Types of Iron Ore Magnetite • Black ore; 60 to 70 per cent metallic content. • Dharward and Cuddapah systems. • Magnetic quality. • Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Haematite • Reddish; 50-60 per cent metallic content. • Found in Dharwad and Cuddapah rock systems of the peninsular . • 80 per cent of haematite reserves are in , and • In the western section, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa have this kind of ore. Limonite • Inferior ores; yellowish in colour; 40 to 60 per cent iron metal. • Damuda series in Raniganj coal field- W.B, Garhwal in Uttarakhand, Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh and Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh. Siderite • ‘Iron carbonate’; inferior quality; less than 40 per cent iron. • Contains many impurities; mining is not economically viable. • However, it is self-fluxing due to presence of lime. The major iron ore belts in India: 1) Odisha-Jharkhand belt: • Odisha - Mayurbhanj and Keonjhar districts; Jharkhand – Singbhum district 2) Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt: • Bailadila hill ranges of Bastar District(Chattisgarh) & Chandrapur(Maharashtra). 3) Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur-Tumkur belt in Karnataka: • Kudremukh deposits one of the largest in the world. 4) Maharashtra-Goa belt: Goa and Ratnagiri District of Maharashtra.

Non-Ferrous Minerals

Copper Reserves in India • Rajasthan (50%); (24%); Jharkhand (19%) • The rest 7 per cent in AP, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka etc. Madhya Pradesh • 1st in production [60%]. • Malanjkhand copper mines of Balaghat district are the most important ones.

Rajasthan • 2nd in production [28%] • Found along the Aravali range. • Ajmer, Alwar, Bhilwara, Chittorgarh, Jaipur districts. • Khetri-Singhana belt in Jhunjhunu district is the most important copper producing area.

Jharkhand • 3rd in production [11 %]. • Singhbhum is the most important copper producing district.

Gold Reserves in India • Gold usually occurs in auriferous(of rocks or minerals) containing gold rocks. It is also found in sands of several rivers. Resources in terms of the metal ore (primary) are located in • Bihar (45 %); Rajasthan (23 %); Karnataka (22 %) • Gold mines of Kolar were closed down in 2001 due to reducing deposits and increasing costs. • India has only 3 major working gold mines- Hutti and Uti (both in Karnataka) along with the Hirabuddini mines in Jharkhand. Diamonds in India • Panna belt in Madhya Pradesh; Wajrakarur Kimberlite pipe in Anantapur district and gravels of the Krishna river basin in Andhra Pradesh. • Reserves have been estimated only in Panna belt and Krishna Gravels in Andhra Pradesh. Reserves of diamonds in India are not yet exhausted and modern methods are being applied for intensive prospecting and mining. • Cutting and polishing of diamonds is done by modem techniques at important centres like Surat, Navasari, Ahmedabad, Palampur etc.

Mica Reserves in India • Andhra Pradesh (41 per cent) – Gudur mines, SPS Nellore Dist. • Rajasthan (21 %); Odisha (20 %); Maharashtra (15 %) • India has a near monopoly in the production of mica [60 % of world’s total].Production decreased in recent times due to fall in demand in the international market. Fall in demand is due to better synthetic alternatives that are available.

Limestone • Limestone rocks are composed of either calcium carbonate, the double carbonate of calcium and magnesium, or mixture of both. • 75 per cent Limestone is used in cement industry, 16 per cent in iron and steel industry and 4 per cent in the chemical industries. • Over three-fourths of the total limestone of India is produced by Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh and Tamil Nadu.

Dolomite

• Limestone with more than 10 per cent of magnesium is called dolomite. When the percentage rises to 45, it is true dolomite. • Dolomite is mainly used as blast furnace flux, as a source of magnesium salts and in fertilizer and glass industries. • Iron and Steel industry is the chief consumer of dolomite [90 per cent] followed by fertilizer, ferro-alloys and glass. • Odisha and Chhattisgarh together account for about 57 per cent dolomite of India. Coal • Also called black gold. • Found in sedimentary layers of soil. • Contains carbon, volatile matter, moisture and ash [in some cases Sulphur and phosphorous] • Coal reserves are 6 times greater than oil and petroleum reserves. • Coals are classified into four main ranks, or types: Peat, lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite. These classifications are based on the amount of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen present in the coal. Bituminous Coal - most widely available and used coal and derives its name after a liquid called bitumen. Has 50 to 80 per cent carbon. • Does not have traces of original vegetable material. Calorific value is very high due to high proportion of carbon and low moisture. Used in production of coke and gas. Anthracite Coal - Best quality; hard coal. Has 80 to 95 per cent carbon. Ignites slowly and burns with a nice short blue flame. [Complete combustion with little or no pollutants.] • In India, it is found only in Jammu and Kashmir and that too in small quantity.

Distribution of Coal in India

Petroleum and Mineral Oil • Petra =rock; Oleum = oil. Petroleum or Mineral oil is obtained from sedimentary rocks of the earth. Petroleum fuels on burning gives little smoke and leaves no ash. So they are better than coal. • 90 to 95 per cent Hydrocarbons. 5 – 10% organic compounds containing oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and traces of organometallic compounds. On-shore Oil Production In India • Brahmaputra valley, Assam of north-east India. - The Digboi field( Oldest oil field of India), The Naharkatiya field, Moran-Hugrijan fields. • Barmer area of Rajasthan; • Gujarat - Ankleshwar, Khambhat or Lunej, Ahmedabad and Kalol, Nawgam, Kosamba etc., • Cauvery on-shore basin in Tamil Nadu. • Andhra Pradesh has both on-shore and offshore oil reserves.

Off-Shore Production in India • Mumbai High, Bassein and Aliabet(Gulf of Khambhat) • The basin and delta regions of the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery rivers hold great potential for oil and gas production.

Natural gas: Consists primarily of methane and • Propane, butane, pentane, and hexane are also present. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) = Mixture of butane and propane. Distribution: KG basin(A.P), Assam, Gulf of Khambhat, Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu, Barmer in Rajasthan etc.

Unconventional Gas Reservoirs • Conventional reservoirs of oil and natural gas are found in permeable sandstone. • Unconventional Gas Reservoirs occur in relatively impermeable sandstones, in joints and fractures or absorbed into the matrix of shales (Shale is a Sedimentary Rock), and in coal. • Given current economic conditions and state of technology, they are more expensive to exploit. • Ex: Shale gas, and coalbed methane. Coal bed Methane • Considerable quantities of methane is trapped within coal seams. • A significant portion of this gas remains as free gas in the joints and fractures of the coal seam. • With one of the largest proven coal reserves, and one of the largest coal producers in the world, India holds significant prospects for commercial recovery of coal bed methane. • The country has an estimated 700-950 billion cubic metre of coal bed methane. • The state-run firms are holding mines in joint venture with private companies and the latter do not have rights to explore coal bed methane [private sector companies at present have no rights to extract unconventional gas reservoirs – coal bed methane and shale gas]. • CBM extraction falls under Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas whereas coal mining falls under Ministry of Coal. • Recently Cabinet approved framework for Coal Bed Methane extraction under which Coal India and its subsidiaries will now be able to extract Coal Bed Methane from its mines without seeking approvals under the Petroleum & Natural Gas Rules • The Gondwana sediments of eastern India host the bulk of India’s coal reserves and all the current CBM producing blocks. • The vast majority of the best prospective areas for CBM development are in eastern India, situated in Damodar Koel valley and Son valley. • CBM projects exist in Raniganj South, Raniganj East and Raniganj North areas in the Raniganj coalfield, the Parbatpur block in Jharia coalfield and the East and west Bokaro coalfields. • Son valley includes the Sonhat North and Sohagpur East and West blocks. • Currently, commercial production has commenced from Raniganj South CBM block.

Shale Gas – Shale Gas Formation • Shales are fine-grained sedimentary rocks formed of organic-rich mud at the bottom of ancient seas. • Subsequent sedimentation and the resultant heat and pressure transformed the mud into shale. • Over long spans of geologic time, some of the gas migrated to adjacent sandstones and was trapped in them, forming conventional gas accumulations.

Shale Gas Reserves in India • Basins of preliminary interest identified by Indian geologists are the Cambay Basin in Gujarat, the Assam-Arakan basin in northeast India, and the Gondwana Basin. • Fracking technology sends high pressure streams of water, sand and chemicals into shale formations to bring up the oil and gas. Guar gum The guar bean is grown mainly by farmers in Rajasthan and Haryana • Can quickly turn water into a very thick gel. • Adding guar gum increases viscosity of water and makes high-pressure pumping and the fracturing process more efficient. • High viscosity water is much more effective at suspending sand grains and carrying them into the fractures. Problems Associated With Shale Gas Exploitation: • Environmentalists have objected to fracking because of the damage to forest cover and possible contamination of ground water. • However, industry officials say that the treated water can be re- used for further fracking and need not be disposed of at all.

Uranium • In India, Uranium deposits occur in the Dharwar rocks. The first ever uranium deposit to be discovered in India was Jaduguda in Singhbhum Belt (Jharkhand) in 1951. • Uranium occurs along the Singbhum belt (Jharkhand); Udaipur, Alwar and Jhunjhunu districts of Rajasthan, Durg district of Chhattisgarh, Bhandara district of Maharashtra and Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh. • Significant quantity of reserves were recently discovered in parts of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana between Seshachalam forest and Srisailam (Southern edge of Andhra to Southern edge of Telangana- Nallamala Forest). New uranium mines include - Lambapur- Peddagattu mine(Nalgonda district) in Telangana, Tummalapalle mine(YSR Dist) in Andhra Pradesh and Kyelleng-Pyndengsohiong, Mawtahbah(KPM) uranium project in Meghalaya which are expected to boost uranium production in India. • Uranium is used as a fuel for nuclear power reactors for electricity generation, in the manufacture of radioisotopes for medical applications and in nuclear science research. URANIUM ORE Nallamala Forest Reserve • Nallamala Forest Reserve is located in Nallamala Ranges of the Eastern Ghats. • A part of the forest reserve belongs to the Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve which is the largest Tiger Reserve in India. Amrabad Tiger Reserve also lies in the Nallamala hills. Chenchu Tribe • The Chenchus are Scheduled Tribe in the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, and Odisha. Many Chenchus live in the dense Nallamala forest of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. • They are an aboriginal tribe whose traditional way of life has been based on hunting and gathering.

Impacts of Uranium Mining • Drilling of 4,000 deep holes will end up destroying the Amrabad Tiger Reserve which is home to a vast variety of wildlife. • The exploration will expose and pollute surface water, groundwater and leech minerals, and dangerous chemicals into the Krishna river. • Construction of roads will fragment and degrade the dry forests, which may never recover after such a massive exercise. • Rare, endangered and unique species of flora and fauna and overall biodiversity will be destroyed. Thorium • Thorium is estimated to be about three to four times more abundant than uranium in the Earth’s crust, and is chiefly refined from monazite sands (Monazite contains 2.5% thorium). • The richest monazite deposits in the world occur in Kollam and Palakkad districts of Kerala, river delta in Odisha and near Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh.

Monazite – Rare Earth Metals • Monazite is a reddish-brown phosphate mineral containing rare earth metals. • Rare earths are a series of chemical elements found in the Earth’s crust that are vital to many modern technologies, including consumer electronics, computers and networks, communications, clean energy, advanced transportation, health care, environmental mitigation, national defense, and many others. • Because of their unique magnetic, luminescent, and electrochemical properties, these elements help make many technologies perform with reduced weight, reduced emissions, and energy consumption; or give them greater efficiency, performance, miniaturization, speed, durability, and thermal stability. • There are 17 elements that are considered to be rare earth elements. Ex: Scandium, Yttrium etc., Monazite Scandium Yttrium