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Cultural and Religious Barriers to Setting up Sex and Relationship Education in a Muslim Country: a Case Study of Brunei Darussalam

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Cultural and Religious Barriers to Setting up Sex and Relationship Education in a Muslim Country: a Case Study of Brunei Darussalam Cultural and Religious Barriers to Setting Up Sex and Relationship Education in a Muslim Country: A Case Study of Brunei Darussalam Naiyirah Haji Tahamit Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Leeds School of Sociology and Social Policy August 2015 The candidate confirms that the work submitted is her own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. © 2015 The University of Leeds and Naiyirah Haji Tahamit The right of Naiyirah Haji Tahamit to be identified as Author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful First of all, I would like to humbly thank Allah for the strength that He has given me throughout my life and most importantly the ability to complete this study. This comes with a timely reminder from Allah Subhanahu Wa Ta’ala: “On no soul doth Allah place burden greater than it can bear. It gets every good that it earns, and it suffers every ill that it earns.” – (Quran, 2:286) A list has been comprised of the people whom have given me help to complete my thesis. The contributions vary but the appreciation is still large. This work will not have the spirit and motivation without these people: Most of all, I am forever indebted to Dr. Teela Sanders for her supervision and constant support. Her invaluable help of constructive comments and suggestions have contributed to the completion of this study. Not forgotten, my appreciation to my co- supervisor, Dr. Sharon Elley for her support and knowledge regarding this topic. I appreciate for both of their understanding, patience, wisdom, encouragement and for pushing me farther than I thought I could go. This dissertation would not exist without the help of their ideas, suggestions, feedback and care. I also wish to express my gratitude and appreciation to Ministry of Education, Brunei Government for the sponsorship of my study in the United Kingdom. To the participants who have contributed their commitment and time. Otherwise none of these would be possible. I owe the greatest debt to my parents, Bapa Haji Tahamit bin Haji Nudin and Mama Hajah Jainap binti Haji Hassan for supporting my pursuit for additional knowledge, for their endless love, prayers and encouragement. My sincere gratitude and appreciation also go to my sister, Hazirah Tahamit and Hussin Ali Idris who are going through the same journey as me, for always listening and giving me words of encouragement and sources of inspiration. To my caring friend, Nur Ahlina Haziqah binti Haji Hamdani, for her continuous moral and emotional supports, patience, love which I have valued so much throughout my emotional PhD journey. Thanks for the friendship and memories. Last but not least, to many others who have helped in the contribution of the research and those who have assisted me through the ‘thick and thin’. In no particular order, my deepest gratitude goes to Dr Hebrieyah Raimi binti Ibrahim, Dr. Aida Maryam binti Basri and I am sure that I have omitted several names. To all my dearest brother and sisters, I wish to express my sincere thanks for their understanding, love and care. Also not forgetting my fiancé, Abdullah Husaini for adding colours in my life. May Allah bless you all. Naiyirah Haji Tahamit AUGUST 2015 i Abstract Sex and Relationship Education (hereafter, SRE) - a comprehensive sex education has a long debate in the Western worlds. This study explores the cultural and religious barriers of setting up SRE in a Muslim country, Brunei Darussalam. Using semi- structured interviews, I focus on key informants’ and young people’s perspectives on teenage pregnancy for instance, the policy context of school exclusion due to teenage pregnancy. I argue that the negative perceptions of SRE are stemmed from cultural taboo and customary practices of the country. This further suggests that these practices impose stigma effects that represent persistent patterns of dissolutions in reducing the rate of teenage pregnancy and HIV/AIDS transmission among young people. The other themes examine: perceptions of the respondents of the customary practice of social exclusion policy; positive and negative reactions to SRE; gender differences in sex and relationship; young people lack of knowledge associated with SRE; social issues associated with teenage pregnancy; attitudes toward NGOs; perceptions of the current school-based sex education and positive and negative attitudes towards SRE. This study also calls for pedagogical implications for future practice in the education sector. Finally, this study concludes with a brief discussion of the study. Keywords: Young people, sexual reproductive health, sex education, teenage pregnancy, STIs - prevention, Sex and Relationship Education. ii Pg. TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………… i ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………… ii TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………………….. iii LIST OF APPENDICES………………………………………………………………... x LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………. xi LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………... xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS…………………………………………………………… xiii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 RESEARCH BACKGROUND 1 1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM, AIM AND OBJECTIVES 3 1.2.1 Problem statement 3 1.2.2 Aim of Study 4 1.2.3 Research Question 4 1.2.4 Objectives 4 1.3 THE EMERGENCE OF A RESEARCH AREA: THE RESEARCHER’S STORY 6 1.4 THESIS OUTLINE 7 CHAPTER 2: NEGOTIATING SEX AND RELATIONSHIP EDUCATION, RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND CULTURE: A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 2.0 CHAPTER OVERVIEW 11 2.1 INTRODUCTION 11 2.1.1 The Complexity Interplay of Religion and Culture 12 2.2 RECOGNISING ISLAMIC RELIGION: SHARIA’ LAW 14 2.2.1 The application of Quranic verses and the Sunnah to nikah (marriage) and zina (adultery) 15 iii 2.3 PERCEIVING WESTERN-BASED EDUCATION: DEFINITION OF SEX AND RELATIONSHIP EDUCATION AND ISSUES 20 2.3.1 Parliamentary discussions 21 2.3.2 Parental oppositions 24 2.3.3 Pedagogical concerns 25 2.3.4 Practice 27 2.4 CHALLENGES OF DIVERSITY IN SEX AND RELATIONSHIP EDUCATION 28 2.4.1 Sex and relationship within the context of multi-ethnicity 28 2.5 LITERATURE ON BRUNEI AS A STUDIED CONTEXT 33 2.5.1 Brunei as a Sharia’ compliance country 35 2.5.2 Towards realising Brunei as a Dzikir Nation 37 2.5.3 Education system based on Malay Islamic Monarchy 38 2.5.4 Compulsory Religious Education 38 2.5.5 Sexual health concerns in Brunei 40 2.6 RESEARCH GAP 42 2.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY 43 CHAPTER 3: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 3.0 CHAPTER OVERVIEW 45 3.1 POSITIONING THE PERSPECTIVE OF THIS THESIS 45 3.1.1 Complexity Theory Perspective 45 3.1.2 Conceptual Overview of Readiness 47 3.2 DEVELOPMENT OF A READINESS FRAMEWORK 48 3.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY 50 CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH DESIGN 4.0 CHAPTER OVERVIEW 51 4.1 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION 52 4.2 EPISTEMOLOGICAL POSITION UNDERPINNING THE STUDY 52 4.3 CHOOSING THE RESEARCH METHOD 54 iv 4.4 SAMPLING, ACCESS AND THE PROCEDURES OF RESPONDENTS SELECTION 55 4.4.1 The selection of respondents for interviews 55 4.4.2 Location of the study 56 4.4.3 Demographic data of the respondents 57 4.5 CARRYING OUT THE INTERVIEWS 61 4.5.1 Carrying out the interviews with young people 63 4.5.2 Access to young people and working with gatekeepers 64 4.5.3 Approaches to researching ‘children’ and ‘youth’ 64 4.5.4 What are the threats for the respondents? 65 4.5.5 What are the threats for the researcher? 66 4.5.6 Gaining access 67 4.5.7 Ethical considerations in researching young people 68 4.5.8 Discussions on consent 69 4.6 CARRYING OUT THE INTERVIEWS WITH OFFICIALS WITH HONORIFIC TITLES 71 4.6.1 Senior key informants in Brunei Darussalam 71 4.6.2 Anonymisation of the honorific government official 72 4.6.3 Sampling and access 72 4.7 CARRYING OUT THE INTERVIEWS WITH A NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANISATION 73 4.8 RISK, SAFETY AND RESEARCHER 73 4.8.1 Project Information Sheets 75 4.8.2 Confidentiality 75 4.8.3 Securing the data 75 4.8.4 Incentives 76 4.9 KEY CHALLENGES IN RESEARCH 77 4.9.1 Challenges to recruiting Muslim respondents 77 4.9.2 Cross-cultural interviews 78 4.9.3 Difficulties in transcribing and translating from Malay language to English language 80 4.9.4 Transcription biased 80 v 4.9.5 How to validate e-transcripts 81 4.10 DATA ANALYSIS 82 4.10.1 Limitations of Thematic Analysis 86 4.11 BEING A REFLEXIVE RESEARCHER 87 4.11.1 Reflections on research: emotion, cross-cultural research and power imbalance 87 4.11.2 Choosing the ‘voice’ to respond 89 4.12 CHAPTER SUMMARY 90 CHAPTER 5: KEY INFORMANTS AND YOUNG PEOPLE’S PERCEPTIONS ON TABOO AND STIGMA SURROUNDING TEENAGE PREGNANCY AND HIV/AIDS 5.0 CHAPTER OVERVIEW 91 5.1 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION 91 5.2 INVESTIGATING THE RESPONDENTS’ OPINIONS ON THE SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES OF PRE-MARITAL SEX 92 5.2.1 Failure or lack of Muslim parents acceptance in Sex and Relationship Education 94 5.2.2 Lack of knowledge in self-protection leads to bad decisions 101 5.2.3 Deprived of love and attention 104 5.3 EXPLORING THE RESPONDENTS’ VIEWS ON EDUCATION ATTAINMENT OF TEENAGE PARENTS 106 5.3.1 Policy context on social exclusion of teenage pregnancy and teenage parenthood 108 5.4 THE STATUS OF CHILDREN BORN OUTSIDE WEDLOCK 112 5.5 SOCIAL STIGMA SURROUNDING HIV/AIDS 113 5.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY 116 vi CHAPTER 6: ATTITUDES AND PERCEPTIONS
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