TAWARIKH: International Journal for Historical Studies, 5(2) April 2014
ASIYAH AZ-ZAHRA AHMAD KUMPOH
Some Insights into the Impacts of the Islamic Education on the Non-Muslims in Brunei Darussalam
ABSTRACT: This paper aims to analyse the extent at which the non-Muslims in Brunei Darussalam identify with MIB or “Melayu Islam Beraja” (Malay Islamic Monarchy), the national philosophy of the country, by investigating the impacts of the Islamic education on the Dusun Muslim converts before their conversion to Islam. The traditionally, animistic Dusuns is one of the constitutionally recognised ethnic groups in the country and is strongly represented in Tutong District. This paper argues that the Dusuns had developed a strong sense of recognition towards Islam, even before their conversion; and this is signiϔicantly the result of the decades-long incorporation of the Islamic knowledge into the national education system. The recognition could be seen from the considerable depth of the Islamic knowledge they acquired, where such operative understanding of Islam simultaneously facilitated mutual emulation of Muslim ways of life. As the mutual emulation was also bolstered by the increasing breakdown of social and cultural boundaries between the Dusuns and the Muslims in the country, the informants of this study began to see the appeals and beneϔits of Islam as a religious system. Such re-appraisal of the religion, eventually led them to forsake their ethnic religion and convert to Islam, a signiϔicant step forward in forging a closer identiϔication with the ofϔicial religion of the country and ultimately with Brunei’s national philosophy. KEY WORDS: Malay Islamic Monarchy, Islamic education, Brunei’s education policies, the role of education, the Dusuns, and religious conversion.
INTRODUCTION time, despite the changes occurred within The declaration of Melayu Islam Beraja the national education system following the (Malay Islamic Monarchy), as the national introduction of new education policies, for philosophy of Brunei Darussalam in 1984, instance, the Bilingual Education Policy in undeniably has reinforced the strong position 1984, the Integrated Educational System in that Islam has already acquired since 1959 as 2004, and Sistem Pendidikan Negara Abad the of icial religion of the country through the ke-21 or SPN21 (the 21st Century National promulgation of Brunei’s Constitution. The Education System) in 2009. declaration of the national philosophy in 1984, The consequences of the incorporation of accordingly, followed by the implementation religious subjects in the school curriculum are of the Islamic-driven state policies across clearly functional to the successful diffusion different institutions and government of the principles and values of Melayu Islam ministries, including within the national Beraja among the population in the country. education provision. The sense of recognition towards Islam is Since 1959, and even more so after 1984, evidently implicit in the lives of the population one could witness the ways the inclusion of following the constant exposure towards the the Islamic subjects at all levels in Brunei’s religion, particularly during their schooling education system became evident over years. What is interesting about this fact, and
Dr. Asiyah az-Zahra Ahmad Kumpoh is a Senior Lecturer at the History Program, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences UBD (University of Brunei Darussalam), Jalan Tunku Link, Gadong, Negara Brunei Darussalam. For academic purposes, she can be contacted vis her e-mail at: [email protected]
161 ASIYAH AZ-ZAHRA AHMAD KUMPOH, Some Insights into the Impacts of the Islamic Education it is worth examining, is that the non-Muslims THE DUSUN ETHNIC GROUP in the country are also equally exposed to the The word “Dusun” is a Malay word which religion, particularly through the education literally means the people of orchards. The system where it not only brings about the term “Dusun” was originally used to refer to non-Muslims’ awareness towards Islam but the group of people living in the inland part it also has somewhat in luenced the way they of the North Borneo (Evans, 1917:151). In arrange and organise their lives within their the case of the Dusuns in Brunei, it was their personal and ethnic contexts. contact with the coastal Brunei Malays that This paper, thus, will attempt to provide led to the imposition of the “Dusun” ethnic some insights into the extent of identi ication label on the group, primarily because they with Melayu Islam Beraja that the non- lived inland, were cocooned by fruit orchards Muslim population in Brunei Darussalam and coconut plantations, and were exclusively has attained by investigating the impacts of rice farmers and fruit growers (Alas, 2009). the Islamic education on the Dusuns before At present, the Dusun ethnic group is strongly their conversion to Islam. The Dusuns belong represented in Tutong District of Brunei to one of the non-Muslim ethnic groups that Darussalam, with a smaller percentage live in have experienced major social, cultural, and Belait and Brunei/Muara District. In Tutong religious transformations within their ethnic District, several mukim (provinces) in the realm since three decades ago. district namely Ukong, Rambai, and Kiudang This paper will demonstrate how the are the original homeland of the Dusuns. Dusuns before their conversion to Islam rarely Traditionally, the Dusuns are animist in deemed the religion as foreign, let alone as their belief. The integral forces and guidance religiously threatening, largely due to the that they believe to have in luenced their growing familiarity that they had been having universe and daily life are the spirit beings with Islam, for many, since their childhood. and one of the divine spirits that the Dusuns There are three dimensions in which the believe to have directed the destiny of all impacts of the Islamic education on the its inhabitants is Derato, the main god in Dusuns can be found and analysed: ϔirstly, the Dusun cosmology. As the Dusuns are the creation of the foundation of religious traditionally rice farmers, the Derato has the knowledge; secondly, the mutual emulation highest rank in importance in their life where of Muslim way of life; and thirdly, their the ethnic group believes that it is Derato that conversion to Islam. provides them with a bountiful harvest year It is however worthwhile, irst and after year. foremost, to provide the early framework According to the oral tradition, the Dusuns of this paper. Appropriate information on believe that the rice seeds were brought down the Dusun ethnic group, who has been to earth by the son of Derato. Thus, in order to identi ied as the main research subjects of show their appreciation for Derato’s consent this paper, will be given immediately after this to allow human beings to plant the rice seeds introductory remark. A relevant account on on earth, and to be thankful for the harvest Islam in Brunei Darussalam and its association and to ensure another good harvest in the with the country’s national philosophy, next farming season, the Temarok ceremony Melayu Islam Beraja, will accordingly then be is conducted by a group of belian, the only presented before the discussion of the paper intermediary between Derato and humans, at proceeds to provide a separate analysis on the end of a harvesting season. For the Dusuns, the incorporation of religious subjects in the Temarok ritual is considered as the heart the national school curriculum. Such format of their animistic practices. of discussion will allow readers to have an However, in the recent decades, the Dusun informed understanding on how the impacts religion was getting increasingly marginalised of the Islamic education on the Dusuns could within the ethnic realm, partly due to the take place in the form mentioned above. promotion of modern education system. As a belian’s ritualistic knowledge, which includes
162 TAWARIKH: International Journal for Historical Studies, 5(2) April 2014 the Derato language and the Temarok ritual, is this paper has been de-identi ied in order to regarded as sacred, it is a taboo for a belian to protect the anonymity of the informants. acquire secular knowledge as such acquisition could corrupt the sacredness of the ethnic ISLAM IN BRUNEI AND rituals. Consequently, a belian cannot attend MELAYU ISLAM BERAJA school as this can be seen as disrespecting Brunei Darussalam has been known across the divine knowledge the belian has been the world for her long and staunch practice conferred with (personal communication with of Islam, observing and upholding centuries- informant A, 9/7/2009). long Islamic traditions and values. Historians, Such ritualistic taboo clearly is not in line however, found it dif icult to determine with the state policy where since 1970s, the precisely the period as to when Islam irst country has been putting forth efforts in came to Brunei, primarily due to the absence promoting an equal access to school provision of credible historical records that could to all population and that an attendance to serve such purpose. To resolve the historical school is made compulsory to all children aged conundrum, the conversion of the irst Sultan seven and above. In addition, the eagerness of of Brunei, Awang Alak Betatar, to Islam in the Dusun parents to provide their children 1368, following his marriage to the Princess with the best education possible is perhaps of Johor Sultanate has always been taken as the reason why many parents never really evidence to substantiate the de inite presence consider of passing down the ritualistic of Islam in the country which then led to the knowledge to their offspring despite the fact establishment of Brunei’s Muslim Sultanate that they themselves adhere to the ethnic during the century (Mansurnoor, 2012:133). religion. Inevitably, the situation has caused For the ensuing six centuries, the position many young Dusuns to be increasingly and the role that Islam occupied and pulled away from the ethnic religion respectively played in the country varied (personal communication with informant B, throughout the period. The reliance on non- 16/7/2009). Islamic construct of kingship for maintenance Moreover, with the Islamisation of the and legitimisation purposes remained evident, school system, educated Dusuns have been as illustrated by the preservation of the exposed to a different kind of religious belief oral history which narrates the origin of the from the one that is practiced by their parents. father of Awang Alak Betatar whom the locals In fact, statistics show that year by year, there believed to have born out of Hiranyagarbha, is an increasing number of Dusuns abandoning the cosmic Hindu egg (Brown, 1980). the animist religion and committing Despite the fact that this particular oral themselves to Islam as their new faith. tradition, as many argue, is borderline This leads us to the key scope of this paper myth and history, the Hindu-imbued oral where the impacts of the Islamic education history remains as one of the essential on the religious orientation of the Dusuns representations of Brunei’s past. The will be discussed in detail in the subsequent traditions within Hinduism were also adopted paragraphs. and in fact institutionalized during the In order to achieve the objective of this centuries, as can be seen from the employment paper, a collection of interview data from of Hindu elements in the investiture the Dusun Muslim converts and the non- ceremonies for conferring titles to state Muslim Dusuns which was recorded during dignitaries and appointing new state of icials. the author’s doctoral studies in 2008 and The recitation of chiri during the ceremonies 2009 will be utilised. About 60 informants was strongly imbued with Sanskrit in order were interviewed, including 10 non-Muslim to reinforce the notion of kingship which was informants who shared their valuable insights primarily to legitimatise Sultan’s authority on the impacts of the Islamic education and (Maxwell, 1881:86). their individual perception towards Islam. As The religious emphasis, however, took a part of the ethic safeguard, the data used in turn towards Islam in the 17th century. Brunei
163 ASIYAH AZ-ZAHRA AHMAD KUMPOH, Some Insights into the Impacts of the Islamic Education
Sultanate placed a relatively strong emphasis the secondary position it occupied during on the religion as the accommodation of the Residential period as Brunei obtained Islamic principles and concepts in state laws her internal independence from the British became more pronounced than ever. Islamic- Residential rule. based Hukum Kanun Brunei, Brunei’s register Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III declared of laws, was promulgated during the reign of Islam as the of icial religion of Brunei as the Sultan Hassan (reigned 1605-1619). The basis Constitution speci ies that “[t]he religion of of Hukum Kanun Brunei was Hukum Kanun the State shall be the Muslim Religion” and Melaka, a manual of Muslim laws which was “[…] that all other religion may be practised in compiled during the reign of Sultan Muzaffar peace and harmony” (JPK, 1959:33). To further Shah of Malacca (reigned 1446-1459). ensure the centrality in the role that Islam This fact, in many ways, explains why the should have in the country, the Constitution contents of Hukum Kanun Brunei were almost also establishes the position of the Sultan identical to the contents of its prototype. as the head of the Islamic faith. Thus, in a Hukum Kanun Brunei generally framed a code straightforward sense of the declaration, the of conduct to be utilised by the Sultanate in constitutional role of Islam in the country has regulating the Brunei society, particularly clearly been de ined where state policies and that concerning family matters, commercial directives from then on were to be regulated in transactions, property, and criminal offences. accordance to the religion of Islam. As the practice of Hukum Kanun Brunei Expectedly, the adoption of Islam as remained central until the early 20th century, the state religion generated a myriad of one could take this fact as an illustration of the developments which brought into being a prominence that Islam enjoyed in the country rather progressive Islamic state. The turning across the centuries. point of these Islamic-driven developments However, the establishment of the is de initely in 1984, when Melayu Islam Residential System in Brunei (1906-1959) Beraja (MIB), or Malay Islamic Monarchy, effectively shifted Islam away from such was declared as Brunei’s national ideology, prominence. The presence of a British concomitant to the proclamation of Brunei’s Resident at the centre stage of Brunei’s state full independence. With the declaration of the administration had drawn the Brunei Sultans national ideology, the role played by Islam into a secondary governing role as the Sultan in the country had notably evolved and now should seek the Resident’s advice on all de ined to serve an ideological purpose for the matters of state administration, except those population. In other words, together with the pertaining to Islam and the adat or custom other paramount elements, Melayu (Malay) (Hussainmiya, 1995:17). This hierarchy of and Beraja (Monarchy), Islam will de ine the rule clearly demonstrated a corresponding way of life of the population (the Muslims in relegation of status for Islam as well as the particular), so that they will be getting more adat in the Residential administration during structured and arranged in ways that are in the period. line with the core values and principles of the When Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III national ideology (Haji Ibrahim, 2003:67). ascended to the throne in 1950, the existing The state developments in the post- power clash between the Resident and the independence period evidently demonstrate local governing body became more serious, the accommodation of the state philosophy generating further con licts within the top as the changes and transformations across circles of the state administration. Sultan different ministries, state institutions, and Omar Ali Saifuddien III determined to resolve other agencies started to take place so that the power clash in a constitutional manner, the three guiding principles, Melayu, Islam, leading to the promulgation of Brunei’s and Beraja, are learned, practised, and irst written Constitution in 1959. With the communicated well within the society. For rightful retrieval of the executive power from instance, the accommodation could be seen the British Resident, Islam no longer illed from the reorganization of the education
164 TAWARIKH: International Journal for Historical Studies, 5(2) April 2014 system, broadcasting organisation, civil Community Affairs in 1960 (following the service agency, and banking system in order to declaration of Islam as the of icial religion in accommodate the state philosophy and to be 1959) that meaningful and positive progress in line with the principles and concepts of the began to take place. Proper incorporation state religion. This has de initely spurred the of Islamic Religious Knowledge as a school formation of a Muslim ummah, or community, subject began to take place in the curriculum which is much more solid in organisation of most Malay and English government schools and conspicuous in appearance than it was during the period. decades ago. The Islamic subject incorporation became Thus, following the momentous change that much more evident with the passing of the role of Islam played in direction brought Bilingual Education System in 1984. While the about by the declaration of Melayu Islam primary emphasis of the new education policy Beraja, new education policies were drafted is to provide the population with an equal and implemented to govern curriculum pro iciency in Bahasa Melayu (Malay language) transformation in the national education and the English language, the instillation of system. The following discussion entails the Islamic values in the school curriculum a comprehensive description of Brunei’s remained as the primary aims of national national curriculum since 1984, with an education system (MoE Brunei Darussalam, emphasis on the incorporation of Islamic 1990:7). Hence, Islamic Religious Knowledge subjects, into the education system as outlined (IRK) subject was taught in Bahasa Melayu for by the post-1984 education policies. 6 years at the primary school level alongside secular subjects such as Mathematics, BRUNEI’S EDUCATION POLICIES General Studies, and Geography (MoE Brunei AND CURRICULUM CHANGES Darussalam, 1990:15). Whereas at the lower It is worthwhile to note that the secondary school level, the IRK was one of the incorporation of Islamic subjects into the compulsory and examinable subjects to be school curriculum did not merely start after taken by all students. Options were only made the declaration of Islam as state religion available at the upper secondary school level in 1959, as stipulated by the articles of the where IRK was one of the optional subjects to Constitution, or after the declaration of Melayu be offered to students in all streams: Science, Islam Beraja (Malay Islamic Monarchy) in Arts, and Technical and Vocational (MoE 1984, although it is undeniably true that Brunei Darussalam, 1990:18-21). the development of the education provision At the turn of the century, Brunei in Brunei has been greatly in luenced by introduced a new education policy, the these momentous events. One of the earliest Integrated Education System. The new policy incorporations of the Islamic subjects into the was an effort to integrate the religious and school curriculum was in 1946 when Pelajaran non-religious school system and to bring the Syariah (subject of Islamic law) was taught running of the two separate school systems once a week to pupils of primary III or IV by under a single management of the Ministry mosque of icials such as the imam and bilal of Education. But what is more important is (Mohd Daud, 2004:1). that the philosophy behind the introduction However, the development of religious of the Integrated Education policy was to education before 1959 was irregular that it instil the values and the principles of Melayu severely affected its progress and well-being. Islam Beraja among the population, where the The reason for this was primarily due to the contents of the existing school subjects were shortage of quali ied religious teachers, but reviewed and appropriate adjustments were more importantly due to the lack of irm made, so that the contents of the subjects educational policy that failed to produce an would incorporate the philosophy of the effective management of religious education system. (JPI, 1996:54). It was only after the formation Hence, the content of IRK was of the Department of Religious Affairs and simultaneously under review and was
165 ASIYAH AZ-ZAHRA AHMAD KUMPOH, Some Insights into the Impacts of the Islamic Education introduced as Religious Education under establishment is primarily to provide the the Integrated Education System. Religious Islamic knowledge to Muslim children. The Education was made compulsory at the rationale behind this emerging trend is rather primary school level and it was taught for 30 simple: the Dusun parents wish to see their minute per period for 11 periods in a week children to receive all-rounded academic (15 periods for the upper primary level). The knowledge, including to be well-versed in Jawi non-Muslims, however, were given the option (Arabic script with Malay language) and to and they could take other subjects (Arts and fully understand Islam as the of icial religion Handicraft, Bahasa Melayu, Library Studies) as of the country (personal communication with a replacement to Religious Education. informant C, 19/7/2009). However, due to some great challenges The curriculum of a religious school in fully implementing the system, one of normally consists of core subjects as Al-Qur’an, the challenges is the lack of skilful teachers Ibadat or Islamic rituals, Tauhid or divine and experienced educators that were able unity, Tarikh or history, Praktikal Sembahyang to offer effective teaching in an integrated or the practical teaching of the Muslim schooling system (Lubis, Mustapha & Lampoh, prayer, Tajwid or proper pronounciation in 2009:58), the Integrated Education policy was reading of the Al-Qur’an, Tasawuf or Islamic withdrawn in 2005. The Bilingual Education spiritualism, Muamalat or Islamic laws in policy was resumed until 2008, when Brunei social relations and economic activities, and launched a new education policy, namely SPN Munakahat or Islamic laws of marriage (JPI, 21 or Sistem Pendidikan Negara Abad ke-21, 1996:129). As of 2010, there are about 570 the 21st Century National Education System non-Muslim students enrolled to religious (MoE Brunei Darussalam, 2009). school throughout Brunei (Abu Bakar, 2010:4). With the introduction of the new education Similar to the other Muslim pupils, the non- system, the 21st Century National Education Muslim children are to complete their religious System in 2008, Islamic Religious Knowledge education in 6 years, where upon passing their and Melayu Islam Beraja are among the key inal examination, they are to be awarded with learning areas speci ied by the new education Primary Religious School Certi icate. policy, where the intended learning outcomes Thus, in view of the comprehensive pertaining to these two subjects are for the incorporation of, and emphasis on, the Islamic students to “acquire the knowledge and Education in Brunei’s school curriculum, as understanding concerning the religion Islam explained above, it is rather inevitable for the on the aspect of Revealed Knowledge (Fardhu Dusun pupils who are at the receiving end of Ain) and Acquired Knowledge (Fardhu the curriculum to construct an appropriately Kifayah) in the Akidah (creed of) Ahli Sunnah deep understanding of Islam as a means of wal-Jamaah or Sunnite Muslims (MoE Brunei building a knowledge base, while gaining Darussalam, 1990:38). Thus, based on this, awareness of the true value of Islam as a Islamic Religious Knowledge subject remains an established religion through personal as one of the compulsory complementary re lection and evaluation. The following subjects for Year 1 until Year 8. It is only in discussion will illustrate the powerful Year 9 to Year 11 that the religious subject impact that the Islamic education has on the becomes one of the elective subjects in the informants of this study which eventually led school curriculum (MoE Brunei Darussalam, them to their conversion to Islam. 1990:45-46). It is also worthwhile to note here that the RECOGNISING ISLAM acquisition of religious knowledge, particularly As mentioned earlier in this paper, the for the Dusuns, is not only made through the contextual environment of the non-Muslims secular channel of education system. Since in Brunei generally serves as a knowledge the 1990s, there has been an emerging trend foundation which allows any individual among the non-Muslim parents to send their to be acquainted with Islam in one way or offspring to attend religious schools, whose another. The informants of this study generally
166 TAWARIKH: International Journal for Historical Studies, 5(2) April 2014 share the same view that their personal and the irst basic fact about Islam which strikes contextual environment made them aware of her the most during that time was how a Islam. Having to watch television programmes Muslim could recite doa (prayer) anywhere aired during the month of Ramadhan (fasting and anytime the person desires to ask for in Islam), made them aware of the religious Allah’s blessing and protection (personal requirement of fasting for the Muslims and communication with informant E, 2/8/2009). that the celebration of Eid ul-Fitr will take While a 44 years old municipal staff silently place at the end of the fasting month. questioned why only Muslims could visit Many informants admit that, as kids, they the Holy Land of Makkah, a place where the eagerly waited for Eid ul-Fitr celebration as Muslims congregate every year to perform the they would be given green money packets Hajj pilgrimage (personal communication with from their Muslim relatives and neighbours, informant F, 2/8/2009). when they came to visit the latter during the The acquisition of the religious knowledge festive month of Syawal (the 10th month of could also go far beyond facts and igures the Arabic/Islamic calender). Similarly, as the as the Dusuns were also taught the real Brunei government necessitates the expansion essence of the Islamic education. As part of of mosque infrastructures nationwide as an the syllabus of the Islamic subjects, Al-Qur’an extension of the religious propagation efforts, verses such as Al-Fatihah, Al-Asr and the four a non-Muslim would easily become aware of Quls (Al-Ikhlas, An-Nas, Al-Falaq, Al-Kaϔiruun) the fact that it is an obligation for the Muslim are taught to the students, where they learn males to go to mosque every Friday afternoon to recite and memorise the verses as well as to attend the mass congregational prayer to comprehend the interpretation of these (personal communication with informant verses clearly and in detail. The recitation B, 16/7/2009; and with informant C, and the memorisation of the Al-Qur’an verses 19/7/2009). normally will intensify as the students prepare As the above contextual in luence play a for their monthly tests and important school signi icant role in forming the fundamental examinations. awareness of the exposition of the Islamic In addition, the recitation of these Al- teaching, the incorporation of the Islamic Qur’an verses could also occur outside class. knowledge into the education system has A 37 years-old teacher shares her experience resulted in a continuous and further exposure where the recitation of Al-Fatihah by school to Islam. Many Dusuns believe that they learnt children at her school every morning before more about Islam from school, particularly the start of class and she noticed that even when they studied at secondary school level as the non-Muslim children, including her Dusun the contents of the Islamic subjects are more siblings and cousins who attended the same in-depth and detailed in nature. For instance, school, participated in the recitation together a 23-years old student still remembers how with their Muslim friends. Whereas for her, she and her classmates recited the Syahadah after listening to the recitation for many years, as loud as they could in class until they were she could recite the entire verse of Al-Fatihah able to memorise the Syahadah by heart long before she had the intention to convert (personal communication with informant D, to Islam (personal communication with 25/7/2009). Interestingly, the informant did informant G, 5/8/2009). not realise at that time that the Syahadah is Likewise, many were acquainted with actually the proclamation of faith, the irst the basics of sholat, the Muslim prayer, from pillar of Islam, that declares the oneness of the sequence of the body movements to the Allah. verses which need to be recited during each Another informant, now a school teacher, movement (Ahmad Kumpoh, 2011:134). was a little more inquisitive in trying to Interestingly, none of them complained understand what the religion actually teaches much about learning Islam at this stage. In its followers. She shares her schooling fact, many talked about how they enjoyed experience where she still vividly remembers learning something different from what
167 ASIYAH AZ-ZAHRA AHMAD KUMPOH, Some Insights into the Impacts of the Islamic Education secular subjects normally teach them and extent of (unconscious) incorporation of the such enjoyment re lects in their remarkable Islamic values and ideas in the way of thinking examination results they attained for Islamic of the Dusuns. subjects (personal communication with An interview with a 39 years-old informants H and I, 9/8/2009). broadcasting of icer, for instance, illustrates Thus, there is no doubt that such way the use of Islamic rhetoric. In discussing of learning Islam offers a de inite sense about the practice of the ethnic adat (custom) of familiarity with the religion. In fact, the and its preservation issue, he believes that intensi ied interaction with Islam at school irrespective of the type of religion one signi icantly in luenced the way the Dusuns observes, there is always a need to preserve perceive and think. Many informants agree the Dusuns’ cultural practice so long as the that they began to have the capacity to discern practice is not against the aqidah (religious right and wrong, good and evil, in accordance creed). In other words, the informant argues to what they learnt from school. For instance, that the Dusuns should uphold elements of a Dusun housewife who converted to Islam in the ethnic culture so long as they are not 1998, spoke of her gradual changing attitude in con lict with the basics beliefs of Islam. towards gambling and drinking after learning His statement without doubt re lects his the fact that the activities were prohibited in acknowledgment of the prominence of Islam Islam, due to their damaging consequences to in the country’s ethos. He is aware of the one’s conduct, life, family, and even community prohibition imposed by the government as a whole (personal communication with on cultural activities which are not in informant J, 15/8/2009). line with the Islamic teachings (personal Whereas another informant, a 51 years-old communication with informant L, 20/8/2009); welfare of icer, had long believed that Islam and this should be taken as a clear illustration is the truest religion of all; otherwise the of the extent of religious knowledge and words of Al-Qur’an would have not been able understanding gained by the informant. to disarm and conquer the heart of fearless At the same time, however, the sense of individuals such as Caliph Umar. Accordingly, familiarity bred from the Islamic education a new form of perception on Islam began to does not necessarily mean that the non- dawn upon the two informants and both of Muslims would also regard the Islamic them became more convinced that Islam is education as the theological representation of the right religion for them which eventually Islam. While many did recognise the values of to their conversion to the religion in 1998 and Islam as a religion, some, however, perceived 2003 respectively (personal communication the Islamic subject as comparable to other with informant K, 15/8/2009). secular subjects, which are similarly taught As the way of thinking of the Dusun Muslim through facts-and- igures approach. For converts was evidently equivalent to their instance, there are informants who admit that growing sense of identi ication with Islam they regarded the Islamic subjects as among and its teachings before their conversion; it the subjects that they can rely on in order is also worthwhile to mention here that the to pass important school examinations for effects of the Islamic education on the (non- an admission to higher education (personal converts) Dusuns also signi icantly de ined communication with informants M and N, the ways they think and communicate. The 25/8/2009). analysis of the interview data equally detects This perspective could perhaps partly similar rhetorical changes in the way the explain why many schooling-age Dusuns never Dusuns responded to interview questions and objected to the subjects that teach them the in their conversation as a whole. Although not religion they were not born into or raised all Dusun informants used Islamic rhetoric in. In other words, the Dusuns accepted the in their verbal interaction and only a handful educational values, rather than the theological of them have such tendency, it nevertheless aspects, of Islam and, therefore, the knowledge re lects a crucial fact that there is a certain on Islam that they acquired from the education
168 TAWARIKH: International Journal for Historical Studies, 5(2) April 2014 system does not necessarily re lect their sense encounter an abundant amount of information of belief in Islam and its teachings. Instead, on Islam as he sieved through and downsized such knowledge only serves for educational torrents of information given to him. His job purposes and to add more information to their responsibility clearly requires him to possess existing knowledge for them to understand the some knowledge on Islam, so that he can mainstream religion. effectively decide what is relevant and what is However, notwithstanding the above not to be depicted in television documentaries. perception, the accumulated knowledge At this point, he believes that the Islamic on Islam has led to a greater willingness education he gained from school has helped on the part of the Dusuns to interact with him to carry out his job well (personal Muslims. Such willingness replaced the communication with informant Q, 2/9/2009). feeling of awkwardness which was initially experienced by the Dusuns, particularly those EMULATING MUSLIM WAY OF LIFE who attended school that has majority of the Analysing further the interview data of the school community is Muslim Malays. Many informants of this study, one could detect the informants agree that their school experience ways how the religious knowledge gradually is the foundation of their acquaintance with in luenced and changed the ways the Dusuns Islam and its teaching that later facilitated led their everyday lives. The emulation of their interaction with Islam. For instance, Muslim way of life was becoming evident, a 41 years-old public relation of icer and a particularly in the case of the Dusuns who 51 years-old welfare of icer, both Muslim were nearing their conversion to Islam. One converts, were frequently introduced to and of the Islamic lifestyles, that are commonly met people from all walks of life, including adopted by the non-Muslims in Brunei, is the Muslims who were their employers, the Muslim way of dressing. Theoretically, work colleagues, professional acquaintances, one’s way of dressing is a signi icant visual close friends, and even neighbours (personal identi ication of the religious, social, cultural, communication with informants O and P, and even political orientation of the individual. 29/8/2009). For the Dusuns, however, there have been Analysing their interview data, it is evident remarkable changes in the dress code of the that the informants viewed themselves as Dusuns as the adoption of Muslim dress sense being not at all different from their Muslim has increasingly become the general norms in colleagues and had no reservations about their lives. working together with the latter. This, Analysing the life experience of the Dusuns, however, does not mean that they disregarded school uniform is one of the means that has the differences in terms of religious contributed to their initial emulation of the orientation that they certainly have with the Muslim dress code. The fundamental uniform Muslims, but the informants perceived such code in Brunei schools is that headscarf is differences as irrelevant to how well they it compulsory to be worn both by Muslim and into their working and social environment. non-Muslim female students at all school In fact, their growing relationship with their levels, with an exception at the primary Muslim acquaintances and friends had enabled level where it is optional but encouraged for them to actually see beyond what they learnt non-Muslim pupils to wear one (KP Brunei from school or being communicated by mass- Darussalam, 2006:13). media, and accordingly shared the knowledge However, as the Dusun female began further with their non-Muslim friends. to understand the religious signi icance of Another informant, a 33 years-old headscarf, that is to protect women’s modesty, Dusun, who is working with a government they began to wear the headscarf not only department that is responsible for supplying when attending school but also during non- material for television documentaries, also school activities and events. As told by a 53 shares his experience of acquainting with years-old teacher, she continued to wear Islam. On daily basis, he would constantly headscarf after she inished secondary school
169 ASIYAH AZ-ZAHRA AHMAD KUMPOH, Some Insights into the Impacts of the Islamic Education and enrolled to teachers’ training college. At are about to carry out, the informant initially that time, she was fully aware of the fact that it joined the group recitation of Bismillah after was not compulsory for her, as a non-Muslim repeatedly seeing his Muslim school friends teacher trainee, to wear headscarf, or Baju engaged in the religious conduct. Based on Kurung, when attending class. Nevertheless, his observation during those early years, she continued to adopt Muslim way of dressing the informant believed that there must be as she already felt comfortable and even something inherently good about reciting admitted the fact that she liked the way she Bismillah, although he was yet to fully looked with headscarf than without (personal understand the virtues and the inner meaning communication with informant R, 7/9/2009). behind the routine (personal communication Similar experience is clearly re lected in with informant S, 15/9/2009). the interview data of many female Dusun Interestingly, a considerable number of informants; and, in fact, the wearing of the convert informants also share the same the headscarf accordingly lead to cases schooling experience, and many even adopted of mistaken identity where some Dusuns the constant use of the exclamation “Ya Allah” were thought to be Muslim as they would (Oh my God), the spontaneous murmurs of be greeted with the Islamic salutation of “Alhamdulillah” (all praise is due to God), and Assalamu’alaikum or peace be upon you the expressions such as “Astaghϔirullah” (I (Ahmad Kumpoh, 2011:28). Simple or trivial seek forgiveness from God) and “Insya Allah” this situation may appear, it is nevertheless (by God’s willing) in their conversations and a clear illustration of how the Dusuns have interactions. All these evidences illustrate placed a greater value on the Islamic way of the solidi ication and the application of the dressing and this has resulted in the minimal Dusuns’ religious knowledge on Islam as differences in the way the non-Muslims who the school system constantly feeds the non- observe the Islamic dress code vis-à-vis the Muslim students with information on Islam way the Muslims dress themselves. in class or outside of class. Such steady low This observation is in line with V.T. King’s of information, then, creates a knowledge argument that it is rather dif icult nowadays to platform upon which the religious knowledge distinguish between those who are originally of the Dusuns expanded and naturally become part of the mainstream society, i.e. the Brunei useful as it developed. Malays, and those who are recently integrated Likewise, an equally remarkable impact into the society, i.e. the rest of the ethnic of the Islamic education on the Dusuns is groups (King, 1994:186). Taking this analysis the evident tendency to restrict themselves further, it is safe to argue that the impact of the from non-permissible types of foods in Islam. Islamic education has reduced the importance A 55 years-old village head, irst learnt at of dress code as a crucial key in understanding primary school the fact that Islam forbids how the lines of differentiation are drawn the consumption of porcine food products, between the Muslim and the non-Muslim intoxicants (alcoholic drinks), and that all ethnic groups in Brunei Darussalam. meat must be slaughtered according to Islamic The application of the Islamic knowledge to requirements. When he attended secondary the daily life of the Dusuns is equally evident. education and took the IRK (Islamic Religious A 58 years-old army personnel admits that Knowledge), this domain provides an avenue it has become a routine for him to recite for the informant to learn further about the Bismillah (in the name of God) before starting Islamic dietary laws and this helped him to any work, even before his conversion. He irst understand better the rationale behind such learnt the Islamic ideal of Bismillahir Rahmanir religious restrictions that Islam imposes on Rahim when he was in his primary school, its followers (personal communication with where the beginning of each class began with informant T, 22/9/2009). a group recitation of the kalimah (confession). Another informant, 51 years-old male While the Muslims do the recitation in order convert, also learnt about the Islamic dietary to ask for Allah’s blessings in the work they laws from school. In the interview, he revealed
170 TAWARIKH: International Journal for Historical Studies, 5(2) April 2014 the fact that he found halal (allowed) products performed the prayer during her schooling were much more palatable even before his years due to the persistent curiosity with the conversion in 2003, where he would be truth that a daily prayer could help her to gain looking for the halal certi ication logo on better grades in examination. Accordingly, the food before buying them. Signi icantly, about informant not only performed the sholat with some ten years later, both informants solely her schoolmates at school, but she also started relied upon their solid familiarity with Islam to perform the daily prayer in the privacy of and made the ultimate decision to convert to her bedroom (personal communication with Islam as both of them did not see the need informants V and W, 29/9/2009). to search for further veri ication that could The above interview data, thus, show how give them the strength and con idence to the children developed a sense of recognition branch out from their ancestor faith (personal and relationship with Islam. What should communication with informants U and T, also be highlighted here is that these children 22/9/2009). were somehow not familiar with the Dusun Similarly, the attendance of Dusun children religion, in the same way they acquainted with to religious school has equally signi icant Islam. Both informants whose interviews were impacts. Although the afore-mentioned stated above moved out from their Dusun number of the non-Muslim children attending village when they were still at a very young religious school appeared rather small, the age as their parents were working in the city impacts of the religious knowledge they area. The families had been residing in a Malay acquired cannot be easily dismissed. Eight of neighbourhood in Brunei-Muara District for the informants of this study are those who many years and these changes without doubt attended or were still attending religious school affect their identi ication with the Dusun during the study’s ieldwork in 2008 and 2009. community. Both of them cannot identify It is worth repeating here that the non- themselves clearly with the Dusun religion and Muslim children, who are enrolled into a evidently they lack of a concrete knowledge religious school in Brunei, not just learn Islam about the ethnic adat (custom). through textbooks, but they also study the holy Such lack of knowledge on the Dusun book of Al-Qur’an and practically perform the adat can be found in the interview data of daily prayer as part of the subject taught in the 18 years-old tertiary student who attended curriculum. Moreover, it is a common practice and completed religious education in 1995. for religious schools in the country to perform Talking about her experience during a funeral sholat Zohor and sholat ‘Asar congregationally ceremony of her male relative, she was as the call for the two sholat (prayer) are perplexed to observe the way the Dusuns within the school hours. Thus, in view of this carried out the funeral ceremony of the fact, there should be no question about the deceased. She was confused when she saw her signi icant depth of religious knowledge that deceased uncle was dressed in his favourite these children acquired from the education attire and not in white cotton cloth. What system. Accordingly, one of the indications caused the informant’s confusion was the of such extent of religious understanding basic fact that she could only identify with the possessed by these non-Muslim children is the Islamic funeral ceremony, where a deceased performance of sholat. Muslim is wrapped in a white cotton shroud A Dusun parent, whose children attended after the deceased is bathed and before the and completed religious school in the 1990s, congregational funeral prayer is performed. revealed how her children would take ablution Whilst the Dusun funeral ceremony is carried upon hearing the Adzan (call to prayer) for the out a more elaborative way, where the body of Maghrib prayer and accordingly put on their the deceased is bathed and prepared in a way telekung (white cloak covering a woman’s desired by the family. The family will choose head and body worn at prayer), preparing the kind of dress, hairstyle, and perfume which themselves to perform the sholat. Another would be worn by the deceased (cited in informant, a 33 years-old school teacher, also Ahmad Kumpoh, 2011:33-34).
171 ASIYAH AZ-ZAHRA AHMAD KUMPOH, Some Insights into the Impacts of the Islamic Education
CONVERTING TO ISLAM religious crisis where the empty feeling Based on the above discussion, one cannot equally brings an individual to experience doubt the extent of the Islamic knowledge religious comparison. For instance, a 63 years- possessed by the informants and how the old retired teacher mentioned above never felt Islamic education unmistakably provide contented in life, despite the fact that he had a them with the opportunity to gain a direct very decent job as school headmaster, a lovely experience with Islam and to experiment with family, and a new home. His search for life the religion on their own accord and at their contentment led him to seek beyond himself own pace. Consequently, such acquisition for meaning and purpose and frequently asked of religious knowledge and information himself, “is that all there is?” (cited in Ahmad magni ied the differences between their Kumpoh, 2011). Islamic-in luenced ways of life vis-à-vis the It was during the search for meaning in life ways the Dusuns typically live their life. that the informant realized the fact that his Many informants believed that the spiritual need has been long neglected. The familiarity with Islam inevitably led them to Dusun religion had been very marginal in his evaluate the Dusun religion or to ponder upon life that he seldom oriented his daily life in their existing lack of religious commitment. the direction paralleled to his Dusun belief. For instance, a 57 years-old education of icer It was at this stage that the familiarity with began to read more about Islam, as what he Islam, that he has forged since his school years learnt from school, inevitably made him to convinced the informant that Islam was the think more about his life and the way he lived right religious alternative for him (cited in his life. It was then that he realized how the Ahmad Kumpoh, 2011). Muslims have their life objectives, particularly Similarly, a retired army personnel for the afterlife; whereas as a Dusun, he did initially could not igure out why his new not know much about life and principles, nor job as an army of icer failed to give him a what and which direction in life he should sense of contentment, despite the fact that follow. He did not even know how to get a this is the job he had dreamt about having ticket to Heaven (personal communication since childhood. It was due to the failure with informant X, 25/9/2009). of attaining inner sense of calmness and Another informant, a 63 years-old retired stability in his life that led him to search for teacher, also believed that his growing the solution, and accordingly brought him knowledge about Islam led him to question closer to many Malay Muslims, many of whom the viability of the Dusun religion as he he be friended during the years of his army never performed any ritual akin to that of training in Malaysia. Evidently, what they the Muslim prayer or fasting (cited in Ahmad taught him about Islam sounded familiar and Kumpoh, 2011:129). These interview data, relatively easier for him to comprehend and thus, show how an evaluation of the existing remember as most of the information was religion is a natural personal reaction to the identical to what he learnt at school ten years acquisition of knowledge and information earlier. The only difference now is that the on Islam and that the informants were informant viewed the Islamic education in a actually experiencing a religious crisis where much more appealing and positive light as it they “raised fundamental questions about carried some weight and power of persuasion their existing religious orientation” (Ahmad that supported the informant’s self-pursuit to Kumpoh, 2011:122). understand Islam as a religious alternative. While the above evidence shows how Retrospectively, it can be safely argued that it the deepening level of religious knowledge was the informant’s existing familiarity with brought the individual Dusuns to have a Islam that supported his religious crisis which religious crisis, some other informants signi icantly contributed to the informed experienced the crisis due to the persistent decision he made to eventually convert to feeling emptiness and religious vagueness. Islam (cited in Ahmad Kumpoh, 2011). These feelings represent another type of What can be further said about the
172 TAWARIKH: International Journal for Historical Studies, 5(2) April 2014 conversion experience of the above informants conversion experience of the Dusuns to Islam is that the foundation of the religious reveals the fact that their family did not strictly education that both informants built during prioritise religious observance and practice their school years magni ied the weight of within their familial realm. In fact, in some the anomalies they were experiencing before cases, their parents did not really consider of their conversion. As the Dusun religion failed passing down the Dusun ritualistic knowledge to provide satisfying solutions to ease the to the informants, principally due to the burden of the accumulated anomalities, it incompatibility that can be found between the further enhanced the severity of the religious Dusun rituals and the essence of the secular crisis experienced by the informants. They education as mentioned earlier. Thus, while consequently challenged the religious the parents observed the Dusun rituals, the establishment of the Dusun religion and informants became increasingly disconnected questioned the fundamental issues which from any de inite types of religious could not be solved adequately by the religion. participation within their own ethnic group. This caused them to lose con idence in Accordingly, the informants essentially had their ancestor’s religion, a stimulus for the no speci ic religion they needed to disengage informants to move away from the ethnic themselves from or any religion to question religion and eventually decided to convert to its reliability which otherwise could trigger a Islam instead. religious crisis. What was left to be done is for Some informants, however, did not the informants to take the public declaration experience any observable religious crisis in of Kalimah Syahadah (the profession of faith their conversion experience. Such absence of that “there is no God other than Allah, and that crisis is evident in the conversion experience the Prophet Muhammad is His messenger”) of the individuals whose academic background in order to of iciate the Islamic characteristics includes an attendance to a religious school which they have acquired and thus become a until they graduated. As mentioned earlier, true Muslim. their enrolment to the religious education All in all, a signi icant number of informants means they were not only learning about Islam agree with the fact the exposure towards through textbook, but, similar to their Muslim Islamic education had led them to see classmates, they also learnt Islam through Islam as an appealing option and the right practical actions in order to conform to the religious alternative for them. Moreover, the essential objectives of religious education in inclination to see Islam as a viable religious providing the school children with spiritual option is more visible in the experience of exercise and disciplines. those who constantly encountered Muslim Consequently, the informants of this family members, friends, neighbours, work category admit the fact that Islam is the only colleagues, and other Muslim individuals religion that they have ever been exposed within their personal network. Through to and clearly, such foundation of Islamic such constant encounters, close interactions knowledge was signi icantly at the expense of and observation, the seemingly every day their ancestral religion that they essentially conduct of the Muslims within their personal did not have any concrete knowledge about. network could effectively transform into For instance, the interview data reveals an instrumentally in luential behaviour that many informants were grappled that embody a strong sense of persuasion with problems in explaining the essential (Ahmad Kumpoh, 2012:594). Thus, when functions of the Temarok ceremony and that the schooling experience together with the they had never actually witnessed, let alone personal encounter promote a strong sense of participated in, the ceremony. Similarly, many recognition towards Islam, the condition could of the informants also failed to explain the easily sway the Dusuns’ religious preference Dusun adat (customary laws) in general (cited towards Islam and even more so within the in Ahmad Kumpoh, 2011). circumstances, where the engagement with Moreover, a closer inspection on the the ethnic religion is challenged and can no
173 ASIYAH AZ-ZAHRA AHMAD KUMPOH, Some Insights into the Impacts of the Islamic Education longer be sustained. feeds the Dusuns with necessary information As the Dusuns increasingly questioned about Islam, the need to carry out a religious the feasibility of adhering to their ethnic quest which is normally experienced by religion, they began to prepare themselves to potential converts to the prospective faith break from the religion and such preparation (Rambo, 1993:56) becomes redundant and normally involve the utilisation of the unnecessary. Instead, the converts would make previously acquired Islamic education. The an adjustment from having a mere casual interview data of the informants reveal that familiarity with Islam to a tentative religious their preparation for conversion to Islam attachment which later led them to the includes a ritual experimentation or ritual- desirable direction of religious conversion. testing, such as fasting and performing the sholat (prayer), that effectively helped them to CONCLUSION prepare their psyche for the conversion as well The resilient image of an Islamic country as to remove the scepticism of those around that Brunei has been projecting is a long- them who doubted their ability, particularly established fact. The indings of this study is of those within their family network (cited in yet another evidence to illustrate the ways Ahmad Kumpoh, 2011:142). how an individual living in Brunei has been For instance, a 39 years-old mosque of icer instinctively imbued with Islamic in luence utilised the knowledge about sholat that she and ideas to the extent that it would be learnt from school to carry out the prayer surprising to come across with a non-Muslim in order to convince her elder brother who local who never heard anything related to the doubted her ability to be an observant Muslim religion. Moreover, Islam not only impacts if she converted to Islam. Similarly, a 23 years- and in luences signi icantly the political, old student also performed sholat before her social, and economic policies of the country, conversion in order to convince her family but it is also a vehicle for the advancement that she did not make the decision out of of the dominant Malay cultural and social nothing. Apparently, the informant did not ind life among the population. The advent and it dif icult to carry out the religious duty as the further deepening of the religion has she already acquired the practical knowledge essentially elevated the awareness among the about the Muslim prayer during her schooling non-Muslim population, including the Dusuns years (cited in Ahmad Kumpoh, 2011). as discussed in this paper, towards Islam as This, therefore, indicates a natural the state religion and as one of the integral progression in religious knowledge, elements of Melayu Islam Beraja (Malay where the informants had developed new Islamic Monarchy). perspectives about themselves as the ritual As evident from the discussion in this experimentation, provides them with paper, those who receive formal Islamic convincing evidence of their ability to become education through school system had the a proper Muslim. Based on the Islamic tendency to develop a rather strong familiarity knowledge, which was somewhat innocently with Islam, although many of them considered acquired from school before, these Dusuns the Islamic education at this point as facts- essentially made an educated decision to and- igures type of learning rather than the break from their ethnic religion and to convert theological representation of the religion. In to Islam accordingly. other words, the Dusuns might question the All in all, it can be safely argued that the principles of Islam as compared to those of profound reliance on the Islamic education, their ethnic religion, but the Islamic education that the Dusuns primarily gained from school they acquired does not necessarily imply their curriculum, provides the suf icient foundation sense of belief in Islam and its teachings. which supports their conversion to Islam. It was only when the Dusun individual This is clearly an apparent impact of the has the intention to learn further about the Islamic education on the Dusuns. Moreover, religion after experiencing a religious crisis as the acquisition of the Islamic education that the Islamic knowledge will be utilised to
174 TAWARIKH: International Journal for Historical Studies, 5(2) April 2014 support the individual’s religious experience. Pendidikan dan Asrama. Bandar Seri Begawan: Consequently, the initial curiosity that they Kementerian Pendidikan. Lubis, Maimun Aqsha, Ramlee Mustapha & Abdullah might have at the beginning has now been Awang Lampoh. (2009). “Integrated Islamic transformed into trust and mutual respect Education in Brunei Darussalam” in Journal of Islamic they developed towards Islam. This is when and Arabic Education, 1(2), pp.51-60. a religious conversion is considered and Mansurnoor, Iik Ari in. (2012). “Sharing, Preserving, and recognised as an option, clearly a signi icant Transforming the Past: Brunei’s Islamic Model of Cultural Dialogue and Development” in TAWARIKH: step forward in forging a closer identi ication International Journal for Historical Studies, 3(2), with the of icial religion of the country, and pp.125-153. Available [online] also at: www. ultimately with Brunei’s national philosophy. tawarikh-journal.com [accessed in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam: May 12, 2013]. Maxwell, W.E. (1881). “An Account of the Malay ‘Chiri’ a Sanskrit Formula” in Journal of the Royal Asiatic References Society, 13, pp.80-101. MoE [Ministry of Education] Brunei Darussalam. Abu Bakar, Al-Haadi. (2010). “Surge in Number of Non- (1990). Education in Brunei Darussalam. Bandar Seri Muslims at Religious Schools in Brunei” in Brunei Begawan: Permanent Secretary’s Of ice, Ministry of Times [newspaper]. Bandar Seri Begawan: 15th April, Education. p.4. MoE [Ministry of Education] Brunei Darussalam. st Ahmad Kumpoh, Asiyah az-Zahra. (2011). “Conversion (2009). The National Education System for the 21 to Islam: The Case of the Dusun Ethnic Group in Century SPN 21. Bandar Seri Begawan: Curriculum Brunei Darussalam”. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. United Development Department, Ministry of Education. Kingdom: University of Leicester. Mohd Daud, Awang Haji Abdul Hamid [Dato Seri Setia] Ahmad Kumpoh, Asiyah az-Zahra. (2012). “Keberkesanan bin. (2004). Perkembangan Persekolahan Agama di Da’wah dalam Proses Pengislaman: Kajian Kes Etnik Negara Brunei Darussalam dari Tahun 1956-1984 Dusun di Brunei Darussalam” in Norarfan Zainal Masihi. Bandar Seri Begawan: Dewan Bahasa dan et al. [eds]. Membongkar Rahsia Pendidikan Islam. Pustaka Brunei. Brunei Darussalam: Kolej Universiti Perguruan Personal communication with informant A, one of the Ugama Seri Begawan, pp.591-597. Dusun Muslim converts, in Tutong District, Brunei Alas, Yabit. (2009). “Tanah Leluhur Masyarakat Darussalam, on 9th July 2009. Dusun: Perspektif Linguistik” in South East Asia: A Personal communication with informant B, one of the Multidisciplinary Journal, 9, pp.107–121. Available Dusun Muslim converts, in Tutong District, Brunei [online] also at http://www.ubd.edu.bn/academic/ Darussalam, on 16th July 2009. faculty/FASS/SEA/vol9/SEA-v9-yabit.pdf [accessed Personal communication with informant C, one of in Bandar Seri Begawan: May 15, 2013]. the Dusun non-Muslim, in Tutong District, Brunei Brown, D.E. (1980). “Hiranyagarbha: The Hindu Cosmic Darussalam, on 19th July 2009. Egg and Brunei’s Royal Line” in Brunei Museum Personal communication with informant D, one of the Journal, 4(4), pp.30-37. 23-years old Dusun student at the secondary school, Evans, I.H.N. (1917). “Notes on Some Beliefs and Customs in Tutong District, Brunei Darussalam, on 25th July of the ‘Orang Dusuns’ in British North Borneo” in The 2009. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Personal communication with informant E, one of non- Britain and Ireland, 47, pp.151-159. Muslim school teachers, in Muara District, Brunei Haji Ibrahim, Haji Abdul Latif bin. (2003). Melayu Islam Darussalam, on 2nd August 2009. Beraja: Pengantar Huraian. Bandar Seri Begawan: Personal communication with informant F, one of APB UBD (Akademi Pengajian Brunei, Universiti 44-years old non-Muslim municipal staff, in Muara Brunei Darussalam). District, Brunei Darussalam, on 2nd August 2009. Hussainmiya, B.A. (1995). Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III Personal communication with informant G, one of and Britain: The Making of Brunei Darussalam. Kuala 37-years-old teacher of Dusun Muslim converts, in Lumpur: Oxford University Press. Tutong District, Brunei Darussalam, on 5th August JPI [Jabatan Pengajian Islam]. (1996). Pendidikan Ugama 2009. di Negara Brunei Darussalam. Bandar Seri Begawan: Personal communication with informant H, one of Kementerian Hal Ehwal Ugama. the Dusun non-Muslim, in Muara District, Brunei JPK [Jabatan Perchetakan Kerajaan]. (1959). Darussalam, on 9th August 2009. Perlembagaan Negeri Brunei, 1959. Brunei: Jabatan Personal communication with informant I, one of Perchetakan Kerajaan. the Dusun non-Muslim, in Muara District, Brunei King, V.T. (1994). “What is Brunei Society? Re lections on Darussalam, on 9th August 2009. a Conceptual and Ethnographic Issue” in South East Personal communication with informant J, a Dusun Asia Research, 2, pp.176-186. housewife who converted to Islam in 1998, in Tutong KP [Kementerian Pendidikan] Brunei Darussalam. District, Brunei Darussalam, on 15th August 2009. (2006). Buku Panduan Disiplin bagi Institusi Personal communication with informant K, a 51 years-
175 ASIYAH AZ-ZAHRA AHMAD KUMPOH, Some Insights into the Impacts of the Islamic Education
old welfare of icer in 2003, in Tutong District, Brunei Personal communication with informant S, a 58 years-old Darussalam, on 15th August 2009. army personnel who converted to Islam, in Tutong Personal communication with informant L, a 39 years- District, Brunei Darussalam, on 15th September old broadcasting of icer who converted to Islam, in 2009. Muara District, Brunei Darussalam, on 20th August Personal communication with informant T, a 55 years- 2009. old village head irst learnt at primary school who Personal communication with informant M, one of converted to Islam, in Tutong District, Brunei the Dusun non-Muslim, in Muara District, Brunei Darussalam, on 22nd September 2009. Darussalam, on 25th August 2009. Personal communication with informants U, 51 years- Personal communication with informant N, one of old Dusun male who converted to Islam, in Tutong the Dusun non-Muslim, in Muara District, Brunei District, Brunei Darussalam, on 22nd September Darussalam, on 25th August 2009. 2009. Personal communication with informant O, a 41 years- Personal communication with informant V, a Dusun old public relation of icer who converted to Islam, in parent whose children attended and completed Muara District, Brunei Darussalam, on 29th August religious school in the 1990s, in Tutong District, 2009. Brunei Darussalam, on 29th September 2009. Personal communication with informant P, a 51 years- Personal communication with informant W, a 33 years- old welfare of icer who converted to Islam, in Muara old school teacher who converted to Islam, in Tutong District, Brunei Darussalam, on 29th August 2009. District, Brunei Darussalam, on 29th September Personal communication with informant Q, a 33 years- 2009. old Dusun, who is working with a government Personal communication with informant X, a 57 years- department that is responsible for supplying material old education of icer who converted to Islam, for television documentaries, in Muara District, in Tutong District, Brunei Darussalam, on 25th Brunei Darussalam, on 2nd September 2009. September 2009. Personal communication with informant R, a 53 years- Rambo, L.R. (1993). Understanding Religious Conversion. old non-Muslim teacher at the secondary school and New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. former student at the teachers’ training college, in Muara District, Brunei Darussalam, on 7th September 2009.
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