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At War with Corona Jihadists How Threat Metaphors Were Used to Demonise and Construct Violence Against Muslims in India, During the COVID-19 Outbreak

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At War with Corona Jihadists How Threat Metaphors Were Used to Demonise and Construct Violence Against Muslims in India, During the COVID-19 Outbreak At War with Corona Jihadists How threat Metaphors were used to demonise and construct violence against Muslims in India, during the COVID-19 Outbreak Lia Kleuskens 6634974 Utrecht University 30 September 2020 A Thesis submitted to the Board of Examiners in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Arts in Conflict Studies & Human Right The drawing on the cover of this thesis is titled “It’s a linguistic battlefield out there”. The artist is unknown. Published on https://theconversation.com/the-warspeak-permeating- everyday-language-puts-us-all-in-the-trenches-121356 2 Supervisor: Dr. Mario Fumerton Date of submission: 31-10-2020 Program trajectory: Research and Thesis Writing Only (30ECTS) Word count: 26.460 3 Abstract In March 2020, when the world grappled with Covid-19, in India a story about reality surfaced. This story metaphorically constructed Muslims as weaponising Covid-19 in order to infect and kill the Hindu population. These stories, in turn, resulted in violent instances perpetrated against Muslims. The aim of this thesis is to uncover the relations between these emerging stories about reality in India that construct Muslims as the source of Covid-19, and the violent instances that were reported within the same time frame of March until July 2020. Grounded in the realm of social constructivism, this study argues that the meaning given to the Covid-19 outbreak and spread in India, was socially constructed. This thesis, through the combination of a Critical Metaphor Analysis, and conducting semi-structured interviews, studied these representations of Muslims as the culprits of Covid- 19, as well as related ideological performances. By substituting elements of emotions and performances to the analytical frame of ‘framing theory’, this thesis aims to move beyond the ‘cognitive bias’ of classical framing studies. As such, the study aims to provide a more holistic understanding of the complex dynamics of the framing practices central to this case study. The results analysis showed three dominant threat metaphors that construct Muslims as the culprits of Covid-19: Muslims as Covid-19, Muslims as the enemy in the war against Covid-19, and Covid-19 as a form of Islamic bioterrorism. I argue that these threat metaphors were as effective in demonising the Muslim community because they consisted of re-invented long-standing ideas and cultural narratives. Through this process of re-invention, Hindu nationalist parties were able to merge the long-standing emotions related to historical frames, with the newfound emotions arising during the Covid-19 outbreak. 4 Acknowledgements First and foremost, I want to thank all the participants of this research. Without your help, I would not have been able to write this thesis. I applaud your bravery and willingness to talk to me via video call, for opening up to me the way you did. I am touched and honoured that you have felt comfortable enough to share your experiences. After all the challenges and adjustments due to the Covid-19 pandemic, you helped me remember why I am so passionate about this master’s program and the field of Conflict Studies in general. I would like to take this opportunity to thank my fellow students in the class of 2019- 2020. This year has been challenging for all of us and it took a lot of adaptability and creativity from all of us to make these last six months work. Although it might not be what we had hoped for when we started this master’s program, I believe that nothing can really put a grade on this experience. I want to devote a special thanks to Mirthe Hendriks for the inspiration, great talks and peer review sessions. Your critical notes and feedback were invaluable to this thesis. Furthermore, I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Mario Fumerton for his support and encouraging words in a year that has been very challenging for me. Your constructive and elaborate feedback has truly taken this thesis to the next level. Thank you for your continuous belief and guidance in finding my own critical academic voice. It was a privilege to have worked under your mentorship. Lastly, I want to thank my dear family, friends and my boyfriend for standing by me during the process. Thank you for enduring my endless chatter about my thesis. 5 Contents INTRODUCTION _________________________________________________________________________ 8 RELEVANCE ___________________________________________________________________________ 11 CHAPTER OUTLINE ______________________________________________________________________ 12 CHAPTER 1. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ______________________________________________ 14 1.1 THE DISCURSIVE APPROACH TOWARDS VIOLENCE ___________________________________________ 14 1.2 FRAMING AND FRAME ANALYSIS ________________________________________________________ 17 1.3 METAPHOR OF THREAT ________________________________________________________________ 19 1.4 EMOTIONS __________________________________________________________________________ 20 1.5 PERFORMANCES ______________________________________________________________________ 20 1.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY __________________________________________________________________ 22 CHAPTER 2. METHODOLOGY ___________________________________________________________ 23 2.1 RESEARCH STRATEGY _________________________________________________________________ 23 2.2 SAMPLING METHOD ___________________________________________________________________ 24 2.2.1 Newspaper articles _______________________________________________________________ 25 2.2.2 Political cartoons ________________________________________________________________ 26 2.2.3. Interviews ______________________________________________________________________ 26 2.3 RESEARCH METHOD ___________________________________________________________________ 26 Phase 1: Description of the context _______________________________________________________ 27 Phase 2: Identification of frames and Threat Metaphors ______________________________________ 27 Phase 3: Cognitive and emotional frame resonance __________________________________________ 29 Phase 4: Ideological performances _______________________________________________________ 31 2.5 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND LIMITATIONS _______________________________________________ 31 CHAPTER 3. EMPIRICAL CONTEXT _____________________________________________________ 33 3.1 RELEVANT HISTORICAL EVENTS _________________________________________________________ 33 3.2 CURRENT POLITICAL CLIMATE __________________________________________________________ 34 3.3 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS _______________________________________________________________ 35 3.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY __________________________________________________________________ 37 CHAPTER 4. IDENTIFYING THREAT METAPHORS ________________________________________ 38 4.1 THE PROBLEM: IT'S THE MUSLIMS ________________________________________________________ 38 4.1.1 Muslims as Covid-19 ______________________________________________________________ 39 4.1.2. Muslims as the enemy in the war against Covid-19 ______________________________________ 42 4.1.3 The spread Covid-19 as a form of Islamic bioterrorism ___________________________________ 44 4.2 PROGNOSTIC FRAMING _________________________________________________________________ 47 4.3 MOTIVATIONAL FRAMING ______________________________________________________________ 49 4.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY __________________________________________________________________ 50 CHAPTER 5. FRAME RESONANCE _______________________________________________________ 51 5.1 CREDIBILITY OF PROFFERED FRAME _______________________________________________________ 51 5.1.1. Frame consistency _______________________________________________________________ 51 5.1.2. Empirical credibility ______________________________________________________________ 52 5.1.3. Credibility of frame articulators and claim makers ______________________________________ 55 5.1.4. Emotional resonance _____________________________________________________________ 56 6 5.2 RELATIVE SALIENCE __________________________________________________________________ 56 5.2.1. Centrality ______________________________________________________________________ 56 5.2.2. Narrative fidelity _________________________________________________________________ 57 5.2.3. Experiential commensurability ______________________________________________________ 59 5.2.4 Emotional resonance ______________________________________________________________ 60 5.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY __________________________________________________________________ 62 CHAPTER 6. IDEOLOGICAL PERFORMANCES ___________________________________________ 64 6.1 THE COLLECTIVE HINDU IDENTITY _______________________________________________________ 65 6.2 EXCLUSION FROM FOOD ________________________________________________________________ 65 6.3 SOCIAL BOYCOTTING __________________________________________________________________ 67 6.4 STRUCTURAL AND SYMBOLIC VIOLENCE ___________________________________________________ 69 6.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY __________________________________________________________________ 71 CONCLUSION __________________________________________________________________________ 72 DISCUSSION AND CRITICAL REFLECTIONS ___________________________________________________ 74 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ______________________________________________________ 75 THE WEAPONISATION OF LANGUAGE _______________________________________________________ 75 BIBLIOGRAPHY ________________________________________________________________________
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