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Home , Benjamin Franklin, Evangelista Torricelli, Geissler tube, Jean Picard, Joseph Priestley, Otto von Guericke

TIMELINE OF THE GAS DISCHARGE by Julia Cipo & Holger Kersten

Evangelista Torricelli Jean Picard Francis Hauksbee Ewald Georg von Kleist Pieter van Musschenbroek Vasily Vladimirovich Petrov * October 15th, 1608 in , * November 30th, 1602 in , *July 21st, 1620 in La Flèche, *1666 in Colchester, Great Britain * September 22nd, 1791 in Newington Butts, Surrey, * June 10th, 1700 in Wicewo, Poland * March 14th, 1692 in Leiden, Netherlands * March 24th, 1733 in , Great Britain * March 24th, 1733 in Yorkshire, Great Britain † October 25th, 1647 in , Italy † May 21st, 1686 in , Germany † October 12th, 1682 in , France † April/ May 1713 in † August 25th, 1867 in Hampton Court, Surrey, England † December 11th, 1748 in Koszalin, Poland † September 19th, 1761 in Leiden † February 6th,1804 in † February 6th,1804 in Pennsylvania • italian physicist, mathematician and assistant • english and inventor, of • german physicist, inventor, politician • french astronomer, engineer and • british scientist, lab assistant of Isaac assistant of and and one of the founders of the vacu- • german jurist, scientist and cleric • dutch scientist, a student of Isaac , • english theologian, , natural phi- • russian physicist and member of the • invents the Torricelli law in fl uid dynamics, priest Newton, member of the Royal member of the Royal Society where he describes the dependence of the um technology a friend of Daniel Gabriel and losopher, friend of and Russian Academy of • measures the meridian arcs • modifi es the electric machine by using • invents independently in October 1745 fl uid speed from the height of the fl uid in a a fellow of the Royal Society member of the Royal Society • invents the terms ‘anode’ and ‘ca- • invents in 1649 the piston a glass vessel instead of a sulfur ves- the Kleistian jar, which worked on the • builds the fi rst large battery, including vessel • observes in 1675 glow discharges thode’ pump sel. He reduces the air inside same principle as the • inventor of the fi rst in 1746, cal- • improves the electric machine and disco- 4200 serial connected electric cells on the caused by • invents the fi rst mercury barometer in 1644, the vessel even more and fi lls it with led the “Leyden jar”, which was later used vered the conductivity of charcoal • investigates the • invents in 1663 the fi rst electrostatic friction between the mercury and the • forgets to mention the grounding on the de- • was the fi rst to observe in 1803 a which would later serve for gas discharge ob- mercury by Benjamin Franklin for his experi- in thinned gases in the period generator: a friction machine, consis- glass particles scription of his experiment, which would • notices that the discharge of an electrifi ed continuous arc discharge by using his servations ment 1831-1835 ting of a sulfur globe, which could be • during the period 1705-1709 he make his discovery technically not functio- body did not acquire direct contact to con- large battery • founder of the fi rst nautical almanac • notices the dark space between • the old pressure unit Torr ist named after him rotated and rubbed by hand was the fi rst to study the glowing gas nable, so that van Musschenbroek remains • the Leyden jars can save the static electri- ductors; the proximity of an conductors “Connaissance des temps” in 1679 • assumed the use of voltaic batteries in the negative glow and the positive (1 Torr = 1 mm Hg) discharge inside the glass vessel of an the inventor of the fi rst capacitor city in the glass part of the vessel. While would be enough smelting, welding and producing of column, now known as the “Fara- dullophob.info grounding the jar, a sparking discharge electric machine • summarizes his results in his book “The His- pure metallic oxides -Portrait painted by , 1647, Now placed at the Gallery Silvano Lodi & Due, -internetdict.com Wikimedia Alchteron- Free Social Encyclopedia day dark space” -Portrait by the artist Anselm van Hulle, -uni-ulm.de between the metal layers can be achieved tory and Present State of ” publis- hed in 1767 Portrait: de.academic.ru, Leyden Jar Search Engine http://emadrlc.blogspot.de/

Portrait: Scan of a print found in Wikimedia. Original is housed at the National Portrait Gallery, London, Electrical machine: Medical Historical of Portrait: rus-eng.org • Petrov’s Battery. “Cathodic Arcs: From Fractal Spots to energetic Condensation” by André Anders

1640 1660 1680 1700 1720 1740 1760 1780 1800 1820

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz Edmond Halley Benjamin Franklin Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov Georg Lichtenberg Humphry Davy * July 1st, 1646 in Leipzig, Germany *November 8th, 1656 in Haggerston, London *January 17th, 1706 on the Governor‘s Island, * November 19th, 1711 in a village in Arkhangelsk, Russia * July 1st, 1742 in Ober-Ramstadt, Germany, † February * December 17th, 1778 in Penzance, Cornwall in England † November 14th, 1716 in Hannover, Germany † January 25th, 1742 in Greenwich † April 17th, 1790 in , Pennsylvania † April 15th, 1765 in St. Petersburg, Russia 24th, 1799 in Göttingen, Germany † May 29th, 1829 in Genf, Switzerland

• american politician, scientist, printer and • german mathematician, philosopher, • british astrophysicist, meteorologist, co-author of the Independence Declaration diplomat, historian and a friend of mathematician and member of the Ro- • russian scientist, and friend of • german mathematician, natural scientist, member of the Ro- • english chemist and inventor, friend of the french physicist of the U.S.A. yal Society and the fi rst german professor for experimental André-Marie Ampère and president of the Royal Society yal Society • invents the “Law of Conservation” in in 1748, which later • identifi es the as electric sparks, physics • inventor of different mathematical • discovers the line profi le of the ’ would be complemented by Antoine Lavoiser • constructs a larger voltaic battery with an electrode area of a form of electrical discharge • was among the fi rst ones to bring the Franklin’ lightning rod 80 m2 laws, like the product rule for function magnetic fi eld and the barometric • explains the formation of icebergs in 1760 to Germany derivation or the Leibniz’ criterion for height formula • experiments with by extracting • presents in 1807 his results on experiments with electrolytes the convergence of a serie sparks from the clouds • the fi rst to start investigations in • notices in 1716 that the arc of the • used and improved the infl uence machines for his experi- with the purpose to gain pure metals and gases • assumes the existence of the electrical charges not only on the surface of ments instead of the friction electrostatic generators • generates in 1671 the fi rst electrical borealis courses along the ma- • invents in 1753 the lightning rod as a pro- • notices glowing continuous arcs using his battery for melting the thunderstorm clouds as supposed till then, but also inside of the clouds spark using the electrostatic generator gnetic pole and not along the geogra- tective measure for buildings • studies the patterns left from an electrical discharge on an in- electrolysis of Guericke phic arc • constructs in the together with the german physicist Georg Wil- sulated surface such as glass; the patterns are known as the • uses the terms ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ to • invents the Davy lamp with , which was used as a staff..uu.nl helm Richmann “the thunder machine” which consisted of a lightning rod Lichtenberg fi gures describe charges safety lamp for workers in the coal mines connected with an electroscope and with its help they could study the -Portrait painted by Christoph Bernhard Francke around 1700 Now placed at the Herzog Anton-Ulrich Museum in Braunschweig, Germany • he notices the dependence of the length of the branchings lightning sparks • invents the carbon arc lamp in 1807 from the applied voltage or the surrounding air pressure • recognizes the similarity between the and electrical discharges • publishes 1777 his results in his memoirs „Super Nova Me- as well as the location of auroras in the upper atmosphere thodo Naturam ac Motum Fluidi Electrici Investigandi“

Alchteron- Free Social Encyclopedia Portrait: uni-goettingen.de ( Georg-August-University of Göttingen, Germany) • Lichtenberg Figures: scientifi csonline.com Portrait: Popular Science Monthly Volume 14 • Davy’s Battery: Bibliothek allgemeinen und praktischen Wissens für Militäranwärter Band III, 1905

Portrait: Axia Public Relations, Kite Exp: likesuccess.com * March 24th, 1884 in Maastricht, Netherlands † November 2nd, 1966 in Ithaca, , U.S.A

• dutch-american chemist, physicist and a student of

• winner of the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1936 “for his contributions to the study of molecular Hannes Olof Gösta Alfven structure” * May 30th, 1908 in Norrköping, Sweden • achievements 1927 in , which † April 2nd, 1995 in Djursholm, Sweden could be conferred in plasmas as for example the characteristic Debye length referred to the shielding process in plasmas by entrance of a • swedish physicist, a colleague of Er- test particle nest Rutherford, pioneer of the plas- • defi nes the ideal plasmas as spheric medium ma physics, member of the Royal Carl Friedrich Ernst Werner von Gotthilf-Eugen Goldstein Sir Joseph John Thomson Karl Ferdinand Braun Rudolf Seeliger Portrait: Sächsiche Akadamie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig with a high concentration of (Saxon Academy of Sciences in Leipzig) Swedish Academy, the European Phy- * April 30th, 1777 in Braunschweig, Germany * December 13th, 1816 in Lenthe by Hannover, Germany * September 5th, 1850 in Gleiwitz, Germany * December 18th, 1856 in Cheetham Hill, in England * June 6th, 1850 in Fulda, Germany * November 12th, 1886 in München, Germany sical Society and foreign member of † February 23rd, 1855 in Göttingen, Germany † December 6th, 1892 in , Germany † December 25th, 1930 in Berlin, Germany † August 30th, 1940 in , England † April 20th, 1918 in New York, USA † January 20th, 1965 in Greifswald, Germany the Yugoslav, U.S. and Soviet Acade- mies of Sciences • german mathematician, astronomer, physicist • english physicist, president of the Royal Johannes “Hans” Wilhelm Geiger • german inventor, industrialist and • german physicist, student and friend of Her- • german physicist and electrical • german physicist, student of Arnold • winner of the Nobel Prize in physics Society, the teacher of Ernest Rutherford and a student of Georg Christoph Lichtenberg founder of the electrical company Sie- mann von Helmholtz engineer Sommerfeld and a colleague of Jo- * September 30th, 1882 in Neustadt an der Haardt, Germany in 1970 “for fundamental work and • invents a lot of mathematical computational mens • winner of the Nobel Prize in physics in hannes Stark discoveries in magneto-hydrodyna- • names the cathode rays discovered by Hittorf • winner of the Nobel Prize in phy- † September 24th, 1945 in Potsdam, Germany methods and studies the Earth‘s magnetic fi eld 1906 for his researches on the conducti- mics with fruitful applications in diffe- • invents the ozone generator in 1857 because of their source: the cathode sics in 1909 for his work on the • notices in 1912 while experimen- vity of gases rent parts of plasma physics” • constructs in 1832 the magnetometer to mea- wireless telegraphy ting, that the needed energy for the • recognizes a glowing discharge while • realizes the perpendicular emission of the ca- • german physicist, who sure the daily fl uctuations of the magnetic fi eld • recognizes that all the cathode rays have excitation of spectral lines through • publishes his theory on the formation has been applied to the thode rays to the cathode surface in 1876 • develops the Braun’ tubes in worked together with the same origin: they consist of particles of the auroras in his book “Cosmical for a sustained period between 1836-1841 air inside the glass tubes of the ozone 1897, an improved cathode a current fl ow is portioned – the Ernest Rutherford and • discovers the anode rays in 1886, which with the same negative charge predecessor of the Franck- ex- Electrodynamics” in 1950 • explains the fl uctuations as a consequence of generators discharge tube with an integra- James Chadwick Portrait: Techmania Science Center were generated by positively charged particles and had the opposite 1938: Plasma lamps are available for the normal costumer electrical discharges happening in a conduc- • he discovers in 1897 the negative char- ted Wehnelt cylinder periment • explains, that the fl ux of plasma • notices the disinfectant effect of ozo- propagation direction as the cathode rays • constructs in 1928 the tive layer of the atmosphere. An example that ged electrons by calculating the mass-to- • establishes the “Institute for gas around the magnetic dipole fi eld of the Earth causes electric currents 1953: Robert M.Gage invents the plasma arc welding and cutting process, which achieved precision on both thin and thick metals ne, which is the of using the • 14.12.1930 the Braun’ tubes Geiger-Müller counter, a • names the discovered anode rays “the canal rays” because they pass charge-ratio that lead to the aurora glowing discharges confi rms his theory is the phenomena of Auro- ozone generator in water cleaning became the basis for the fi rst discharge physics” in Greifswald, device for measuring the 1960: The fi rst gas laser (Helium-- laser) is invented by the iranian-american physicist Ali Javan and the american scientist William R.Bennett, Jr. ras through the channels in the cathode now known as the “Institute for Low processes • calculates the ’s mass and obtains a value about 1/2000 tube ionising radiation • supposes in 1942 the existence of electro-hydrodynamic waves, called 1992: First Deuterium-Tritium discharges in the JET (Joint European Torus) fusion reactor Portrait : Biografías y vidas- La Enciclopedia Biográfi ca en Línea of the mass of the atom Temperature Plasma Physics” (INP) the “Alfvén waves” • • among the fi rsts to use the arc-lamps Portrait: Popular Science Monthly Volume 73, 1908 • Defl ection of cathode rays: OpenStax CNX by the Rice University, U.S.A the Geiger counter works 2000s: More than 200 companies in Germany working in the sector of low temperature plasmas Portrait: Nobelprize.org • Braun Tube: ph2.physik.uni-goettingen.de Portrait: Leibniz Institut für Plasmaforschung und Technologie e.V. Greifswald (Leibniz Institute for Plasma Science and Technology in Greifswald) Portrait: www.gauss-goettingen.de • Magnetometer:Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Göttingen as streetlights in March 1879 based on the Townsend discharge, a dark gas discharge, which leads • opens a new branch of plasma physics, called the “magnetohydrody- 2007: The foundation of the large international experimental fusion reactor ITER to an avalanche effect in the production of electrons namics”

Portrait: SWR (SüdWestRundfunk) Fernsehen Online - (South West Broadcast)TV Online Portrait: Siemens.com • Ozoniser: The Hellenic Archives of Scientifi c Instruments

1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

Sir John Sealy Edward Townsend Irving Langmuir Lyman Spitzer Lev Andreevich Artsimovich Igor Tamm Andrei Sakharov * June 7th, 1868 in Galway, * January 31st, 1881 in Brooklyn, New York * June 26th, 1914 in Toledo, Ohio, U.S.A Julius Plücker Sir Nikola † February 16th, 1957 in Oxford, England * February 25th, 1909 in Moscow, Russia * July 8th, 1895 in Vladivostok, Russia * May 21st, 1921 in Moscow, Russia † August 16th, 1957 in Woods Hole, , USA † March 31st, 1997 in Princeton, , U.S.A. * April 15th, 1874 in Schickenhof * June 16th, 1801 in Elberfeld by Wuppertal, Germany * March 17th, 1824 in Bonn, Germany * June 17th, 1832 in London, England * July 10th, 1856 in Smiljan, Croatia † March 1st, 1973 in Moscow, Russia † April 12th, 1971 in Moscow, Russia † December 14th, 1989 in Moscow, Russia by Freihung, Germany • irish mathematician, physicist, fellow of the Roy- • american physicist and • american astrophysicist † May 22nd, 1868 in Bonn, Germany † November 28th, 1914 in Münster, Germany † April 4th, 1919 in London, England † January 7th, 1943 in New York, USA al Society and a student of J.J.Thomson chemist, a pioneer of the and member of the Natio- • soviet physicist and • soviet physicist, mem- • soviet physicist, † June 25th, 1957 in Gut gas discharge physics nal Academy of Sciences member of the Soviet ber of the Soviet Aca- member of the • explains in 1915 in his book “Electricity in Ga- • • • • Eppenstatt by Traunstein, Germany and student of Walther and of the American Aca- Academy of Sciences demy of Sciences and Soviet Academy german mathematician, physicist and for- german physicist, chemist, a student and english physicist, chemist and member of serbian-american inventor, electrical en- ses” the dark/Townsend discharges referring eign member of the Royal Society assistant of Julius Plücker as well as the tea- the Royal Society gineer and physicist Nernst demy of Arts and Sciences as well as foreign mem- foreign member of the of Sciences, hu- Portrait: Die Welt to an “electron avalanche effect“ caused by a cher of Friedrich Paschen ber of the American, American, Polnish, man acti- • the fi rst to use the geissler tubes, since • improves the vacuum properties of the • the fi rst to invent an alternating current multiplied emission through collision of free elec- • winner of the Nobel Pri- • the fi rst to propose the idea Yugoslav, Swedish and Swedish Academy vist and soviet Heinrich Geissler was his glassblower • works with thinned gases as well as Fara- geissler tubes by reducing the gas pres- system, replacing the weak direct cur- • german physicist and representative trons with gas atoms ze in chemistry in 1932 of placing a large telesco- Czechoslovak Academy Arts and Sciences dissident day did and adds potential probes to the sure from 10-3atm to 10-8atm rent generators and motors of the in Germany “for his discoveries and pe in space • lays the foundation for the vacuum en- • establishes the “Townsend Ionisation Coeffi cients” which express the of Arts and Sciences investigations in surface -winner of the Nobel • winner of the No- gas discharge tubes to measure the elec- • winner of the Nobel Prize in physics in 1921 for the dis- • lobbies the NASA to build gineering, since the geissler tubes were • names the dark space next to the catho- • patents in 1891 the “”, a number of anions or cations per unit length during the dark discharge chemistry” trostatic fi eld the Hubble Space Telesco- • works on the Soviet ato- Prize in physics in bel Prize the fi rst ones with good vacuum conditions de “the Crookes dark space” and exp- high-frequency transformer, which could covery and explanation of the Stark Effect as a splitting ef- Portrait: Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society Vol. 3 (Nov., 1957) by A. von Engel mic bomb project at the 1958 together with in 1975 • discovers the cathode rays in 1869 or as lains its formation due to a lower collisi- generate large corona discharges fect of the spectral lines in electric fi elds • name fi nder for the pe • recognizes the defl ection of the glowing Kurchatov Institute Pavel Alekseyevich he refers to “the rays of the negative on rate of electrons with the gas atoms in that area 4. aggregation state, • works for a short rays by approximating a magnet to the • experiments with geissler tubes and ge- • discovers in 1905 the optical Doppler effect in canal rays • constructs in 1951 a thermonuclear fusion reactor na- Cherenkov and Ilya from the cathode to the anode“ calling it “plasma” in • one of the designers of the Tokamak (Toroidalnaja ka- time on the Soviet geissler tube in 1858. So he discovers the • designs the Crookes tubes: new shaped discharge tubes with different nerates glow discharges inside of them med Stellarator, where a plasma ring is enclosed by he- Frank for the discovery Meghnad Saha 1927 mera w magnitnych katuschkach = toroidal chamber atomic bomb pro- electrical properties of discharges • notices the linear propagation direction of shapes of the anode in the 1870s by placing them cordless right in the lical magnetic coils and heated to fusion temperatures of the Cherenkov radi- * October 6th, 1893 in Shaoratoli by Dhaka, British India in magnetic coils), which is a nuclear fusion reactor ject the cathode rays middle of an oscillating electric fi eld • describes plasma as a ation • notices in 1862 the different spectra of • approves Hittorf’s result on the linear propagation of the cathode rays Portrait: Encyclopedia Britannica with the purpose of energy production † February 16th, 1956 in Delphi, India “quasi-neutral” medium • one of the desig- the same gas. He is the fi rst to observe the • improves the arc-lamp in 1891 by ad- Clement Dexter Child • notices the heating effect of the cathode rays in 1929 -works on the Soviet * 1868 in Madison, Ohio, USA ners of the Toka- three lines of the hydrogen spectrum ding an alternator to suppress the loud • indian astrophysicist, politician, fellow of thermonuclear bomb project testing successfully the fi rst • explains the glowing discharge in the Crookes tubes with the existence • develops the Langmuir probe in 1924 with the purpose mak Portrait: Hausdorff Center for Mathematics • Magnet close geissler tubes: Purdue University, College of Science generated sound † July 15th, 1933 in Rochester, New York, USA the Royal Society and a classmate of the fa- hydrogen bomb in 1953; he retires from the project af- of “a fourth state of ” to determine plasma parameters mous physicist Satyendra Nath Bose ter that • presents together with Artsimovich and Tamm the fi rst constructed Tokamak in 1962, which consists Portrait: Focus Online • Discharge: Spiegel Online • american physicist and colleague of J.J.Thomson and I. • discovers the “Langmuir waves” which arise out of the • prepares in 1919 together with Bose the -one of the designers of the Tokamak Langmuir propagation of the oscillations made by the charged of different kinds of magnetic coils surrounding Portrait: Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie, Band 12, 1893 • Discharge tubes: “Gasentladungsforschung im 19. Jahrhundert”, 2004 von Falk Müller fi rst recorded english translation of Einstein’s particles --introduces the principle of the Tokamak together with the plasma ring inside • studies gas discharges while using a heated cathode, “Theory of Relativity” Artsimovich and Sakharov in 1952 which causes the thermionic emission of electrons • invents a gas-fi lled light bulb with a better lucency than • presents in 1920 on his paper “On the Io- the vacuum bulbs, that were common at that time • notices a current limitation after the emission, explaining nization of the Solar Chromosphere” his Artsimovich Portrait: eduspb.com • Tamm Portrait: nobelprize.lebedev.ru • Sakharov Portrait: Encyclopedia Britannica • Tokamak: Principle: Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik it with the existence of a space charge greatest discovery: “the Saha-Eggert equa- Portrait+Stellarator: Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory • Portrait: Princeton Weekly Bulletin tion”, a formula for the determination of the • presents in 1913 the “Child-Langmuir Law” as a corre- Portrait: Ramakrishna Mission Calcutta Students Home ionization level in gases Portrait: Portrait painted by George Charles Beresford in 1906 • : “On radiant Matter” by William Crookes, Popular Science Monthly, London, November 1879 lation between the voltage and the current between two electrodes in vacuum • helps building the fi rst cyclotron in his country