. this timeframe. The report is qutedin Armin Heinen, 1 Br GheorgheManiu,Iuliu as such politicalleaders convicted,manyorganizationentirebe shouldthe demandedthat Iamandi Althoughhigh-ranking officialsInterioras Victor from such Ministryof the the

Banea, and intellectuals suchasDrago werecarriedout,ranks among Cantacuzino-Gr them Zizi General aforementionedthe arrestscriminalafter legionary amongact. Over2000 the attemptauthoritiesan swiftjusticemovementwereoffer arrested bythe in to character.unlawful and the Manyfootsoldiers legionaryleadersasas well of Duca attracted unwanted attention towards theLegion, certifying itsoften violent Primepolitical history.of The assassinationintense Minister but from short its of theLegion. Codreanu’s movement hadtofacesome greatestchallenges ofits the Years 1934-1936 133 Armin Heinen, Drago Thistermwas usedby a German diplomat to describe the activity of the Legion in The “SilentThe Work” Much liketheprevious year, 1934 was averyimportant one in thehistory IV. 1.Repression, Dissent andRecovery: the Legionary Movement in ܈ Zamfirescu, Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail de lamit larealitate, 1 : HowtheLegion Put itsPoliticalProject intoPractice and Became aMass-Movement

CHAPTER IV ܈

Protopopescu and Mihail Polihroniade. , 243-5. , 243-5.

LegiuneaArhanghelul Mihail, ă tianu and Constantinand tianu ă 190. nicerul, Ion 3

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w g a e r e .c o m measures taken by the authorities against the Iron Guard after Duca’s afterGuard Iron the authoritiesagainstthe by taken measures thesesolve emerging issues.Their importancefollowing amplifiedthe was also themovementforcefullyorderstrataof to higher decided to intervene in and documentswassurprise that Codreanu changes caughtby bythese withinthe from thesecanconclude nationwideOne appeal.a it gave movementand Bucharestof the based youngintellectualswho hisdays, with those supported having tohomogenize thepoliticalvisions ofhis“first hour” followers from the Ia ideological impetus infused bythe “AXA” group camea price, at withCodreanu Codreanu facednewchallengesexerting leadership. in his intellectual The and growththediversificationmovement,andthestarting with1933 and of that However,Legion. canbe inferred fromanalyzing it severalarchivaldocuments has emphasizedonly MihailStelescu as a dissenting voicewithin theranksof movementmonolithicwithone, authority asa led andcharisma byCodreanu; it movement forthefollowing years. component leadership ofits evolved and also how affected theit evolution ofthe allowedmorealso a internal complexaffairs of the Legion, lookatthe how the newcomermilitantstogether.archival andintellectualsmaterialThe abundant otherassassinsmovement,Duca’sthe importanttimewithinand figures old againstactions taken thelegionaries, especially preparationof for thetrial in andtheof 1933 throughoutbe detectedat end 1934.Theserecordsthe detail suddenmaterialthat can increaseinarchival reflectedbythe Movement also is 134 The historiography of the Iron Guard has generally portrayed the portrayedgenerally has Guard Iron the historiographyof The The growing interest showed by the authorities for the Legionary the for authorities the by showed interest growing The ú i

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w g a e r e .c o m special a government,demandingrightwing any support to had Guard thewas reportasopportunisticdescribed in argumentation inits thattheIron MarshallAverescu hispotential and government. newlyformed camp The third 4 arguingfor total independence while the projectedoldthe politicalcollaborationsthe to legionariestheLegion, with of Stelescu. The report emphasized theposition by eachupheld group with respect disguiseda Andreileader,by MihailadvisedIonescu as third grouphad the Axa Legion, allowing a view of how the main camps positioned themselves: 1933, as he became closertothe “Axa” group of intellectuals. the movementtried toappeasethealso and opposingcamps thatemerged in assassination. Thus,afterthe verdictthetrialCodreanu of proceededrevive to 135 ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 15 / 1933, 6. professional journalistsby professorprofessional Drago wereled The groupofold legionary militants was active around IonMo A policereport from June 1934 mapped thepower relationships within the alongside oneofthe rightwing groups. actionimmediate for are they legionaries,old unlike because them,withsomething common in have also they but intruders) opportunisticIonescu, Nae professorwith together considered, are journal ‘Axa’ former the from journalists professional to getCorneliu Codreanu out of the influence ofthe ‘intruders’ (the third current emerged, which isclose tothe first one thein struggle professional journalists groupedaroundthejournal, ‘Axa’ todaya Guardthe second intellectualsthe belongingold Iron and the to currents: onebelongingto thelegionaries from nest of the former thebeginningby day. thereweretwo deepening in day Whereas Amongmembers the the former‘Axa’ of divergent views nest are

Axa intellectuals favoredcloser ties with 4

܈ Protopopescu while Ġ a while the a while

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w g a e r e .c o m 6 5 Legion such asIon Mo intellectualfiguresolder the betweentensionsthe withinthe them and ease concluded with thedecision to restart theactivity ofthe group inorder totry and which group “Axa” the memberof one and Codreanubetweendiscussion Codreanu’s intention was brutallyput into practice twoyears later. direction.this in step first regarded the wasStelescu Mihail disciplining restore his authority infrontofthese dissenting groups within themovement and endpointof apolitical andideological journey that began in1927. mentor,the former from his breakdecisive his marking government,thus the face of anotherjustwas Cuza’smovementthat it C. saying A. for wherevermight he berunning. Codreanu explicitly forbade hisfollowersvote to Br GheorgheTransylvania,in Maniu Iuliu with vote themurging to elections, Guard, inwhich he statedthe voting options of thelegionaries forthe forthcoming CodreanuDecemberlaunched by banningIron1933,on afterofthe the 10, that would leave theNationalPeasantist Party. nationalistsTransylvanianthe even with relationshipOctavianGoga,with and 136 ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 17 / 1933, pp. 13-18. Ibid., 62 ă tianu’s liberal party in the Old Kingdom and to support AlexandruAverescuOld Kingdom tianu’s liberaland to party inthe Another police report, datedAugust 28, 1934 presented theoutcome ofa documentdeterminationemphasizedCodreanu’s the to of closing The In a way,In a thisdebate within themovementecho ofamanifesto was an Ġ a. The openinga. The was planed for the month ofSeptember

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w g a e r e .c o m 8 7 establishment. sincefoot soldierswhoputitsprogram practice still represented bythe into “theoreticians anddoctrinaires”that thedriving forcebehindmovement the was condescendingthe new theLegion,a tell the tensionsexistent way as to in Along these lines, Clime was reportedtohave said thefollowing tohiscomrade: politicalaction,with Codreanu’s inline longingfor an“ideologydeed.” ofthe ideologicalthrust,old the timemilitantsmore werestillemphasizeinclined to from the relationship between ideologypolitical and practice. theyoungintellectualsWhile contentionwasdiscrepanciestimebone of the camps. the the betweenThis the of memberunnamed an and the meetingbetween GheorgheClime,who wasoneofthe old legionary leaders, maketo theauthorities payattention tothemintheirreports. Thus, anoteabout was charge stillin andcouldmaintain a balanced yetfirm control. and was meant also toproveacross the leadershipof the Legion that Codreanu 137 ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 15 / 1933, p. 285. ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 15 / 1933, p. 261-262. However, theinnerdebates within themovementvocalenough remained

The apparentThe deferenceClime’s in statementsalso could beread,given Axa group added a to the groupadded lot Legion termsin ofintellect, credibility, and of thecountry.” ourin heartswe haveinscribed our testament: “we for thegood die to triumph. Themomentwe adheredto the principles of the Guard, for theprogram prepared byyou, the theoreticians and doctrinaires, difficulties tobeencountered. […] shall know inorder We how to die thereorganizingincluded in possibleallschemethe Guard the of because we knowI,asthesecretary-generalit, of theGuardhave and is, struggle whatknowfightinglegionaries the we, paper, on doctrine the put to comrades,know how theoretician the You,

Axa group revealed another level of the of anotherlevel revealed group 7

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w g a e r e .c o m 10 mostthe within conflict importantthe Legion, Stelescu, aformer with inner MP targeted Mihail Stelescu. Thisaction, initiated inthe summer of1934,opened up those who didnot obey his orders and respect hisauthority within themovement movement. and fellow todeveloptraveler, initiatives that would undermine his authority inthe authoritative personality didnotallow even someone Mo like 9 to withdraw. However, Iam convinced that everyone will obey”. command from now on, and thosewho donot want toobeymy decisionsare free willsaidallegedlyhe“I point that the toannoyedCodreanuargumentthat Mowithdone shouldarrangementbe the region political in Averescu’s movement. Transylvanian The alsoclaimed leaders that anykind of warnedtheagainst compromising natureof politicianssome belonging local to voicesTransylvanian withindissentingthe movement, somethe leaders as of apparentthe withdealopportunity Codreanu for an to turned meeting into collaborationpotential with Marshall Averescu’s movement Transylvania. This in the discusto order Codreanu’s at requestin Septemberon1934 19, place headquarters of the Iron Guard.” centralTransylvanianthe of meeting legionariesat “A entitled note police regarddocumentprojectedalliances.archival wasa this political Arevealing in importantmanifestedthe Legion’sby an with partofleadershiprespect tohis 138 ANIC Fond Direc Ibid. Other problems Codreanu faced were related to the dissatisfactionthe to relatedwere faced problemsCodreanu Other However,mosttaken action the decisive byCodreanuin to punish order ܊ iaGeneral

ă aPoli 9 The document describedmeeting a thattook ܊ iei, Dosar 102/ 1933, p. 238. ܊ a, his trustedfrienda, his ܊ a’s consent, an a’s 10 Codreanu’s

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w g a e r e .c o m 12 11 by fellow legionary Vasile Cotea. that hehad planned a rebellionthe in Legion and plotted tohave Codreanu killed SeptemberculminatigAugust and 1934, accusationwithStelescu the against numberenemy. one starting pointwas The aseriesofincidentthat tookplace in Codreanu’smostactiveas the politically legionaries,ending up of one and 139 any attempt tobreakthis unityisacrime.” movement,destruction andthe ofitsunity[…]The Guard a perfectunity,is and the disruptionof the movement,to the within“groups lead because groups tolerated.stated the formationofwould notallow He not be separate thathe a circularin addressed toall legionaries, that dissent within theIronGuardwould Stelescu’s actions. Thelegionary leaderopportunity usedthis in ordertoargue, opposeothernot excluded legionariesStelescu belongedandwhowhich did Codreanu took things further anddisbanded the Bucharest district organization to treason.high chargeof the movementunder fromStelescu the excluded theunacceptableconsidered legionariesof the behavioras involvedand he From platform,samethis constantlyattackedCodreanu,accusing title. Stelescu Românismului called organization political a founded he Thus, Codreanu. Legion had, and afterthis episode, he channeled all hispolitical energy against leadership.the political However, fiercest that fighters Stelescuwasof the one Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, Horia Sima, Sima, Horia These incidents were treatedbyCodreanu with theutmost severity.Thus, Codreanu’s handling oftheStelescu casewasmeant toshow strength of Istoria Mi (The CrusadeofRomanianism) whichpublished ajournalwiththe оFă rii Legionare

Circul 11 ă

ri о i manifeste 1927 –1938 , 95-8 12

, 20. , 20. Cruciada

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w g a e r e .c o m Dreptatea (The ‘Ethnic’ OriginMr. of Corneliu Zelea Codreanu –asensational document), in 15 daily notes that:“the elderCodreanu isPolish by hisfatherandHungarianby his National-Peasantist leader and future victim oftheIron Guard, wrotealso his in “signed his owndeathsentence.” assassination, was apolicereport through witch quotedby Stelescuas theones issue, together withthe oneregarding Codreanu’s explicit involvement Duca’s in the1930s.This regarded Codreanu’stopic in origin, ethnic much a debated 14 13 listed under this name: Mauriciuand Mori even Jewish because “in theBucharest phone book there are two Jewish families Zelinskito Zelea. Thearticle stated thatCorneliu Codreanube aPolish could or was byIon Codreanu,Zelea signed requesting thechanging ofhis namefrom Dreptatea thought bymanyentirelybeing asnotRomanian. TheNational-Peasantistdaily extreme nationalism manyby because ofhis own background family whichwas acclaimed political leader. an posingas ambitionof own personalhistheLegion’s militants for using him fordubious connectionswith “old guard”politicians, immoralbehavior and Românismului the letter publishedin open an In not. was he that something immoral,alsodeceivinghim ofbeing of andyoung his followersposing by as 140 “Originea ‘etnic ANIC, FondDirec Cruciada Românismului Nevertheless, oneoftheaccusations thatwereperpetrated byStelescu , No. 2555, (April 30, 1936). (The Justice) , Stelescu launched a devastatinglaunched a assaultCodreanu,, Stelescu on blaming ă ’ a d-luia Corneliu’ documentZelea Codreanu –un senza ܊ ia General

wrotepamphlet a baseda document on from 1902 that , I, No. 18 (April 4, 1935). 4, 1935). (April 18 I,, No. 13

ă aPoli 14

Someconsidered Codreanu ahypocrite inhis ܊ iei, Dosar 103/ 1933, p. 232. ܊ Zelinski.” 15 rad C Armand ă Cruciada linescu, ܊ ional”

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w g a e r e .c o m 18 Poli 306; Armand C Armand 306; 17 1990), 310. studentRomania,playednefariousthe views bytraitors in role regardingthe the assassination ofMihailStelescu. Thus, keepingwith Codreanu’sin line own and Nicolae Constantin (Chi 16 (Bucharest), TeodorTudose (Ia aforementionedAntoniuthe union),foreigndirectorof studentIon (the affairs the NationalUnion ofChristian Studentsfrom Romania), Alexandru Cantacuzino leaders from the important universityall centers: GheorgheFurdui(president of the legionaries againstStelescu.A manifesto signed bythelegionary student as aconfirmation thatthe threats of the Legion were indeedserious. policeonlysurrendered camethemselves immediately. action They tothe This the headwith anaxe, allthiswhile theassassins sang andpraised theLegion. Bucharest. Dozens ofbullets were firedathim, andhewasalso hitrepeatedly in in hospitalizedbeing students)while theology them of (somelegionaries documented Romanian in historiography. Stelescu’s was killed by asquad often facts regarding Stelescu’s bloody assassinationknown arewelland thoroughly the decision The tosuppresshim of 1936came as nosurprise. the summer in Hungarian-Germanteaching half-breed is uslessonsRomanianism!”. in mother. YoungCodreanu has aGerman mother, Lanner.Andthis Polish- 141 Armin Heinen, Drago Armand C Armand ܊ iei, Dosar 103/ 1933, p. 232. Also of interest are the inner motivations of this violent hatred displayed by Stelescu’s actions were highlydamaging to Codreanu and theLegion, so ܈ Zamfirescu, ă linescu, ă Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail linescu, Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail, Însemn Însemn

܈ in ă ri politice (Political Notes) ă ă u), provided a moraland historical justification for ܈ ri politice i), FilonLauric (Cern , 310; ANIC Fond DirecANICFond 310; , , 287-8. , 287-8. 228-229; Z. Ornea, ăX܊ , (Bucharest:Humanitas,, i), Tiberiui), Vere ܊ ia Generalia 18 Anii treizeci

܈ (Cluj) ă a 17 ,

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w g a e r e .c o m now on, theleaderswill and leave thetraitorsdie.” will shame”,the assassination and of Stelescu wasseen as the beginning, as “from the present dayyouth was reveredasthe pillar thatwould avenge “these times of of affairs was themain why reason MihailStelescu did notcommit suicide. Again, field” where treason,corruption, and cowardice were prosperous, andthisstate 20 p.99. / 1935, 10 19 project asonewith theaim of regenerating themoralfiber ofthenation indecay. “higher cause” highlighted the legionary predisposition toshowcase theirpolitical moralweaknesses oftheRomanians in thepast: attemptmake thewrongsofhistory, to aradical right critiquethe of perceived beginning,new historical an history. Stelescu’swas regarded asa execution previouschapter withrespect tothe relationship ofthe legionarieswithtime and criminalact reconfirmsradicalwaystatements amade someofthe the in in Vladimirescu andothers. MichaelBrave,theTudorsuchdeathsof as the leaders that to curse led leaders argued thatfor five centuriesthe history ofRomaniawasmarked bya 142 Ibid. The manifesto can befound atANIC, Fond Ministerul de Interne –Diverse, Dosar This desire to pose as a “maker of history,” as a movementThis desiretoposeasa“maker as a ofhistory,” dedicated toa destiny.” another and anotherHistory had have would we and furrow the seedoftreason wouldhave been wrested from the Romanian been foundtobutcher traitors andtheir successors withaxes, then forerunners […]. If, from the ranksofour nation, peoplewould have greatour the souls of peaceto give disgrace and redeem our bullets that Theseblows oftreason. the cowardice are underthe theirweakness,resignation,sentenced and by were Romanians the which to sales of hundreds the avengedothers the All “From all thebullets that punished him, only one was forhim. 19 The Romaniansociety The wasas an“infected regarded

20 The justification of this

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w g a e r e .c o m Semitic sentiments, somemembersformer as anexampleof “politics saw it as Romania. Although thenewly formed party still upheld ultranationalist and anti- Europeand sentimentrightwing nationalisticacross increasingandthe on become themost important competitor forthe Legion the in quest for capitalizing 23 No. 23-24 (July 25, 1936). and form and increasing, as in July1935 A. C.Cuza and Octavian Goga decided to joinforces The competitionthe far-rightof Romanianpolitics wason of 1933. track end the recoveryLegionary ofthe Movementevents that afterthe tookplaceatthe enhanced thefeeling thatthe “Captain” was adifficult target tohit. only criminalact, this to connectedbeing avoid managedCodreanuto that only theassassinsof Stelescuwere tried andconvicted bytheauthorities, and sensenationalyouth andthe unityCodreanu’s of for project.fact thatthe The determinationallovermeantthe country the of thelegionary wasonly show to comunist Arge 1935) and 22 project in stark contrast to the communistthe contraststarkprojectone: in to “anthropological revolution” tocreate a “new man” while also placing thelegionary thestudentinand also movement publishingtwobooklets thatadvocated an 21 newspaper sympatheticCodreanu’s to movement– containingan articlehe published frommanifestoa partsthat large the in most activedoctrinaires oftheLegion, manifestotheThe was fact brainchild of Alexandru in Cantacuzino,the one of 143 Armin Heinen, “Despre vânzarea de neam” (About Betraying theNation), in Between 1934 and 1936 Alexandru Cantacuzino was very activewithin theLegion ܈ ). Besides therepressiondissent,and the the markedyears 1934–36also 22 ă The factmanifesto thatthis was The signed bystudent leadersfrom also

Partidul Na Românul de mâine (Betweenthe Legionary and theCommunistWorld (Bucharest:World), Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail р ional Cre

(The Romanian of Tomorrow), (Bucharest: 1936). о tin (theNationalChristian Party). 21 and thatbe deducted andcan from the fact , 248. , 248. Între lumea legionarlumeaÎntre Cuvântul Arge Cuvântul Arge 23 о PNC was to ului ú ă (Word of (Word i lumea i о ului , I,

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27 26 25 militants that the Legion was back thein politicalarena: samethe avengingwhat can tone, be considered in anattemptshowto the end only with their “totalextirpation from Romanian politics. liberalparty hadtocommence liberals power thedayafter leave to andhad ClimeMay 25,1934underlined on thatthestruggle for thepunishmentthe of eventualdisintegration of themovement. signedbylegionary Anorder leader Gh. repressionand the theirresponsiblefor was view, party which,in liberalthe Institutul Na (Ideology andRightwingFormations 1934-1938), inRomania vol.IV, (Bucharest: while expoundingwhile deep anti-Semitic, anti-freemason andanticommunist beliefs. creationa new type ofman, of the basedon effortsoftheyoung generation, withrespect to itsprogram was thefactthatmovement strived for also the stated, thename was by the inspired French Scurtu and others (eds.), 24 raiain entitled organization new a founded whoShirts”, Blueorganization“The paramilitary LANC’s This was thecaseoflawyer I.V.Emilian, onemilitants ofthemost activewithin usual” andwalked away orderfrom topursueamoreits ranksin agenda. radical 144 Ibid. ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 15 / 1933, p. 22. 157-8. cit., Loc. Apolice report regarding I. V. Emilian andhis political activity may be read in Ioan The Legion’s regrouping plans started under themark ofrevenge against Ġ ional pentru Studiul Totalitarismului, 2003), 159-60. FORGIVE!” DOESN’T GUARD THE FORGET! DOESN’T GUARD THE be: last winter. Theslogan of thispunishing, avenging, struggle should wouldwhodream naughtiness the of repeating andimpudence of Romaniantown andvillage beasevere historical lesson foranyone Let the example of their unremittingevery their punishmentexamplein of the Let Svastica de Foc de Svastica 27 Ideologie

ú i forma (Fire Swastika). Ġ iuni de dreapta în România 1934–1938 Croix-de-Feu 24 As one police reportpolice one As . What was important was . What 26 Hethenwent onin 25 ,

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w g a e r e .c o m 29 28 easily controlled bythe authorities. other,know eachtoavoidservices not inorder postal thatcould havebeen the villagecommittees weretocommunicate throughtrustworthy personsthatdid the organizational cellthe at basis ofthe movement. Thecenter,thesectors and turn, the leaders ofthesectors would name committees village five people of as legionarieswho reported directlycommandto thecentralmovement. the of In trustworthy by led sectors in divided was county every Thus, structures. Ironto reorganizedetailedofreport Guard a police its the the plans 1934 145 by theprofessors”. the legionaries aretheweakest and inordertobewellregarded inclasses also of behavior andclassperformance “this inorder toshatterthe false mentality that members themovement into alsoserving while asmodelsfor theothers term in biggest universityattractyoung centers. membersweresupposed to new The countrywideorganization level the sections wasdivided into5 pertainingto the a on andstudent, legionary by a membersguided seven of comprised of secondaryschools andnotatthetownA Cross level. Brotherhoodwascell the organizationbecame more flexible asitwas supposedtofunctionat the level at Codreanu’s explicitorder issued onNovember 10. The major changewasthat attempt very toreorganize this important component oftheLegionary Movement schools was reissued byitsleaderGh. Gh. Istrate onDecember1934 in an 4, ANIC, FondDirec ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, 15 / 1933, p. 12. The formalrestructuringmovementthe The June 14, On of started quickly. On another level,the program of theCrossBrotherhoods from secondary 29 ܊ ia General

ă aPoli 28

܊ iei, Dosar 102/ 1933, p. 12.

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w g a e r e .c o m 31 grouped somemost ofthe prominent youngintellectuals who adheredtotheIron 30 Codreanu was oftenadvised bytheir members. same name failed, yet in April 1936 the journalthe 1936 April yet in failed, namesame underthe againjournal movement. the componentthe to launch Attempts of Axa wasgrowingreport the nests of influence the foundedbyintellectuals,such as Brotherhoods andtheSportsLegion. Oneother important aspectdetailed inthe Cross the “fortresses”), (called nests women’s by played role important guise ofworking endeavors for churches and schools,whilealsounderlining the emphasizedthe new tactic ofthe legionaries tocontinue their activity under the type ofman’ onwhichtobasethefuture legionary corporatist State.” not witha defensive, but anoffensive character, whichaims atcreating‘aNew marginal troublemakers. TheLegion was describedas “a nationalist organization, leadership, rather thanregardingfringe itasa movement consistingof young and complexand goals its of in termsmoreseriously, about it talk to started certainchange inthetoneofreport withrespect totheLegion, asthepolice a noticealso can trial.assassinationDuca’sensuingOne following the and occurredthatthat have year accounting respectiveforthe changes Legion in organizationsthe political datedOctober8, 1934summedup evolution the of 146 assassination,the group ofintellectualsaround thejournal Ibid., 53-4. Ibid.,53-4. ANIC, FondDirec and A police report regarding the situation of right and extremesituationand rightrightwingofregarding the police report A After being tested during therepressionof the authorities following Duca’s Athénée Palace ܊ ia General , now constituting a force within the movement,thewithinas force now constitutinga ,

ă aPoli ܊ iei, Dosar 117/ 1933, p. 50. 31

Vestitorii Axa was published and published was remained a core remaineda 30 Thereport

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attemptsthereopen journal to and thejournalwas bannedafter onlyfour issues. Archival sources reveal that formerof the headings openly supported the Iron Guard while the journaltried to replicate the layout and but alsonewintellectualadherents suchasTraian Herseni, wrotearticles that Polihroniade,Mihail IonVictor Vojen Alexandru Constant, andVasile Christescu, 33 Legion’s politicalactionsand hosted voices such asthoseofLeon academicBr journal, an Codreanu.the appearanceof muchUndertreasuredpersonby a and of thefirst important intellectualswho joinedthe Legion, a member Senate ofits this intention nevermaterialized. founded in 1935 attheUniversityfounded ofCern in Ciorogaru, but it was the formerthe was it butCiorogaru, thestudentalso movement. and was intended tobecome apropaganda tool, targetingexisting members but supportedVirgil by Ionescu, oneofthefinancial benefactors ofthe IronGuard, 32 examplejournalsuch wasthe One publications supported andit complemented thepoliticalendeavors ofCodreanu. these Legion, the to officiallybelonging not movement.Although the of which served andto itsideas as useful communication tools fortheintellectuals Guard and who were at the core of the of core the at werewho and Guard 147 ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 3 / 1936, p.207. ANIC, FondDirec However, theLegionstill had a plethora ofjournalsthat were sympathetic ܊ ia General ă ileanu developed an ideological system to underpin theideologicalanileanu developedsystem underpin to Axa

. The reaction. The oftheauthoritiestime, was, this swift, ă 32 aPoli Vestitorii The editorship was undertaken by Gheorghe by undertaken waseditorship The 33

Axa ܊ iei, Dosar 283/ 1936, p. 142. Însemn contributors who provided the content.providedthe who contributors wereSeptemberenvisaged in 1936, but ăX܊ ă i byprofessorTraian Br ri Sociologice ri Axa group. The publication was publication The group. (Sociological Notes) (Sociological ܉ ă opa, Barbu ileanu, one

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w g a e r e .c o m Social Science) in 36 1940-1944 Deletant, Dennis 1941), pleasechaptersee the “Antonescuandthe National Legionary State”in 35 Însemn tineretului deazi Elite) in structurii elitei legionare” (TheAccomplishment oftheStructureof theLegionary Însemn româneasc andTaian Herseni H.Stahl,arguing that instead ofsuggesting “theoriesthat youngerscholarsas Dimitriethewith of by GustiSchool” initiatedsuch help criticalexample,analysisa “Sociologicalfor Ernest Berneaengaged ofthe in culturaltrends that dominatedRomanian public of lifethe time. Inthefirstissue, themainstreamalternativeto programan a withwho offer started initiallyto 34 lived IronGuard –IonAntonescu government shortlegionary minister inthe confessed 1940, while ideology, beinga ashein later took pride inthe fact that heused an academicplatform for promotingthe publicationwere two young intellectuals, Ernest BerneaandDumitru C. Amz Rânduiala Slu 148 Traian Br Formore ontheIon Antonescu –Iron Guard regime (September 1940-Febraury Just to exemplify, onemay quote articles such as: George Macrin, “O nou ܈ anschi, George Macrin andLiviu Rusu. Another important intellectual journalthatsupported the IronGuard was ă ă Însemn ri Sociologice ri Sociologice , subtitled “Archive ofRomanianThought andDeed”. Atthe coreofthe (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan , 2006), 52-68. ă ă . Taberelemunc de ileanu, “Doctrina legionar Romanian idealaccordingto theCaptain’s ideal. organizingtoolforthebest the science socialthe have in will springing from deep faith and immaculatesacrificing spirit, hadand doctrine, legionary the way, this […]In Nation. and Country doctrine,being convinced onlysavingteaching thatitisthe for the and atthesame timeto contributethespreading oftheCaptain’s to givethelegionary doctrinethe all support of thesocialscience ă ri Sociologice Hitler’sForgotten Ally: IonAntonescu hisand Regime, Romania Almanahul Cuvântul ܈ i Însemn ܊ I, 8 (November 1935): 12-20 elurile (The SchoolofToday’s ei Youth Goals), andits in I, 4 (July 1935): 16-23;(July 1935): TraianI,Br 4

ă rile Sociologice II, 9(December 1936): 1-8; Barbu Slu ă ” (ANew Romanian School.The Camps) Work in (Bucharest: 1941), 97. ܈ ă i ܈ tiin set its pathfrom setits the verybeginning: 34 35 ܊ By his ownBr admission, By his a social : ă ” (Legionary Doctrine and ă ileanu,“Des 36

܈ anschi, ă ă܈ vâr ă ܇ ileanu coal coala ܈ irea ă ă r

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w g a e r e .c o m constructive approach embodied bythework camps system. providedthe platforms forsupporting theLegion initsactions, especially the new uâtl Arge Cuvântul Romanian history.” aforementionedcase of censorship seemedto beharsherinthe capital, asithasbeenproven inthe Bucharest,outsidethe sinceespeciallythe Legion, sympathetic journalsto Rânduiala considered Mo Marin andIon Mo Era), II, 1(1936): 36-40; Dumitru C.Amz 38 Rânduiala aimed at creating a ‘new man’ through legionary education, while Amzeducation,while legionary man’through ‘new a creating at aimed Ernest Bernea praised Codreanu’s project, consideringrevolution ita ofthesoul, 37 book Codreanu’s the legionary ideals,a thing clearlyvisible with theoccasion ofthepublication of morebecoming inproviding interested a culturalmysticaland even support for Romanian pointof view.” andscientific civilization“from wereimportantthatrural a the of studies deceive”lure and theSchoolshould focusonconcrete providing andempirical 149 ErnestBernea, “Cartea unui început de veac” (The Bookofthe DawnNew ofa Ernest Bernea,“MonografiaErnest sociologic

The recovery of the movementrecoveryof other the The wasmarkedthe publication of by , II, 2 (1937): 51-4. 51-4. , II,2 (1937): , I, 1 (January-March 1935): 60-71. ܊ о a and Marina and “martyrs offaith”, “soulbuilders andpath openers of ului ܊ Pentru legionari,Pentru a, legionary a, legionary leaders who in theSpanish died Civil Thus, War. 38

(Pite Vestitorii ܈ ti), ti),

37 With time, the journal gained a political thrust, politicala gained journal the time, With lsl Str Glasul . Publications such as such Publications . but also in relation with the funeral of Vasile withthe funeral inrelation but also ă r, “Destin legionar” (Legionary Destiny), in ă mo ă ” (TheSociologicalin” Monograph) ú esc Cu) or (Cluj) Bra р ul de Fier ul eit Mea Revista (Foc ܈ (Cluj) (Cluj) ani), ă r

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w g a e r e .c o m 50. Kater,Michael H. present in theGerman case, after Hitler came topower. For more onthis, please see Thepreoccupationxv. forbypassingthe conventional school systemwasalso in Fascist Italy 1922 –1943, youth pleaseTracy see Koon, California Press, 2001), 93. For another analysis ofthe political socialization ofthe see Ruth BenGhiat,see Ruth 40 Contemporary History in Fascism,”of “Introduction:Genesisago: The decades four fascism hasbeenhighlighted by Georgeinarticle Mosse an published morethan V (2008): 85 –94. The importance ofthe taming ofthe revolt for the development of Regarding the Legionary CampsWork System (1933 - 1937)” in Valentinseeplease S legionary body, mainly through the development of thework camps system. For this, 39 transformationcouldwholea was rebirthcountry as accomplished, the of the

150 body tookplace. constructedandthe Legion wastheperfect by place wherethetamingof the System the regular educational system could not do. mentally strengthen the future “newmen” andthusaccomplish what, inhisview, andphysically to missionthe with school ultimate legionary the complexity, their to due camps,workconsidered Codreanu the basis. regular a on accompaniedthe work, and lectures concerning thelegionary doctrine were held rejected was distinction class while advocated, principleswereThe ofunity,camaraderie emphasized. self-sacrifice and were fashion, with discipline beingenforced. well Bothmoral physical and education militarya in wastheordered lifestyleendeavors.within campThe working Forthe constant mass socialization ofthe young fascist new Italy,men in please I have mappedpreviousI have ina contributionthe process ofthetamingof the IV. 2. WorkingtowardsRegeneration:IV.2. theLegionary Camp Work The work camps system played a crucial role in the regenerative project the role in a crucial work played The camps system 39 Hitler Youth In an orderly manner, Inanorderly young legionariestook part incommon Fascist Modernities: Italy, 1922–1945, , 1 (1966): 15. ă ndulescu, “TamingtheBody”: Preliminary Considerations

(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), , (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004),48– Believe! Obey! Fight! : Political socialization ofyouth 40 ab initio ab Once this anthropological anthropological this Once (Berkeley:University of . Propaganda songs Propaganda . Historical Yearbook ora of Journal

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w g a e r e .c o m the Legionary CampsWork System, 86. leader, whilethe attemptthe authorities to of terminate andtheensuingtrial it gathering forhim followers.and his Thisevent drewattention toCodreanu asa 41 Codreanu for buildingthe RâpaGalben Codreanu for organizationallyby and ideologically.In 1924,theup wasfirst workcamp set morethan anythingelse,thework camphelped coalesce themovement both whichsparkedcontroversy andattracted interest from opinion;public however, Movementwas, inoneway oranother,marked bytheexistence ofawork camp, as micro projections ofthe “new Romania” tocome. feeling ofbelongingthe to Legionary youth, while highlighting these endeavors strengthenthe cohesion inner andsolidarity themovement, within providing a take shape.Nolessimportant wasthefactthatthesework campswereto used notions of “new men”“new country” and employed bythe Legion would actually served asaproof,to allthose who ventured tovisitthem, ofhowthe theoretical the publicthat opinion theycouldalso beaconstructiveforce. Thework camps that was forthebenefitofordinary people, Codreanu’s militants wanted toshow destructive, violent and anarchic movement.By doingfree, humblephysical work a of abandonits image to wantedLegionassassination, the Duca’s G. camps1937. Byextendingin the workmodel at anationwide campsafterlevel I. such organizationof the popularity, governmentincreasingthebanned their numbersworkingsites beingreached1935 and1936.Dueto ofcamps and in place.system take The becamemid1930s,withefficient the thehighest in 151 Valentin S Every important moment in the history of the RomanianLegionary the ofhistory the momentin important Every ă ndulescu, “Tamingthe Body”: Preliminary Considerations Regarding

ă student hostel in Ia in studenthostel 41

܈ i, a placeof a i,

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w g a e r e .c o m before, as it could beobserved from meetingsthe with theconservatives andthe gained respectability amongother politicala levelneverencounteredparties at certainlymore than acoincidence. Asthepolice report also stated, the Legion contactfirst withtheLegion remained intheyearsto come faithful toit was outdid it ofplain curiosity, thefact thatsome ofthosewho bythatvisit made their Pandrea. Cantacuzino,Crevedia,N. Ro N. Ghoerghe Racoveanu, Drago Racoveanu,Ghoerghe “Construim!” (We Are Building!), in discipline ofobscurework, the ardorof anonymous sacrifice.”Mihail Polihroniade, wasethicborn, with youth the learning“thecollective value of the effort, the 42 from a provincialto a nationalmovement. “spiritual”alternative, many anditdrew visitors, famous markingthe while leap of Bucharest.the people Itimpressedintellectuals the werea wholooking for workmodeland theIronGuard’snew camp political project infrontoftheeyes washeadquarters.“Casait called, broughtVerde” (GreenHouse) the as The famouswork was camp connectedto the constructionof the Legion’s Bucharest by authorities. Another was constructive movement oppressed that as a pose as awayforthemovementpolitics andalso servedorderto itself in tovictimize River, showed thedetermination oftheIronGuard to impose way anew ofdoing 43 Crainic, General Cantacuzino-Gr General Crainic, policeaccounteda reportcarefullythosecamp:an for whovisited the Nichifor authorities alsorealized theimage andpropagandapotentialof thework camps, brought him nationwide fame.the workVi In1933, camp at 152 Mihail Polihroniade wrote afull pagearticle about this moment, insisting that a new ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 10 / 1933, Vol. 1, pp. 58-9. 43 Althoughsomethose who the1933Bucharest of visited work camp

܈ Protopopescu, Mircea VulcProtopopescu,Mircea Axa ܈ ă u, nicerul, Mircea Eliade, Dan R Dan Eliade, Mircea nicerul, , II, 17 (September 6, 1933): 3. 3. 1933): 6, (September II, 17 , ܇ tefan T 42 Thiswas probablythe time when the ăWăUă scu, VictorPapacostea, P. ܈ ă ani, ontheBuz nescu, Alexandrunescu, ă dulescu, ă u

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w g a e r e .c o m Orthodox icon toalocal hermitage.

45 44 Cantacuzino-Gr authorities) actually behaved. and tothewaymain inwhich the protagonists (Codreanu, thelegionaries and the withrespect tothemechanisms organizing thatwere behind such anendeavor, at howthingsthe summerwouldbe quiteenlightening evolvedlook 1934 in of Archival recordsallow ustoreconstructthehistoryofthis work camp, andabrief sending them message thattheIronGuardwasthe the politicalarena. backin also disposalwhileat his stillmilitantsweremany of how accurate picture camp basedinthemountainous regionof Moldova, Codreanu was ableto get an driving forceforthemovement. Bygatheringthemostlegionariesthe active in important role politics in and that its regenerative projectvery was still much a playan determined to movement wasstill showedthe It that assassination. Duca’sfollowing trial the movementafter the legionariesin the of trust rebuildingthe very interestingin casestudy,was a 1934, whichprovides crucial because they could nottbe adapted tothe Romanian context. dropped be to national-socialism,Germanresembledhad which program, pointed out tothe legionary leader that someof thetalking points ofhis political Averescu tookplace after avisit ofthelatter to theworkingsite, andthe Marshall and Codreanu betweenmeeting A Averescu’sparty.Marshall of leaders 153 ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 15 / 1933, p. 18. Ibid., 59-60. On May 26,1934CorneliuCodreanu together withhis father andGeneral workcampfrom Rar The ă nicerulto theRar wenta trip on

ă u Mountainfrom(Bukovina)summeru of the 45 He explained to those presentthose his plans explainedHe to ă u Mountainanddonatedan 44

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46 working site starting July 1. planned the cometo to Bukovina andBessarabia Moldova,Transylvania, from availablelegionaries all summoned He students. legionary for house regarding thereorganization oftheLegionand decided tobuild theresummer a 154 ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 15 / 1933, p. 143. police. (ANIC, Fond Ministerul de Interne – Diverse, Dosar 15 / 1933, p. 245). p. 1933, DosarDiverse, / – 15 de Interne Ministerul Fond (ANIC, police. IV.1: Outline of the site of the legionary work camp on Rar workcamp the legionary siteofthe of Outline IV.1:

ă u Mountain done by the local local the doneby u Mountain

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w g a e r e .c o m under their street clothes. students, equippedpickaxes,shovelswearingtheirshirts with green and and 48 47 exercisesfollowed bywork. Onceaweek the legionarieswent onatripto the startedthe morningdaily schedulewithours ofphysicaltea, two in atsix MedicinemedicalFacultywhoassistanceprovidedthe of when needed.The for thedailycurrent affairs and thenecessary supplies,andeven students from police,by the thecampwas thoroughlyorganized, with legionariesresponsible disciplined andorderlycharacterthe camp. of Accordingtoobservationsmade the by impressed quite authoritieswerethemselvespolice local the that on atouchofcompassion couldbe detected, thus leading one to theconclusion imposed byhim. scheduledense the respected andorders Codreanu’s obeyed legionaries the construction ofthehouse. In spite of the difficult conditions encountered, the choppingintensive downsupplies, doubledtrees necessary work for by for the prevented from joining the work camp, thusallowing it to grow. authoritiesThe acteda lenient manner, in andthe groups wereobviouslynot the same inthenearfuture,localplace police askediftheyshouldstop them. departureRar towardsthe Inspectoratereported Police

155 authoritieskeptmovement the closeIa surveillance, undernoteofthe anda building ofthehouse, with thehelpof close to a hundred legionary students. The ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 15 / 1933, p.165. ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 15 / 1933, p. 93. The first weeks of the camp were marked by a scarcity of thefood scarcityof campmarkeda the wereby first weeksof The Codreanu arrived there together with his wife on July 2 and initiatedCodreanu arrivedthere the 2 togetherwithhiswifeon July 48 If in the beginning Ifin thepolice reports had a neutral tone, later 47

Warning their superiors that other groups mayto go ă u of 20 legionary 20 of u ܈ i

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w g a e r e .c o m commandant forBukovina.

activity, the most important being the naming of Vasile Ia Vasilenaming of themostactivity,being the important the movement,within theranksof rewardingthe legionariessometheir of for promotionsopportunityannouncingnew the for used monastery.Codreanu political propagandamade but alastingimpression onthevisitors ofthe nearby 1941) (Bucharest: 50 49 the kitchen, followed the same schedule as the other legionaries. about Codreanu’s orders. The girls inthecamp, were although working mainly in woundedbut notcomplainingmountain, barefooted, many them withbeing of 156 ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 15 / 1933, p. 178. Ibid. The policeThe informantslegionariesreported thatthe fromrefrained open IV.2: Group of legionaries in the Rar the in legionaries of Group IV.2: 50

ă u work camp. Source: Source: camp. work u ܈ inschi as regionalas inschi Almanahul Cuvântul Almanahul 49

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w g a e r e .c o m Macrin, by to workthe camp.According twomonths in his about 1940 in on thepersonalexperience ofone ofthe participants, George Macrin, who wrote in Aprilin 1937. culminatedwiththe withdrawal ofall hisrights asamemberRoyalHouse ofthe officers tojointhe Iron Guard.Themisunderstandings betweenhim and theKing encouragedvariousarmyand also Carol,Kingmovement the against use to hisinterest Prince helped theLegion becauseof proved it,the as theevents made tocamp byColonelManolescu, Prince Nicolae personal aide. himselfapprovedtheirKing endeavor.visit the Thiswas amplified feeling by fact represented amoralbooster, as they regarded thishelpas asign thatthe 54 53 52 51 of wood tohelpthebuilding ofthehouse. Nicolae, thebrother ofKingCarol. PrinceNicolaealso donated200 cubic meters Prince beendonatedby had built waslegionary house land wherethe the madework the campmore interesting forthe central authorities was thefactthat occasion for intervening against those thein camp his thus ruining plans. this, Codreanu wantedto stayout of trouble andnotgivetheauthorities any

157 any Jewish tourists they might haveencountered at the nearby chalet. campwasthat they were thefact discouraged from causing anytrouble against Armin Heinen, ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 15 / 1933, pp. 240-1. ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 15 / 1933, p. 199. Ibid. In orderto gain amore complete view of this case study, one can also rely The element that caused a big surpriseelementbigauthoritiesamongThe caused a thelocaland that An interestingdetailtheabout theorders giventhose in byCodreanuto 54

Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail,

52 Among the legionary students, legionary Among this the 301-2.

53 51 However, By doing

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w g a e r e .c o m 57 56 the Captain in the Rar

numberwork of was camps atitshighest. yearswhenLegionthe the the markedgreatest expansionof werealso the that tookoff in thefollowingtwo years.It was nocoincidence that the years that 55 new school fortheRomanian oftomorrow.” establishingthe Rar 158 mountains withthe Captain’s willat towin all costs.” from the downconnections climbedspiritualformedbetween were us.We therewhopartedways lived the Captain withwithbroken heart.More a than personalexperience ayoung legionary took out from the endeavor: “Thoseof us of closingstatementsMacrin’s months.the kind somevery difficult summed up Legionof the flag after aroundthe get them Northern Romaniaand torally Codreanu managed toenergizean important partoftheyounglegionariesfrom police reports also informedthe about generalatmosphere oftheworking camp. political parties. treason,aboutthedifferencesabout andalso otherLegion betweenthe and He talkedtothem about thepath tobefolloweda legionaryactivity, inhis by and politicalthe spiritualeducationCodreanu alsoengagedin of hisdevotees. which meetingsevening in described the also Macrinwork.construction the everything was conducted,thephysical the exercises, quasi-military training and whichorganizedmannervery camp, wellwithin in stating the the daily life Ibid., 215. Ibid., 213. George Macrin “Dou The 1934 RarThe 1934 56 Macrin’s recollections werestrikingly similar with whatthe ă ă ă u work camp, “theCaptainonly wanted to make aschool. A u workfor campmodel theworkcamp servedasa system u camp), ă luni cu C

Almanahul Cuvântul ă pitanul în tab

The number of camps grew from The numbergrew from campsfour of 55 Macrin insisted on describingon insistedMacrin the ă ra dela Rar (Bucharest: 1941): 208. 57

ă u” (TwoMonths with

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w g a e r e .c o m vol. IV, (Bucharest: Institutul Na România 1934–1938 61 1938 with thedismemberment ofthemovement andthe killing ofCodreanu. authorities,the climaxLegionbetweenstrugglereachedthe its and which in education. ground fortheMovement’s70 percent elite,with ofattendants having ahigher legionary Romania.It attractedtraining many and alsoservedvisitorsas a Codreanu inorderto the public showcase to opinionthefor thefuture model thehistorywas1935 and1936was in oftheLegion.It usedby in thebiggest to replicate the modelfor their own benefit. and theirimpact among opinion thepublic and otherpoliticalparties who wanted sources from underlinedthe constructive1936 that character ofthework camps archivalquoteundertakings, can these onesuccess of the confirmationof 60 was followed byatable containing details about work61 camps. 59 work camps were considered training sites for the“new man.” 58 about legionary education that he issued inthe summer of1936: followingmilitants,circularCodreanu feltentitledtothe writea his letter in to in 1934to50 in1936, along withmore than500workingsites. 159 Armin Heinen, The fulltext can beread in Ioan Scurtu ed., ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 3/ 1936, pp. 301-2. Thisnote Heinen,Armin The Carmen Sylvawork Sea,organized camp,shore oftheBlack onthe 61 Its banning in 1937 can be regarded as a somber sign of the sombersign of a as regardedbe can 1937 Its banningin nation. greatpavingRomanianthewayto this futurewefor a are day You shouldall betouchedbythefactthat hourbyandday everywhere.Peoplesatisfied are withbehavior our andourwork. Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail Dear all, the country is full of work camps. There is order is There workcamps. of full country the is all, Dear 60 , (Ideology andRightwingFormations inRomania 1934-1938),

Ġ ional pentru Studiul Totalitarismului, 2003), 196. , 369. , 369. 59 , 268. Heinenalsoemphasized , that Ideologie Thus, it came as no surpriseno Thus,itcamethatas ú i forma Ġ iuni de dreaptaiuni în de 58 As a As

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w g a e r e .c o m 62 Holocaust Romania.” i.e. theregeneration ofthecountry bycreatingman” a“new type of anda“new to the achievement of the higher goals ofthe movement asdefined by Codreanu, for many legionariesway a tosocialize with likemindedfellows while contributing enterprise thateducated provide theyouth.Looking at from out, did it it the inside violentanda fringe, chauvinisticorganizationa constructive, that of selfless to movement. Insome respect,managedit tochangethe image oftheLegionfrom implementationof such asystem back inBritain. camps asplacesthatrejuvenated the German youthandeven contemplatedthe remarked, theadmiring language was “quasi-religious” and emphasized thework campsvisitors from by Britain, including intellectualsandpoliticians. AsStone Dan Stonehighlightedthe positive reactionstowardsthe German youth labor Romania.only in InabookassessingBritish responses to fascismthe 1930s, in happengreat impressionamongurbanand theeducated, not that didthe and peasant population, forexample,wasit absolutely obvious that italso causeda be underestimated.should not couldIf one dismiss theirinfluenceonthe local 160 DanStone, The work camp system proved to be of grea use for Codreanu’sfor use of grea be to campsystem proved work The The impact of these kinds ofenterprises ofinterwar inthehistory fascism The impactthese kinds of (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003): 116.

Responses to Nazism in Britain, 1933– 1939: Before the War and the

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w g a e r e .c o m 64 63

161 and ‘new women’ who wouldperpetuate fascist behaviors and values”. the generationalwaythinking of andthedesire tocreate “millions of‘newman’ Italy, aswas youth wascentraltofascistideology in cult of Ghiat asserted,the youth asthe driving force towards behind their ascension. Ashistorian RuthBen- the resurrection ofRomania. According to him: generation very explicitly, andconsidered it asthe mainactor what in hecalled youngcountry’stargetedthe Codreanu rebirth. accomplishmentthe the of Legionary Movement, theyouthwas regarded asthemainactor withrespect to tension aninevitablegenerationalfight. Outofthis conflict emerged. the Within stagnant, unreliable and responsiblefor thecrisis against which fascist claimed to determination andtheywere opposedtotheolder generationwhich wasseen as associateddynamism,werespeed, withpoliticalreality.existent They vigor, changingthe radically of capablepersons only the considered wereyouth Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, Ruth Ben-Ghiat, Ben-Ghiat, Ruth

IV.3. Social Components theLegionary of MovementExpansion - One ofthemain characteristics offascist movements reliance wastheir on Workers; Women and the Legion through Diversification: theRoleofStudent Bodyandthe of weunderstand because isdirectedsolely can it towardsit us. because onlywehear can thesacred appealof destiny, andonly misapprehendpeopleoldhistory. Do misapprehend us?They us youthThe issummoneddestiny by toplay itsparton the scene of resurrectionIn this anoverwhelmingyouth. willrolethat ofthe be Fascist Modernities

Carticica sefului de cuib , 93-4. , 93-4.

, p. 80. , p.80. 63 64 The

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w g a e r e .c o m ٝ 66 65 followers,hismindsof bodies and thethe Codreanutaming succeeded in of dynamism Codreanu’s politicalprojectsBy disciplining the1920s. for the since moststudenttheconstant sourceof been movement of the energieshad so manyof theLegion in student movement. instances,was the Channelingthe communism. hadto chooseRomaniabetween “theresurrection ofintegralnationalism” and IonMo werebacked by Spain oftomorrow and theFranceofday aftertomorrow.” communist fanaticism, thuspreventing from it becoming“the Russia oftoday, the legionaries made according history, toMarin, becauseitsaved Romania from the fanaticismyounggeneration.young the The spirit ofthe the of defining for acknowledged as fanaticism Marin enthusiasmVasile and Thus, generation. country.” torchcarryorganized by us, which will the ofthenation'sresurrection allover the and underwent itseducational process became, asVasile Marinput it,“the youth amongeducationyoung legionaries. theThe the youththatadhered to Legion prepare theyouth for this confrontation, Codreanu emphasized the importance of ordertherepresenteddecayingto power.democraticIn to holdon state and peoplewhothe older of destiny” sacred appeal and “can hearthe youth that 162 Ibid., p. 67. 67. Ibid., p. Vasile Marin, IonI.Mo The most activepartofthe Romanianyouth that constituted thebackbone Thus, Codreanu depicted theemerging generationalconflict between the 65 The legionariesattributed The many greataccomplishments totheyoung ܊ a, 67 Cranii delemn

Crez Crez de generatie ܊ a, who also regarded as crucialthe momentas whowhenalso regarded a,

, 137. , 137. , p. 106. , p.106. 66 Marin’s claims

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w g a e r e .c o m Zmfirescu, Ministerul deIntene, Fond Documentar, Dosar 9, vol. II, f. 82, 1934 Central 68 due to “this systematic action to take hold ofthe student societies, manifestations betweenstudent the movementthe Legion. and Apolice report underlined that ranksits and integrated them itsalternativeinto educationalsystem. the Legion paidspecial attention tothestudents, incorporated many ofthem into pressured thegovernment movementit tobecome toallow a legal again.Inturn, student movement,was whichwith filled young legionaries,came aid toits and into into the 1930s. Aresolution of the movement was overwhelming,and itserved as apowerful legitimatingfactor well mostcore membersGuard. ofthe1922student active, Thelegacy the Iron of difficult,not if impossible, to distinguishbetween thestudentmovement andthe startingwiththe first halfofthe1930s.Thatmid waswas1930s why the it in protests.1922 managedHe also to gain full controlofthestudent movement, devoted and fanaticfollowers, basedthose on who weretheforefront at of the thatrevolt startedwith the1922student generation. Hebuiltacoregroup of 163

The Resolution of the BucharesttheStudentResolution of Centre The The authorities were very much aware of this symbiotic relationshipsymbiotic this of muchaware very wereauthorities The moments,mostLegionone ofits thewhendifficult in wasthe Thus, (NationalCentralHistorical Archives,Bucharest, ANIC),hereafter Legiunea Arhanghelului Mihail delamit larealitate, was dissolved. unjustly of thespiritlivingand outholinessDecember of which10, 1922, request2 –We the government tolegalize theIronGuard, born and victory ofthisideal, today,aswellas tomorrow. an and ideal worthy fight sacrifice. of and stronglyWe believe inthe 10 Bucharest’sChristianstudents– reaffirm December solidly the 1 th 1922 creed, considering 1922 thecornerstone it futureRomania, of

Bucharest Student Center 68

( Arhivele Na Arhivele 398–9. stated in1934that: р ionale Istorice ionale , in Drago in , Fond ܈

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w g a e r e .c o m 70 69 Ionescu and Drago to enableCristescu totalk about theIron Guard intellectuals such asCrainic, Nae topic ofthe lecture was thepersonality ofNichifor Crainic, factin just acover-up 1934 infrontof 250students the bigauditoriumin of theTheology Faculty. The statementsmade the previous in one, as it described a lecture held onMarch 20, in order to take part in his classes. “apology of crime”, muchapproval tothe ofthestudents who filledthe auditorium that were deeplyrelated withthe ideas anddoctrine of theLegion, suchasthe Duca’s assassination.In thefirstnote reportedforlecturing hewas about topics the year1934, when most oftheLegion’sleadershipwas under arrestfollowing University ofBucharest.Tworevealing notesdetailed hisactivity in at the police of priestcase was Grigore that Cristescu, whowasaprofessor oftheology also auditoriumsthe universities, Thus,aninteresting suchathingwas of if possible. the movementthecultivateeven in sympathizers ideals thelegionary of to or members were who intellectuals prominent encouraged Codreanu Stelescu demonstrated. and evencriminal acts,asthe aforementioned caseoftheassassinationof Mihail of approval.” demonstrations, strikes, andboycotts were allwith organized, the legionary seal thethecompletelyhandsof thestudent legionaries,centersfell in Union and for students becameonly that weretobe quasi-legionary. the supposed When 164

ANIC, FondDirec ANIC, FondDirec Knowing that thestudentstothe movement,keptbeKnowingclosethat neededto 69 As one could see,could legionary Asonestudents wereused forviolent also ܊ ܊ ܈ ia General ia General Protopopescu who atthe time were arrested fortheir alleged

ă ă aPoli aPoli ܊ ܊ iei, Dosar 102/ 1933, p. 148. iei, Dosar 103/ 1933, p. 231. 70 The second note substantiated the substantiatednote second The

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w g a e r e .c o m 72 71 reform the legionaryin State. consciousness, legionarism art, workethiccamps, andtheworkand university others: sacrifice andbetrayal,the new legionary ethic, legionarism and historical topics,followingtheamongquotecancomponent.many student Thus,one disseminated ideasthat theleadership ofthemovementwanted tothe todeliver lectures The nests. student legionary the for topics discussion future as were tobedelivered by leaders of the Iron Guard, and were alsomeant toserve legionary studentsfrom Olteniawhowerestudying inBucharest. The lectures commandant ofOltenia.Gyr decided 1936 in toorganizea series of lectures for student crowd sangnationalistic who also songs. elder generation. The lecture was received with unconcealed enthusiasm by the was always readytohelpthenew generation itwas while beingdownlet bythe wasthat Crainic alwaysthe rightside on inhisintellectualactivity andthat he emphasizedassassination.argument Cristescu’sDuca’s the for responsibility 165 Mure congress that took placeMure inTârgu studentgeneral the studentwasmovement controlled the openly Legion Târgu Mure threepraised murderedthe legionarieshim. whosongs that singingOnce in memorialthe plaque installedthe placewhereDucawas in assassinated,while ANIC, FondDirec Ibid., 149. ܈ , somethe students stopped of attheSinaia railway stationandprofaned Another similar example was that of poet Radu Gyr, the legionary the Gyr, Radu poet of that wasexample similar Another The moment opinion andtheauthorities thatprovedtothepublic that the ܈ , thestudents paraded on thestreets ofthe city inlegionaryuniforms ܊ ia General

72 ă

aPoli ܊ iei, Dosar 283/ 1936, p. 47. ܈ in April 1936. On theirway inApril1936.On toTârgu 71

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w g a e r e .c o m of thepublic manifestations during the days of the congress. from MureTârgu and the issues discussed targeted the Jewish minorities and the political the and minorities Jewish the targeted discussed issues the and respect. Songs praising theLegion andthe assassins ofI.G.Duca were sung, this in mostactive the studentsbeing the legionary withagenda,rightwing publishing aphoto bookentitled causing disturbances while TârguMure in Cathedral. after When the congress the students wereaccused the pressin for newlybuiltOrthodoxlocal, performed salutefrontofthe and in the legionary 166 book Mure Târgu of streets the on marching Students IV.3: “Dezordinile” de la Târgu Mure delaTârgu “Dezordinile” As for the congress itself, it was completely hijacked by the extremethe hijackedcompletelyby was congress itself,it the for As ܈ ) whichwas aimeddemonstrating at thewellordered manner о

(The “Disorders” from Mure Târgu “Dezordinile” delaTârgu Mure ܈ , the Legionanswered, the promptlyby ܈ in legionary uniforms. Photo from the the from Photo uniforms. legionary in ܈ ). о

(The “Disorders”

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w g a e r e .c o m social andspiritual currents that underminethe existenceRomanian of the state measuresview that“restrictivetaken againstbe andlegal destructive needto Photo from the book the from Photo IV. 4: Students doing the legionary salute in front of the Orthodox Cathedral from Târgu Mure Târgu from Cathedral the Orthodox of front in salute legionary the doing Students 4: IV. 73 other things, for measures of“social hygiene” inorderto rejuvenate it. andphysical spiritual nation being ofthe was underthreat,thusasking, among the continuationofof theheritage the“1922generation”, theresolutionstated reflected thispoliticalagenda. Aftertheritualistic legitimatingassertion regarding opponents ofthefar right. Theresolution adoptedattheendof thecongress 167 Ioan Scurtu (ed.), Another request targeted the opposingAnother requesttargetedpolitical the the ideologies bystating “Dezordinile” de la Târgu Mure delaTârgu “Dezordinile” Ideologie

ú i forma Ġ iuni de dreapta înRomânia 1934–1938 о

(The “Disorders” Târgu from Mure 73

܈ ) , 175. , 175. ܈ .

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w g a e r e .c o m Târgu Mure Târgu caused worrying reactions inthepressand public opinion. Nevertheless, the The authorities were caught off-guard bythese developments, andthecongress public figures such asArmand C formedwith thespecificpurpose ofthreatening thelivesofcertain politicians and resolution, concrete actions were also planned undertheguise ofstudent squads in thepoliticaldiscourse ofthe leaders ofthe Legion.However, alongside this the talking pointsthat onecould identify thein far rightpress ofthetime andalso all student organizations. requested theexclusion ofstudents that weremembers oftheLiberal Party from profounddisregard for pluralitypolitical ofideasor options,theresolution also 75 74 strongholds forpropaganda. supportwasnew social workerssent imperative.were The students to thus massesoverusestudent oftheir because andoverexposure,so thesearchfor certainfatigueamongthe noticed, Legiondetecteda thereportpolice one movementsolidcreating move the legionary aworkers towards movement. As Codreanu’sof policywithcoincidedandthe Guard anotherimportantshift in served as its most dynamic efficient and component. movement wastotalpolitical underthe andideological controlof the Legion, and liberalism,and culture: communism, andreligiouscults.” freemasonry 168 ANIC, FondDirec Ibid. These ratherawkwardstudentrequests fora congressreplicated many of This momentmarked point ofthe thehighest student allegiance totheIron ܈ congress reconfirmed for everybody the fact that the studentthe fact that reconfirmedcongresstheeverybody for ܊ ia General

75 ă

aPoli ă linescu or Mihail Stelescu, toname just two. ܊ iei, Dosar 103/ 1933, p. 233-4 74 With With

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w g a e r e .c o m 80 79 (1966): 118.

78 outlining theLegion’s position towards theworkers entitled Sociologice intellectualsupport throughthearticles published journals such as in 77 Prahova, JiuValley, Timi sympathysuchas manyworkers inindustrialthe of areas gain managed to the Legion revealed,detailedpolicereport a As throughout1937.increase those oftheestablished parties”. movement,to theoneleaderwhooffered solutions turned moreextreme than effectivelabour an of the absence “in workersthe stated, Eugen Weber Jewry” communist agentsofcapitalistof “agentsthealso banner of Jewryand under addressed theworkers throughacircular letter,underlining their previous defeats “Legionaryof the Workers’occasionClimethe leader this Corps”,andwith as 76 ‘Legionary Corps’had5000members.Workers’ witha groupofworkers from Dâmbovi acknowledging their importance within theparty. brotherhoods’),‘crossthe studentsand the with (along unit autonomous owntheir have workersto the allowingthusCorps’, ‘Legionary Workers’ 169 ANIC Fond Direc ANIC, FondDirec Eugen “The Archangel,”Weber, Menof the Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, Horia Sima, Sima, Horia 77 As adirectconsequence,October in 1936,Codreanu decided toform the The offensive to attract more workers to the movement was given movementgiven was the to workersmore attract offensive to The and promisedtheLegion. and them victory guiseofthe under Ashistorian and Istoria Mi Rânduiala ܊ iaGeneral Ġ ia General úFă ܈ oara, Arad, Re rii Legionare

Circul . Traian Herseni also published in 1937 a booklet a 1937 published in Hersenialso Traian . ă ă aPoli aPoli ă 78 ri As early as January 11, 1937, at ameeting asJanuary11,1937, Asearly ú ܊ iei, Dosar 103/ 1933, p. 234. Ġ i manifeste iei, Dosar 10/1937, p. 11. , 157. , 157. Ġ a county, legionary a county, leaders statedthat the ܈L܊ a, andsome Bucharestfactories. Journal ofContemporary History , 96. , 96. 76 Codreanu namedGheorghe Codreanu 79 This figure would sharplywould figure This Mi ú carea Legionar Însemn 80

ăú , 1 , ă ri i

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w g a e r e .c o m Culture Pickering-Iazzi,ed., Robin Fascism in Europe, 1919-45 UniversityMinnesota of Press, 1996); Kevin Passmore ed., Fascist Virilities: Rhetoric, Ideology, and Social Fantasy in Italy Durham, 84 Former SovietBlock,” Problems of WritingBiographies of Nazi andFascistin Countries Women of the Movementandthe Workers their biographies, please seeAndrea Pet 83 82 have influenced thehistory offascism. two bodyofworkwith andtheway decades,alarge hasdealt theseissues they masculinityas and genderthe development in the movement. of last Overthe raises importantplayedfactorsresearch 1927 regarding thepart bysuch issues Legionary Movement. womenpresencehistoriography the the Legionthe statusof the in on is and rescuing fromit ofcommunism.the lure incorporate theworkers asavaluable component ofthenationalbody, aiming to fact legionaryin projectthe messagedid was that the send that wantedto Jewish doctrinemeant toserveapeoplewithout ahomeland.” the workers favored, arguing thatcommunismwas notaworkersdoctrine but “a workers”, would forwhichalways fight,from it the thatsome communist ideas of madethe Legion distinction what aclear between hetermed “thejusticethe of 81 muncitorimea ( 170 Fromthe abundant literaturecovering these issues, onecanmentionMartin Forthe reluctance of researchers to take upissues such asfascist women and Ibid.,6-7. rin Herseni, Traian One of the most intriguing topics that has been neglected in the neglectedbeen in hasthat mosttopicsintriguing the of One , (Minneapolis: UniversityMinnesota Press,of 1995); George Mosse, Women and Fascism, The Legionary Movement andtheWorkers Journal of Women’s History 83 Mi The organizational The structure set forth by Codreanu since ú ), ae Legionar carea

(Bucharest: 1937). Mothers of Invention:Fascism,ItalianMothersof Women,and , (Manchester:, ManchesterUniversity2003); Press,

(London: Routledge,(London:BarbaraSpackman,1998); Ę 84 , “Who Is Afraidof the “Ugly Women”? ú ă The special attention awarded by awardedattention special The muncitorimea i 21, 4 (Winter 2009): 147-151. ) . 81 Women, Gender,andWomen, Herseniargued that Te Legionary (The 82 (Minneapolis: , The booklet The The The

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w g a e r e .c o m University of California Press, 1993): xii. 86 Charisma, Politics, and Violence, ConstantinIordachiwrotesubchapter alsoa issueabout thisin book, ofhis Extreme Right in Europe FascismInterwar in Romania,” inKevinPassmore, ed., 85 Minnesota Press, 1990-1992. growththe movement of years overthe impliedcertainchanges structure,in its them model: a tripartite woman offaith, womanwork,woman of The ofaction. for womenbeginningsearly1927, its from in the purposeofinculcating with in exalted thevirtues of masculinity andvirility. organized themselvesmovementandwhatenticedof a part them that be to thus focusingon howwomen activity their intheLegion, experienced how they withthe culturalistview thatfascism hastobeanalyzed “from out”, the inside Press, 1996); Klaus Theweleit,Klaus 1996); Press, Image ofMan: the Creation ofModern Masculinity was enormously varied.” patriarchy, butashistoricalsubjects andactors,whose experience offascist rule fascism,mereunder Italianand dictatorship victims them of regarding “not as is drawn from Victoria deGrazia’s point ofview with respect to the role ofwomen of the Legion. there hasbeen very worklittle doneon gender anditsimpact thedevelopment in analyzedhas been throughout thisdissertation. Nevertheless, asstatedbefore, importance ofphysicaland spiritual educationtheir in case, under various forms, heroism.war-liketheirand emphasisvirility The on tomorrowan included Codreanu toyoung maleswhom thehe trainedtobe “new men”Romanian of 171 Victoria de Grazia, Victoriade The only lengthy contributionthis on issue is Maria Bucur’s article “Gender and As mentioned inchapter II,theLegionary Movementsections hadspecial 85 The starting The methodological assumptionfor theRomanian case How Fascism Ruled Women: Italy, 1922-1945 , (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003):58-79. 86 This approach proves beveryfruitful to combined if 86-89. 86-89. Male Fantasies , 2 vol.,Minneapolis: 2 , University of , (New York: Oxford University University Oxford York: (New , Women, Gender and theandGender Women, , (Berkeley: ,

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w g a e r e .c o m 87 section. lettersent Inacircular female byherto legionaries across thecountry, women’sthe reformingmovement by reorganizingthe of process general Duca’smovementI. G. assassination,after Nicoleta Nicolescu engagedinthe relationshipclose withCodreanu. Followingthe transformation that affectedthe leadership, theorganization gained indynamism and importance, also dueto her rank of“legionary onewhoreached the commander.”the only ever Under her the most successful female legionary in the history ofthe Iron Guard, andalso traditional societalroles ascribed towomen general. in reflectingregularincludedpoliticalthe issues thelegionary program,also but 88 little known inthevillages.” properly, keep thehouseholdclean,or “initiation that intheartofcooking isso mothers, fighters,as waysin couldfamily aswellfeedtheirsisters, which they oflegionaryroleincluded the new Romania, thewomenas their duties the in legionary ideas.” withworkandwithpropagatingthe Legion“helpmissiontheir was their to that capacity theywere expected to raise their kids in the legionary spirit. Overall, was aneducationalone because thegirls werethemothers oftomorrow, andin were withCross Brotherhoods keptalong the andtheLegionary Corps.Theiraim 1927 when the movement hadasizably smallernumber offollowers. Girls’ nests organizationalin handbook,the revampingthisscheme designed in codified most in codified of them 172 Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, Ibid., 18-9. Ibid.,18-9. The commandthe of women organization was heldbyNicoleta Nicolescu, 87 Recommended topics to be discussed in the girls nestsgirls the discussedin to be Recommendedtopics Nest Leader’s Booklet

&ă 88 rticica One may notice a combination of topics that topics of combination a maynotice One ù efului de cuib . Thus,threetypesofnestswere , 35. , 35.

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w g a e r e .c o m Romanian Legionaries), (Timi prigoanei: din luptalegionarelor românce SofiaCristescu Dinescu, “Cet the CaptainRar in photographicalsources. attested by mass canbe stagedby thelegion,as it display ofpowerthe place withthe occasion ofthestudent congress inTârguMure 90 and theother participants. 89 examplethe Rar in Legion. Theywerethe present in work-camps, with Nicoleta Nicolescu being an true legionary life andwe shall learntotreasure theCaptain.” worksummerto Nicoleta camps where, according Nicolescu,“weshall the live finalizerequestto participate with the womenthe lists legionary to willing in thecommandback to central activities. their about Avery importantaspect was members, contributing financiallyto theprojects movement ofthe reporting and their malecounterparts termsin toCodreanu’s orders, oflistening attracting new one cannoticethatthedutiesof thelegionary womenwerethose of to similar 173 George Macrin “Dou ANIC, FondDirec Legionary womenthewere factpartofall activities in carriedon bythe ă ܊ ia General u workwhere campimpression heleftagood toCodreanu ă ă u camp), u luni cu C 90

They alsotookpart They the demonstrations in that took ܈ oara: Ed. Gordian, 1994). ă܊ ă ui Sf aPoli ă Almanahul Cuvântul pitanul în tab ă râmate” (BrokenFortresses) *** in ܊ iei, Dosariei, 102 /1933, p. 340. (The Tear of Persecution: from theFight of ă ra dela Rar (Bucharest: 1941): 207-215; ă 89 u” (TwoMonths with

܈ , contributing to Lacrima

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falling, thesetimes arecallingusmore thanever.” how we continuinglywe are morewhen feel contemptthan ever, growing is dying,and good anymore, is holywheneverythingis is that whennothing women forthe currenthistorical moment: “Comrades, thedifficult times we in, live legionary leader regarding these issues, thus offering aview from within. by Codreanuwrittenby Nicolescu, butthey represent theoutlooka female of was themovement role in their whatexpected andwas fromthem.being Not the legionary women provideuseful insights into how they were organized, what

91 book the from Photo Cern from legionaries Female 5: IV.

174 ANIC Fond Direc A circular letterfrom stated1934thetheDecember10, importanceof A furtherreading ofexisting documents written Nicoleta by Nicolescu for “Dezordinile” de la Târgu Mure delaTârgu “Dezordinile” ܊ iaGeneral

ă aPoli ăX܊ i at the student congress in Târgu Mure Târgu in congress student the at i ܊ iei, Dosar 102/ 1933, p. 341. о

(The “Disorders” Târgu from Mure 91 Thecalling ofthetimeswas ܈ (April 1936). (April ܈ ).

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w g a e r e .c o m 92 ordered thecancellation ofallexisting women’s organizations and a freshstart in Nicolescu thewomen’s reorganizingregarding Thus, instructions theof nests. on equalfooting with theirmale counterparts. attributedwomen. to consciously Instead, or not,itplaces the legionary women attributesmission andthe statementprofess thetraditional donot gender roles these that fact the noticedis can be die.fearlessness, What to readiness determinedness,3) faithfulness unboundedthrough love; and devotedness, sincerity, 2) earnestness; honesty, dignity, 1) attributes: of sets three the legionaryproject.transformation,of This accordingto Nicolescu, required cause of regenerating anation indecay, thus makingthe women anintegralpart professed for the Legion’s devotees: the willingness ofself-sacrifice for the higher creating a “great woman”: desperatein them. needof that,toorder Nicoleta do Nicolescu In argued for felt asatruemission to restore corevalues such as“love”and “faith” toanation 175 Ibid. These passionate and uplifting paragraphs were followed by a set of set passionateparagraphsupliftinga andThese by followed were This sporadically incoherent text waswhat actuallyinlinewith Codreanu die defendingand throughit exalt it death.” whichsouls, fair,unabatedwill faithwiththey have startedand in women’sof out a wallraise irrefutable,andweshall energetic shallwesilentrise,and fromourdeeplysacred but then love, struggle,out takinganything inthe into account,asif wearealone around would increase andenthusiastic armswouldbetraywith us barricades alwaysthe thinkingdownfalltheAnd forward.if from mind,heart, will, to her people, riskseverythingand for dieson it everything:gives herself,renouncing momentbut, one hesitate womanwho understands itsaspirations, agreatwomandoes that great Romaniaa thisto give comrades,wish,to haveto “We

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w g a e r e .c o m become ofthefortress and theleader would chooseacashier, asecretary and a movement the would in oldest was groupwho the and woman the gathered with theman.” herpowerRomanians,together thepart withall woman summonedtake is to Furthermore,it was thattoenabetransformation argued “this of Romaniaand dignified.”and great Romanians’of ‘Romania“creatinga towards actions educationalemphasis wouldon thegoals fall oftheIronGuardCodreanu’s and the Legion.The within womenthe of role the andCodreanu’s Legion, life The educationof future members reliedonthreemaintopics: thehistory ofthe furtherwhatprovided legionaries.detailsabout wasexpected fromthefemale Cojocaru(Oltenia) andTeodoraNiculescu (Bukovina).

94 93 Constan (Dobrogea), Popescu Sica (EasternWallachia), Bagdad Elena Wallachia), (Northern Moldova), MariaRadomir(Southern Moldova),MariaBârsan (Western CazacencoCoca provinces: the organizationrebuilding the start in would Leader’s Booklet attachmentprovetheirLegion. sympathizers the they could untilto new followersto bedirectly were not enlisted themovement in considered but recruiting new followers basedonthe three sets ofattributes outlined above. The 176 ANIC, FondDirec Ibid., 342. Regarding the organizational matters, the instructions stated that the that statedinstructions organizationalmatters,the the Regarding A set of instructions forfortresses”,organizingthe women’snests,“the of instructions A set The circular letter also included new appointmentswomen for who leaders ܊ a St ă 94 nciulea (Bessarabia),nciulea R the

was imposed astheguide for daily activities within the nests. ܊ ia General

ă aPoli ܊ iei, Dosar 102/ 1933, p. 343. ăGă܈ anu sisters (Transylvania), Natalia 93

The Nest The

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fortresses, one journal explicitly is mentioned bytheinstructions - regenerative project. fulfillingits for pillars important becoming aimedat but movement’s policies, theory, the legionary women notregard did themselves aspassive objects ofthe sister. nationalsalvation, the legionary woman andalsoasmother, asfighter wifeand strugglefor the womanin contribution the legionary regarding the of those weremovementcombinedlegionary faithwithinwiththe the as honesty and attitude towards politicking, theJews, freemasonry andcommunism. such Topics sufferings, thegoalsofLegion,character, thelegionary Guard’s theIron legionaryas such issues takeup to urged werewomenlegionary Thus, Guard politics andideology andnotparticularity onallegedlywomen’s issues. mainstreamfocusedorder,on these Iron mentionedfirst in issues, how the topics mentioned byCodreanu asappropriate forthefortresses. One cannotice these instructions,suggested in however, didnotemphasizeonlythetraditional 95 nests, and obeyed the rules from rules the obeyed and nests, as onewell forthe Legion (2 perlei week). The memberswere expected also topay aregular subscription for thefortress as and wassupposedtowrite reportsonaregularevery basis,once two weeks. courier. The head of thefortress closely supervised the activity of the members 177 Ibid., 344. 95 Among the recommended propaganda materials for use within the within use for materials propaganda recommended the Among Based onthedocuments presented above one may arguethat,atleast in The meetings of the fortresses were similar to those of the other legionary

The

Nest Leader’s Nest Booklet Revista Mea topics The . .

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w g a e r e .c o m young women intellectuals ofthetime. worthjournal, itis noting kindundertaking thatthis of was extremelyforrare Although shecertainlyreceivedwiththe publicationfrom help father the her of towardsRomanianculture.threat Jewishthefight against could she where nationalist movement.” constructivethe andyouth the legionaryadmiration for express“publiclyhis recently. 98 (January 1935). led by the newspaperthepublishingled by and house Platform” aJewisharticle entitled“Instead conspiracy, of a how she described to engageinthepublication ofajournal withsuch aradicalpolitical agenda. Inan issue ofthe journalprovided the motivation that wouldmake suchayoung writer numerousto voicegiving a legionary political and intellectual figures.The first legionary publications outside Bucharest, posing asacultural journalbutfact in young age. though she published herliterary works various in journalsstarting from a very not graduate, didUniversitythe of Bucharestbut at LettersPhilosophy and and legionary sympathizer Dan R sympathizerDan legionary and 97 Enciclopedic, 2006), 533. Martha R 96 was theproduct of the efforts of a young female writer named Martha R This journal,Cluj published1935, in startingin deservesspecialattention, asit 178 Ibid. Martha D.R *** Between 1935 and 1937, Between1935 Dic 97 ă She associated this event with the time when her father startedeventfather thiswhen to associated withthetime her She р dulescu was bornin1912andwas thedaughter ofuniversity professor ionarul general al literaturii române, P/R 96

ă dulescu, “În loc de program” (Instead ofaPlatform), 98 Thus, she regarded the journal as a platform from platform from as a journalregardedshe the Thus,

Revista Mea ă dulescu. She studied at the Faculty of Faculty the at studied dulescu.She became oneoftheimportant pro- Adev , (Bucharest: Ed. Univers Ed. (Bucharest: , ă rul , boycotted her novelsher , boycotted Revista Mea ă dulescu. I, 1

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w g a e r e .c o m the Legion. history of the necessaryconditionsyear the 1937decisive created in tobea for force, workersas a theemergencerecentthe of movement, by redoubled student the of impetusThe political it. do to startedalready but country transformingtalkedaboutthe only constructiveyouthful,movement not that Legion managedreinvent to itself andtopromote the the public imagea to of assassination,thefollowedDuca’sthat disarray the development.Enduring its on marktheir left 1936 and between1934 Legion the within place theirbestdid tohelp accomplishment. its took theirfighters roleas for theLegion’s regenerative project veryseriouslyand NicoletaNicolescu and MarthaD.R 179 The kindThe ofpolitical pro-legionary dedication demonstrated bythe likes of The important political,importantandThe socialtransformations intellectual tookthat ă dulescu shows thattherewere womenwho

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w g a e r e .c o m of thenationandState evident,even strongly ifthrough a politicized version Catholic or Orthodox Christianity, becausetheir ideology makes thesacralisation dimensionsacralisedtheofpolitics, within notwithstanding exaltationtheirof Guard, Italianhistorian Emilio Gentile arguedthey “may that beplaced already V. 1. Sacralised results from December. Politicsopinion perceived themessage oftheLegion, andthatreflected intheelectoral Guard.Iron Theensuingthe events which thewayinfluencedin thepublic in Action:leaders, but the event opened up a newdimension in the public manifestations of recently startedCivil endedtragically War fortwomostimportant ofthe legionary the Februaryincreasingly favorable. Thedecisionsupport toshow its for Franco’s side inthe Europeancontextpoliticalbecamethe and growing constantly was project 1937 yearwithopportunities. filled a for supportLegion regarded1937as The its Burial of the

180 From the Mo From the Romanian Legionary Leaders Ion Mo 1937 as the Peak of the Legionary Regenerative Project: Project: Regenerative Legionary the of Peak asthe 1937 When referring to movements such as the Spanish Falange orthe Iron referringSpanish Falangeto movementsWhen as the such Followingthe consolidation of the movement between 1934and 1936, the Ġ a – Marin Burial to the Parliamentary Elections Elections Parliamentary the to Burial a –Marin CHAPTER V

Ġ a and Vasile Marin

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w g a e r e .c o m burialof thetwo legionary leaders IonMo project ofcreating a“new man” anda“newcountry.” Thecasestudy of themass attempt toofferasacralisedversion ofpolitics under theguiseofits regenerative legitimacy ofarecently often used term such as“clericalfascism.” betweenChurch the and fascism to thepoint where some scholars analyze the relationship the of theissue raised projectstype political has thisof clergy in the nationalisation ofOrthodox Christianity itself[…]” becomemainfactor of the legitimation forthe sacralisation ofthenation, andfor the IronGuardassume, reality,character in the political ofa religion inthatthey Routledge, 2008). (eds.), Georgescu PoliticalReligionsand 101 100 Political Religions Critical Reflections onCriticism ofInterpretation,”an in 99 Iron Guard thein political context oftheyear 1937. public opinionthe of time provescrucialin order toilluminate the success ofthe (ritual,aesthetics, propaganda) while attemptingto asses its impact onRomanian characteristicsmain on its focusingunfolding,its this moment Presentingin was,a significant in proportion, profoundly attached tothe Legionary Movement. whoseRomanianclergy Orthodox Church, establishment the by represented relationshipinto the betweenfascist the institutionalized ideologyand religious appropriateopportunity forsuchan analysisalso and wouldallow adeeperlook of atraditional religion.” 181 Emilio Gentile, “Fascism, TotalitarianismPolitical and Religion: Definitions and RogerEatwell, “Reflections onFascism andReligion,” in Ibid. One of thegoalsthisOne sub-chapter of toinvestigate is the IronGuard’s 5(2004): 361. Clerical Fascism in Interwar Europe 4 (2003):4 145–66; Marius Turda, Matthew Feldman,Tudor 99 Furthermore, Gentileconsidered that“movements like

܊ a and VasileMarinprovidesa ahighly

TotalitarianMovements and , (London and New York:New (Londonand , 100 The presence of the of presence The TotalitarianMovements 101

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w g a e r e .c o m 104 Violence,” Political Wing 103 102 legionaries, illustrating “theesoteric concept of ‘winning bydieing.’” of thelegionary project ofresurrecting thecountry was deeplyinternalized bythe legionary project. As historian Roger Griffin pointedout: point ofgiving upone’s waslife considered the keytotheultimate successofthe wasof thecentralpillars one project. ofits talking When aboutthe goalall of For theLegionaryMovement, whichstartedSpanish Civil in1936. War, religion qualities, as irreversiblydecayed. Codreanu wanted tocreate a “new man,” withhero-like radicallytransform the Romanianpeople andthecountry, which were perceived the legionary ideology. Accordingto him,ultimateof theLegionwasto the goal movement, Codreanuemphasizedconstructive the andeducationalcharacter of anarchicdestructiveand a Legion consideredthe that those to Reacting 182 Ibid., 81. Ibid.,81. Roger Griffin, “Shattering Crystals: The Role of 'Dream Time' in Extreme Right- Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, The inexorableconnectionbetween self-sacrifice,the deathand success It was this in historic and ideological context thattheLegion referred to the movementimportantchanges. the underwent 1936 and Between1934 Spanish Civil War LegionaryNation”Movement,the The the and Death,the“Rebirth of 102 shaped after the profile of its youngprofileafterof its the followers.shaped Self-sacrificeto the the realm of agenuinecultof death. the exoteric language ofmilitarist rhetoriccrosses theRubicon into guarantee the success of the revolutionary project, atwhich point die forthe higher cause tothe pointwhere only self-sacrifice could The more fanatical of Codreanu’s followers took thewillingness to Terrorism & Political Violence

Pentru Legionari, 239. 239. 103

15 (2003), 80. (2003), 15 104

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w g a e r e .c o m 25. 25. Mo 107 against ustomorrow.” comewill communismRomaniait andif as well, shaking in winstheretoday, right hand,suggestedelite groupoflegionaries thatan shouldSpainand go to because, as IonMo getting killed by the Republican side strengthened these feelings. sympathizedwith Franco’sside. Newsdestroyedchurches being of priests and Christianity. Animportant partofthepublic opinion,as part aswell ofthepress, a confrontationcommunistatheism and as between perceived nationalists it Romanianbroke, Spanish Civil War thewaspainted. When different picture power ofthosewho won.” on wielded behalf ofthe defeated have proved mightier thanthesword andthe the intellectualsvictorybrushthe camera for and “…thepen, in theWest: perspective,stating that thecreationof theworld’s memory eventwas a ofthis Eric Hobsbawm challenging moment, a presented this years ago,in afew only ending, controversialdebates thatstill tendto become veryemotional. Historian 105 resurrection of the nations thein name ofJesus Christ theSavior.” 106 nations, Codreanu stated that “The finalaim life.But is not 183 Ion I. Mo Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, Eric Hobsbawm, “War ofIdeas”, Eric Hobsbawm, “War Ġ a, one of the mostand respected legionary active of the Codreanu’s leadersa, one and For the legionaries, this conflict was considered of greatimportance,conflictconsidered wasthe legionaries,this of For However,otherthe continent, onthe sideof 19361937 - inRomania,a presentEven in days,theSpanish Civil withlegacy sparksnever- its War Ġ a quoted in Ġ a put it, “ifa putit, theCrosswill fallinSpain, foundations its will be 107 Cuvântul Studen Animated bytheidea ofbetween afight Good andEvil, 106

Pentru Legionari The Guardian Review Ġ esc XII,1 –4(January – February, 1937): , 336. , 336. , February 17, 2007. The

Resurrection 105

. The

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w g a e r e .c o m the eighth coffin to be mine.” 112 important positions within theLegion. Dobre and, added at the last moment, lawyer Vasile Marin. 111 109 108 zone, anaccusation thatheallegedly dismissed tears. in political“basica war the sevencommon leadersgoto let because he sense” thetragicoutcomeexpedition,after the Codreanu of wasaccused oflacking 110 Bor were: engineer Gheorghe Clime, lawyer Nicolae Totu, priest Ion Dumitrescu– loaded one,anexamplewhatfor everylegionary other should do.The leaders consisted ofother importantthussymbolically leaders, makingtheexpeditiona position ofvice-president onJanuary1,1937. commandwithin themovement, made andhe this officialby awarding him the his action hadagreat impact. Codreanu himselfthought of Mo legionary education, coming closetoCodreanu’s ideal “new man,” the leader oftheexpedition. swordwasToledo belonged a thattoGeneralCantacuzino, whoalso would be present an honorary gift toGeneralMoscardo the defender ofAlcazar. 184

ANIC, FondDirec Horia Sima, Sima, Horia Ion Dumitrescu – Bor Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, Ibid ú a, lawyer and former diplomatand formerCantacuzino,Alexandrua, lawyer economistB . Marin said: “You havedecided tobring seven coffins from Spain, I would like Many legionaries consideredlegionariesManyMo Istoria Mi Ġ ia General ܈ úFă a, Cal troian intra muros. Memorii Legionare rii Legionare

Circul ă aPoli ă ri о Ġ i manifeste, iei, Dosar 10/ 1937, pp. 31 –35. , 162. , 162. Ġ a as one of the “finestproducts” of one of as a 110 114. Archival sources reveal that, reveal sources Archival 111 Therestofthegroup 112 All of them held Ġ a as second a as in , 186. , 186. 109 108 and thus, and The gift ă nic ă

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w g a e r e .c o m muros 114 113 115 to fight.Beforeleaving Romania,other histestamenthe left several letters and the Frenchgovernment, ledbyLeon Blum, refusedtogrant them visas. Poland, Germany, andthen boarded on a ship from Hamburg toLisbon, because 1936) (November departure before photo, a group in War Civil Spanish the for volunteers of group Legionary 1. The V. 185 lines. thelegionariesdecidedenrollfront as ordinarysoldiers to fightin to inorder Moto due However, at risk. theirputting lives without month,the nationalistmorewerethan a supposed tojoinnot for forces but symbolic,

Vasile Marin, Horia Sima, Ibid. Ibid. 115 , 190–1. The team departed for Spain in late November 1936, and wentlate November1936, and through Spain in team The departed for According to Codreanu’s orders, the mission was supposed to be to supposed was mission the orders,Codreanu’s to According All the narratives All concerning theeventinsistonMo 114 and, after giving the sword to GeneralswordMoscardo,to the giving thelegionaries after and, Istoria Mi Crez Crez de genera úFă rii Legionare

Ġ ie , 19. , 19. , 163; Ion Dumitrescu-Bor Ġ a’s tormenting desire Ġ a’s insistence, the a’s ú a, Cal troian intra 113

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w g a e r e .c o m 119 motivated reburials in postsocialist Eastern Europe. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), astudy in thefrenzy of ideologically Verdery, 118 43. Mortuary Ritual

both at individual and collective level. Funerals, withall their rituals, are meant to realities ofwar, Mo Dobre, waswounded andanother,Nicolae Totu,gotsick. Facedwiththe harsh 117 highlighted the“intense emotional impact” Anthropologists inquiring. scholarly for topics salient provided societies public opinion. the two legionaries soonreached Romaniawhere ithad ahuge impactwithin the killed Ion Mo January 13,1937,whilefighting Majadahonda, in Madrid, alocalitya shell near group already had two victims and,thus, paid its blood tribute. 116 have experienced war all horror “in its and misery.” Church. the the defense of on hisimminentdeathfor actandinsisted that justified his 186 Peter Metcalf,Peter Huntington, Richard This subtitle draws uponthebookwritten byAmerican anthropologist Katherine Ion Dumitrescu-Bor Francisco Veiga, Mo The social, political and psychological implications of death in modernpsychological politicaland death in social,of implicationsThe Staging Martyrdom:The Political LifeofTwoDead Bodies The legionaries were involved thein violent fights near Madrid, where they The Political Lives of Dead Bodies: Reburial and Postsocialist Change Ġ a’s premonitions turnedintorealityandthenews the deathof about Ġ a andVasileMarin. , 2 nd revised edition, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), Ġ Istoria G a’s enthusiasm a’s seemed todecrease,especially becausethe ܈ a, Cal troian intra muros

ă rzii deFier 1919–1941 CelebrationsDeath:of theAnthropology of 119 thatdeath causes for thesurvivors, , 199. , 199. , 231. , 231. 116 Soon,oneofthem,B 118 117

However, on However, ă nic ă ,

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w g a e r e .c o m identificationof themasses withthe death ofthese leaders and theircause may rightfulness oftheircause. thehelp of aesthetic With andritualistic devices, the the signalto opportunity an usedas be can death circumstances,their and vicarious personal identificationwith hisdeath.” “becomes paradigm asymbolic alsofor ourowndeaths”and “onehasastrong event thewhendie, Huntingtonthat important Richard argued leaders and meaning.Drawingupon theworkofRobert Hertz,anthropologists PeterMetcalf 123 122 attributed tothe dead person. becomes significant notby its simplepresence butthrough theimportance that is 121 Histories: Eastern Europe After 1989, 49 (Winter, 1995): 30. 120 transcending time and“makingpast immediately present.” while (unlike abstractconcrete, ideas) are they efficient symbols because very number As Katherine ofpeople. Verdery rightfully pointsout, thebodies arealso transmitto order certain larger politicalmessages ideological a at in level to death and funerary rituals was heavily exploited throughout thetwentiethcentury belongingness for thedefinable communitymourners.” of creatingfeelingmaintainingofby group“a for of ties and reinforcingthe a still living. accompanydead totheir the resting-place while also providing comfortthose for 187 Peter Metcalf, Richard Huntington, Ibid.,28. Katherine Verdery, IstvanRev,“Parallel Autopsies,” When certain political characters die in what are perceived as heroicperceivedas whatare certainpolitical characters diein When Thus, when important political figures are involved, death enhances its figuresare involved, death whenimportantpolitical Thus, At acertainlevel,the carefor thedeadalsoconstitutes anefficient device The Political Lives of Dead Bodies

122

Representations Celebrations of Death , 49,SpecialIssue: Identifying 123

, 27. , 27. , 188. , 188. 120 121 This function of function This The dead body dead The

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w g a e r e .c o m Romanian border onFebruary 9. mortuary continued train its routethrough Poland andarrived atthePolish- Italy were present, and “a huge crowd hailed in mourning the two coffins.” metguard them. Representativesof NSDAP, theSpanish Falange, andFascist February 6,where S.S. andS.A. squads, including asquadfrom Hitler’s personal passing through France and Belgium, mortuaryAfterthetwoSpainbodies.wagonwasa created for France and masspass throughNow funeral.they could Franceandattheborder between spectacular thanthe firstpartof theirtrip and wasit anintegralpart ofthestaged 125 will oftheofficialauthorities that wanted to downplay thescale of the event. The most salient aspect of thisparade waswas that it accomplished against the remainmassive,unnoticed. A nationwide paradeofthetwo was bodies staged. Legion made surethatthe death ofthe two most ofits important leaders didnot popularto gain support. bodieswereThe thereforeverybody tosee,and the their ideologicalgoals the Legion and took advantage ofthis opportunity inorder dismissedby manymere as rhetoric. the Now they had deadbodiesto prove was an ideal for life one’s giveup to willself-sacrificethe regarding and 124 Mo of death the Until new grounds. its project ofcreating a“new man” thatwouldassure the rebirth ofthe country on With thedeathofIonMo be established, thusfortifyingprestige the of their surviving political colleagues. 188

Horia Sima, Sima, Horia Curentul The journey back home of the legionary group was by far morefar by was legionary group the of homejourneyback The , X, No.3241(February 9, 1937). Istoria Mi úFă Ġ a andVasileMarin theLegionhad the“dyingproof” of rii Legionare,

173. 173. 124 Ġ a and Marin, the Legion’sdiscoursethe Marin, and a the two coffins arrived in Berlinon arrived in coffins the two 125

The

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w g a e r e .c o m 131 130

Codreanu, See participation. 129 128 127 and forthehonour oftheirpeople”. entitled “Two BraveBoys”,praisingthem “fightfortheirfaith Christian for their Iorgalaudatory pieceaboutIonMo Even Nicolae wrotea Mo legionaries. Gheorghe Br twothe of death the theirparties to wing right respects paid the of leaders especially regardingtheparties. rightwing Although rivalstheLegion,the of all Morning), preferred to the ignore event, in ordernottofurther amplifyeffects. its 126 Association” left-oriented newspapers such as such newspapers left-oriented censorship forthis situation. government’sthe newspaperhowever,blamed the of director The Spain. legionary students that didnot doit enoughtosupportthe legionary mission into commemorationof the two legionaries. Even so, thenewspaper was accused by the regardingevents with date to up readers its kept dailies,influential intensify. to began leaders young 189 Association oftheChristian Doctors”,

ANIC, FondDirec The mostimportant suchrequiem tookplace in Bucharest and enjoyed mass ANIC, FondDirec Neamul Românesc Universul Universul Ġ a asoneofthe “most capable and honest fighter from the legionary ranks”. The political scene was influenced by this event, and this wastrue this and event, this by wasinfluencedpoliticalscene The In the meantime, Romania, in the reactions regarding the death of the two Circul , LIV, No. 19(January 20, 1937). , LIV, No. 17(January 18, 1937). 128 ), while requiems wereheld throughout the country. ă ri Universul ú Ġ ܊ i manifeste ia General ia General , XXXII, No. 12 (January 20, 1937). 20,1937). (January 12 , XXXII,No. ă tianu, the dissident leaderliberal ofa party, considered

126 , LIV, No. 18 (January 19, 1937); Corneliu1937);(JanuaryZelea 19, 18 LIV,No. , ă ă Variousassociations paidtheir respects (e.g. “The , 119 –120. aPoli aPoli Adev 131 Ġ ܊ Universul iei, Dosar 10/ 1937, p. 34. iei, Dosar10/ 1937, p. 20. 127 However, several weeks later, after the after weeks later, several However, or “The Romanian Christian LawyersChristian Romanian“The or ă rul (The Truth) , one of the biggest and mostand biggest the of one ,

and Ġ a and Vasile Marin Vasile a and Diminea 129 However, However, Ġ a (The (The 130

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w g a e r e .c o m Dosar 4/ 1937, pp. 39 –40. 133 November 1940. culminatingwiththe assassination of thegreat historiana legionary by squad in growingwasTherea to come conflict betweenNicolaeIorgaandthe Legion, proof’ of its success creatingin a‘new man’, willing to make thesupreme self- legionaries attempted a“fascistization ofthe masses”. TheLegion had the‘dying Romanianprovincestheirunite allmourningforthetwo dead leaders.The in 132 Bucharest, the endpoint ofthe journey. arrivein wouldthrough goingit then, Wallachia and Oltenia,time into this Mountains intoTransylvania. there, Carpathians, From it againwould crossthe Cern through almostthe historical all provinces ofRomania.from The trainhad tolive cross-countrywouldpass a that route wasdirected on the train site, burial of theLegionbecameclear. Instead of choosing thefastest waytowards the religion. oftransformingthepointmass-displaysa political to their ofpower ideas into nationalismLegionthat usedpublic,Griffin) the movements offascist such as (Rogernew,“palingenetic” betweenthe difference nationalismtraditional and which heconsidered pagan. swastika,the as symbolssuch use of and the condemnedalso violence and componentsby young displayed nationalists (alluding,theof course, to Legion) massof Mo funeral 190 For thefully detailedroute, seeANIC, FondMinisterul deInterneDiverse,–

Neamul Românesc ăXĠ The route of the train was obviously a symbolicthe trainwasIt wasThe route ofobviouslya one. designedto With themortuary trainwagon arriving attheRomanianborder, the plans i, in Bukovina, go through Moldova and then cross the Carpathianthe cross then Moldovaand through Bukovina, go in i, Ġ a and Marin, Iorgacondemneda and aestheticand ritualistic the , XXXII, No. 34(February 15) and No. 35(February 17, 1937).

132 In fact, Iorga was eloquently illustrating theillustrating eloquently wasIorga fact, In 133

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w g a e r e .c o m religious ritualwas mixedwiththe secular, political pledgeofcontinuing Mo twobodies. The towardsthe crowdshuge ritual performed the stations and convictions ofthoseattending thecommemoration. of thepriests,military orlocal authorities, andthe social also strata andpolitical performedor oath. Theyalsorequested the information regarding thepresence numberlegionariespresent of stations, inthetrain whetherwere they inuniform telegram gendarmerie localsubmitpoliceurging to reports aboutthe and units in casethesituation turnedviolent. that theauthorities keptaveryclose eyeonthe events,being ready to intervene lenient attitude of theauthorities infront ofthis offensive, archival records reveal cross-countryits route.Althoughthe IronGuardaccused many the of historians 136 the mortuary train stopped. pages contain anabstract of detailed police reports sent from every station where 135 134 Legionary Movement. legionary ideas acrossthemasses andtheattractionof some intellectualsthe to disseminationi.e. the the funeral,mentionedthat ofthe effect of reports the reports ofthepolice, secret acknowledgedby factthe wasalso parade. This Christianity inSpain, explains the greatsuccess enjoyed bythe legionary funeral foughtand Marin for, i.e. the alleged struggle between communistatheism and the Romanianpublic opinionsizable partof with sympathisedthe cause Mo sacrifice forthelegionary cause,and wanted everybody to seeit.Thefactthat a 191 Ibid., pp. 35–6. ANIC, FondMinisterulInterne de –Diverse, Dosar 4/1937, pp. 2–15.These 27. Ibid.,p. On February9,thetrain crossedMoldova. It stopped inthemainrailway The train withthe remainsof Mo The train 134

135 The authorities also circulated a coded a circulatedauthoritiesalso The Ġ a and Marin accomplishedand Marin successfullya 136

Ġ a’s Ġ a

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w g a e r e .c o m of the“Petru Maior” student’s society, whichhadbeen led foralongtime byIon Uniate Church. Other speakers were SextilPu performed Colan,Ion AgârbiceanuRomanian ofthe bybishop spoke onbehalf Voievod, SextilPu politicians andintellectuals were presentatthe railway station: Alexandru Vaida- most stopwasCluj, important in onFebruaryaround 10, noon. Here, important station and thirty priests performed thereligious service. weresmoking tenamphorae. in crowd The kneeledwhenthetrainentered the flagsmourning. were wereand the in people,packed with Myrrhandincense an important Moldova, town in the railway station platform and thesurroundings 138 Movements and Political Religions reflectionsQuestionSecularthe of Religionon Totalitarianism’, and 137 139 struggle. Thus, anattempted “sacralisation ofpolitics” (Emilio Gentile) 192 Neam crowds. everyrailwayperformedlong-lasting madein a among impression station, the moment oftheceremony and,togetherwith the“Mo baptizeyourselves inthe legionary faith”. This callusually constituted the closing urged thosepresenttojoin this sacralised form bysaying: “Romanians,of politics leaders. Afterthe religious ritual,mortuaryfrom a legionary leader the wagon ofthepoliticalplace, withthe help liturgy developed the byusing deathofthetwo Emilio Gentile, ‘TheSacralisation Politics:of Definitions, Interpretations and Ibid. Cuvântul, Ġ andBaiacounties, ontheirknees, meet themortuary wagon’. Pa In X, No.3244(February 12, 1937). ú cani, ‘a crowd of over 5000 people formedcrowdpeasants from over 5000people ‘a by the of cani, ú cariu, Emil Ha Emilcariu,

, 1 (2000): 21– 2. Ġ iegan, I.Lupa ú cariu andcariu I.Vere ú , D. Manu. After a serviceAfterD. Manu. a , Ġ a – Marin oath”, whicha – was 139 In Transylvania, the ú (the president 138 Totalitarian InBac 137 took ă u,

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w g a e r e .c o m 142 141 1937). 140 Mo 193 fact that Ion MoIon fact that which IonMo to theenemies, andtheir souls made theirway totheHeavens”. stated that“treasuringsupreme their sacrifice,not Goddid leavethem prisoners praised thefight ofMo RomanianPatriarch,the BishopColan of MironCristea. officialline the with references about thedeeds ofthetwo leaders, anattitude that was indissonance containedspeechesencomiasticdeliveredthathierarchs two the that fact both representedvery highmore was level. ata revealingwas What even the RomanianOrthodox Church andtheRomanianUniate (Greek-Catholic) Church, clergy. There was astrange, even surrealmoment beliefs ofunity in between the the two fallenlegionaries. religious service,while Vicar Liviu Stan gave a speechhighlighting the deeds of the conductedpriests 32 Transylvanianlocation, important another Sibiu, Orthodox priest,wasfigurerespected publiccommunity. amonglocal a theIn Railway Station in Bucharest at11.50. Pite townof the significantstop in Ibid., p. 9. Ibid., p. ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 4 / 1937, p. 177.

Universul Ġ a). 140 After Cluj,thetrain alsostopped inOr After crossing Olteniaand Wallachia in themorningof 11Februarywith a The stop in Cluj witnessed a verywitnesseda stop impressivein Cluj presenceThe among the , LIV, No.42(February 12, 1937); Ġ a wasa born.Here,thepublicshow support wasof bythe amplified Ġ a was considered a son of the town, and his father, andfather, his town,and son ofthe a wasconsidered a Ġ a andMarinagainst whathecalled ‘the red madness’ and 142

ú ti, the mortuary train arrived at theNorth arrivedat the mortuaryti,train ăú Curentul tie, a small Transylvaniantown in , X, No.3245 (February 13, 141

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w g a e r e .c o m towards Germany, 1936 –40 fromGuardcountries Germany.suchas SeeRebecca Haynes, authoritieswere genuinely concerned because of the potential support for theIron 144 Arhanghelului Mihail of ItalianFascists and German from Nazis manyBucharest, politicians, university from 16, 000 –German consular representative quoted by Armin Heinen, 143 staff ofthediplomatic missions ofItaly, Germany andNationalist Spain, railwaystationthe throughoutand also the the city,followingprocession. The thousands ofsympathizersstation. Tensof orbystanderswerealso present,at uniformswearingpublic the places)railwaytwo met coffins infrontof in the uniforms organization.dressedfuneral’sThousandsof legionaries in the of exclusively carethe legionariestook characteristicsthe mostLegion, important the of Being inconflict withthe authorities, andwantingto provethat order wasoneof V. 2. The Mo V. 194 This diplomaticpresence caused apolitical scandal in theParliament, while the Estimates vary concerningthe exact number oflegionaries inuniform present, Here, the finaland mostHere, the impressivetookstage oftheprocession place. 143 ܊ (with the tacit approval of the authorities, who lifted the ban of authorities,the ban liftedwho approvalof the the tacit(with a-Marin funeral procession on the North Railway Station platform in Bucharest. Bucharest. in platform Station Railway North onthe procession funeral a-Marin , p. 294 to 50, 000 - Horia Sima, Sima, - Horia 000 to 50, , p.294

(London: Macmillan, 2000), 31–3. Istoria Mi úFă rii Legionare Romanian PolicyRomanian 144

Legiunea groups , 175. , 175.

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w g a e r e .c o m country itinerary. distributed in most of the locations where the mortuary train stopped during its cross- 145 Mo took place. Infront ofthetwo coffins, theordered legionaries performed ‘TheIon from the studentmovement took also part in the ceremony. professors, students, officers, and former comradesthe deceased of legionaries 195 in Bucharest. higher goalof resurrectingthe decaying Romanian nation. meantsolidifyto thelegionary desireforself-sacrifice inordertoachieve the V.3

. Ġ Curentul, a and Vasile Marinconceived Oath’, Vasile which byCodreanuhimselfwasand and a Thousands of Legionaries perform the Mo the perform Legionaries of Thousands After ashort religious service, one of the most important parts of the ritual All thelegionaries present collectivelypronounced theoath:

X,3245 (February No. 13, 1937). Thethetextwas of oath also Mo People, tobe ready for death at anytime! mytheresurrectionof for and, from humanlylove myself the Legion,to tear fromme happiness, theearthly torender I swear beforeGod,your holy sacrifice, forChrist and Ġ a andMarin,

Ġ a-Marin Oath in front of the North Railway Station Station Railway North of the infront Oath a-Marin 145

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w g a e r e .c o m Studen 146 wide gateofuniversal history”. as apeople,ourmissionaries torndownpadlocks that keptlocked the forusthe towards God,onSpanish soil, thehomeland oftheemperor thatgave birth to us faceVasilewiththeir and legionaryleader that “byfalling Christescuargued 147 Botsford, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996), 78. dressed in green and decorated withthe national flag andpulled by legionaries. formedownwiththeir bodies.They across weremortuary followed bythe cart, legionary squadthat a withprocession wascontinued priests followed. The the garlandsofflowers sentbyHitler,Mussolini, and Franco.A large group of leaders, followedthe students’representativesflags, by withand thenby their processionwas bythelegionaries lead who carriedthecrosses ofthetwo dead the “Sfântul IlieGorgani” Churchwhere theywouldbe kept until theburial. The madeMarin history by dying, and theoathurged them to followtheirexample. legionary intellectualsfrom Mothe deathsof past andtoactuallybecome makerhistory. a of This wasmessage the takenby escape time, tobypasstheRomanian inferiority complex regardingthe historical wayto the a legionaryfind intellectuals doctrinairesobsessions of wasto and power fighting against timeof a longing and for immortality”. fallen” andthis “attitudetowards death”constituted “manifestations willfora of 196 Emilio Gentile,Emilio Vasile Christescu, “Jertfalui IonMo After theoath, a procession was formed ordertotake in the two bodiesto As Emilio Gentileargued inthecase ofItalian fascism, “cult forthe this Ġ esc , 12, 1 –4(January – February 1937): 45. The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy

147 Thus, according to thelegionaries,Thus, according Mo Ġ a ú i Vasile Marinîn lumina istoriei”, Ġ a and Marin.In thisvein,a and historian 146 , Trans. by Keith by Trans. , Also, one of theAlso, oneof Cuvântul Ġ a and and a

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w g a e r e .c o m procession procession 1937). Mo the during bodies their with cross a forming uniforms, in Legionaries 4: V.

leaders followed bythe impressive crowd. 148 5: TheMo V. Behind thethe familiescart therewereBehind ofMo 197

Universul

Ġ a-Marin mortuary cart during the procession on the streets of Bucharest ofBucharest streets on the procession the cart during mortuary a-Marin , LIV, No.43(February 13, 1937);

148

Curentul Ġ a and Marin, and the legionary Marin, and and a , X, No.3245 (February 13,

Ġ a-Marin funeral funeral a-Marin

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w g a e r e .c o m 1937). 151 150 149 400 priests). exceptionof the increased numberpriests (sourcesmention of between 200and processionnotablewithofthe bodiesthearrivalone from resembled the the orderin toprovide the resting-place forthe bodies of Mo multiplication ofMo time. membersany wascontainno more10 000 todieat supposedto willing than leadership oftheLegion evenaftertheir death. legionaries. Bybeing buried nearthe headquarters, theycould participate in the future inspiration for an to serve as movement,the order headquartersof in shouldthedecided thatthetwoleadersburiedbenear the “GreenHouse”, forwhatdie heperceived astherebirth ofthe country. took theinitiativeof forming“The Mo continuationritual,two Asa the initiationCodreanu of respects tothe bodies. In thenext day,on February 12,many citizens cameto tothechurch paytheir 198

Horia Sima, Sima, Horia Curentul Curentul, 149 The burial ofthe two bodies took place onFebruary 13, 1937. Codreanu Codreanu used thisstepfurther,momentumCodreanu used makea thatis,the to , X, No.3247, February 15, 1937. 151 X,(February No.3248 16, 1937); Istoria Mi

Ġ a andMarinto 10,000, the “newmen” oftomorrow, readyto úFă rii Legionare,

Ġ a and Marin Order”,anelitegroup whicha and 177. Universul 150 A small mausoleum Asmall was built , LIV, No.45(February 15, Ġ a andMarin.The funeral

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w g a e r e .c o m According toEmilio Gentile, theroll callbecame ‘thesupremeof fascism’ rite asit Anita Garibaldi, thus ‘highlighting its own presence as a as ‘highlightingGaribaldi,thus Anita itsown presence Claudio Fogu pointed out, the ‘fascist mass subject’ answered ‘ the centralpoint atthe1932 Garibaldian Celebrations inItaly,when, ashistorian answered “Present!” Mo for teamthe legionary and called thenamesof diplomaticSoutzo,Prat y thetop representative of Franco’sRomania, Spain in Cantacuzinotalked tothe crowd. Theclimaxceremony ofthe call: was theroll combat uniforms. Infrontof the mausoleum from the ‘GreenHouse’, Alexandru They were atthecentreof processionand they were dressedinthe Spanish Celebrations” 152 Mo the during ofpriests group A V.6:

199 ClaudioFogu,“Fascism andHistoricRepresentation: GaribaldianThe1932 The roll call was movements common ItwasThe rollcall well. fascist also toother as At thispoint,thefive surviving legionarieswere an important playing role. Journal ofContemporary History

Ġ a-Marin funeral procession funeral a-Marin 31(1996): 335.

Ġ a and Marineverybodyand a maker ofhistory’. Presente! ’ for for ’ 152

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w g a e r e .c o m I, 3 (February 24, 1937). 157 Vestire Buna 156 Universul 155 Vestire Buna 154 153 Mo and Garibaldi. Byron, ManoilescuIon Mo compared comparisons tended togetfurther away from reality. Christianityforexaggerationsand Latinity.The fighters andbecame obvious emphasizing thebraveryoftwo legionaries, portrayingmartyrs them and as particular.ultra-nationalistkepton legionariesthepress The in and general Clergy the faith’. ‘gave life tothesacred bondbetween thedead andtheliving, joinedtogether in 200 expiated”, considered the death ofthetwo as“thesacrifice through which anentire people by Drago Dan Botta, “Jertfa care ne-a mântuit” (The Sacrifice that Saved Us), Drago N. Batzaria,N. ‘”Pentrucre MihailManoilescu, “De la LordByron laIon Mo Gentile Ġ a andMarinwhereconsidered the “two Romaniancontemporaries ofJesus”, 154 Thus, well-known economist and theoretician of corporatism,Mihail of theoretician and economistwell-known Thus, entireThe ceremonya powerfulimpactopinion had amongpublic the in The Public ImpactoftheMo ú while othersdid while notshyaway him from placing La Fayette inline with , LIV, No.23 (January 24, 1937). 153 ú Protopopescu, “Contemporanii lui Isus…” (The Contemporaries of Jesus), 157 The Sacralization of Politics inFascist Italy Protopopescu.

thuselevating them to theposition of Saviours. , I, 1 (February 22, 1937). , I, 3 (February 24, 1937). 24,1937). , I,3(February 155 The highest The pointof thiscomparative game was reachedwhen 156

Taking things to another extreme,thingsanother Dan Botta to Taking poet ú tinism Ġ a, the preferred martyr from the two, to Lordpreferredmartyrfrom the thetwo,to a, Ġ a-Marin Funeral and theRoleofOrthodox ú i latinitate”’i Christianity(For Latinity), and Ġ a” (From Lord Byron toIon Mo , 27. , 27. Buna Vestire Ġ a), ,

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w g a e r e .c o m Dosar 4 / 1937, p. 15. 15. p. / 1937, 4 Dosar 159 Vremii 158 relationshipthe most betweenRomania’smovement,the fascist important i.e. Orthodox priests across the country. amongGuardIron the popularityenjoyedgenuine by momentthe showed politicizedPatriarchreligious MironCristea. Thisespeciallyby thatimposed Orthodox clergywhichwentOrthodox of againsttheofficial hierarchy, the line the andGuard Iron closeconnection exemplifiedthe Church, betweenthe especially because ofthe unprecedented sense ofdiscipline. Mo of funeralspirituality.The no with city,dirtyorientalised, nationalistsBucharestas an Bucharest. The perceived 201 Fatherland’ party, and apartof them took also the oath”. the for ‘All the membersof werenot that even those impresseddeeply mysticismsense of coloursgenerated that a the audienceRomanian within / coffinswithof the draped front placemoments in everything taking those / stations, thepomp displayed whilethe legionaries took the oath, intensity of create thateffect: “The religious ceremonies that tookplace themain in railway withelementslegionary ritualscontributed(suchthe of as oath) immenselyto thepublic opinion,had in highlighting thefact that thereligious rituals, combined Report signed by General Pârâianu -ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, N.Crevedia, “‘Bucure , VI, No. 659(February 17, 1937). The Mo the in ranksdifferent clergy, withoverwhelmingthe of presence The The funeral was considered by some as a useful event for the city of Police reports alsotestify abouttheprofound impactwholeevent thatthe Ġ a and Marin funeralwasmomenta and averysalient of forthehistory ú tiul, pebarricade” (Bucharest, onbarricades), in

Ġ a and Marin “spiritualized” the city, Marin “spiritualized”the and a 159

158

Porunca

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w g a e r e .c o m Verdery),their“concreteness”(Katherine Their nation). the of resurrection (i.e. theperceivedstruggle between Christianity andatheism as apreludeto the importance ofbeingthebearersselfless supreme foraspiritual sacrifice cause Maringeneratedand such intenseemotions becausetheywereattributed the signaled the increasingpopularity ofthemovement. numbersalsogreat the ceremoniesjoinedin Bucharestthat of population showed that they have identified with the persons of Mothethey haveidentified personsof showed with that railwaythe country variousacross bodies in stations deadtwo the greeted aestheticandritualistic devices employedby the legion. hugecrowds The that 160 the price of selfsacrifice, astheMo politics” thatadvocatedthe needfora“newman”“new and a country”, evenwith theirof “sacralised showcasing ofversion the masses”, the “fascistization of i.e. revealed,archivesfrompolicealsofor a reports the as moment, pushing, IronGuardsamethe itselftime, profited from religiouspresenceforthisthe statecontentthethe situation.account thatatall authorities with In werenot takes into significantmore whenone the support all is of display clericalThis representatives (inCluj openlypraisedor Sibiu) thetwoas “heroes”. legionaries mostimportanttheir someof throughservicebut, religious a conducting not only werecountrythepresentpriests throughout Guard. The Iron the the public opinion, theChurch comes animpressive outin display ofsupport for when,the emotional using stateproduced bythe deathofMo Iron Guard, and the clergy of the RomanianOrthodox Church. It was themoment 202 Ibid., p. 27. 27. Ibid., p. The “bystanders,”The thepublicopinion, werealso deeply impressed bythe

Ġ a-Marin episodeshowed. 160 The dead bodies of Mo deadbodiesof The Ġ Ġ a andMarinamong a and Marin.The and a Ġ a

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162 161 Mo of the occasion possible thechance to true learn leadershipskills. toas manyprevent abusesbylocaltoas offer and also legionaries leaders, leading positionsprinciple withinsetthe party,aup,heargued,inorderto Codreanu’s organization. successof the explaining crucialinsights for mayprovide 1937 throughout trajectorytheLegion. of Ananalysisthe of activitythe Legionary of Movement ascending the certify would 1937 from December electionsParliamentary had itsorigins intheperiod immediately after theburialMo of 000 members, bytheendofyear thenumber grew to 272000. realized thegrowingappeal of theLegion. IfinJanuary1937 theLegion had96 V. 2.Fighting Against theState:the Legion’s QuestforElectoral Success in Legion, only added to the fascination. throughoutpresence thecountryandpublicdisplay,carefullystagedthe by 203 Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, Armin Heinen, After the show of strength proven by Codreanu’s movementCodreanu’sthe withby strength proven show of the After Codreanu beganthe1937 politicalyearby announcing of thechangeall On theOffensive: “TheLegion Conquers theCountry” After FebruaryAfter1937,opinion, as theofficial thepublic aswell authorities 1937

Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail Ġ a-Marin funeral, state authorities started to changestatea-Marin funeral, their to authoritiesstarted

Circul ă ri ú i manifeste , 366. , 366. , 114–5. 162

Ġ a andMarin.The 161 This growth This

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w g a e r e .c o m 165 resort to a menacing againstthestate.Thus, he openlystatedthathis movementneverwill Codreanu specificallyto preventanyactionsthatwouldbe interpretedtried as organizationby adirectconfrontation couldbedeeplyhurt withthe government, 164 163 legionaries will belaunched inthe following months. provocationstheagainstCodreanusaid,why, is staged. That was event funeral,the authorities were surprised bytheorderly manner whichwhole in the collaborators. closest his and Codreanu against irreversibly and firmly act to mission Bucharest Police) were placed key in positions within thegovernment, havingthe well-known adversariesof the Legion, such as GabrielMarinescu (former chiefof legionaries, theirpositioned changed. theapprovalofKingCarol,several With discretely encouraging it,afterseeingthe potential mass-appealgarnered bythe developmentsomebeen lenienttowardsmovement,the cases, the in of and to theeventtheyhave threepolicy regardingfor the yearsprior theLegion.If 204 were conductinganother typeof politics, based oninnertransformations andthe Ibid. Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, Armin Heinen, Aware ofthissituation, Codreanu toldhis followers thatafter the Mo Indeed, the tacticadopted bytheLegion would emphasizethe ideathatthey coup d’état without anyplot and come,alsowill victory end, an cometo will and it Romanians of majority the include willprocess this accomplished. When be will nation Romanian the of consciousness of process LegionaryThe Movementachievecan only victory whenan inner 163

Legiunea Arhanghelului Mihail oraplot orderin toachieve victory:

Circul ă coup d’état ri ú i manifeste . 165 , 299. , 299. , 123–4.

164 Knowing that his that Knowing Ġ a-Marin

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w g a e r e .c o m No. 476 (February 21, 1937). 166 sacralised,Bucharest,the and the Church” in project nationalistthe Legion of legionary sympathizer, attempted toreconcile, inaconference heldat “St.Anton and Marin.Commenting on theMo proposedwho bytheLegion their vision,provenbythe was, in deathsofMo thespell revolutionaryof thewritten regenerativeunder are projectarticles andpoliticalmoment. historical most pro-legionaryEliade’s engaging, of Some intellectuals, reached the peakofhisattachment forthe IronGuard inthis precise Mircea Eliade,now young theundisputeda reality. leaderthis generationof of generation of intellectualsthe and Legion, which began intheearly 1930s, was youngflirtbetween the everybody.for obviousThe became quite this and popular unrest. authorities withoutto efficiently fortheactagainstwas causing difficult it, very showcased insuch a powerful way withthe occasion of the Mo projectthisnation. Once was the decayingof regeneratethe body desire to 205 of themost salienttraitsof the Legionary project, succumbing toitsappeal: Mircea Eliade, “Comentarii lajur un More andmore individuals andsocial groups were drawnmovement, bythe Earlier that same year, philosopher Nae Ionescu, Eliade’s mentorIonescu,and Nae Eliade’s philosophersame year, that Earlier exist… spiritualwouldindeed which life man for man,a a new about notaboutgettingThis is powerany but, the at aboveall,cost – proves howfartheLegion from is an ordinary‘nationalrevolution’. This oath,whichso clearly expresses thethought ofMr.Codreanu … triumph ofChristianity Europe.in successmystically profound–thatits the would meanonce again so CodreanurevolutiontheMr. is desired meaning by of The 166

Ġ a-Marin oath, Eliade basically outlined some ă mânt” (Comments toanOath), Ġ a-Marin funeral, it

Vremea , X, Ġ a

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w g a e r e .c o m 168 – 6. 4 pp. 10/1937, Dosar Mo among believers. position among Orthodoxclergy, who, inturn, providedlegitimacyLegion forthe movementLegionary politics,an influentialgaining andretaining helpedthe in Fascist Italy. NaziGermanypoliticalsceneconductedEuropeanand offensiveon the by politicians who wanted to ride the wave offascist politics, also encouraged by the “both containing peoplefrom the same of ideals community andlove.” liferealitytheretotal like resemblance itself; isa between nationalism and faith, representsa nationalismnations.while In theOrthodoxcase, faith belongsto universalizedabstract,argued,nationalism,becauseand religionIonescu is and accommodatereligion cannot Catholics thing. same the and one represented life itself.IntheRomaniancase, nationalism faithand represented 167 Orthodox Church. outsideLegion’s politicsthe factdevelopingthat placed a new wasin faith it 200attended by legionaries,and attempted answerthe accusationthat to traditional Orthodox faith. Theconference, entitled “OurNationalOrthodoxy”, was 206 Ibid. Report regarding legionary activities –ANIC,Fond Direc Ġ a-Marin funeral, the Legion became an appealing movement for manymovement for appealing became an Legionthe funeral, a-Marin Due theunprecedented politicalmomentum thegained in aftermath ofthe typeof discourse,carefullyThis employed by intellectualssympathetic to According to Nae Ionescu, for the young generation the nation the generation young the for Ionescu, Nae to According 167

Ġ ia General 168 ă a Poli a

Ġ iei,

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w g a e r e .c o m 170 politics. withits sympathized but supporters and sponsors of the Legion whowere not official members of movement Legionaries’ association grouped, under quasi-anonymous circumstances, important front of400students, praising theLegion asa future stateparty: RomanianSynthesisCorporations”“Theentitledof talk gave Manoilescua in conferenceorganizedBucharest,Legion. Thus,ata Student Center bythe in MihaiManoilescu alsoheldconferencesthat politicalprojectpraised the ofthe Vl 169 Polihroniade,Drago Mihail as suchintellectuals the electoralbattle of1937,byhaving onitsstaff openly legionaryjournalists and becomemostmediaimportantoutletfor Codreanu’s the movement throughout 1937. publication of the of publication Manoilescuprovidedthe decisivesupportintellectualforfinancialMihaiand Codreanu, was the‘Friends ofthe Legionaries’ association. them,said suitablefor place only movement. The the integratereally in Thus, theywill onlyformally acquire the legionary status, but will notbeable to requiredbecomingtime.a true legionary, for takeslong periodof over a place accepted within themovement. that Heargued of thekind inner transformation politicians, even ifthey now swearallegiance tothe legionary creed, willnot be 207 ă ANIC, FondDirectia General Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, ZeleaCorneliu descu. In continuation ofhisnew attitude towardsLegionary the Movement, 170 Some politicalfigures public important became Legion. supporters ofthe these that followers his warnedCodreanu trend, thiswith Faced This newspaper, althoughnot officially belonging to theLegion, would of the one and only party, that we call the legionary party. party, thatwecall only one and of the in aspecifically Romanian corporatist system, underthecare Our student body and theother social classes areorganized Buna Vestire

ă Circul aPoli daily newspaper, starting on February 22, February on startingnewspaper, daily ă ri Ġ iei, Dosar 10/1937, pp. 21–2. ú i manifeste , 130–1. The ‘Friends of the ‘Friendsof The130–1. , ú Protopopescu or Toma or Protopopescu 169

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w g a e r e .c o m 173 172 171 power,just tohavea safety net. their own, butrather financed most of theparties with afairchance ofacquiring stated, representatives of big industry did nottransform the Legion into atool of becomemember a oftheLegionarySenate. However, ashistorian ArminHeinen Legionaries’ association wasas alegionary andonNovemberwould enrolled 8 the ‘Friendsmember of the Romaniaandof of United Banks of president 208 recommendingthem to otherpersons for gaining various favours.’ or factories his them in money,employing footwear, with them ‘helping moment)that developed strongconnectionsLegion,at members the with of being regarded asrealcontenders for political power. Legion managed toget some supportfrom such persons only when theystarted note, dated May15,1937describedthat well known bankerGrigoreT. Coand Mociorni means. notedatedAprilA police that 22,1937stated bigindustrialist Dumitru politicsfinancialproper andlackedfringe of the fouryears agowas on only them supporterseven became silent ofhis, anew forthemovement,reality who and thebankingsector started paying more attentiontoCodreanu andsome of potentialAwarepowerof the of themovement, representatives ofbigindustry Armin Heinen, ANIC, FondDirectia General Ibid. p.103. But the Legion did not attract onlyyoungnot attract and intellectuals the Legiondid politicians.But Ġă , although amemberNational Liberal ofthe Party (theparty inpower Legiunea Arhanghelu Mihail accomplished bythis partythat we calllegionary. be onlywill the countryandit Corporatismfuture istheof

ă aPoli 173 This argument might well explain why the whyexplainmightwell argumentthe This Ġ iei, Dosar 264/ 1937, p. 280. , p. 325. 325. , p. 171 172

Another ă ,

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w g a e r e .c o m 1937). 175 174 players that were ofHungarian origin, Popescu claimed thatthis event: Romanians andforRomanians.’ Romanianconsolidationa “nationalsport”withvirtues, thus of true arguing for focused on the issue of sports and how this field can and shouldcontribute to the culture, among others. Legiontargetedthe“new country”, otherimportant such assportsor fields, and regenerate thedecaying nation,through thecreation man” ofa“new a and only inthe realm of politics. Posingas a movement thatwouldradically transform to brandyear 1937 asthe year inwhich ‘theLegion conquers the country’. undeniable growingpopularity the of movement later made someleaders ofthe 1937,success and marked in the characteristic ofthe legionary offensive. The 209 considered Romanian, against RipensiaTimi routinevictory obtainedVenusBucharest,a football in gameby a teamhe minorities was aneloquent exampleof Romanian supremacy. Commentingon a also included teamsRomanianteamsthat against as perceived he what Virgil Popescu,“Sport na Hora Sima, Sima, Hora Writing fornewlyWritingfounded the take placedidtheThe legionary offensiveelectoral not year of1937 in The Legion andtheElectoral Battle towardselectoralkey provedLegion the of the cross-class appeal This Istoria Mi superiorityempty notjustwordspread at ofourraceis an …managed toconvince even the last ofthe doubtfulthat the úFă rii Legionare

Ġ ional” (National Sport) 175 Furthermore, in his view, every success to success view,every his in Furthermore, Buna Vestire , p. 168. , p.168. ú oara, a teammanyincluded thatoara, a

Buna Vestire Buna daily, journalist Virgil Popescu journalist Virgil daily, , I,(February 1 22, 174

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w g a e r e .c o m române 177 1937). 176 the old, arguing for the emergence of anew spirituality: that will servedthe state. Hecontrasts the youthful legionary writing tothose of intellectual, legionary youthautochthonousunitarycreate managed a to culture called ‘the legionary phenomenon’ also reached thefield ofculture andthat the 210 the foundersthe oftheCern of theLegionwill deeply transform fieldasthis well. MirceaStreinul,Writer oneof genuine, revolutionary waywriting of emerged andthatthe regenerative project organised and also throughthe military-styleeducation that perpetrated.it the Legion onsports and physicaleducation, especially the workin camps thatit MirceaStreinul, piatr legionar“Scrisul– Thechronicle of thegamewas published in In the realmIn the ofculture,legionary intellectuals wereconvinced that also a This discursiveattitude complemented practicalthe emphasis placed by ú ti”, Cuvântul Arge that iscreated thespiritualityin the of country. communitya singlebeto grasp in that will able everything abolishesintellectualcountry, categoriesby totalizingthem and ravishing incontent, addressed to allthe readers ofthe the future. the tendency for Romanian imperialism that wouldbelong to ancientthe devoutness, the impetuosityof thepresentand been created, aspirituality thatmeetsbanner underasingle the legionaries.You’ll see that anewspirituality hasalready through this reality, their ultimate defeat. reason tobehappy.Evennot theyadmit,say iftheydo it no foreignersto have sell-outs whoare own blood our of know us –reality. that ourenemieshappy –for or those We falsethe crossroads by prophets, butareality,great and a ú ăXĠ ului

Legionary writing, simple and majesticLegionary writing,form,simpleand in true Take everything that that hasbeen written byandfor i basedcultural journal , II, No. 33, May 1, 1937. 1, 1937. May 33, , II,No. ă de început în înviereacultureiînceputîn de Buna Vestire Iconar , argued that whatheargued that , 176 , I, 3 (February 24, I,3 ,

177

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charisma, article’s introductory remarks: appearanceintense impressiondetectable leftan toRavage,whichis from his in Bucharestin andpublishedthe outcome in known Mark figure. E.Ravage was onesuchjournalist.Heinterviewed Codreanu came toRomania inordermake interviews with Codreanu,who became awell- country intheEuropean plans ofGerman fascists. movement subsidiary a“Hitler inRomania”and underlinedthe importance ofthe 1937 articles that referred totheincreasing powerGuard, oftheIron branding the Iordachi, 180 179 178 Important Soviet newspapers such as such newspapersSoviet Important coverageCodreanu’smovement inthe a steadyincrease of media. byforeign restless groupstaking part thein 1937 electoral battle. youngstudents and intellectuals,most and whothe form active would one of 211 For more on charisma,on For more Codreanu,the and Constantinsee Legion,please ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 1/1937, p. 77. ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 1/1937, pp. 16 –17; 28 –31. One may analyze Ravage’s remarks taking into consideration Codreanu’s The growing power oftheLegionwas alsonoticed abroad,andthere was The beliefs expounded by Streinul werealso sharedby the vast majority of Charisma,Politics Violence: and the Legionthe Archangel of Michael in 180 an asset recognized even by hisdialogue enemies. fiercest The even by asset recognized an exceptional talent. justthug? Ifhe is anactor,thanhe a dramais an artistwith an adventurer, an illuminate,a Is he peacefulgaze! such a old, heassassinated Manciu,the prefect of Ia kindness, hisgaze,voicein andgesture. especially when oneknows hispast,is his extreme apparent Everyone knows1924, when thatin was he 24years strikesWhat you andpuzzles youatthis‘condottiere’,

179

Pravda Ce Soir Ce and on May 5, 1937.Codreanu’s onMay 178 Izvestia Other foreign journalistsforeign Other published in April in published ú i. And stilli. has

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w g a e r e .c o m -139. Police Inspectorate -ANIC, Fond Direc generation within theranks ofthe Legionary movement: reports, andwas,part, explained in bytheoverwhelmingpresence oftheyoung policesecret the by sources wasacknowledgedother amongsituation This direct competitorson theextremeespecially theright, National-Christian Party. theensued in1937.TheLegion had politicalmomentum comparison with in its 182 181 2004. Societies, Interwar Romania legionary of censorship theirintensified they approaching,were elections Communists, evenwhen theyarenot openly members party.” ofthis alliesof are andJewsCommunists Communism Spain. Russia isJews.All are communism”to definecommunismthen wenton and goingonin as “whatis ofissue foreignpolicy, Codreanusummed credo intwoup his words“against makingit hardfor them to docommerce, andnotthrough violent means. Onthe by suggestedcontextual,moderation,thisprobablyunusual,doing withhe words, asheusually preferred, that “the Jewish swamp hastobedried out” and, several important issue. Askedabout hisanti-Semitism, Codreanureplied infew betweenthe twoisrevealingwhat Codreanu’s in politicalstandpoints wereon 212 Confidential report regarding population morale written by the Cern ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 1/1937, p. 79 -82. All these issues also played a pivotal role in the electoral strugglethesepivotalthe electoralrolethat issuesalsoplayeda in All State authorities closelymonitored theactivityLegion,and, ofthe asthe , Trondheim: TrondheimEast EuropeanStudies on Cultures & youth, recruiting onlyamong peopleofelder age. intellectualdisinterestedpropagandaby the givenimpetus spectacular; because ofthis,the National-Christians the lack more is whichone, the legionary thangeneration young the among less echoesNational-Christian ideology The Ġ ia General ă aPoli Ġ iei, Dosar 10/1937, pp.135 181 ăXĠ 182

i Regional

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w g a e r e .c o m personallyCodreanu restaurants. as legionary popularity,such Legion’s the educatinga “newman” to was translated other projects setupinorderto boost 184 issued issued by the authorities. only two “restcamps”were established,which complied with thenew regulations Codreanu announcedwork thatbe organized no campswere to thatyear and mostof the efficientpropagandaa circular tools. letterdated In June13,1937, years. Thismove turnedouttobehugeblow themovement,to depriving itofone legionarieswork toorganizewaycould inprevious their camps same they the the for impossible made that legislationpassed authorities state youth, the state. volumefirst work ofhis onlyayear before, in 1936,byavoiding thecensorship of radicalattitude, changeof given thefactthat Codreanu managed topublishthe the verybeginningany propaganda move conceivedbytheLegion. Thiswas a volumehis of book proved thedetermination ofstate authorities to terminate fro censorship. reportedpublishhe wantedalso without to thatbeing thevolume subjected to since prime-ministeractivity The note Duca’s assassinationin December1933. 183 volume of his work his of volume statedMay30, 1937 thatCodreanupolice notedatedcompleted second the publicationsandalso to report started indetail Codreanu’s political moves. A 213 Horia Sima, Sima, Horia ANIC, FondDirec Codreanu’s obsession with achieving social harmony and creating and socialachievingcreating Codreanu’s obsession withharmonyand To show their determination to stop the Legion’sthe amongthe determination influence stop toshow their To 183 The factthatCodreanuThe neverpublish managed thesecondto Istoria Mi Ġ ia General Pentru legionari úFă 184 rii Legionare

ă aPoli Ġ iei, Dosar 264/1937, p. 224. , containing his account of the Legion’s the of account hiscontaining , ,185–6.

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w g a e r e .c o m 186 185 Inspectorate stated thatthe Legionary Movementelectoralits activity, began the their attempt to identify thenew members ofthemovement. unprecedentedDue tothis police growth, encounteredserious the difficulties in showcase thehigher goals ofthis rather mundane endeavour: beneficiariestherestaurantsmanifestoaddressedmeantthe of a throughto 214 members constantly is growing, nearly doubling incomparison to pastmonths.’ Movement Prahovawas in infullexpansion, and that‘the numbernests and of RegionalInspectoratePolice September on 1937 statedtheLegionary that 30, Prahovathe sent by popularitya note madeexample,this impossible. For in increase recent the movement,the within actor important every on eye various regions ofthe country. Ifuntil thenthe policemanaged close tokeepa in massreports,the Legion activityfor growing whodocumented and base a startingwiththe monthSeptember. factalso acknowledged is of This bypolice authorities.actionsHowever,intensityagainst thembysate their in increased campaigning,whole year preciselybypassmeasures to theeffects of the taken ANIC, FondDirec ANIC, FondDirec In the same time, a report sent by the Chi the by sent report a sametime, the In Although the elections took place in December,thespentplace Legion the elections in took Although the Ġ Ġ withfeeling a ofbrotherhood among thenation’s sons. good behaviour, elegance and warm legionary comradeship, this… in restaurant Iwould to like create atrueschool of him abrother,like like his working brother. regard downhim,but universityprofessoron willnot look The children. and families. Wives theirwith tables their at and socanwaggonersoranyotherworker.Theysit harmony.this restaurant In auniversity professor cancome, legionary social restaurantthe this within accomplish To ia General ia General

ă ă aPoli aPoli Ġ Ġ iei, Dosar 19/1937, p. 24. iei, Dosar 254/1937, p. 5. ú inau Regional PoliceRegional inau 185

186

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w g a e r e .c o m 188 187 tactics during elections.” the preventany “strong-arm toassureto free electionsorder government end in LiberalParty). The agreement was conceived as a mean toputpressure onthe Nationalthatfactionruling from the dissentedpartyBratianu’s(a liberalGh. twootherpoliticaland organizations:Maniu’s Iuliu National Peasant Party and Codreanuunprecedented“nonaggressionby the electoralsigned agreement” workers. the dynamiceffectby students,youngput forthcounted on intellectuals and teachers, 1painter,court 1legal intern,and9 workers. schoolSciences, Agronomical 2 in graduatespriests/theology students,2 5 the group formed bythelegionaries whowere leading the20 propaganda teams: to organizewomen’s isalsointeresting clubs.What composition thesocial is of new and find recruits. Furthermore, aladies committeewas puttogether inorder the countiescontacting priestsandschoolteachers inorderset to up newnests there were20propaganda teams acrosstheregion,and theymarched through a strongimpetusgive forpolitical activityin theregion.Accordingreport tothe The report alsotalked about theLegion’spropaganda teams, setup in orderto message acrosstheprovinceofBessarabia, violent using anti-Semitic overtones. a platform thepastas had servedearlierthe in for promoting Legion’spolitical editorshipjournalistthe This newspaper,of Romania).Sergiu Florescu, under signbeingfirst therepublication ofthenewspaper “RomaniaCre 215 Keith Hitchins, Hitchins, Keith ANIC, FondDirec An important politicalact thatleft itsmarkelectoralcampaign onthe was Rumania 1866-1947 Ġ ia General

188 ă It wasan electoral It not alliance,party andeach aPoli Ġ , 419. , 419. iei, Dosar 19/1937, pp. 25 –26. 187 Once again, the Onceagain, Legion ú tina” (Christian

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w g a e r e .c o m 191 Legionary Movement.” Berlin, and alliance that hewould setup“within 48hours from the Victoryof foreignsuch as and policy democracy, arguingforanallianceRome with and expected,Codreanu,Thus, expressed as different totally viewpoints issues on previouslyManiuaddressed.that Iuliu key issues several onparty’s position remarks, Codreanuembarkeda seriesofstatements on hisclarifying aimedat these of continuation a views.ideologicalAs separateown theirmaintain 190 minister offoreignaffairs, Nicolae Titulescu, amemberof Maniu’sparty, whom conducting acivilized electoralconfrontation” agreementvision, his in statingthataim its wasdefence offreedom “the and politicalstatementmade 1937 explainedthe meaningNovemberof the on 30, needexplainthe agreementCodreanu feltthe to public moreonce. Ina than Romania”, “Reluctantallies? Iuliu Maniuand Corneliu ZeleaCodreanu against CarolII of 189 conundrum for historians for decades to come. differences. Thisagreement sparkedhugedebates atthat time, andwasa also potentialby a government intheelection intrusion process asbigger thantheir oppositeof those principles, andstill the two leadersconsidered the threat posed European democracies, France andGreat Britain. Codreanu advocated theexact Romanianto a faithfulforeign centeredpolicy theallianceonthemain with dictatorshipagainstwasandcommitted whodemocratargued wasa Maniu conducted itsownautonomoussupportingIuliu owncandidates. campaign, its 216 Ibid., 221. Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, One ofthemore recent contributionsthison topic isby Rebecca Haynes, Because everybody wondered how such opposites can comecan together, everybody wonderedBecausehow suchopposites Slavonic andEast European Review 191 Codreanu concluded with a vicious attack on formeron vicious attack a Codreanu concludedwith

Circul ă ri ú i manifeste , 85,1(2007): 105 –134. 190 189 , 220. , 220. while the signing partiessigning wouldthe while

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w g a e r e .c o m also werewho importantintellectuals by contributionsnumerous published to EnemyAttacks), 193 192 Marin funeral. Journals such as such Journals funeral. Marin regenerative message across,also byusingthestillfreshmemories oftheMo its get to managingintellectuals, young and students i.e. component, brawls with political opponents. one,previous from the legionaries managed1933, but still to getintoseveral that withhim, theLegion “canonly conclude an aggression pact.” Codreanu saidthat the Legionwould oppose “withthe utmost violence”, stating 217 party, replied promptly, reinforcing his anti-Semitic stance: defendedactually Jewish votes.Codreanu,similar fearingreactions own his in pact anti-Semitethe theextreme-right, him that travelers”on accused who “fellow from attacks fierce of subject the still was Codreanu However, Corneliu Zelea Codreanu Ibid., 223. However,Legion the usedthe all firepower itcouldget from dynamicits electoralthe end,thiscampaignIn provedbe lessviolent to thanthe Bra generation istosolve theJewish problem. our of mission historic The […] prisons. in up ended ended up,inpart,hospitalsand inpart, over tenthousand, terror,under ruthless and Judaicpowerthe of order the myof nationwhofouryearsago,duringthe last elections, at […] Iam asking forfree electionfor my people,for the youth Jew,I considered because themasenemiesof my nation. set footinJewish a house, we havenever talked to a single Jewishstore, although we havelivedinIa Ġ ul deFier

For 17 For 17 years,me andmy comradesset never foot a in , “Un nou r , III, 25 (December 1937). 1937). (December III, 25 , Rânduiala, Însemn ă spuns atacurilor du ă ri Sociologice ú mane” (ANew Answer 193 ú i, wenever have

192

or Iconar Ġ a-

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w g a e r e .c o m 196 195 etc. regenerative politicalproject ofthe Legion, which thematicallysurpassed theone Banat, Oltenia,Bukovinaprovedas and partsof Wallachia. This thatthe in 197 best results. letter senttoall legionary organizations, hecited inrespectthecounties withthe 1930s, became political thethird forceRomania in with15, 58% ofthe votes. the “electoralface” oftheLegion which fromaperipheralmovement the early in winnerwasjustreal considered 20,4%.The “All fortheFatherland” the Party, Maniu’s NationalPeasant Party, failed tocapitalize on thispoor showingscoring NationalLiberal Party gained only 35, 9% ofthe votes, and the other major party, majoritybonusthatwouldthe Parliament.assure the ruling a in obtain The the Romanian electoralsystem, apartyhad togain 40%ofthe vote inorder to history, thegoverningmajority.party couldnot obtain enoughvotestowina In accounts qualify them as “shocking.” Legion, including Mircea Eliade andIon G contributions from prominent intellectualsfigures andpublic thatsupported the “Why “Why do Ibelieve the triumphin ofthelegionary youth?” entireundercampaignof articlesthe headinga series durationofthe for the Drago 194 bearers ofthelegionary politicalmessage. 218 Keith Hitchins, Hitchins, Keith ANIC, FondMinisterul Internede –Diverse, Dosar 22/1934, p. 133. Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, Fromalong list ofnames, one can mention Ernest Bernea, Dumitru C.Amz ú Codreanu treated the results of the elections as a victory. In a circular a In victory. electionsa the results as the treated of Codreanu vote surprisedhistoriographicaltheeverybody, resultof andeven The Protopopescu, Haig Acterian, Traian Br 197 TheLegiongained important votes inBucharestand regions such Rumania 1866-1947

Circul ă ri ú 196 i manifeste , 419. , 419. For theFor firsttimeRomania’s interwarin ăYă 194 nescul. The daily The ă ileanu, Leon , p. 230. , p.230. Buna Vestire 195 This series featuredseries This ğ opa, Mircea Streinul published ă r,

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w g a e r e .c o m 200 132-5. zilnice. 1937-1951 National ChristianPartyalternative,an as KingCarol II of Romania, bringing Codreanu topowerwasthe question, outof hewasleft only with the since theliberals lost, the peasantist leader Ion Mihalache turned him down, and 199 198 another prison, together with theassassins ofDuca andStelescu. by thekilled guardsonNovember the same being 30 year while transferred to regime. ArrestedinApril allegedly 1938 planning for a monarch.the his Codreanumovement and new mainweretargets ofthe the a new regimeissued constitution thatcontained and supplementary powers for Carol1938,installed FebruaryKing authoritarianMarchforannounced in his votes. though theywerefourth the politicalforce after theelectionwith only9% ofthe ChristianParty of OctavianGogaandA.C. Cuzato form government, a even his olderdesire ofanauthoritarianregime. step, Asafirst henamed theNational shattered. Sensingthefascist dangerof a offensive, King Carol putintopractice goals.mobilizefor its could the Legion thatforcesthe allthan stronger wasas it envisaged byhim. In1938,theauthoritarian regime ofCarolIIproved Codreanu’s death also represented theend ofthe legionary regenerativeproject saidthat can be devastatedofwerefollowersturn events,andit by this also “to provinces with other problems andanothermentality.” of otherfarrightparties thatfocused obsessively onanti-Semitism,was adapted 219 Armin Heinen, The King explained the decision making process in hisdaily notes, arguing that Eugen Weber, “TheMen ofthe Archangel”, 117. 199 However, the seemingly good prospects of the Legion were soon were Legion the of prospectsgood seemingly the However, The governmentThe proved ineffectiveand, although new elections were Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail, (Daily Notes. 1937-1951) vol. I (Bucharest: Editura Scripta, 2001),

359. 359. coup d'état, 198

Codreanu was Însemn 200 His ă ri

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w g a e r e .c o m on thesocial andpolitical sceneof interwar Romania. Codreanu’s regenerativeproject ultimatelyfailed, but not without leaving markits 220

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that aimedgrasping at from it the inside out.Farfrom being just areactionary, whopeople wanted areplacement ofthemodern liberal project. founders asananswer tothepostwardidsatisfy crisis,of many andit theneed modernity,adaptingcontext. the them tolocal Fascism was projectedby its of failures and disadvantages the regarding discontent their expressed that ideologiesthe borrowedlater Europe Easternand Central process, the nineteenth century, when itattempted tofollow a styleWestern modernization camaraderie evenafter1918,perpetrating by “trench the mentality.”Just as in wartimetheirmaintain wantedto manywho to appealed as it “Great War” Western Europe, fascism found its wayonthe mainpolitical stage soon after the the feelingRooted of revoltin that developed aroundtheturnofcentury in contributedsituation.age, thisthetogreatly of ideologies amongthe Linz) horrors oftheSecond World Fascism, War. eventhougha “latecomer” (Juan twentiethcentury surfacedand amalign evolved in manner, culminating withthe years representedwentformanyperiodwrongthewith all that which the in emergencedevelopment context. and the Romanianinterwar offascism in The the andespeciallyinterwar period, of such asthe past timemakesense of a as PeterBurkeaptlystated. Thecurrent dissertationaimed finding away at to like atranslator, between pastand present represents the function ofahistorian, 221 Rewriting andrethinking history in everygenerationas a way tomediate, The dissertation outlined anapproach to the analysis of Romanianfascism CONCLUSIONS

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w g a e r e .c o m Legion variousin forms, coarse from a rather manner1933 toamore until refined of the newspapersthe positionand journalsreflected success.without The plans, aswell astheview of theauthorities and their measures tocontain oftenit, structureregarding the of themovement, communication internal its andaction information interesting provided topic, the on literature language English theLegionary materialregardingnot verypresentin Movement,the which is newspapers, journals andbookspublished inthe1920sand1930s. archivalThe to sources archival from ranging base, methodologicalaforementioned of thedevelopment ofRomanian fascism thein 1920sand 1930s. makemy researchmore completebyalsoinsisting onsocial andpolitical aspects soughtto have rituals.I However,symbols of and use their themselves,and consequence,how myresearch oftenfocusedonideology, the fascistssaw Emilioa RogerAs Gentile.Griffinand as StanleyPayne,such historians the 1960sandcontinueda multifacetedthe lasttwoin in in manner decades by of the“culturalist” approach infasciststudy, which wasinitiated byGeorge Mosse In pursuingthisresearchagenda, Ihaveplacedmy the proximity undertakingin attracted so many followers totheLegion, especially from the young generation. Romaniafascism in the in 1930sand toexplain whatelements werethe that dissertationTheorder.” understand attemptedto themass-appeal enjoyedby crisisstate of the anddecay by a “new meanscreating“new man” of and a its own.The fascistregenerativeof project proposedperceivedfrom an exita accidentalproduct ofhistory,fascism body distinct ofideas, withwas aproject a 222 A large body of primary sources has been analyzed starting frombeen analyzedstartingprimary thebody of sources has A large

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w g a e r e .c o m young generation. The 1922 studentgeneration.young becomeconstant 1922 generationthe The wasto Dimitrie Gusti being attacked because they were considered out of touch with the that accomplished the“GreatUnion,” with intellectuals such asNicolae Iorga and social conditions, theprotests soon turnedagainst thestate andthegeneration anti-Semiticstudent strikesan with agendashookthecountry. Fuelledby also waveof when1922the in frustrationfeelingsbrokeout Romania.” of Their makingof “Greaterthe pursued– as important by theirparents as that least century and couldnot fight thein war felt the need tofind apurpose of its own, at theof first decade in the thosewereborn whoof However,generation the same1914RomanianhistoryEurope.way generation”“the the didinWestern became theleaderofmost important fascist movement interwar in Romania. later him, whooutlininghelpedprofileof theperson education the had on militarytheinfluence together Firstthe that with World War, part in take theLegionaryrootspurpose ofoutlining of project. the Codreanu’s attemptto “prehistory” of the movement,the of “prehistory” the withdealtchapter first development.The its intellectual of implications and socialthe as such of interest, topicscertain on focus a with also but 1927 asthefoundingyear oftheLegion and1937being itsmost successful one, movement. the adherenceyoung intellectualsto the of and 1933with approachstarting 223 The “generationof thetrenches” notplay an important did partininterwar The thesisaspect,wasthe chronologicalhaving mindThe structured with in i.e. the period between 1916 and 1927 withperiod the between1916and1927

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w g a e r e .c o m direction of consolidating themovement’s own identity. ritualisticfoundation November oftheLegion in wasa stepinthe1927 also the new organization.on the Its insistencepresenting thestructureof while intentionto forge ownits politicalfuture, stepping outfrom the shadow ofCuza Legion’s the testified to it movement.articles in the The of beginnings the Legion’s journal legionaries.The solidarityamongthe of feeling the neverthelessenhanced movementof the years resources,first scarcity of the by the Marked traveler. followers stoodbyhis side,among Ion Mo them being pursued from the firstdaysof existence ofthe movement, when ahandful only of type ofman.” objective, This clearly stated later inhis work bringwould abouttheregenerationnation throughthecreation ofa a “new of doctrineparty, with andplatforms,offerof project, buttoanother kind that one Michael in1927withthe explicit goal ofnotfunctioning likeanordinary political Archangelthe Legionof the foundedCodreanuaction”, words,“freedom of traditionalpracticepoliticalownrather hisprofessed by the Cuza. in Wanting, becameconstrainedwith1925 he feel to bytheossified styleof leadershipand strikes. If thein beginning Codreanu was satisfiedwith his political status, starting 1922the extremeof nationalistthe anti-Semiticpursue and agenda would studentsenergy ofyoung wason the an organization who based sought that (George Mosse) andtochanneltowards it his own benefit. Codreanu’sreservoirfor politicalprojects,managedtamerevolt ashe to the 224 Codreanu’s activity inLANC,his political thepartyof mentorC. Cuza A. 3ă mântul Str ă mo о esc was averyimportantsource forassessing ܊ a, his mosta, his trustedfellow Pentru Legionari , was

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w g a e r e .c o m young generationyoung thatwouldfrom change thecountry ground,andbring the the refinement ofthe Legion’s regenerative project, arguing for a revolution of the Victor Vojen claimed) the political in project oftheIron Guard. Theycontributed to theirwouldfind belongingthat feeling of toandideal lacked(as Ioan until then transgressto Romania.enough theboundariesof these intellectualsSome of be meaningfulthat wouldlevel to make ata to make or culture order history canuse theopportunitiesgeneration, andhowthey of“GreaterRomania”in theirregarding“historicalmission”debates of the endless wereimmersedin regionalcafes thanwithparty politics.Still, theyoungintellectualsthe day of than thisgroup ofurban intellectualsmore usedtoBucharest’s universities, and Ia the Legionfrom 1920sdaysin the late adherence ofthe that could beaserious contender intheRomanian politicalarena. eventspoliticala publicimpact, with started movement theLegion toactlike a of organizers good wereStelescuwhoMihail as such activists political with networknationwidelocalappeal.expansion,of a in full newspapers and With decision tomove itsheadquarters to Bucharest andto become amovementwith development,its took anotherveryimportant stepin this,the Legion With Legion, the most notablebeing in1932 when managed it to enter theParliament. “electoralbattles”, asCodreanu calledthem,brought modest successesthe for severalformingstrongholdsand also of theLegionstartedtoemerge.first The 225 Perhaps the elementstrengthened that this perception themost was the Between 1927 and 1932andBetweenmovementelite thefuture 1927 ofthe wasslowly Axa groupofintellectualsmovement tothe Thecoreof in1933. ܈ i could not havebeenmorei could different

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w g a e r e .c o m swiftly and decided to punish Stelescu, whom heaccused ofplanning a rebellion these discontents,ascould bedetected fromarchivalsources, Codreanu acted Legion’s “first hour”the disadvantageby by surpriseof thefollowers. Caught World World War. spendingelse yearslong inpoliticalprisons, before, during, and after theSecond Iron Guard in thefollowing years,withsome them of meetingviolent deaths or and thejournalwas closed down. Most ofthem continued their allegiance tothe assassination ofPrime Minister Duca, manymembers ofthegroupwere arrested theafter when, otherleaders politicaland Codreanu with position same Their supportforIron the the Guard in 1933electoralcampaignput them the in movement.alignmenttheirconsequencessufferthe the withwould of group withthe growing influencethat the legionaries suchasIonMo Old skills. leadershipCodreanu’s also and Legion the of solidity the test difficulties.yearthe events The1934and following Duca’sassassinationwould the 1930s. By becomingmore andmore immersed in Iron Guard politics, the moreyoung other intellectuals tojoin Codreanu’s movement the second in halfof accompaniedCodreanu’s politics throughout 1933. discourse,and intellectuals’young the of parts important wereelements freedoms.individualsand their Anti-Semitic, anticommunistantidemocraticand with massesthan the withconcernedmore ethnocentric state, an about 226 The integration of the of integrationThe The Axa group and its IronGuard enrolmentwouldpave the way formany ܊ a and Mihail StelescuMihail expressed their dissatisfactiona and Axa group in the Iron Guard was not one withouttheIron Guardwasnotone in group Axa group had on Codreanu hadon in1933-1934, group to Axa

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w g a e r e .c o m the 1922generation, legionary students openlysupported the legionary program the most importantstudentassociations.By constantly claiming legitimacy from body. Inthemid-1930s theLegionary Movementalmostcontrolgained over full the authorities in1937was toprove once more theeffectiveness ofthesystem. hard, voluntary work oftheyoung generation. Thebanningof such endeavors by presentedmicro-projection them as of thefuture “new Romania”,with built the concretenessin the withthe helpof work camps, propagandalegionary asthe the bodiesthe minds and youth. ofthe Thelegionary regenerative project gained constructiveorganization thatemphasizednew work aimed a ethic ateducating a pose as to movementits imageand helped peasants. This the change to objectives, from buildings foruse ofthe the Legion tochurches, and houses for various for work voluntary do would that legionariesgrouped endeavors working range.These countrywide a with campsystem,workfledged fully the work campmodel, whichwas alsoemployed 1933, has in beenextended to a express the Legionfound itself, alternative ways ofshowcasingits activity. Thus, useconventionalto meansdisguise.Not beingable to blessing in a be to regenerativeprojectbanning becauseitsfollowingDuca’s assassination proved out itscriminalthreats. group oftenlegionaries in1936 proved tothe public opinionthatLegion didcarry into Codreanu’s most important opponentandferocious his assassination by a movement.the in organizationfrom Stelescu’s expulsiontransformedthe him 227 The most dynamic social componentThe mostLegion remained dynamicsocial the student ofthe Legion’s the majorfor importanceof were 1936 to 1934 years The

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w g a e r e .c o m an importantof the publicpart opinion regarding Spanishthe Civilas a War Marin, twothe members of the team of were killed in abattle nearMadrid. With Franco’s side hadanunexpected buttransforming outcome.Mo Ion of seven legionary leaders orderin totakepart intherecentlystarted civilwar on 1937 theLegion becamethan stronger ever. ThedepartureSpaingroup to ofa project. justtheirmale like counterparts, withthe purpose ofaiding the Legion’s political preparingthehow theywerefemale legionaries forbecomingpolitical fighters carefully reorganized underNicolescu’s guidance,archival and documents prove of legionarycommander.rank werethe Women’swomen nests who reached only Nicolescu,Nicoletaespecially the consolidated, the leadershipof under such asBucharest and Prahova Valley. organization. Thus,workers weretargeted with some successes notable inareas movementled Codreanutothedecisionto social expandthe outreachof his student the of fatigue overexposureand of degree certain movement.A discourses and open threats toauthorities and officials whoopposed Codreanu’s withrampantanti-Semitictheir liking, to agenda whoan students imposed legionary by hijacked completely wascongress 1936 the them,to interest meetingstudents from for country the withallover issuesof theaim of discussing Târgu Mure the through the student organizations. Theclimax ofthisdisplay ofattachment was 228 The period“silentThe of work”middle fromthe 1930s ofthe paidoff,andin themovementwomenmid-1930sthepresence wasthe in also of In ܈ student congress from April 1936. Designed as an annualan as 1936.Designed student congressfromApril ܊ a andVasile

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w g a e r e .c o m darkest chapters in twentieth-century Romanian history. togetherwith violent its recordandtragicthe outcomepart oftheone are for politicalactivism great part for a of theyoung generation. Itsultimate failure, regarded bymany as aviable, albeit radical solution, and also satisfied the need from a perceivedstate of decay bycreating a “new man”“new anda order” was Novemberthus 1938and bringing to an endhis fascist, regenerative project. repressed during KingCarol IIauthoritarianregime, Codreanujailed andkilled in obtainedgood resulttheelections,containedwill be andof the theLegion in rivalhad nopotential among far-right,ultra-nationalist parties.However, inspite third politicalforce inthecountry. Itbecameforeveryone clear thattheLegion the legionariesbecomingshockedvotes and 15%by wining ofthe everybody Nevertheless, intheelections thattook December place in the samethe year, to actagainst the Legion, andmeasures tocontain its influence havebeen taken. the Legion and sizable part ofthe Orthodox clergy. massive presence ofthepriests atthisevent solidified theconnection between cause.higherTheself-sacrifice of thelegionarieswill a to for of the proof Legion stagedamass funeral Bucharest praising in theeventas asupreme the cross-country route takentrain bythe that broughtbackthetwo bodies.The deaths ofthetwohad ahugeimpact.Thisimpact legionarieswas by amplified the newsof Christianity,the confrontationbetweencommunistatheismand 229 The Legionaryregenerativeproject allegedlysaving thecountry aimed at Faced with this impressive display ofpower,authorities the finally decided

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w g a e r e .c o m Calendarul Buna Vestire Bra Axa Newspapers and journals Scurtu, Ioanothers,and eds. Scurtu, Ioanand others, eds. Scurtu, Ioan and others,Scurtu, eds.and Ioan Scurtu, Ioan and others, eds. others, and Ioan Scurtu, Published documents: Bucharest, Romania. Arhivele Na Archives SOURCES: I. PRIMARY BIBLIOGRAPHY 230 - - - Ġ (TheAxis) (Bucure ul deFier Fond A. C. Cuza (personal) Fond Direc Fond Ministerul de Interne – Diverse (Bucharest: Institutul Na 1938 III, Bucharest, InstitutulNa – 1934 Na II, Bucharest, Institutul1931)vol. January 2, 1927– June 25, Romania iunie 1927– 2 ianuarie 1931 Manifestations, Evolution) manifest Ġ ional pentruional Studiul Totalitarismului, 2000. , (Ideology andRightwingFormations in Romania 1934-1938), vol.IV, (The Calendar) (Bucharest, 1932 - 1933) , (Ideology andRightwing Formations inRomania1931 -1934)vol. (The Annunciation) (The (Bucharest, 1937) Ġ ă (TheIron Arm) (Foc ionale Istorice Centrale ri, evolu Ġ ia General ú р ie. ti) (1932 –1933) (Rightwing Totalitarianism in Romania: Origins, Romania: in Totalitarianism (Rightwing Ġ ional pentru Studiul Totalitarismului, 2003. ă Ideologie Ideologie . Ideologie a Poli Bucharest: INST, 1996. Ġ ional pentru StudiulTotalitarismului, 2002. Totalitarismul de dreapta în România: Origini,România: în dreapta Totalitarismulde ú

ani, 1935 – 1937) Ġ iei , (Ideology and Rightwing Formations in FormationsRightwing and (Ideology , ú ú

i forma i forma (NationalCentral Historical Archives), ú i forma Ġ Ġ iuni de dreapta înRomânia 1934– iuni în Româniade dreapta 1931 Ġ iuni de dreapta în Româniaiuni în 25 dedreapta

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Vremea Vestitorii Universul Stânga Revista Mea Rânduiala Porunca Vremii 3ă Neamul Românesc Învierea Însemn Garda Jiului Garda Bucovinei Cuvântul Studen Cuvântul Arge Cuvântul Curentul 1936) Cruciada Românismului 231 Carol IIRomania). (Kingof 1990. &ă Contemporary Publications: mântul Str linescu, Armand. linescu, vol. I. Bucharest: Editura Scripta, 2001.

ă (The Left) (Bucharest, 1932 - 1933) (The Time) (Bucure (The Resurrection) (Bucharest, 1933) ri Sociologice (The Trend) (Bucharest, 1937) (The Heralds) (Bucharest, 1936) (The (Bucharest,Word) 1933;1940) (The Universe) (Bucharest, 1933 -1937) (The Order) (Bucharest, 1935 – 1937) (TheJiuGuard) (Craiova, 1932 – 1933) (MyMagazine) (Cluj, 1935– 1936) ă mo ú ului (The Commandment ofTime) (Bucharest,1937) (TheGuardofBucovina) (R Ġ esc ú esc (Word ofArges) (Pite (Romanian Nation) (Bucharest, 1937) (Student (Bucharest,Word) 1923–1924; 1935; 1937) Însemn (Sociological Notes)(Cern (Land ofOur Forefathers) (Ia (The Crusade of Romanianism) (Bucharest, 1935 – 1935 Romanianism)(Bucharest,of Crusade (The Însemn ú ă ti,1937) ri politice ri ă ri zilnice.1937-1951 (Political Notes). Bucharest: Humanitas, Bucharest: Notes). (Political ú ti, 1935 –1937)

ăGăXĠ

ăXĠ i, 1932–1933) ú i, 1935-1938) i, 1927–1929) (DailyNotes.1937-1951)

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w g a e r e .c o m ______. Cantacuzino, Alexandru. Borobaru, Traian. Borobaru, ______.

232

Istrate, Gh. Gh.

Herseni, Traian.Herseni, aec, Grigore. Gafencu, Dumitrescu-Bor *** Crainic,Nichifor. ______. ______. Corneliu Zelea Codreanu. Zelea Corneliu ______. Banea, Ion. Banea, “Dezordinile”

and the and Workers Bucharest: Humanitas, 1991. Inside. Legionary memoirs). Bucharest: Editura Lucman, 2002, 1936. Memoirs), vol. I.Bucharest: Casaeditorial Bucharest, 2000. Scara, 1999. manifestos 1927 - 1938).5 World andthe Communist 2 World). of Tomorrow. OurRomanianism). 3 Editura Mi

Sibiu: Editura Curierul, 1937. andwhat(What is wantsMovement theLegionary for villagers).Booklet – Maramure

Între lumea legionarlumeaÎntre Pentru LegionariPentru &ă &ă Ce este Cauzelemi ܈ rticica úFă pitanul ). Ia ܈ Fr

a, Ion. a,

Mi de laTârgu Mure ăĠ Zile albe – Zile negre. Memorii negre. Zile – albe Zile rii Legionare, 1977. Legiunea în imagini în Legiunea ú ܈ Însemn ia decruce i: 1930. carea Legionar ). ù (TheCaptain). Timi ú Bucharest, 1937. efului decuib i ce vreaMi Cal troian intra muros. Memorii Legionare Românul de mâine. Românismul nostru оFă ă

rii din Maramuredin rii Circul ri Politice 1929-1939 ( (For My Legionaries) th (The Cross Brotherhood). Bucharest, 1937. ú ă

edition, Munich: Colectia “Europa,” 1981.

ri ăú i lumea comunist i lumea ú ú (TheNest’sLeader Booklet). 13 (The Târgu Mure Târgu(The carea legionar о i muncitorimea ( i manifeste 1927-1938 rd

nd (The Legion through Images). Madrid: Images).through Legion (The edition, Bucharest, 1940. ܈ edition, Bucharest, 1940. oara: Editura Gordian, 1995. о

ă (The Causes of the Movementthe in of (TheCauses Gândirea, 1991.

9 th ă (White Days – Dark Days. Dark – Days (White Political Notes 1929-1939 edition. Bucharest: Editura –C ă

The LegionaryThe Movement ܈ (Between the Legionary the (Between Disorders).Bucharest: ă rticic

ă (Circulars and (Circulars (The Romanian pentrus (TrojanHorse th edition, ă teni ) .

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rnt Hannah. Arendt, Adamson, Walter. Walter. Adamson, Affron, Matthew and Mark Antliff, eds. Affron, MatthewMark Antliff, and Belot, Robert.Belot, “Critique fasciste raison dela réactionnaire: LucienRebatet contre

noi Sorin. Antohi, Allardyce, Gilbert.“What Fascism ontheDeflation ofaConcept.” Is Not:Thoughts Sorin. Alexandrescu,

233 II. SECONDARYLITERATURE: Sima, Horia. Ni Mo Vasile. Marin, *** ܊ su C. escu, Ġ Lacrima prigoanei:lupta legionarelor din romance. a, IonI. Charles Maurras,” Polirom, 1999.Frenchversion, 1999. Roumanie moderne. Le stigmate et l’utopie Imaginalis: History and Utopia Romanianin Culture), 2 Jovanovich, 1975.

Timi Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993. American Historical Review Editura Univers, 1998. Tipografia Viitorul, 1932) and Italy Monastery and the MilitarytheMonasteryandHighSchool “Nicolae Filipescu”).(Târgovi Majadahonda, 1997. 1936). from the FightofRomanian Legionaries). Timi ú oara, Editura Gordian, 1994.

Sibiu: Editura „Totul pentru Cranii Cranii de lemn.Articole 1922–1936 Istoria Mi . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997. Mân Civitas Imaginalis: istorie Crez de genera The Origins ofTotalitarianism ă stirea Dealu stirea Avant-Garde Florence: FromModernism toFascism Paradoxul Român úFă Mil neuf cent rii Legionare Ġ ie 84 (1979):367–388. (Creed of a Generation). Bucharest: EdituraGeneration).Bucharest: a of (Creed о i Liceul Militar “Nicolae Filipescu” “Nicolae Militar Liceul i Imaginiare cultureletréalité politique dansla 9, 1,(1991): 49–67. Fascist Visions:in ArtandIdeology France (The History ofthe Legionary Movement). ğ (The Romanian Paradox). Bucharest, Paradox). Romanian (The ar ú ă i utopie înculturaromân ,” 1936. (Wooden Skulls. Articles 1922 - . New York: Harcourt Brace Harcourt York: New . . Paris-Montreal:L’Harmattan, . ܈ oara: Ed.Gordian, 1994. (The Tear of Persecution:(TheTear of

nd edition Ia edition ă (Civitas (Dealu ܈ te: ú i: .

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w g a e r e .c o m Crampton,Eastern R.J. EuropeintheTwentieth Century -andAfter.2 Deletant, Dennis.Deletant,

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234 linescu,“The Matei. 1927Generation Romania: in FriendshipsandIdeological University ofCaliforniaPress, 1993. (London: Routledge, 1997). XX-th century).Bucharest: Editura Universit XX 58. Revolution,”and 1908 inWar to Born 1900 Works). Bucharest: Editura Alternative, 1999. 1940-1944. Press, 1992. the Third Republic M. Cioran).” Choices (Mihail Sebastian, Mircea Eliade, Nae Ionescu, Eugène Ionescu, E. ed., historian”. Manchester University Press, 2003, pp. 58-79. Journal of Contemporary History II. CaliforniaPress, 2001. Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, 1988). , (The faces of Fascism: Politics, Ideology and Historical Writing in the Historical in Fascism: Ideologyand Writing of Politics, faces (The Ruth Women, Gender andtheExtreme Rightin Europe Romania Borderland ofEurope. . From FascismLibertarian to Communism Valois George Against Decades ofCrisis: Centraland Eastern Europe before World War Sociologie politica. Operealese Rethinking History Fascist Modernities: Italy, 1922 – 1945.Fascist – Modernities: Italy, 1922 Hitler’s Forgotten Ally: IonAntonescu andhisRegime, Romania Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. Fe East European Politics &Societies р ele fascismului: Politic How fascism ruledwomen: Italy, 1922-1945.

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The Nature ofFascism ăOăĠ International Fascism: theories, causes and the new consensus Fascism: aHistory . Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956. Women andfascism. The Sacralization ofPolitics in Fascist Italy Fascism elu, Ion. elu, ă Journal ofContemporary History , 1980. Berkeley: University of California Press,1997. 5(2004):326–75. . Oxford: Oxford University Press,1995. Garda de Fier. Organiza Fascist spectacle: the aesthetics of power in power of aesthetics the spectacle: Fascist . London: Vintage, 1996.

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w g a e r e .c o m Constantin. Iordachi, Hitchins, Keith. “Historiography of the Countries of Eastern Europe:Romania,”EasternKeith.Countries of Hitchins,“Historiographythe of Ioanid, Radu. ______. Heinen, Armin. ______. “Reluctant allies? Iuliu Maniu and Corneliu Zelea CodreanuagainstZelea Corneliuand Maniu allies?Iuliu______.“Reluctant ans Rebecca. Haynes, Kater, Michael H. Kalman, Samuel. “

Hartog, François. Hartog, of survey fascism:Kühnl.“Contemporarya approachesto R. B., Hagtvet, Gregor, Neil. “Politics, culture, political culture: recent work ontheThird Reich and Culture”.Fascist“The Reclamation______. of ______.

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w g a e r e .c o m Linz, JuanLinz, J.“Some NotesToward aComparative Study ofFascism Sociologicalin

Klein, Bernard.Klein, “Anti-JewishDemonstrations inHungarian Universities, 1932-1936: Mason, T.W. "WhateverMason, T.W. Happenedto 'Fascism?'." JaneCaplan,In ed. ______. “Representation andKnowledge in Medievaland ModernAccounts of Kieval, HillelJ.“Antisémitisme ousavoirsocial?Sur lagenèseduprocès moderne ______Koon, Tracy H. Tracy Koon, Larsen, Stein Ugelvik, Bernt Hagtvet and JanPetter Myklebust. Ugelvik,Bernt Hagtvetand Stein Larsen, ieen, Irina. Livezeanu, Laqueur, ed. Walter,

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New RinehartNew York: Holt, and 1966. Winston, Triumful ra Triumful (The Triumph of Reason against Violence: The Interwar The Violence: against Reason of Triumph (The The Anatomy ofFascism De la Restaura la De ܊ iei Culturale Române, 1996. Women, gender, and fascism inEurope, 1919-45 ܈ Bergen: Universitetsforlaget, 1980. i). Iai). (From Restaurationto the RoyalDictatorship: from the Ġ iunii împotriva violen iunii împotriva ú i: Editurai: Junimea, 1977. The Green Shirts and the Others: A Historyof A the Others: Green Theand Shirts р ie la Dictatura Regal Dictatura la ie ú ă i realit , 26 (1996): 181 –208. româneasc . Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, of University. Madison: Wisconsin Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1970. Who Were the Fascists: social roots of Fascists:the socialroots Were Who . London: PenguinBooks, 2005. ăĠ

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239 ndulescu, Valentin.„Fascism Questforthe 'NewMan:'and its TheCaseofthe in Press andthe ConstructionImage ofthe ofPoliticalEnemies (1927-1937)) inamicilor politici(1927 -1937) Political Religions Legionary Leaders IonMo Romanian Legionary Movement,” - nouveau régénéré par larévolution dedroite”. Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, 1974. culture Contemporary European History Europe: OntheUses Category,” andDisadvantagesofanAnalytical Russia, andtheMiddle East, 1914-1923. Histories: Eastern Europe After 1989, 49 (Winter, 1995): 15-39. Fer,” Romania. and Theory Movement: Myth andReality).Bucharest: Editura NouaAlternativ н Studia Universitatis PetruMaior (Historia) tiin „ Analele Universit р 6ă e Politice . Minneapolis: University ofMinnesota Press, 1995. Actes dePrésence: mân . “‘ An infamous past: E.M. Cioran and the Rise of Fascism inFascism Riseof the and Cioran E.M. past: infamousAn Chicago: Ivan R. Dee,2005. 45 (2006): 362-74. Political Religion’ and the Totalitarian Departures of Inter-war of Departures Totalitarian the and Religion’ Political Ethnic Nationalism and the Fall of Empires: Central Europe, Empires:Central of Fall Ethnicthe Nationalismand Ġ a aruncat a , 2008,pp.31-46. 8 (2007): 8(2007): 259-69. Mi ăр Mothers of invention: women, Italian fascism, and fascism,Italian invention: women, of Mothers ú ă ii Bucure carea Legionar de diavol”: Presa legionar Ġ PresenceCulture”, inFascistPolitical in a andVasileMarin,” Representations („The SeedThrown bytheDevil”: Legionary о 18 (2009):381-414. ti ti - Studia Hebraica The European Right: aHistorical Profile н tiin ă р e Politice mit London: Routledge, 2001. , 49, Special Issue: IdentifyingIssue:Special 49, , 7 (2007): 153-74. ú Analele Universit i realitate Totalitarian and Movements (2004):61-77. 4 (2004): 4(2004): 349-361.

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