Michigan / Grand River Avenue Transportation Study
TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM
From: URS Consultant Team To: CATA Project Staff and Technical Committee
Date: November 12, 2009 Subject: Draft Technical Memorandum #3 – Transit Technology Inventory
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Capital Area Transportation Authority (CATA) is conducting an Alternatives Analysis (AA) of the Michigan Avenue/Grand River Corridor. The corridor is a seven mile east-west corridor composed of Michigan Avenue and Grand River Avenue beginning in downtown Lansing extending through Lansing, East Lansing, Lansing Township, Meridian Township and terminating at the Meridian Mall. The AA is being conducted in accordance with the Federal Transit Administration’s (FTA) New Starts Application procedures. As part of the New Starts process, the FTA requires a broad range of transit technologies be examined. This document identifies and describes a range of transit technologies for the corridor. The technologies examined in the document include the following:
Bus – Conventional and electric trolley bus
Bus Rapid Transit – Conventional and guided bus
Light Rail Transit
Modern Streetcar
Magnetic Levitation
Heavy Rail
Automated Guideway Transit – People Mover, Monorail and Personal Rapid Transit.
Technical Memorandum 3 November 12, 2009 Transit Technology Inventory 1 Michigan / Grand River Avenue Transportation Study
2.0 BUS
Bus transit is a type of public transportation used widely around the world today. There are two general types of bus, a conventional bus and the electric trolley bus that are implemented. The following sections describe the characteristics of each technology.
2.1 Conventional Bus1
Convential bus transit is comprised of manually-operated rubber-tired vehicles. Nearly all types of bus transit operate in mixed traffic on ordinary roadways, and all are self-propelled by an on-board engine and power source. Stops are as frequent as every two or three blocks, or every one-fourth mile. Fewer stops and higher average speeds characterize express or limited service.
The majority of buses in operation are diesel powered. However, vehicles powered by alternative fuels, such as compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied natural gas (LNG), are available and have been put into service in some locations. Battery-powered buses have been implemented, but their short operating range limits them primarily to short-haul, special use operations in activity centers.
Buses have three major advantages that account for their predominance as a transit technology. First, they are the least expensive of all land-based technologies. Since they can use existing roadways, they do not require a large investment in construction and maintenance of new infrastructure. Second, they offer unequaled routing flexibility. Third, buses can serve a wide range of passenger demand levels by using small to large vehicles.
Buses also have a number of disadvantages that make them unsuitable for some uses. The greatest drawback of bus transit is the high labor cost per passenger carried. Labor wages and benefits for bus service can easily double the capital cost of the vehicles on an annual basis. Second, because
Technical Memorandum 3 2 Transit Technology Inventory November 12, 2009 Michigan / Grand River Avenue Transportation Study
most large buses are currently powered by diesel fuel, noise levels and the emission of pollutants may be objectionable. Finally, buses unless operated in a dedicated right-of-way are subject to roadway congestion. Table 2-1 provides the general characteristics of conventional buses.
Table 2-1. Conventional Bus Characteristics
Capital Cost per Mile ($ millions) Depends on the number of vehicles
Running Surface Mixed traffic or separate ROW
Speed (Max/Average) 65 MPH/12 MPH
Stop/Station Spacing Close (every two to three blocks)
Implementation Feasibility Positive
2.2 Electric Trolley Bus2
Another type of bus operated in several US cities is the electric trolley bus, which is a subtype of a conventional bus. Electric trolley buses receive power from overhead wires. This technology was originally implemented as an alternative to the streetcar. The electric trolley bus is different from actual or replicas of vintage streetcars, which are commonly referred to as “trolleys.”
These buses are distinguished from other buses by electric propulsion only; otherwise, they are identical in size to diesel buses and can operate in the same environments, if the overhead power source is available. Because they require an overhead catenary wire for the power source, electric trolley buses have less route flexibility than conventional buses. Some models have battery-backup or small diesel engine capabilities, allowing for short off-wire trips.
The design of these buses provides for virtually pollution-free operation, with efficient loading and unloading in areas with frequent stops. Electric trolley buses are appropriate for hilly terrain
Technical Memorandum 3 3 Transit Technology Inventory November 12, 2009 Michigan / Grand River Avenue Transportation Study
since they can efficiently negotiate steep grades. While once common in many cities, few systems or routes remain in service (e.g. San Francisco, Boston and Seattle). Table 2-2 provides the general characteristics of the electric trolley bus.
Table 2-2. Electric Trolley Bus Characteristics
Capital Cost per Mile ($ millions) $900,000 to $1.4 million plus vehicles
Running Surface Mixed traffic or separate ROW
Speed (Max/Average) 45 MPH/12 MPH
Stop/Station Spacing Close (less than one half mile)
Implementation Feasibility Not applicable
Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) is designed to operate in environments with moderate to heavy passenger volumes, on medium-distance trips. BRT was designed as a low-cost, rubber-tired alternative to light rail that combines the quality of rail transit with the flexibility of bus transit. The core concept in BRT is an integrated, well-defined system that provides for a significant improvement in performance from conventional bus service. BRT is a flexible transit mode and is a relatively new mode for the United States. Current systems include: Las Vegas, Pittsburgh, Los Angeles, Kansas City, Boston, Orlando, Sacramento and Ottawa.
BRT vehicles usually have two to three doors along their length and may utilize a barrier-free fare collection system, which increases the efficiency of passenger boarding and alighting. The propulsion system may be conventional diesel engines, or overhead electric catenary. There is a trend in vehicles to use alternative, cleaner fuels, which includes low-sulfur diesel fuel, diesel-electric hybrids, compressed natural gas (CNG), and potentially fuel cells in the future. Vehicles typically require 11- to 12-foot lane widths and priority treatment in mixed traffic.
Technical Memorandum 3 4 Transit Technology Inventory November 12, 2009 Michigan / Grand River Avenue Transportation Study
BRT is operated in a variety of running ways including exclusive right-of-ways, such as busways, tunnels, dedicated bus lanes on roadways, mixed in traffic and reserved lanes on free-ways. Exclusive right-of-way or busways includes a barrier to separate and limit vehicular traffic access. Dedicated bus lanes are in roadways, but vehicular traffic can access the lanes. Complete separation from other vehicular traffic is preferred. BRT that is operated in exclusive right-of-ways or busways, provides a high level of service and high passenger capacities. Examples of these types of BRT systems can be found in Ottawa and Pittsburgh. BRT that operates in a dedicated bus lane in a street can be found in Los Angeles and Kansas City.
Service for BRT can depend on the type of running-way utilized. There can be a limited-stop or express service that compliments the local line that serves all stops on the route. Headways can be as frequent as train service, every 10 minutes. Buses may operate non-stop along the running-way or exit the running way and operate along streets to provide local service. Additionally, BRT vehicles can be used on high-occupancy vehicle facilities such as high-occupancy-vehicle (HOV) lanes.
Stations are typically spaced every one-half to one mile. Stations located along a freeway tend to be further apart to allow for higher speeds. BRT operated mixed in traffic on local roads typically has closer stations. Amenities at the stations vary depending on the system, but can include shelter, passenger waiting areas, lighting, pedestrian bridge crossings, and park-ride lots.
BRT vehicles can be equipped with ITS technology including automatic vehicle location systems, passenger information systems, and signal priority at signalized intersections. These technologies can improve the system performance and service.
BRT systems that have dedicated, permanent stations similar to rail have experienced development comparable to that surrounding rail stations. A study was conducted for the Ottawa bus system that indicated up to $675 million in new construction around the transit stations. Another study conducted for the Port Authority of Allegheny County in Pittsburgh, PA concluded there was $302 million in new and improved development along the East Busway, 80- percent which was clustered around stations1. Table 3-1 provides an overview of the general characteristics of BRT.
1 TCRP Report 90, Bus Rapid Transit – Volume 1 Case Studies in Bus Rapid Transit, March 2003.
Technical Memorandum 3 5 Transit Technology Inventory November 12, 2009 Michigan / Grand River Avenue Transportation Study
Table 3-1. BRT Characteristics
Capital Cost per Mile ($ millions) $10 to $40
Running Surface Separate ROW preferred
Speed (Max/Average) 50 MPH/25 MPH
Stop/Station Spacing One-half to 1 mile
Implementation Feasibility Positive
3.1 Guided BRT3
The guided bus technology is a subtype of BRT and consists of a specialized fixed guideway and vehicles retrofitted with lateral guide wheels. This technology can be adapted to any bus size and propulsion type. The use of a specialized guideway allows the buses to reach high operating speeds similar to rail transit safely. The buses are designed such that they can operate both on and off the guideway (residential neighborhoods, city centers) effectively allowing a single bus to serve as a feeder and mainline carrier. The guideway technology combines the service features of rail and bus in one vehicle. Since the guideway can be narrower than the lane width required for conventional bus operation, it can be implemented in confined rights-of-way. Guided BRT systems are in operation in Australia and Europe. The photograph illustrates the rubber-tired tramway currently operating in Caen, France. The vehicle is called a TVR (“Transport sur Voie Reservee”) and is manufactured by Bombardier. The system in Caen began operation in 2002. The vehicle draws power from an electric overhead catenary. Table 3-2 summarizes guided BRT’s typical characteristics.
Technical Memorandum 3 6 Transit Technology Inventory November 12, 2009 Michigan / Grand River Avenue Transportation Study
Table 3-2. Guided BRT Characteristics
Capital Cost per Mile ($ millions) $10 to $50
Running Surface Separate ROW
Speed (Max/Average) 50 MPH/25 MPH
Stop/Station Spacing One-half to 1 mile
Implementation Feasibility Less Positive
4.0 LIGHT RAIL TRANSIT4
Light rail transit (LRT) operates in more than 20 urban areas in the U.S. and Canada, including Portland, Baltimore, St. Louis, Buffalo, Dallas, San Diego, Los Angeles, Minneapolis and San Jose.
LRT features electric rail cars, operated singly or in short trains of up to four cars, using an overhead catenary wire as the power source. The use of an overhead electric wire eliminates the issues associated with having a live third rail at ground level. New Jersey’s RIVER line is the first light rail line in the US that uses diesel-electric power instead of electric power from an overhead catenary. The RIVER line is a 34-mile line that connects the cities of Camden and Trenton and is operated by NJ Transit. Unlike other light rail systems, the diesel powered light rail line runs mostly along a lightly used freight railroad line upgraded for passenger service. However, similar to other light rail systems, the system runs on new in-street tracks in the curb lanes of downtown Camden. Due to federal regulations, NJ Transit and Conrail (freight railroad operator) have a timesharing agreement that allows exclusive access to passenger service during the day and early evening and freight service during the night.
LRT train length must not exceed the minimum length of a city
Technical Memorandum 3 7 Transit Technology Inventory November 12, 2009 Michigan / Grand River Avenue Transportation Study block so that stopped vehicles do not block intersections or crosswalks. LRT operates primarily in a semi-exclusive right-of-way with total corridor lengths generally not exceeding 15 to 20 miles. In addition to operating at-grade, an LRT system may be grade-separated by operating in a tunnel, on an elevated structure, or alongside motor vehicles on the surface. The photograph is of the Portland LRT system.
A key advantage of LRT is its flexibility and can be implemented in a variety of environments. LRT alignments can be built in highly pedestrian, dense employment areas such as downtowns, running in-street in the curb lanes, while other alignments can be built fully -grade separated. Station spacing can vary from one-quarter mile to a mile and maximum speeds can reach 55 mph.
Stations include passenger amenities such as seating, climate controlled areas, shelter, lighting, park- ride lots, and passenger notification messages such as the arrival of the next train.
LRT can also act as a catalyst for development. Transit-oriented-development (TOD) is mixed-use commercial and residential development within walking distance of a transit station. This type of development enhances transit use as commuters can live and work closer to transit creating more walkable, livable communities. Systems perform best when implemented in denser population and employment areas. The general characteristics of LRT are provided in Table 4-1.
Technical Memorandum 3 8 Transit Technology Inventory November 12, 2009 Michigan / Grand River Avenue Transportation Study
Table 4-1. LRT Characteristics
Capital Cost per Mile ($ millions) $30 to $80
Running Surface Mixed in traffic or separate ROW
Speed (Max/Average) 55 MPH/22 MPH
Stop/Station Spacing One-quarter to 1 mile
Implementation Feasibility Positive
5.0 MODERN STREETCAR5
Modern streetcars can be characterized as a single-car rail system with an overhead electrical power source. Modern streetcars operate primarily in mixed traffic, similar to conventional buses and electric trolley buses, with stations or stops generally spaced one- eighth to one-quarter mile apart. These systems are well suited for low-to-moderate- ridership levels typically found downtown and dense neighborhoods. Modern streetcar systems are often appealing from an aesthetic standpoint. In addition to providing mobility, they can be viewed as enhancements to the character of an area because of their distinctive design.
Portland, Oregon, is an example of successful implementation of modern streetcars in the US. Major destinations along the line include Portland State University, Oregon Health Services University, the Pearl District, Portland Library Main Branch, Portland Art Museum, Brewery Blocks and South Waterfront District. Since the system was announced in 1997, approximately $2.5 billion in return on investment have been realized, including a $1 million per acre increase in property values. Approximately $750 million in current projects are credited to the streetcar line. Additionally, 7,000 housing units have been built within three blocks of the streetcar line, and 53 percent of all development in Portland’s central business district is within one block of the line. Extensions to the system have been completed or are being planned since the first line opened in
Technical Memorandum 3 9 Transit Technology Inventory November 12, 2009 Michigan / Grand River Avenue Transportation Study
2001, including to the South Waterfront, Lowell and Lake Oswego. Table 5-1 provides the general characteristics of modern street cars.
Table 5-1. Modern Street Car Characteristics
Capital Cost per Mile ($ millions) $15 to $30
Running Surface Mixed in traffic
Speed (Max/Average) 30 MPH/15 MPH
Stop/Station Spacing One-eighth to one-quarter
Implementation Feasibility Positive
6.0 MAGNETIC LEVITATION6
Magnetic Levitation (Maglev) technology uses the repulsion forces of electromagnets to elevate the vehicle above the guideway and to provide propulsion. The contact between the vehicle and guideway is eliminated using state-of-the-art electric power and control systems resulting in cruising speeds of 300 mph or more. It has the ability to brake and accelerate quickly and climb 10 percent grades. In addition to providing passenger comfort and convenience, use of Maglev technology on suitable alignments would provide competitive trip times comparable to air travel in 150 to 500 mile high travel density markets.
Maglev is under development in Japan and Germany and a revenue service is in operation in Shanghai, China. In the US, a Magnetic Levitation Transportation Technology Deployment Program
Technical Memorandum 3 10 Transit Technology Inventory November 12, 2009 Michigan / Grand River Avenue Transportation Study
was authorized to study and demonstrate the feasibility of a commercial MagLev project through a 40-mile corridor.2 Two projects were selected one in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and the other in Baltimore, Maryland. Both projects have completed the draft environmental impact statement and decisions to proceed to the construction of the project depend on Congressional appropriations. In addition, southern California is conducting a feasibility study on several Maglev corridors. Table 6- 1 provides the general characteristics of Maglev technology.
Table 6-1. Magnetic Levitation (Maglev) Characteristics
Capital Cost per Mile ($ millions) $50 to $90
Running Surface Exclusive ROW
Speed (Max/Average) Over 200 mph
Stop/Station Spacing 50 to 100 miles
Implementation Feasibility Less Positive
7.0 HEAVY RAIL7
Heavy rail is a fully grade separated rail mode with electrically powered vehicles. In most cases, power is received from an electrified third rail. The alignment is required to be in exclusive right-of-way and may be elevated, in tunnel or at-grade. Station spacing can be as close as one-third mile in activity centers, but typically ranges between one to two miles.
2 Source: Report to Congress: Cost and Benefits of Magnetic Levitation. September 2005, U.S. Department of Transportation and Federal Railroad Administration.
Technical Memorandum 3 11 Transit Technology Inventory November 12, 2009 Michigan / Grand River Avenue Transportation Study
Trains vary in length between two and ten cars. Third rail power collection, frequent service and high operating speeds make it mandatory to use grade-separated rights-of-way. The photographs illustrate heavy rail systems for Washington, D.C. and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, respectively.
Heavy rail transit is implemented when very high passenger capacity is required due to its efficiency in handling large passenger volumes. Passenger loading and unloading is rapid due to the use of long trains, pre-board payment, level access and multiple double-stream doors. Headways are frequent and service typically runs during peak and off-peak hours.
In terms of system size and utilization, heavy rail has been the predominant rail travel model in urban areas of the US. However, in recent decades, expansion of heavy rail in the US has been limited due to the high cost of construction associated with grade-separated rights-of-way.
Table 7-1. Heavy Rail Characteristics
Capital Cost per Mile ($ millions) $50 to $120
Running Surface Exclusive fixed guideway
Speed (Max/Average) 80 mph/40mph
Stop/Station Spacing 1 to 2 miles
Implementation Feasibility Less Positive
Technical Memorandum 3 12 Transit Technology Inventory November 12, 2009 Michigan / Grand River Avenue Transportation Study
8.0 COMMUTER RAIL
8.1 Conventional Commuter Rail8
Conventional passenger rail, or commuter rail, operates throughout the US. Commuter rail is a long-distance transit mode that may or may not be used exclusively for passenger movement. The transit agency may have exclusive ownership of the right-of-way or may have an agreement with the freight railroad. A typical commuter rail train consists of one or more unpowered passenger cars pushed or pulled by a locomotive. The propulsion system is typically a diesel-mechanical or diesel-electric motor, although overhead electrification can be used as well. Commuter rail systems generally have stations spaced five or more miles apart, with corridor lengths of 20 to 100 miles. Commuter rail equipment is compatible with (may share track with) active freight railroad operations. Cities where commuter rail is currently operating include Dallas, Washington, D.C., Chicago, Los Angeles, and San Diego. The photographs on this page illustrate commuter rail systems in San Diego and Chicago, respectively.
Except for large commuter rail systems, service in smaller systems is oriented towards the peak commuting hours. The scheduling of commuter rail service is tailored towards the peak travel demand rather than ensuring consistent headways during the peak period. Passenger comfort on commuter rail and providing adequate parking for patrons is of extreme importance due to the commute length and the fact that the commuter rail service competes directly with the automobile.
The commuter rail services in the US usually have a relatively low capital cost, which is offset by higher operating costs per passenger trip, especially for lower volume commuter rail services. Table 8-1 provides the general characteristics of commuter rail.
Technical Memorandum 3 13 Transit Technology Inventory November 12, 2009 Michigan / Grand River Avenue Transportation Study
Table 8-1. Commuter Rail Characteristics
Capital Cost per Mile ($ millions) $5 to $20
Running Surface Exclusive ROW
Speed (Max/Average) 80 mph/50mph
Stop/Station Spacing 2 to 5 miles
Implementation Feasibility Less Positive
8.2 Diesel Multiple Unit9
Diesel multiple unit (DMU) operation is a subtype of commuter rail, consisting of one or two vehicles semi-permanently coupled. DMU service is more appropriate for corridors with less freight railroad usage, lower passenger demand or constrained station sites. While DMUs carry fewer passengers per car, they can take on operating characteristics similar to LRT such as shorter headways, closer station spacing and faster acceleration and deceleration. DMU service can operate on existing railroad tracks. However, the Federal Railroad Administration has strict guidelines for operating DMU with freight traffic. As a result this technology has had limited operation. The Colorado Railcar’s DMU and Coach (see photograph to the right) is the only self -propelled diesel car that meets the stringent Federal Railroad Administration’s (FRA) strength and safety regulations to operate in mixed freight traffic. The Colorado Railcar’s bi-level DMU and Coach is currently in daily revenue service for South Florida Regional Transportation Authority’s commuter rail line. The commuter line operates on an 87-mile corridor between Miami, Fort Lauderdale and West Palm Beach and have been operational since October 2006. Table 8-2 provides the general characteristics of the DMU.
Technical Memorandum 3 14 Transit Technology Inventory November 12, 2009 Michigan / Grand River Avenue Transportation Study
Table 8-2. Diesel Multiple Unit Characteristics
Capital Cost per Mile ($ millions) $5 to $10
Running Surface Exclusive ROW
Speed (Max/Average) 55 mph/40mph
Stop/Station Spacing 2 to 5 miles
Implementation Feasibility Positive
9.0 AUTOMATED GUIDEWAY TRANSIT
Automated guideway transit (AGT) includes steel-wheel, steel-rail or rubber tired vehicles that operate under automated control on an exclusive guideway, grade-separated from vehicular traffic. AGT may utilize conventional or alternative propulsion types such as magnetic levitation or linear induction. AGT includes driverless transit technology subtypes such as monorail and personal rapid transit (PRT).
Vehicles typically accommodate fewer passengers than other rail modes; however, characteristic operating headways are very short, i.e. every two minutes. Frequent service makes up for lower passenger capacity. Hence, AGT systems are also known as “people movers” and can take on the role of a horizontal elevator. Station spacing is comparable to LRT or heavy rail – one-quarter to one mile in activity centers and one to two miles or more in other areas. Systems can vary between one and six vehicles.
Canada has two AGT systems – Skytrain in Vancouver and Scarborough RT in Toronto. The US has approximately 40 AGT systems. The Canadian systems, while sharing the same automated technology as the US systems, have more in common with the heavy rail systems in terms of the service characteristics, ridership patterns and operating practices. Airports, amusement parks and
Technical Memorandum 3 15 Transit Technology Inventory November 12, 2009 Michigan / Grand River Avenue Transportation Study private institutions operate the majority of the AGT systems in the US. Only a few public transit agencies operate AGT systems, including Detroit, Jacksonville, New York and Miami.
9.1 People Mover
One of the few publicly operated people mover systems in the US is the Detroit Transportation Corporation’s People Mover. The Detroit People Mover is a 2.9-mile fully automated elevated system that provides connections between courts, government offices, sports arenas, exhibition centers, major hotels and commercial, banking and retail districts. Eight of the 13 people stations are integrated into existing buildings, linking over nine million square feet. It operates seven days a week during peak and off peak hours and has frequent headways. Table 9-1 provides the general characteristics of people movers.
Table 9-1. People Mover Characteristics
Capital Cost per Mile ($ millions) $40 to $60
Running Surface Exclusive ROW
Speed (Max/Average) 50/30 mph
Stop/Station Spacing One quarter mile to 1 mile
Implementation Feasibility Less Positive
9.2 Monorail10
Monorail is a variation of AGT and rapid transit that employs a single, relatively narrow beam that supports the vehicles and contains the power source. Though it is considered to be a relatively new technology, monorail has been around for over 100 years. The first monorail line opened in Wuppertal, Germany in 1901. Vehicles may either straddle the beam or be suspended from it; vehicles may travel as single units or be linked together in trains of one to six vehicles. The
Technical Memorandum 3 16 Transit Technology Inventory November 12, 2009 Michigan / Grand River Avenue Transportation Study design of monorail allows the guideway to be smaller, lighter, less obtrusive, and potentially less expensive than other fully elevated transit systems.
Las Vegas opened a monorail system in July 2004, connecting the airport to the casinos along the strip. The line is 3.9 miles with frequent headways during peak and off-peak hours. These types of systems are more commonly implemented in amusement parks, zoos and airports. Table 9-2 provides the general characteristics of a monorail system.
Table 9-2. Monorail Characteristics
Capital Cost per Mile ($ millions) $40 to $60
Running Surface Exclusive ROW
Speed (Max/Average) 60 mph/40mph
Stop/Station Spacing 1 to 2 miles
Implementation Feasibility Less Positive
9.3 Personal Rapid Transit11
Personal rapid transit (PRT), a technology currently under development that would provide automated, private party point-to-point transportation along a grade-separated guideway. As with AGT, intervals between vehicles would be very short. Service could be operated on demand, with vehicles being summoned to a stop by the passenger. This technology is envisioned to compete with the automobile by providing a direct, non-stop trip between origin and destination in private vehicles for up to three passengers. Stops could be designated at close intervals since users would not be subject to intermediate stops after boarding.
West Virginia University in Morgantown has a Group Rapid Transit (GRT) system operating since 1975, illustrated on this page. This system is used to connect the spatially separated parts of the
Technical Memorandum 3 17 Transit Technology Inventory November 12, 2009 Michigan / Grand River Avenue Transportation Study
West Virginia campus along a linear alignment. The system currently connects the main downtown campus with the Morgantown central business district (CBD) and the two suburban campuses. The total guideway length of the system is 8.7 miles connecting five off-line stations. Depending on the predictability of demand, the system operates in either a scheduled or demand-responsive mode. The system is considered to be more of a GRT than a PRT due to the large vehicle/guideway size and that not all rides on the system are non-stop from origin to destination. However, it is considered as the closest implementation of PRT in the United States.3 Table 9-3 provides the general characteristics of personal rapid transit.
Table 9-3. Personal Rapid Transit Characteristics
Capital Cost per Mile ($ millions) Not available
Running Surface Exclusive ROW
Speed (Max/Average) 30 mph/20mph
Stop/Station Spacing Close (less than one-half mile)
Implementation Feasibility Less Positive
1 Photo source: Kelly Martin. August 26, 2005. Articulated bus, CTA, retrieved November 2, 2009 from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CTA-articulated-bus.jpg
3 Source: http://faculty.washington.edu/~jbs/itrans/morg.htm.
Technical Memorandum 3 18 Transit Technology Inventory November 12, 2009 Michigan / Grand River Avenue Transportation Study
2 Photo source: Jeff Muceus. September 22, 2005. San Francisco Bus, retrieved November 2, 2009, from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:San_Francisco_Muni_Flyer_Trolley_Bus_5208.jpg
3 Photo source: Alain Caraco. August 12, 2004. A tramway at Caen (France), retrieved November 2, 2009 from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tramway_de_Caen.jpg
4 Photo source: Steve Morgan. September 20, 2009. Portland MAX Green Line, retrieved November 2, 2009 from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MAX_Green_HolgateBlvd.jpg
5 Photo source: Liftarn. March 28, 2007. Portland Street Car at Portland State University Urban Plaza Station retrieved November 2, 2009 from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:159- 5943_IMG.JPG
6 Photo source: Stahkocher, December 20, 2004, Transrapid, German maglev company, Emsland test facility. November 2, 2009, http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/archive/9/9b/20060807001030%21Transra pid.jpg
7 Photo source: Ben Schumin. September 4, 2005. Rossyln Metro Station in Arlington, Virginia, retrieved November 2, 2009 from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rosslyn_upper_level.jpg and GK Tranrunner229,
Photo source: GK Tranrunner229, March 12, 2007, Journal Square PATH Station, New Jersey. November 2, 2009, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PATH_836.JPG
8 Photo source: Federal Highway Administration, USDOT. March 6, 2008. Coaster at Encinitas, California, retrieved November 2, 2009 from http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/eihd/images/coaster2.jpg, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coaster2.jpg
Photo source: Neutronv6. May 7, 2009. Metra F40C number 614 ready to depart for Chicago after completing run number 2121 to Fox Lake, retrieved November 2, 2009 from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Metra_F40C_614.jpg
9 Photo source: USDOT. September 2007. Colorado Railcar bi-level DMU, in SFRTA/Tri-Rail livery, retrieved November 2, 2009 from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tri- rail_dmu.jpg
10 Photo source: Klaus. July 16, 2009. Seattle monorail train near the northern terminus, retrieved November 2, 2009 from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Seattle_monorail01_2008- 02-25.jpg
Technical Memorandum 3 19 Transit Technology Inventory November 12, 2009 Michigan / Grand River Avenue Transportation Study
11 Photo source: Wvuuan. November 6, 2008. Personal Rapid Transit (PRT) tracks and Evansdale Residential Complex at West Virginia University, retrieved November 2, 2009, from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Towers-prt.jpg
Technical Memorandum 3 20 Transit Technology Inventory November 12, 2009