I, Science Editor Interviews Simon Singh

I, Science (Print) ISSN 2044-2114 I, Science (Online) ISSN 2044-2122

I,ScienceSummer 2010

Inside: I, Science Editor P.8 interviews Simon Singh 1 From the editor

I, Science is back for one more run! And what an issue we have in store for you. If, like me, you’ve been enjoying the World Editorial TEam Cup, take a breather from the disappointment Editor in chief and excitement, and pick Adrian Giordani up the latest I, Science Production issue. Read the exclusive interview I had with Dr. Henry Lau Simon Singh about his recent libel case win with Aurelie Perthuison the British Chiropractic Association. Also, discover the scientific controversy surrounding the Icelandic Contributers Anne Coleman volcano, ‘Eyjafjallajokull’ and the terrible conse- Adrian Giordani quences of what is possibly the worst man made oil Contents Ailbhe Goodbody spill in history. Find out the science that could make Laura Greenhalgh the possibility of mechanical devices move indepen- Pippa Hough Henry Lau dently of electricity and how science is both ‘hero Chris Noble and villain’ in the world of high performance sport. Jon Primmer Dom Rees-Roberts With the prevalence of pseudo-scientific theories Sophie Robinson Cecilia Rosen such as homeopathy, scientology and creationism, it Phil Sandwell is now more important than ever to differentiate fact Rhiannon Smith from fiction. Through peer review, open public debate Greg Szulgit and intellectual scrutiny, dubious ideologies should COVER ARTWORK be put to the test. One would think rationality would Trilce Sandoval Similä prevail but humans are also inherently irrational. The majority of people behind pseudo-scientific / denialist I,science is produced and pub- theories are well organised, maybe conventional sci- lished in association with Felix, ence should adapt this trend if they want their voice to the student newspaper of Imperial College be heard.

I, science (Print) Check out the latest science communication news and ISSN 2044-2114 features on our website at http://dougal.union.ic.ac. I, science (Online) ISSN 2044-2122 uk/media/iscience/. You can email us your constructive comments / criticisms about this issue and for any other Felix Newspaper questions at [email protected], or post them on Beit Quad Twitter: http://twitter.com/I_science_mag. Prince Consort Road London SW7 2BB T: 020 7594 8072 I also wish to thank all our proof-reading, illustrating, E: [email protected] producing and writing staff for their original contribu- tions. I previously mentioned that the last issue was our Copyright © Felix 2010 final publication, so let me categorically confirm that this Printed by Indigo Press issue is really the last I, Science magazine from the current Cambridge Road, Southampton team. As our tenure is up, we hope you’ve enjoyed our sci- S014 6TB, 023 8023 1196 ence news and features throughout the academic year. I’ve personally enjoyed every minute of it and I hope next year’s I, Science team will maintain and improve upon its quality and dedication - have a great summer and farewell from I, Science 2009/2010.

06| Asian Beauties

08| I, Science Editor interviews Simon Singh

10| A tale of Catastrope

15| Technology, Tubes and Tone

19| Charging all the way

3 Top News

Vitamin A boost fights diseases in modification does carry, favouring maize Title,50474,en.html developing countries conservation”, says Mexico’s National http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs259/en/ - Cecilia Rosen University researcher Elena Álvarez- Yin and Yang - Adrian Giordani Buylla. rare genetic variation in maize What do alien life and pregnancy tests may hold the key to a nutrition Sleeping sickness solution could A have in common? These concepts seem boost in developing countries. Vitamin alleviate poverty in rural Africa worlds apart but UK scientists have been A deficiency, an important cause of - Rhiannon Smith performing technological alchemy with disease, could be tackled with a cheap and instruments designed to search for life on powerful method combining advanced new strategy in the battle against Mars. genetics and traditional agriculture. Asleeping sickness could help to overcome poverty and disease in Africa. The ExoMars mission is the first attempt A new study in Nature Genetics shows to locate organic material from samples that genetic analysis is able to detect African sleeping sickness is caused by a one to two metres just below the surface of higher levels of beta–carotene, a source parasite – ‘Trypanosoma brucei’ – which Mars. The aim is to explore the chemistry, of vitamin A, in maize. Carotene-B is carried by the tsetse or ‘tik tik’ fly. Sci- mineralogy and the evidence of life on deficiency causes diseases in five million entists have developed a new technique to the Red Planet. Perhaps the most likely children and ten million pregnant women kill this deadly parasite – by damaging a type of life-related organic matter is fossil every year, according to the World Health crucial protein, which it uses to evade the material. Organization. immune system. Professor Mark Sephton from Imperial The research found that changes in two University of St Andrews’ scientists are College works on the Life Marker Chip genes in one variety of maize produced up confident that they can use this technique (LMC). Its system acts like a detergent to five times more beta–carotene than in to “develop effective, safe and cheap drugs by using ‘surfactants’ to trap organic other varieties. against this neglected disease”, says lead material in an emulsion so that they’re researcher, Dr. Terry Smith. suspended in water. The surfactants are of Other sources of food, like carrots, potential advantage to the petroleum in- contain high concentrations of vitamin A, African sleeping sickness infects ap- dustry. “The petroleum industry encoun- but are unaffordable in poor countries. proximately 60,000 people each year, and ters a number of problems when it comes without treatment it is fatal. Symptoms to using toxic organic solvents or cleaning Scientists looked for a way to improve include fever, headaches and joint pains – water used in the production of oil. The nutrition in maize. By surveying genes and as the disease progresses – confusion, UK is heavily involved in this industry in different corn varieties, they found a lack of coordination and disruption to the and the technology can make the process link between genetic variations and an sleep cycle; giving the disease its name. cleaner, greener and more efficient.” increase of carotene-B. After using natural plant breeding, researchers introduced Currently, there are only two drugs avail- Professor David Cullen from Cranfield these variations into tropical maize strains able in treating sleeping sickness; one, University works on the analysis phase of commonly grown in developing countries. ‘Melarsoprol’, is arsenic-based and kills the LMC, which is based on ‘lateral-flow five percent of patients and the other, immunodiagnostics’. The common use The final breeding, researchers found, ‘Eflornithine’, is too expensive and insuf- of the technology is in modern pregnancy contained a concentration of more than ficiently effective to be used on a wide test kits in high street chemists. “It is fifteen micrograms of beta–carotene scale in developing countries. This new also used in more clinical settings for per gram of grain; enough to alleviate development could help to overcome such rapid diagnosis of various diseases and nutritional deficiencies where maize is a limitations. research is now on-going into spinning dietary staple. the technology into other fields such as The same parasite also infects cattle, caus- environmental applications, security and Jianbing Yan, project coordinator at ing a disease called ‘nagana’. This kills defence.” One potential application would the International Maize and Wheat three million livestock each year, with seri- be for rapid onsite results from drug tests Improvement Centre said the technique ous ramifications for poor farmers. “The of roadside suspects. will soon be applied in Mexico and China. disease in cattle is a major obstacle to the economic development of the rural areas ExoMars technology has an ‘Earth-bound “This is the right approach because it has affected”, said the WHO. yin’ to its ‘Mars-bound yang’. While the a great potential for assisted breeding ‘new science’ will not begin operations on and of success in features that are of Together, sleeping sickness and nagana Mars until 2019, the terrestrial applica- interest for the agricultural industry and cost the African economy more than £2 tions are already here or just around the the nutritional aspect. And it does not billion every year. corner. imply the biosecurity risks that transgenic Sources: http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/news/archive/2010/ http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2010-06/uol-lom060210.php 4 Ash Wednesday By Anne Coleman Top News eeks, nearly months, after ash started to solidify and shatter; crum- consistent with the predicted plumes” the initial outburst of the bling off the blades. Miraculously, the en- (Ryall, Nature 2010); the subsequent Wunpronounceable Icelan- gines started to work again, though the pi- test flights sent up by KLM, Lufthansa, dic volcano, Eyjafjallajokull, much of lot proceeded with an emergency landing. BA, and aircraft maker Airbus returned Europe is still experiencing the havoc This near catastrophic accident caused successfully with no damage. Airline wreaked by the plume of ash billowing the International Civil Aviation Organiza- leaders began to question the validity of 20,000 – 30,000 ft above us. As a result tion (ICAO – pronounced I-Kay-Oh) to empirically-based models. The Interna- of this micro-sized dust, with the poten- identify volcano ash as a serious aircraft tional Air Transport Association (IATA), tial to shutdown aircraft engines, much hazard and a zero-ash-tolerance level who support the interests of airlines, were of the aviation industry was brought to was introduced. Volcanic advisory a sudden and prolonged standstill on centers were also set up around the the 14th April 2010. Travellers, workers world, including London. When Revenue of up to $130 and cargo alike were left stranded. But the Icelandic volcano went into its million a day was being the dramatic Dunkirk style rescues and second phase of eruption in April tales of epic journeys home are old news. 2010, we were not as unprepared lost worldwide. People are even tiring of hearing about or unaware as the media may have my own treacherous trek back from led us to believe. quick to state their criticisms, “we must Portugal (it was a sixty-hour marathon make decisions based on the real situa- involving almost all forms of transport). With flights and fleets of aircraft be- tions in the sky, not on theoretical mod- ing grounded across Europe, the airline els.” Science has been distrusted in the The time has now come to ask differ- industry was beginning to feel the pinch. past for not listening to the knowledge of ent questions. Questions such as, why Revenue of up to $130 million a day was ‘lay specialists’ who may not be scientists, we had a blanket ban on flying for six being lost worldwide. The safety conscious but who have a great deal of experience days when the levels of ash may have ash tolerance level established by ICAO working within their field. IATA drew on been at an acceptable concentration for was brought into question. It turned out the notion that academic science can seem air travel. Why did airlines and associ- that airline and engine manufacturers abstract and detached from reality. ated organizations react so vehemently had been reluctant to commission studies against the scientific advice given in on the impact of ash on their aircraft, so Arguments aside, months after the initial accordance with safety regulations? ICAO were going on minimal evidence. disruption we are still faced with this And what can we do to overcome this With mounting pressure, mechanics seemingly unsolvable problem. Whilst ‘ash-ridden problem’, which looks set and engineers set to work establishing preventing the ash from escaping seems to impact upon the way we travel for whether planes could actually tolerate a unlikely (though far fetched solutions the next twenty years? Perhaps even higher threshold of ash. All the while, a such as putting a cap on it have been more importantly, the infallibility of blanket ban was imposed. Government suggested) our only hope of side stepping science has been brought into disrepute officials had no choice but to keep in line Eyjafjallajokull may be to develop new yet again. As we face more issues that with a - no evidence could still imply a computer programs installed in planes to require science to save the day, are we potential risk - policy. But when the safety detect the presence of ash. These would putting too much pressure on expert level of ash tolerance was raised to 2,000 allow the pilot to chose a different flight knowledge to provide us with solutions? micrograms per cubic metre six days after path if necessary. Pressures from outside In this consumer society where people the initial flight ban, airlines couldn’t help the academic sphere may speed up this want things now, does the lengthy and but feel hard done by. However, Andrew development of new technologies, with fluidic nature of science no longer live Haines, chief executive for the Civil the likes of Sir Richard Branson calling up to our expectations? Aviation Authority, backed the scientists’ the ongoing closures “beyond a joke”. work, “we achieved what often takes years However, as lengthy a process as it may This story begins in 1982 with the near in 96 hours. When you are dealing with be, if we can rely upon science to remain crash landing of a British Airways flight people’s lives it is not enough to say, this relatively unconflicted, without additional over West Java, Indonesia. Ash from the guidance looks a bit restrictive, let’s just economic influences or airline sharehold- erupting Mount Galunggung nearby had make up a less restrictive one, you have ers to placate, it does remain our best bet been sucked into the aircraft turbines to agree new safety guidelines that are in terms of keeping us safe in the skies and was exposed to the 1,500 °C heat evidence based.” above. of the roaring engines. Powdery ash melts at 1,000 °C so inside the engine it Whilst ash concentration was one debat- References: immediately became like molten glass. able issue, another highly criticized tool BBC News - http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/8634276.stm This ‘gooey’ substance then coated the was a computer model used by the Met New Scientist - http://www.newscientist.com/blogs/shortsharp- science/2010/04/paul-marks-technology-correspo.html turbine blades causing the engine to office to predict the movement of the Nature – Questions fly over ash-cloud models - http://www.nature. shut down. With nerves of steel the pilot ash plume. This model originated from a com/news/2010/100427/full/4641253a.html managed to glide the plane down to radioactive tracker after the Chernobyl nu- Guardian - http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/may/17/ash- land, but something strange happened clear disaster of 1986. Although scientists cloud-disruptions-continue-airports

at 20,000ft. With the engines off and claimed to have predicted ash dispersion Brian Wynne Talk on Monday 19th April 2010 from 12-2p.m. at cool air flowing into them, the molten correctly, “observations so far have been Imperial College 5 You thought By Sophie Robinson you had it hard ummer is on its way and with it comes the annual inva- ance just in time to have sex. Unfortunately, in aphids such as the sion of the greenfly. Gourmet meals from sweet smelling woolly apple aphid, the production of sexual organs sometimes Srosebushes provided by gardeners across the country, free comes at the expense of mouthparts, so a conversation over a public transport as they attach themselves to the bright yellow, romantic dinner for two is out of the question. high-visibility jackets of cyclists, and as the warm evenings draw to a close, swimming a few laps in a refreshing glass of chilled But, the troubles of life as an aphid do not end at childbirth. Ants wine. What more could these creatures ask for? But these little such as Lasius fuliginosus have learnt to exploit aphid species critters, more commonly known to science as such as the oak aphid (Stomaphis quercus), and the thyme aphid aphids, don’t always have (Aphis serpylli). The ants are able to win over the aphids with a such a pleasant existence. little bit of stroking and massaging, sometimes called ‘milking’. But this is not an act of good-will by the ants, they have ulterior Girls, if you thought the male motives. The aphids get so excited that they excrete a bit of hon- to female ratio at Imperial was eydew, which is lapped up by the ants. In return for this sugary bad, think again, you should fix, the ants take on the role of bodyguard and babysitter, keeping try being an aphid in sum- the aphids from harm by fighting off their enemies. mer time. Often the entire population consists entirely Another troubled aphid: the cabbage aphid, (Brevicoryne brassi- of females, and most of these cae), is the suicide bomber of the aphid world. These aphids take will never get the chance to up chemicals from their host plants called glucosinolates and have sex. They spend the entire store them in their circulatory system; the haemolymph. They summer reproducing ‘asexu- also have the ability to produce an enzyme called myrosinase ally’, creating miniature clones which is capable of breaking down glucosinolates. Myrosinases of themselves. I’m sure we’ve are kept spatially separate from glucosinolates in muscles close to all heard about the horrors of their heads. Thus, the cabbage aphids essentially become biologi- child birth, but child birth for the cal weapons, although they don’t set off their bombs unprovoked. aphids is much worse. Aphids not If enemies such as ladybirds dare to attack them, any injury to only give birth to their daugh- the aphid body which brings myrosinases and glucosinolates ters, but within the abdomens of into contact will result in the rapid, explosive formation of toxic the daughters, granddaughters mustard oils - BOOM! The mustard-oil bomb damages the Often the entire population consists entirely of females, and most of these will never get the chance to have sex

are already developing. This phe- enemy ladybird and warns other aphids to move away and find nomenon is known as ‘telescoping somewhere safe to shelter. generations’ and means that the poor So this summer, when a little aphid casually lands in your hair, aphids have to lumber around during think twice before you reach to squash it, life as an aphid is actu- pregnancy, carrying two generations ally tougher than you think. inside of them. If that wasn’t bad enough, they also have to give birth References E. Kazana, T. W. Pope, L. Tibbles, M. Bridges, J. A. Pickett, A. M. Bones, G. Powell, J. T. Rossiter (2007) up to ten times per day! The cabbage aphid: a walking mustard oil bomb Proc. R. Soc. B. 274:2271-2277

B. Stadler, A. F. G. Dixon (2005) Ecology and evolution of ant-aphid interactions Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. After the females have done all the 36:345–72

hard work through the summer and N. A. Moran (1992) The Evolution of aphid life cycles Annu. Rev. Entomol. 37:321-48 into autumn, when winter is drawing D. C. Gautam, L. R. Verma (1983) Life history of sexuparae and sexual morphs of woolly apple aphid (Erio- near, males finally make an appear- soma lanigerum Hausmann) Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. Anim. Sci. 92:247-251 6 Asian BeautiesBy Ailbhe Goodbody hey appeared overnight in May, occupying the streets and Corridors are ancient migratory routes that elephants have used parks of London. Commuters hurrying to work paused to for generations to travel between forests. Many of these areas Tmarvel at the colours and patterns that brightened up an have been built on, or are being used to produce palm oil and soy. otherwise dreary morning. It became a game with people compet- Elephants continue to try using these corridors as they search ing to see who could find the most colourful big-eared creatures. for food and for mates, resulting in elephants raiding vegetable The Elephant Parade had begun. patches, trampling crops, and damaging property. Elephant and human conflict is inevitable. The Elephant Parade consists of 258 model elephants scattered around London, from Heathrow Terminal 5 to Greenwich. Each The Elephant Family and other charities are working to secure as one is the size of a baby Asian elephant, and is decorated by a many elephant corridors as they can. But why go to all this effort different artist. It is the largest ever outdoor exhibition of its kind. for the Asian elephant? The parade, founded by father and son Mike and Marc Spits, was organised to raise funds for the Elephant Family, a charity aiming Helen Pitman has been involved in the Elephant Parade through to save wild Asian elephants from extinction. her work for the Cambridge-based charity Flora and Fauna. She told me: “They are a beautiful In the past 100 years the popu- animal, gentle and very intelli- lation of wild Asian elephants In the past 100 years the gent. I think humans have quite has diminished by 90%, and a connection with them because their available habitat has re- population of wild Asian they are such an emotional duced by 95% in the same peri- animal and they live in family od. Today, there are only 25,000 elephants has diminished groups, like humans do... There to 30,000 wild Asian elephants aren’t many things that will left, in thirteen countries, living by 90%, and their avail- take your breath away as much in a patchwork of isolated for- as seeing a herd of wild Asian ests. Their range once stretched elephants; it’s quite spectacular from the far corners of China able habitat has reduced and very special to see.” to Syria, covering an area the size of Canada – now their by 95% in the same period Each elephant in the parade range is smaller than the size will be auctioned at the begin- of Spain and decreasing. Asian ning of July, with the proceeds elephants are classified by the International Union for Conserva- donated to the Elephant Family and other charities involved in tion of Nature (IUCN) as ‘endangered’, and on current trends it the project. The London Elephant Parade is a creative way of could be extinct in the wild within the next three decades. drawing attention to the plight of the Asian elephant and gaining support for the Elephant Family’s campaign to get governments Though poaching of elephants for ivory is a problem, the main to act before it is too late. All funds will go towards protecting this threat to the future survival of Asian elephants is their loss of beautiful, exotic and endangered creature. Plus, Londoners can habitat. Asian elephants are amongst the world’s largest land simultaneously have fun elephant spotting. mammals and require a lot of living space. Farming, the build- ing of housing and transport links have forced the Asian elephant into smaller and unsustainable pockets of land.

Tykee Malhotra, a conservation- ist from the charity WildAid who is involved in the Elephant Parade, said: “Protecting elephants is not a very easy job. They’re large mammals, and they need large spaces and a lot of food. Preserving isolated spaces is not the way to go. It’s better to protect [land] corridors so that the gene pool of the elephant stays mixed, and also so that they don’t suffer from losing parts of their herds because they cannot actually cross from one part of the land to the other.”

7 I, Science Editor interviews Simon Singh

By Adrian Giordani

he Editor of I, Science managed to get hold of Dr. Simon stifles scientific debate, then science struggles to move forward. Society in Singh to talk about the recent success in his libel case with general progresses through open discussion - the current libel law hinders Tthe BCA (British Chiropractic Association) and his views the progress of society. on libel law and science communication. Do you now feel it’s easier for science communicators to use ‘fair com- What does the positive outcome of your libel case mean for science ment’ as a defence? communication and libel law? The ruling in my case is a small step forward. It’s not enough to change Had I lost, it would have put the fear of God into science journalists. The the landscape for science journalists. What’s needed is a ‘robust public in- message would have been: “Look at what happened to Simon Singh when terest defence’ which says if you’re writing about a matter of public inter- he stood by his article. He lost a lot of money and reputation. We’d better est, then the libel laws will cut you some slack. They have such a defence not dare stand up for our journalism.” in America and Canada, which means that if you think there’s a public interest issue (e.g., relating to health), then the libel laws will protect you. Because I’ve won, there are two outcomes. First, I hope that it will make As long as you can back up what you’re saying with some evidence. If the journalists more confident about defending their writing. public doesn’t have access to those criticisms, then we are being deprived of the truth. That’s the other fundamental problem with our libel laws; Second, the three appeal court judges said that when a science journalist the public only ever gets to hear half the story. writes about science or medicine, the reason they’re raising an issue is because there’s a debate or I read the blogs, Facebook groups and Twitter. different interpretations over the evidence. Therefore, when look- These were all really important to me personally ing at the defences that a science writer has in a libel case, the default in keeping me sane position should be ‘comment’, as opposed to ‘fact’, which is an easier defence, i.e., you have to show ... And in your case, the public got to hear the other half of the story evidence to support your comment, as opposed to absolute proof to back My case was about chiropractic – I don’t think chiropractors should be up a fact. treating children. Chiropractors probably think they should, although they seem to be changing their minds now. What is the public supposed to do Even though I won, the odds are still against the journalist. Today, Lord if they have a child who has colic? I want the right to say, “I don’t think Lester – the Lib Dem peer – announced that he is going to present a libel that’s a good idea to take your child to the chiropractor and these are the reform bill. If the Government adopts Lord Lester’s bill we might have a reasons why.” If I can’t say that then parents don’t have access to all the new landscape for libel, one that’s less hostile and fairer to journalists. information.

What’s happened to chiropractic now that you’ve won? Are people more Was Lord Lester’s bill a direct or indirect result of you winning your critical? case? The odd thing is people already have been more critical. The British Chiro- Every ten years libel law crops up, but this year there was a perfect storm practic Association tried to block my criticism by suing me for libel. How- in favour of libel reform. The Common Select Committee came out with ever, while my case was ongoing, bloggers began looking at chiropractic a report condemning our libel laws and Jack Straw had a working group websites and now one in four chiropractors is now being investigated look at libel reform. Charities ‘Index on Censorship’ and ‘English PEN’ for allegedly misleading claims. There’s a lots of scrutiny being applied to published a report: Free Speech is not for Sale. ‘Sense About Science’ chiropractic. I hope that the Chiropractic community is looking at what showed how libel affected me, Dr. Peter Wilmshurst, Dr. Ben Goldacre’s, they did wrong. They need to go through deep reflection about what their Prof. Francisco Lacerda’s and Henrik Thomsen in our free speech cases. responsibilities are. Moreover, the Americans have made it clear that they find our libel laws Were there times you wished you were back in science, or was it impor- unacceptable. They have created legislation to block the impact of English tant that you were unravelling a major flaw? How did you feel when you libel law on American citizens. won? The science aspect has been critical in terms of libel reform. Science pro- I defended my article because I thought what I said was fair, accurate and gresses through open discussion, frank debate and robust criticism. If libel important. There were periods when I felt incredibly depressed, because 8 for 90% of the libel action I was against the ropes. It looked bad. It looked Absolutely, very much so. like I might lose; lose my case, lose £200,000, lose my reputation. The reason I kept on with my defence was because of the huge support I How can the new coalition Government assist you to reform libel law? received; Felix and bloggers published articles, and sceptic groups around the world raised concerns about my case. Before the election all three parties manifestos’ were committed to libel reform. The way I looked at it was whoever wins this election should still I now have a lot of people to thank. In fact, this morning I emailed the have libel reform on the agenda. In point 10 of the Conservative / Lib Dem father of sceptic movement, James Randi, explaining that if he hadn’t coalition agreement, they’ve specifically agreed to the idea of reviewing backed me at a crucial stage, then I don’t know if I would’ve had the libel. confidence to continue. We interviewed When I won, it was an extraordinary time because on March 20th I the current libel law Ben Goldacre became a father. On April 1st the appeal court ruled in my favour. From for I, Science; he being on the ropes for two years; I suddenly landed the knockout blow. hinders the progress of thinks scientists On April 15th the BCA dropped its case. It’s hard to put into words... I should be the wish I could put it into words. I’m a journalist, I’m a writer, I should be society predominant able to put it into words and I’m failing dismally. science communicators and that there should be more science editors instead. As I, Science Editor I also take libel into consideration when reviewing articles. Where does the line need to be drawn? That’s a very good point. For ten years I assumed that we needed more science communication and more science in the media. In fact, what we At the moment the balance is on the side of the claimant. The balance need is not more science, but more ‘good’ science in the media. I would needs to move so it’s fairer. The law of libel should require journalists to not be bothered by less science coverage as long as it’s of high quality. make statements that are fair and backed up by reasonable evidence, but We don’t need to cover all scientific research. What we need to cover it needs to stop the current situation whereby the entire burden is on the are the major systematic reviews and research that really affect how the defendant. public think.

We could reform the law by getting rid of libel for large companies. Cur- Are you planning any TV shows / books or will you go after other pseu- rently, the message is; “for God’s sake don’t criticise large corporations’ doscientific claimants? because they’ll come after you”. Companies wouldn’t have libel anymore in the situation I’m describing I’m going to spend the rest of but they would have access to ‘malicious falsehood’. A company can sue a the summer getting my life journalist for malicious falsehood if they think that a journalist has writ- back in order and enjoy being ten about them unfairly and without reasonable evidence. a father. Towards the end of the summer I hope a new

In fact, what we need is not more science, but more ‘good’ science in the media. I would not be bothered by less science coverage as long as it’s of high quality

How did you utilise the internet during your case and are you now using project will emerge. My career has it for libel law reform? taken lots of odd turns. When I was at Imperial I wanted to be a I haven’t used it much. When you’re a defendant in a case like this, you’re particle physicist. When I did my advised not to say anything, because everything you say will be open to PHD in particle physics I moved legal scrutiny. For the first year and most of the second year I said very into TV. When I was in TV I moved little in my case. However, everybody else started talking a great deal and into writing books. When I was the internet played a huge role. I read the blogs, Facebook groups and writing books I moved into broad- Twitter. These were all really important to me personally in keeping me casting. From broadcasting I’ve sane. They were important in spreading the word that there’s something moved into campaigning for libel wrong with libel law generally. Once campaigning started, the online com- reform. Anything could happen. munities I mentioned were really important in getting people to back the campaign for libel reform. We now have 50,000 people signed up. If you The full interview is also avail- haven’t’ signed up already, the place to visit is www.libelreform.org. Sign able on the I, Science website: up; show that you support science, free speech and reform of the English http://dougal.union.ic.ac.uk/ libel laws. media/iscience. Get in touch and let us know So a ‘grassroots groundswell’ built up around you, organically growing what you think via http://twitter. through people connecting and speaking out online. com/I_science_mag or email us at: [email protected]. 9 9 A Tale of Catastrophe n 20th April, the the pipe combined with the stopped the Montara oil leak culated the leak rate at around offshore oil rig Deep- cold seawater to form meth- off the coast of Western Aus- 70,000 barrels per day. After Owater Horizon was ane hydrate crystals, which tralia last year. the release of a new video on in the final stages of drilling clogged the piping. A second 19th May, he said “I can’t say an oil well on the ocean floor dome was later lowered to the Since the leak is on the ocean how much in excess of 70,000 when a blowout triggered an seabed but will only be used if bed, an accurate measurement [barrels per day] this leak is, explosion, injuring seventeen a different strategy, lowering of the rate of oil flow is very but I would use the word ‘con- workers and taking the lives a pipe into the leak, is unsuc- difficult. This is compounded siderable’.” of eleven others. Over one cessful. This pipe currently by BP, the owner of the well, month later, despite the ongo- collects around 2,000 barrels refusing to allow independent Just ten days after the original ing effort to prevent the flow (320,000 litres) each day, researchers access to the leak. blowout, aided by cold, strong of oil into the Gulf of Mexico, while preparations to pump BP initially estimated that southerly winds, the spill area this spill is expected to be the heavy fluids into the broken 1,000 barrels (160,000 litres) reached 10,000 square kilome- worst environmental disaster blowout preventer are made. were leaking into the ocean per tres. A model released by the in United States history. This would restrict most of the day. They have since increased United States National Oce- flow from the well before it is this estimate to 5,000 barrels anic and Atmospheric Admin- A blowout occurs when pres- finally sealed with cement. To per day. A method known as istration hypothesised around sure systems controlling a well permanently close the leak, a ‘particle image velocimetry’ 35% of the crude oil spilt fail, causing an uncontrolled relief well will be drilled into was used, in which fluids are would evaporate but 50-60% release of oil. These are not the original, to allow a con- seeded with tracer particles to would remain within 30cm of uncommon; thirty nine were trolled retirement of the well, a investigate the speed of flow. the surface, with the remain- reported on oil rigs in the procedure which successfully Associate Professor Steven der dispersed into the deep

Gulf of Mexico in the first five Containment boomsWerely of Perdue University ocean. However Robert Bea, months of 2009. The Deep- in Indiana cal- who serves on the National water Horizon itself suffered Academy of Engineering panel eighteen minor spills and fires on pipeline safety, disagreed. in its nine-year lifetime, but “There’s an equal amount [of its final accident proved to be oil] that could be subsurface catastrophic when the failsafe too,” he argues, in the form of device, the well’s blowout huge undersea plumes, but it preventer (BOP), failed to en- is “damn near impossible to gage. It is thought that the ex- track”. Researchers from the plosion was powerful enough University of Southern Mis- not only to cut the communi- sissippi identified an oil plume cation lines between the rig from their boat measuring and the BOP, meaning it could 16km long, 4.8km wide and not be activated, but also to 91m thick; this explains why disable the automatic backup BP’s approximation, derived system. With the well 1,500m from data collected from below sea level, remotely- satellites, was so much smaller operated underwater vehicles than the estimate calculated were sent to investigate and by Werely’s particle image later close the valves manu- velocimetry. ally. Although the smallest of the three discovered leaks was A coordinated response was capped, the flow of oil into the launched to contain the oil as ocean was not reduced. much as possible. Initially led by BP until the involvement The next attempt to prevent of the American military, the the oil flow was to place a 125 response was a multi-pronged tonne dome over the largest attack. Primary among the leak and pipe the collected oil preventative measures was to a storage vessel on the sur- the deployment of almost face. While this technique had 150km of containment booms been used on many previous along the Louisiana coastline. blowout leaks, it was untested These long floating barriers at this depth and ultimately have sheets up to a metre long failed when gas leaking from hanging beneath them as they 10 A Tale of Catastrophe By Phil Sandwell rest on the water, blocking Over 2.5 million litres have inspections of all deep-sea oil article7127306.ece the passage of the oil. Despite already been deployed. rigs in the Gulf of Mexico were “Gulf Oil Spill, by the Numbers”, CBS News, http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2010/04/30/ some success, the booms were ordered by the Secretary of the national/main6447428.shtml often rendered ineffective Soon, the environmental im- Interior, and Governor Arnold “BP fights to stop the Gulf of Mexico spill – and Schwarzenegger withdrew his salvage its reputation”, The Guardian, http://www. guardian.co.uk/business/2010/may/16/bp-gulf-of- support for offshore oil rigs mexico-oil-spill along the Californian coast. this spill is expected “US Oil Spill Response Team: Plan To Deploy Dome In 6-8 Days”, Wall Street Journal, http:// online.wsj.com/article/BT-CO-20100503-700843. Thirty years ago a similar html to be the worst blowout in the Gulf of Mexico “AP Top News at 10:50 a.m. EDT”, Associated was caused by the Ixtoc I, Press, http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/ article/ALeqM5g8-DEMtAE9q4i4ySQ0eV_qZefm- environmental disaster which leaked oil at a rate of RQD9FOLFA80 about 12,000 barrels per day “Relief Wells and Subsea Containment”, BP, for nine months before eventu- http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/glo- in United States history balbp/globalbp_uk_english/incident_response/ ally being stopped, after which STAGING/local_assets/images/relief_well_dia- it became the largest acciden- gram.jpg tal oil spill in history. If the “BP MC252 Gulf Of Mexico Response Continues To Escalate On And Below Surface”, BP, http:// when the height of the ocean pact began to be felt as the oil Deepwater Horizon were to www.bp.com/genericarticle.do?categoryId=20129 waves allowed oil to pass over washed ashore. The Governor continue to leak at its current 68&contentId=7061663 them. The makeup of the oil of Louisiana declared a state rate it would easily surpass the “Oil spill is the ‘bad one’ experts feared”, MSNBC, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/36878803/ns/ itself hindered the cleanup of emergency as over 400 Ixtoc I, with the wildlife along technology_and_science-science/ effort; Ed Overton, head of species, including the critically the Gulf Coast and Louisiana’s “In Gulf oil spill, how helpful – or damaging – are a federal chemical hazard endangered Kemp’s Ridley delicate wetlands paying the dispersants?”, Christian Science Monitor, http:// www.csmonitor.com/USA/2010/0515/In-Gulf-oil- assessment team, explained turtle, inhabiting the Gulf highest price. Samantha Joye, spill-how-helpful-or-damaging-are-dispersants that the oil emulsifies with sea Coast’s islands and marsh- Professor of marine science “Agency Orders Use of a Less Toxic Chemical water well, and the mixture of lands were put at risk by the at the University of Georgia, in Gulf”, New York Times, http://www.nytimes. com/2010/05/21/science/earth/21disperse. oil and seawater takes lon- impending oil slick. Sea birds does not understate the impact html?ref=us ger to evaporate than other are particularly vulnerable this accident will have on the “BP says its Gulf oil spill costs now $450 million”, crude oils, is more viscous, as crude oil permeates their environment. “It could take Associated Press, http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5iGgVQq-uQHlrMhFKLy_ less flammable and cannot plumage to reduce buoyancy years, possibly decades, for the V0Hz_7XNwD9FM08MO0 be consumed by microbes as and insulation, as well as caus- [ecosystem] to recover from “Companies involved in the U.S. Gulf rig ac- easily. “That type of mixture ing damage to internal organs an infusion of this quantity cident”, Reuters, http://www.reuters.com/article/ essentially removes all the best by ingesting the oil when they of oil and gas. We’ve never idUSN3011545120100430 oil clean-up weapons”. clean themselves with their seen anything like this before. “California’s Schwarzenegger turns against oil drilling”, BBC News, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/ beaks. When the threat of the It’s impossible to fathom the world/americas/8658825.stm On 1st May, two US Depart- oil moving towards Florida impact.” ment of Defense aircraft became apparent, the state References: were deployed to spray oil opened the shrimping season “How big is the Deepwater Horizon dispersants over the affected one month early to protect its oil spill?”, BBC News Magazine, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/maga- area. Oil dispersants exploit valuable industry, while the zine/8664684.stm

wave energy in breaking up area closed to deep sea fishing “US says BP move to curb oil leak the oil slick into much smaller in the Gulf was extended over ‘no solution’”, BBC News, http:// news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/ameri- particles, thereby aiding their 120,000 square kilometres. cas/8685969.stm

dilution into the seawater and “Giant Plumes of Oil Forming Under eventual biodegradation by The spiralling cost of the the Gulf”, New York Times, http:// www.nytimes.com/2010/05/16/ microorganisms. While the clean-up mission increases us/16oil.html

two dispersants deployed were every day. On May 13th, BP WCCO Video Library, CBS News, approved by the Environmen- revealed the cost of the oil http://wcco.com/video/?id=78277 tal Protection Agency, they spill alone was $450 million, “Fed: Government can’t push BP aside on oil spill”, Yahoo News, were neither the least toxic, increasing by $10 million per http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/ nor most effective of twelve day. In addition, five compa- us_gulf_oil_spill available to BP, who selected nies connected to the disaster, “Oil slick spreads from sunken rig”, CNN, http://edition.cnn. them. Although both chemi- including BP, the manufac- com/2010/US/04/22/oil.rig. cals are banned from use in turer of the blowout preventer explosion/index.html United Kingdom waters, BP and the owner of the Deepwa- “Obama denounces ‘big oil blame game’ as experts ques- justified their use despite their ter Horizon, cumulatively lost tion information on leak”, possible toxicity, as they were an estimated $21 billion from The Times, http://www. timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/ the most readily available. their share prices. Immediate world/us_and_americas/

11 ` Brain versus Brawn ou could be forgiven for thinking that science and sport ments in real time to hone their technical skills. The athlete wears lie at opposite ends of the spectrum. It is rare that we see goggles wirelessly connected to a camera in the hands of their Ythe stereotypical scrawny science nerd using his scientific coach, inside which a live computer-generated image of them- prowess to match the muscular brawn of the high-school jock. selves rowing is displayed. Premiership footballers seldom moonlight as nuclear physicists just to keep their grey cells ticking. The rower is able to see this live footage whilst out on the river. Allowing the athlete to see their technique for themselves can But while some may struggle to achieve the ultimate mix of brains be an extremely effective method of coaching, instead of relying and brawn, science and physical athleticism themselves are not so incompatible. Were it not for a radioactive spider bite, Peter Parker would never have scaled the heights of Manhattan’s tallest the latest developments in buildings as Spiderman. Without physics, Bruce Banner would not have realised the unlimited strength of the Incredible Hulk. mechanics and engineering

In the same way, today’s real-life athletic superheroes depend are beginning to conflict wholly on science in their quest to reach the ultimate peak of human sporting achievement. But in the world of high performance with the fundamental sport, does science fulfill the role of hero or villain? philosophy of sport: the The heroic scientists ethos of fair play Athletes of today rely on scientists to maximize their training and performance. A top-level athlete will rarely be seen without a physiologist, taking regular blood samples to make sure the athlete is exercising with exactly the right amount of lactate (the solely on audio communication in which some elements are ‘lost chemical produced during exercise which causes the burning in translation’. sensation in muscles) in their body. The scientific knowledge of physiologists is vital in helping design better training programs Biomechanical telemetry equipment is also used to measure the for each athlete. quality of each stroke during training. Real time data on power, length, angle and pace measured to thousandths of a second has replaced the traditional reliance on eyesight and repeated ‘trial and error’. Real time number crunch- ing means coaches can reinforce what they are seeing with hard evidence, and athletes get immediate feedback on their progress.

A false hero?

But in other sports

GB Olympic Rowing team. High altitude training camp at Silvretta Lake in Austria the latest developments in mechanics and engineering are Aside from their ‘trusty side- beginning to conflict with the fundamental philosophy of sport: kick’ physiologist, an athlete has constant contact with doctors, the ethos of fair play. In swimming, suit technology has been nutritionists, psychologists, and surprisingly engineers. Despite making headlines for the last ten years since Speedo introduced being the newest development within sports science, the field their “Fastskin” suits. Designed for the Sydney Olympics, they of biomechanics is having a significant impact at the top end of were modeled on shark skin in an attempt to reduce water drag. sport, where a millionth of a second can be the difference between Since then, continuing technological developments have resulted glorious victory and agonizing defeat. in the production of increasingly efficient, but increasingly con- troversial swimsuits. Technology became the deciding factor in In the last ten years the Great Britain Rowing Team has used who won the race. biomechanical expertise to fine tune a near-perfect rowing technique, gaining that extra edge over their world-class rivals. In the 2008 Beijing Olympics, a 50% polyurethane full-body LZR The Visual Immediate Feedback System, designed in 1999 by Racer swimsuit broke world records galore, with 94% of gold Biomechanist Valery Kleshnev, allows rowers to view their move- medals won by swimmers wearing the suit. The latest develop- 12 `

Brain versus Brawn By Laura Greenhalgh ment, a 100% polyurethane suit, finally prompted swimming cheats in developing tests to catch offenders. In addition, the authorities to take action and ban all performance-enhancing, accuracy of some tests is questioned, as they do not fully take into non-textile swimsuits since January 2010. This has, for now, account the effects of different genotypes. The current test for returned the sport to a race against the best athletes, rather than anabolic steroid use measures levels in urine, but a 2008 study those with access to the best technology. In this case significant published in the Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism performance enhancement was obvious; showed that certain individuals are likely to record a negative the difficulty in result even if they have taken steroids, or a positive result when future will be they haven’t, simply as a result of their genetic makeup. differentiating between accept- At least anabolic steroids are detectable. More worrying are the able and unac- improvements in gene therapy technology that have occurred ceptable levels of in recent years. Designed to treat life-threatening diseases, this augmentation in technology is providing hope for the medical world but converse- the technological ly the biggest potential undetectable threat to sport: genetically arms race that modified athletes. now dominates international sport. Gene therapy involves inserting genes into cells using a virus, to cure diseases caused by malfunctioning genes. The technology is The darker side still immature and cannot yet be carried out without harm. But of science evidence of treatment success is increasing and there is already a growing level of interest in the sports world for ‘gene doping.’ This illustrates Scientists working on cures for diseases like muscular dystrophy how 21st century or blood disorders are being approached by sports figures, with technology has pro- at least one known case of a German trainer attempting to obtain gressed to the stage experimental material. In the future, it may be possible to use where its use in sport gene doping to increase athletic performance, but it is difficult to constitutes ‘techno- know how this could be detected. logical doping’. But using science to cheat Science saves the day in sport is not a new phenomenon, and Science in sport has progressed from helping athletes achieve ‘biological doping’ has impressive feats to providing methods for those who wish to been carried out for cheat. But can science redeem its heroic role in sport? The latest decades by the use of idea may be a step in the right direction against drugs cheats: the performance enhanc- biological passport. Proposed in 2007 by the World Anti-Doping ing drugs. Agency, this involves haematological profiling which establishes the normal biological state of an athlete. Each subsequent blood Anabolic steroids have test can then be compared to the athlete’s normal state, with been part of many significant variations from this representing indirect evidence of doping cases like the doping. The biological passport was introduced in the world of BALCO scandal, in cycling in 2008 and has already resulted in several suspensions which several high- from the sport. profile athletes including British sprinter Science plays the role of both hero and villain within the world Dwain Chambers were of competitive sport. This technological arms race continues to convicted of using the escalate, as each year we see ever-increasing stakes for athletes designer steroid tetrahy- and the reputation of science. Hopefully, science can ultimately drogestrinone. Synthe- triumph as hero in this battle, and maintain the spirit of fair play sized for medical treat- essential for continued respect of real life, natural superheroes in ment of conditions such as the world of high performance sport. muscle wasting from cancer, LZR racer swimsuit References: this testosterone-related drug binds to http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/swimming/8161867.stm androgen receptors in muscle cells and alters http://cosmiclog.msnbc.msn.com/archive/2009/07/29/2013052.aspx gene expression. This builds muscle mass and reduces recovery Jakobsson Schulze, J. et al. (2008) Doping Test Results Dependent on Genotype of Uridine Diphospho- time by blocking the effects of the stress hormone cortisol, thus Glucuronosyl Transferase 2B17, the Major Enzyme for Testosterone Glucuronidation, Journal of Clinical enhancing athletic performance. Endocrinology & Metabolism,93:7. Friedmann, T. et al. (2010) Ethics: Gene Doping and Sport, Science, 327:5966 Anti-drugs agencies often lag several years behind the drug 13 From heart attacks to liquid computing By Dom Rees-Roberts t is widely accepted that reaction is that when carried collaboration of scientists, dominated by electrical devices chemistry has a unique out in a petri dish, the reac- aims to construct a ‘wet’ and silicon chips. The future Iplace in science, bridging tion starts as a formation of computer from water droplets holds the possibility of devices the gap between physics and distinct spots. As the reaction coated in fat, much like living controlled by chemical brains. biology. Despite being impor- continues, waves of chemical cells, capable of performing A curious chemical reaction tant, chemistry is overlooked change occur, forming inter- information-processing tasks. can be harnessed for math- by the media, with physics locking concentric rings and The droplets will contain the ematics, medicine, computer and biology often dominating spirals, indicative of a system BZ reaction chemicals and be design, material engineering science headlines. The amount and robotics. of practical chemistry students Using ‘chaos theory’ scientists can take part in school is fall- Physics and biology receive a ing, presumably due to health have successfully controlled considerable amount of media and safely reasons. Fortu- rabbit heart tissues induced into attention. They answer the big nately, our very own Imperial questions about life and the College has set up an outreach a chaotic beating pattern universe, or have applications scheme, enabling school kids that directly affect us. Chem- to do ‘proper hands on sci- in ‘chaos’. Mathematicians capable of receiving a stimulus istry is sometimes left behind, ence’. have studied the BZ reaction that can produce a control- but as the BZ reaction demon- in an attempt to understand lable response, like a computer strates, it has far more to offer In secondary school I was the propagation of chaos, and processor. the real world. It underpins lucky enough to do a lot how it might be controlled. many of our technological of practical chemistry and The scientists aim to mimic advancements. Next time remember a reaction that The mathematics behind neurones found in the nervous you’re watching a chemistry stuck out from the rest for the BZ reaction parallels the system of complex organ- demonstration be sure to pay being that little bit more electrical impulses that travel isms, and hope to construct a attention - it may just hold the mysterious. At first glance through muscle tissue like the computing device that mimics key to future innovations. the ‘chemical clock reaction’ heart. Using ‘chaos theory’ neuronal pathways. It’s not Working Party of the Environment, Health and seems to be an illusion, but scientists have successfully predicted that this technology Safety Committee. Health and Safety Legislation it actually serves as a great controlled rabbit heart tissues will be used to run business and Practical Chemistry Teaching in School. Royal Society of Chemistry. 15th May 2002. example of how a straight- induced into a chaotic beating software, but it might provide forward reaction can be pattern, as well as controlling the possibility to compute in http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/outreach/reachoutlab applied to many different arrhythmic hearts (erratic new environments, control http://www.practicalchemistry.org/experiments/ iodine-clock-reaction,55,EX.html areas of science. beating) in human test pa- molecular robots and chemi- Gray C. (2002) An Analysis of the Belousov-Zhabo- tients, by administering small cal assembly at the molecular tinskii Reaction, Undergraduate Math Journal, 3(1) Chemical clock reactions stimuli to the heart at irregular level, and design intelligent Field RJ, Koros E and Noyes RM.(1972) Oscilla- get their name from the times. This could revolutionise drugs. tions in chemical systems, Part 2. Thorough analysis of temporal oscillations in the bromate-cerium- periodic changing of the treatment of heart at- malonic acid system, Journal of the American colour that occurs once tacks, by using small impulses The BZ reaction also has the Chemical Society,94 the reaction starts. The instead of administering huge potential to make chemically Petrov V, Gaspar V, Masere J and Showalter K (1993) Controlling chaos in the Belousov-Zhabo- most common clock reac- jolts of electricity that puts the driven robotic devices. Re- tinsky reaction, Nature, 361 tions are based on iodine, heart under intense stress. searchers at Waseda Univer- Beeler GW and Reuter H. (1977) Reconstruction which turns from dark sity Tokyo have used the BZ of the action potential of ventricular myocardial blue to colourless. The The BZ reaction has dem- reaction to make a chemical fibers, Journal of Physiology, 268 process of going from onstrated how chemistry gel that can walk like a cat- Garfinkel A, Spano ML, Ditto WL and Weiss JN (1992) Controlling cardiac chaos, Science, reactant to product hap- can have profound effects in erpillar or inchworm. Hashi- 257(5074)

pens via the intermedi- mathematics and medicine, moto’s ‘lab worm’, although Christini DJ, Stein KM, Markowitz SM, Mittal S, ate chemical iodine. but researchers have found a couple of millimetres long Slotwiner DJ, Scheiner MA, Iwai S and Lerman BB (2001) Nonlinear-dynamical arrhythmia control a further use. The switching demonstrates the possibility in humans, Proceedings of the National Academy of What are the applica- between two chemical states of making mechanical devices Sciences, 98(10) tions of such reactions? is similar to the ‘on and off’ which can move indepen- Zhang L, Adamatzky A. (2009) Collision-based implementation of a two-bit adder in excitable cel- The Belousov-Zhabo- function in binary computer dently of electricity. The cyclic lular automaton. Chaos, Solitons & Fractals, 41(3)

tinsky (BZ) reaction, programming. Prof. Andy reaction makes gel polymers from: http://www.ecs.soton.ac.uk/about/ named after Boris Adamatzky from the Univer- shrink and grow, resulting news/2944 Belousov and Anatol sity of the West of England in a tiny movement which is http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/8452196.stm

Zhabotinsky has prov- has demonstrated that the amplified by tension built into Maeda S, Hara Y, Yoshida R, Hashimoto S. (2007) en particularly useful. BZ reaction can perform a curved gel structure. Chemical robot – Design of self-walking gel. Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE/RSJ International The interesting simple logic functions in a Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. property of this clock liquid state. A new European We are living in a digital age, San Diego, CA 14 Technology, By Chris Noble Tubes and Tone

echnologies continue to evolve, improve and leave their predecessors behind them. However, Tcertain inventions remain in use even after they have been technically surpassed by newer solutions. The thermionic valve (or vacuum tube) is one such technology and has seen a resurgence in use over the past few years, especially in audio equipment.

Many people reading this may not know what a thermionic valve is. The simplest valves are glass tubes that contain electrodes, a control grid and a heater, Musi- resembling old-fashioned energy inefficient light bulbs. In most cians, especially electric guitar examples air has been removed from the tube to create a vacuum, players, are also valve fans because of the characteristic sound although in some applications valves are filled with a specific produced by valve amplifiers. It is doubtful that the distorted mixture of gases. guitar sounds first associated with classic rock and blues music would ever have been produced without the invention of the valve Inside an operating valve, the cathode is heated and electrons amplifier. flow from cathode to anode across the vacuum. This current is controlled by applying a voltage to the control grid so valves can The relatively small market for valves today, compared with the be used to control a flow of electrons in electronic systems. first half of the 20th century when they were being manufactured in the millions, has meant an increase in price. Valves are now Valves were primarily used to amplify signals in radios, telephone several hundred times more expensive than transistors or micro- exchanges and to switch binary signals in primitive computers. chips. There is also a demand for vintage valves manufactured The Pilot ACE - one of the earliest computers and profiled in the by companies such as Philips and General Electric, to what many previous edition of IScience - believe is a higher standard than the current manufacturing pro- contained over 800 valves. cesses from China and Eastern valves are used in the deto- Europe. Sought after vintage Valves revolutionised the com- valves can sell in excess of £50 munications industry until they nation systems of nuclear each and as many modern gui- were replaced with smaller, tar amplifiers contain between cheaper and more reliable tran- weapons as high speed five and ten valves, replacing all sistors in the 1950s. They were of them can be a costly busi- still widely used by the military switching devices ness. long after this due to the valve’s higher resistance to disrup- Many manufacturers have tried tion by electromagnetic pulses – of the kind produced by nuclear to emulate the sound produced by valves using modern technol- explosions. In fact, valves are used in the detonation systems of ogy and cheaper, more reliable components. But electric guitar nuclear weapons as high speed switching devices. players around the world still carry heavy, unreliable and expensive valve equipment because it gives them the tone they desire Today, valves have fallen out of favour and it is rare to find them – valve tone. in consumer electronic equipment. However, there are certain jobs where valves are still better than transistors. Many audio Technology evolves with time and many other devices such as the enthusiasts prefer the warmer sound of valve electronics over VCR, Cassette, Minidisk and DAT (Digital Audio Tape) have dis- transistor-based systems. In high end recording or broadcast appeared from the public conscience. If you know where to look, studios it is likely that a number of devices incorporate valves it is possible to find outdated technologies in use today. The valve into their electronics; such as compressors, pre-amps and some is a perfect example of how, in specific applications the predeces- microphones. In the consumer market it is possible to buy valve sor may outperform its hi-tech replacement. powered Hi-Fi equipment and even iPod docks, such as the “Fat- References: man iTube”. https://www.watfordvalves.com/pdfs/guitaristv02-01_biasing.pdf http://www.atatan.com/~s-ito/vacuum/vacuum.html 15 Vertebrates’ By Pippa Hough Versatile Vision e tend to think compared to other cone cell green, only green cones or only as a filter to block some light about vision from types within the retina to red cones. Thus, only a small wavelengths from reaching the Wa human point of get an approximation of the proportion of the population receptor. Differing oil droplet view. The electromagnetic or wavelengths being reflected by has trichromatic vision. This filters on the same types of visible spectrum is the range objects in the visual field. implies that variation in vision cones means they effectively of electromagnetic radiation within the population has become different. Therefore, that we perceive with our eyes. Mammal vision some advantage. two red cones can compare Generally, we think of other different amounts of red light parts of the electromagnetic Conventional wisdom says reflected from the top and spectrum such as radio waves that mammals are colour There is a consensus that bottom range of the spectrum, and gamma radiation as differ- blind. Actually, they just can’t colour-blind people are better increasing the sensitivity of ent to light. But, the only dif- see the difference between at seeing camouflaged shapes colour perception. Increased ference is in their wavelengths. red and green. Humans can blended into a complex- sensitivity in colour perception These ranges of the spectrum because we have cones that ab- coloured background be- means birds are brilliant at all behave in the same way, sorb light in the red and green cause they have less colour knowing precisely when fruit in that they are absorbed and regions of the visual spectrum, information to process. For is perfectly ripe. However, to reflected by certain mol- as well as the blue region. New World primates, hav- make these comparisons a ecules. We have Most mammals only have ing variation in colour vision lot of light is needed, so these cones that absorb means that within large social birds can only function consis- light in the yellow groups’, tasks of spotting fruit tently in daylight. and blue regions. or camouflaged predators is split depending on the type of Reptiles Given that fish and rep- sight an individual has. tiles have colour vision, Some reptiles such as pit early mammals must Bird vision vipers can perceive the infra Howler Monkeys have evolved this lack of red (IR) region of the elec- evolved to see in the visible complexity because it gave no Birds can perceive light in the tromagnetic spectrum. They spectrum because it is part evolutionary advantage. It is of the range of wavelengths possible that mammals had radiated by our Sun. It is in three or more colour pigments, Some reptiles such as pit vipers can enough abundance to reflect but lost them (even some fish, off surfaces, giving complex amphibians, and reptiles, who perceive the infra red (IR) region of organisms’ spatial information share ancestry with us, have the electromagnetic spectrum about their environments. Our them). The primate family eyes evolved to see subtle dif- re-evolved ‘trichromacy’ (three ferences in the colours around cone colour vision), which is ultraviolet range as well as the effectively see the heat given us that were important. why our sight is made up from human ‘visible spectrum’ be- off by their prey. Pit vipers three wavelengths of light. cause they have a fourth cone have a ‘third eye’ in the middle Photo receptors are cells that Current research suggests it that absorbs UV light. Many of their forehead to detect IR. absorb wavelengths of light is likely related to primates fruits and flowers have UV This eye is less complex than and transmit nerve signals eating red fruit. Among some pigmentation which humans their other two but it does al- when particular concentra- primate species trichromatic cannot perceive. This extra low for basic shape perception. tions of light are absorbed. vision is not universal through cone makes it easier for birds In vertebrates there are two the population; also known to spot them in the same way This is only a brief overview of types of photo receptors; rods as genetic polymorphism. as red and green cones give the variation in colour vision and cones, named after their In many Central and South primates evolutionary advan- of vertebrates. The numer- shape. Rods measure the American primates, the males tages. ous ways these animals have abundance of light and cones are colour-blind because they evolved to perceive the world measure the abundance of possess either a red or green Some of the cones in a bird’s around them exemplifies the light in a restricted wavelength cone. The females can pos- retina have oil droplets above incalculable variation in the range. Cone cell outputs are sess combinations of red and the photo receptor. These act animal kingdom. 16 Two sides of the same coin By Henry Lau

ome of us know some- difficulties. For a long time it edge of about 3,500 characters reading levels. one who suffers from was felt that the difficulties would be needed to read the Sdyslexia. For dyslexics in learning were the province equivalent of the Daily Mail The difference in the two English can be baffling. But of medical professionals and and 6,000 characters for an requirements of both lan- have you ever considered the not the realm of educational average book. guages may help illuminate possibility that a different psychologists like today. why there is a difference language could make a differ- Since the two languages are between the rates of reported ence to how dyslexia affects a How languages work formed from two very different dyslexia in Chinese school person? systems, one can assume that children (1.5%) to English How would dyslexia work in the two languages make dif- school children (about 5-6%). A brief history of Chinese compared to dyslexia ferent demands on the brain. Moreover it could help explain dyslexia in English? To answer this Brain scans of English speak- how people can be dyslexic in question we need to consider ers hearing English revealed a phonemic language like Eng- Dyslexia is a learning disability the inherent differences be- high activity in the left tempo- lish, but a highly competent that affects people’s reading tween the languages. ral lobe. It is believed that this reader in a pictorial language proficiency. It was only in part of the brain links speech like Chinese, Japanese or Ko- 1994, that the government English is a language where sounds together to form indi- rean. In 1999, a study reported officially recognised dyslexia each letter corresponds to a vidual words. Chinese speak- a 16 year old boy who could as a specific learning disability. sound (technically known as a ers rely more on the front of read at an undergraduate level However, acknowledgement phoneme). In the word “bar” the brain, linked to memory, in Japanese but was dyslexic in of dyslexia happened over one for example, each letter has motor control and visual- English. hundred years ago. a distinctive sound and when perception, as well as the right combined forms the sounds we temporal lobe, associated with The variety in severity and In 1878, Adolph Kussmaul, a recognise as a word. However, the ability to process music or manifestations of dyslexia German neurologist started this isn’t always the case as tones. shows its complex nature. taking an interest in adults English contains some irregu- These new studies are illumi- who had damaged neuro- lar pronunciations, with words Dyslexia differences nating new knowledge in how logical systems. He noted such as “through”, along with the brain processes languages that some of his patients had many irregular rules. It is also With the differences between and are a step forward in help- trouble reading, using words interesting to note that in Ital- the languages, it is not too far- ing pin down how language in the incorrect order. He ian, where the sounds of words fetched to presume dyslexia affects dyslexia. described their condition as follow spelling more rigorously in a different language would References: “word blindness”. This term than English, the prevalence be different. In October 2009, http://www.mcgraw-hill.co.uk/openup/chap- was subsequently taken up of dyslexia is lower. researchers from the Univer- ters/9780335235940.pdf and used in medical literature. sity of Hong Kong reported a http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2004/ sep/23/research.highereducation2 Later, in 1887 Rudolf Berlin, a On the other hand, Chinese study in Current Biology. They German eye doctor, coined the http://www.scientificamerican.com/blog/ is a pictorial language where looked at the brain activity of post.cfm?id=its-all-chinese-to-me-dyslexia- term “dyslexia”. each symbol links to a specific Chinese children with dyslexia has-2009-10-12

spoken syllable. For example, and normal reading levels. http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/ab- In the nineteenth century in the official language of Using functional magnetic stract/123/12/2373 dyslexia was considered by the China, Putonghua (or Manda- resonance imaging (fMRI) http://www.8asians.com/2008/05/09/chinese-vs- english-how-the-brain-learns-to-read-can-depend- medical profession as one of rin) there are about 1,800 dis- three things; a medical prob- tinguishable syllables. Chinese lem, a mental problem or just a also places more emphasis on Chinese is a pictorial language lack of motivation. At the end tone in distinguishing between of the nineteenth century this syllables, with four tones in where each symbol links to a simple view was clarified from Mandarin. Several meanings a report, by Jules Dejerine can be attached to individual specific spoken syllable published in The Lancet. De- syllables, but the different jerine reported how a patient meanings are represented by on-the-language/ lost the ability to speak and different characters. the researchers found dyslexic http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3025796.stm read after a head injury. Sev- children showed less activity http://online.wsj.com/article/ eral other accounts reported Characters are identified by in the part of the brain that SB120965705088459637.html similar cases. Thus, the brain memorising the configurations is responsible for processing Taeko Nakayama Wydell, Brian Butterworth, A was readily accepted as the case study of an English-Japanese bilingual with of the strokes and the associ- ‘visual-spatial’ information monolingual dyslexia, Cognition, Volume 70, Issue root of reading and learning ated pronunciation. A knowl- than the children with normal 3, 1 April 1999, pp.273-305.

17 Genius or Crackpot?

By Greg Szulgit

ave you ever been so much? Is it because we is reasonable before the idea is engaged in a discussion have romantic ideals of a true taken seriously. If there is any Habout the ridiculous- genius striking out against the group that doesn’t comprise ness of some crackpot pseudo- “establishment”? Is it because an “establishment”, it’s the scientist, only to have a bystand- we identify with that strug- global scientific commu- er chime-in, “Well, isn’t that gling underdog? Or have we nity, where most of the time, what they said about Galileo?” simply watched too many films well-supported ideas catch on in which the spurned hero is quickly. I’m here to set the record vindicated in the end? straight. No, it isn’t what “they” In short, don’t fall for the al- said about Galileo. It’s what the Whatever the reason, can we lure of the maverick until his radical fundamentalists in the take a dose of reality, please? or her ideas have survived the Vatican said about him. Actually, There are an absurd number rigours of the peer review and when many scholars reviewed of ‘nutty’ claims made in the subsequent debate process. Galileo’s evidence and listened to name of science. Fortunately, Remember, that even the his arguments, they were con- we have ways of testing which craziest sounding ideas (for vinced that he was on to something ones are actually true and, like example, the relativity of time important. the legal system, the onus is and space) from the unlikeli- on the claimant to produce the est of sources (for example, So what’s the difference between evidence. a little-known patent clerk Galileo and someone like Andrew in Austria) will be accepted Wakefield, the surgeon who kicked For every Galileo, there are quickly by the “establishment” off the ‘manufactroversy’ over the thousands of homoeopathists, if the maths and evidence are MMR vaccine? The difference is scientologists, ‘Flat Earthers’, on their side. that, when Wakefield was asked to and simple con artists who support his outstanding claims, he prey on the uninformed. If you So, the next time some ‘nutter’ For every Galileo, there are thousands of homoeopathists, scientologists, ‘Flat Earthers’, and simple con artists who prey on the uninformed

couldn’t. And neither could any- want to know the facts, ask claims that their revolutionary body else who tried to duplicate his these claimants to prove their ideas are being suppressed by study1, 2. In contrast, Galileo could. ideas. Furthermore, listen to the scientific establishment, Even though Galileo’s outstand- the counterpoints presented please don’t compare them ing claims required outstanding against their arguments (these to Galileo. The real people evidence (as well they should have), are easy to find – Wikipedia, who deserve that accolade are he could produce it. So, was he a believe it or not, is a great the brilliant minds who are maverick? Well, it depends. If a starting point). The crackpots recognized as such by their maverick is a person who dissents will claim that experts from scrutinising colleagues and are from a group, then Galileo was a “the establishment” are sup- rejected by religious funda- maverick, but only to the funda- pressing their new ideas. Does mentalists, just as Galileo was. mentalists who would not let go this ever happen? Do some References: of Aristotelian thinking. But he scientific experts unfairly 1 Normand, M. P. and J. Dallery (2007) “Mercury was not a maverick to his scien- attack new ideas? Absolutely. Rising, Exposing the Vaccine-Autism Myth” Skeptic, June 20th [online] http://www.skeptic. tific colleagues. In retrospect, he There will be a few experts com/eskeptic/07-06-20/#feature [accessed 25th was simply a brilliant scientific who are jaded and closed to May, 2010] leader3. new ideas, but not all of them 2 Kmietowicz, Z. (2010) Wakefield is struck off for the “serious and wide-ranging findings against will be, and it only takes a frac- him” British Medical Journal, News, 340:c2803.

Today, why do we still love the tion of the scientific commu- 3 Finocchiaro, M. A. (1992) The Galileo Affair: idea of a lone scientific rebel nity to agree that an argument A Documentary History. University of California Press. 382pp. 18 venues suggested by the online community. Mainly via Twitter, people around the world are calling in favours, offering advice and making suggestions ChargingBy Jon Primmer toward the team’s dream. ‘taster’ of its capabilities. Waiting at the lights attracted This trip will begin on 8th July a lot of attention with people 2010 and last roughly three shouting questions and others months. With carefully target- All the rushing to take photos on ed sponsorship and inspiring their phones. Each journalist presentations the team have returned with an enormous secured useful backing; cash grin. has been pledged from many two motors within the chassis, different companies, whilst whilst keeping the compo- That very night Alex Schey others are contributing with nents uncluttered and acces- resources. However, £80,000 sible. Computer aided design (Project Manager) and Toby Way Schulz (Chief Systems En- still needs to be raised to (CAD) provided the team with ensure all targets are met, and that spatial framework. gineer) broke a new record. They drove the car round the any company that meets this M25 twice will receive extensive benefits! ne small inconvenient On the 21st of March 2010 the SRZero drove under its own (268 miles) truth ignited the Rac- on a single ing Green Endurance power for the first time, a huge O milestone. However, electro- charge – project; the general public like magnetic interference (EMI) with ease. their luxuries. It is very diffi- The previ- cult to persuade people to save in the low voltage control system soon put the car back ous record energy by stopping them driv- was held ing their nice cars or watching in the garage for modifica- tions. The team needed to by the their plasma television. Why Tesla should they miss out on all the find a lasting solution, which came in the form of physical Roadster, fun? manag- shielding and a redesign of the electronic system. ing just The answer must surely come one lap. from technology. What we all With strong momentum want is a green product that is On the 29th April 2010, propelling the project, what over a month after the car’s So what’s next? The team equal to, or better than what want to prove that the stereo- will happen when they return we already have. We want first drive, the team took the in September? Alex Schey SRZero to Norwich. It passed types of battery powered cars a step up and something to are unfounded. One of the says “We aim to keep the car desire. Well, how about a car the individual vehicle assess- maintained in a road wor- ment (IVA) first time, becom- biggest concerns that people that is as cheap as 1p per mile still have is the range a battery thy condition, and possibly to drive, does 0-60mph in 6 ing fully road legal in the UK modify it for speed rather than and abroad. The team com- can provide. To prove this seconds, goes up to 130mph wrong in a big way, the team endurance. Alongside this, we and is as green as the electric- pleted the process from design are very keen to keep the car to the finished product in just intend to drive the car 16,000 ity that powers it? miles from Alaska, down the going to events and helping 9 months. to change peoples’ percep- Enter the SRZero. So con- tions of electric vehicles, as vinced of this dream, the the team intend to drive the car well as continuing to promote Racing Green Endurance team our sponsors despite the fact have come an impossibly long 16,000 miles from Alaska, down that the project will have been way. They kitted out a Radical declared finished!” SR8 chassis with 54kwh of the Pan-American Highway, to battery storage, two electric The team has worked tirelessly motors and a host of electronic the tip of South America for incalculable hours with no control systems, mostly do- pay (though not to say without Momentum still high and less Pan-American Highway, to the nated by sponsors, but much tip of South America. reward), relying solely on ex- of it developed in house. It was than a month after that, on ternal support, and each other. an intense project, hampered the 27th of May, the car was One thing is for sure, this team revealed to the press. There With a battery range of by the fact that the car was in 270+miles, a great distance moves quickly! a workshop in Peterborough was a great turn out with each member of the team doing can be covered during the day, for the majority of the manu- and overnight the car and the Web: www.racinggreenendur- facturing process. The first their share of interviews. ance.com Journalists were taken in the team can recharge. At major challenge was to fit the largest cities along the route the Twitter: RGEndurance ‘road-going’ battery pack and car one by one around South Kensington, giving them a car will be showcased at key 19 20