Prehistoric Trade Networks in the Lake Okeechobee Region: Evidence from the Ritta Island and Kreamer Island Sites
by
Gregory J. Mount
A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of
The Dorothy F. Schmidt College of Arts and Letters
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Arts
Florida Atlantic University
Boca Raton, Florida
August 2009
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
As I was once told, a thesis is not the work of a single person, nor is it a sprint. This thesis follows that adage. I would like to thank my advisory committee; Dr. Arlene Fradkin, Dr. Clifford Brown and Mr. Christian Davenport.
Their suggestions and revisions turned a simple paper into the finished document in the pages that follow. I would like to specifically thank my chair, Dr. Fradkin for the countless hours spent revising, her patience and her drive to see me through.
I will forever be in debt to Mr. Boots Boyer, without whom the data for this research and for the larger project, would never have been gathered. He truly is a steward of preservation and a man of honor.
Aside from being on my committee, Mr. Christian Davenport should also be recognized. Without his guidance, friendship and desire to see me succeed, I would have never finished. I am fortunate to have worked for him and with him for the past 4 years.
Last and certainly not least I wish to thank my parents Gene and Karen
Mount and my late grandparents John and Ethel Bellas. I have always tried to do the right thing and make you proud. As I close this trial and open another tribulation, I want you to know how appreciative I am for everything you have given me and the support you have shown.
iii
ABSTRACT
Author: Gregory J. Mount
Title: Prehistoric Trade Networks in the Lake Okeechobee Region: Evidence from the Ritta Island and Kreamer Island Sites
Institution: Florida Atlantic University
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Arlene Fradkin
Degree: Master of Arts
Year: 2009
During pre-Columbian times, the Lake Okeechobee region was home to people of the Belle Glade culture. The lake provided an area rich in resources that facilitated not only the hunter-gatherer-fisher lifestyle of the people but also supported increased cultural complexity. Over time, people participated in an exchange network, trading materials with cultural groups from a variety of locations. This thesis provides an analysis of those non-local artifacts, their probable points of origins and the type of exchange that facilitated the movement of these goods into the region.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES ...... vii
LIST OF TABLES ...... viii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION...... 1
Lake Okeechobee and the Archaeological Sites in this Study ...... 2
Ritta Island ...... 3
Kreamer Island ...... 5
Objectives ...... 6
Environmental Setting...... 6
Florida Paleolandscape...... 7
Physiographic Regions...... 8
Lake Okeechobee Region Geology...... 10
Lake Okeechobee Region Soils ...... 11
Hydrology and Historical and Modern Drainage ...... 11
CHAPTER II PREVIOUS ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH AND
CULTURAL HISTORY...... 15
Cultural History...... 20
The Paleoindian Period ...... 21
The Archaic Period...... 21
The Belle Glade Period ...... 23
CHAPTER III MATERIALS AND METHODS...... 26 v Survey ...... 27
Excavation...... 28
Data Processing and Analysis...... 31
CHAPTER IV RESULTS ...... 34
Ritta Island ...... 34
Lithics...... 36
Ceramics...... 37
Marine Shell...... 37
Kreamer Island ...... 38
Marine Shell...... 38
Ceramics...... 42
Lithics...... 43
CHAPTER V RECONSTRUCTING TRADE ROUTES ...... 47
Source of Non-Local Artifacts...... 47
Lithics ...... 47
Marine Shell ...... 51
Ceramics ...... 54
Reconstructing Trade Routes...... 54
Types of Exchange...... 58
Implications of Trade in the Paradigm of Cultural Complexity ...... 59
CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS...... 64
APPENDIX SHELL TOOL DATA BY TOOL TYPE ...... 66
REFERENCES CITED ...... 72
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Location of Study Sites...... 4
Figure 2. Physiographic Regions of South Florida...... 9
Figure 3. Rivers of South Florida...... 13
Figure 4. Cultural Regions of South Florida...... 16
Figure 5. Ritta Island Location of Excavations...... 29
Figure 6. Kreamer Island Location of Excavations ...... 30
Figure 7. Lithic Sources in the Assemblage from Ritta Island...... 50
Figure 8. Marine Shell Sources and Potential Trade Routes...... 53
Figure 9. Proposed Trade Routes ...... 55
Figure 10. Archaeological Sites along the Democrat River ...... 57
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Summary of Ceramics from Ritta Island ...... 35
Table 2. Summary of Lithics from Ritta Island ...... 35
Table 3. Taxa Present in Shell Artifact Assemblage from Kreamer Island ...... 39
Table 4. Formal Marine Shell Tool Types from Kreamer Island...... 40
Table 5. Summary of Ceramics from Kreamer Island...... 44
Table 6. Raw-Material Type by Artifact Class from Ritta Island...... 49
Table A-1. Gastropod Cutting-Edged Tools...... 66
Table A-2. Gastropod Hammers...... 66
Table A-3. Anvil, Gorget and Debitage ...... 67
Table A-4. Columella Cutting-Edged Tools, Perforators and Hammers ...... 67
Table A-5. Sinkers and Pendants ...... 68
Table A-6. Gastropod Adzes/Celts ...... 69
Table A-7. Gastropod Scraper Type A and Type B ...... 70
Table A-8. Bivalve Tools...... 71
viii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Centrally located in south Florida, Lake Okeechobee has been used for various purposes over its 5,000 years of existence. For some people, the lake is the liquid heart of south Florida, pumping its lifeblood into one of the world’s largest crops of sugarcane. For others, it is a recreational haven for sport fishing and bird watching. Lake Okeechobee also serves as a transportation route, connecting the east and west coasts of Florida via two canalized rivers.
Moreover, this lake has played a major role in the lives of the people who settled near its shores.
While the recent history of Lake Okeechobee is relatively well known, little
is known about its pre-Columbian inhabitants. During pre-Columbian times, the
Lake Okeechobee region was home to people of the Belle Glade culture. Over a
period of approximately 2,700 years, these people built extensive earthworks and
canals, turning a vast wetland into an area suitable for occupation. Though not
the idyllic beachfront property coveted by recent settlers of Florida, Lake
Okeechobee provided an area rich in resources that facilitated not only the
hunter-gatherer-fisher lifestyle of the people but also supported increased cultural
complexity. Over time, people participated in an exchange network, trading
materials with cultural groups from a variety of locations. This prehistoric 1 exchange network was possible because of the numerous waterways branching out from Lake Okeechobee, some of which continued for tens or even hundreds of miles.
Lake Okeechobee and the Archaeological Sites in this Study
The area the Belle Glade people settled has come to be known as the
Lake Okeechobee Region. This area stretches from Lake Kississimee in the north to the headwaters of the Everglades south of the lake.
Covering an area of 1,890 km2, Okeechobee is the largest lake in Florida and the second largest lake in the United States (South Florida Water
Management District [SFWMD] 2007). Until early 2007, only 10 archaeological sites had been reported in the lake, three of which – Ritta Island, Kreamer Island and Pelican Bay – are located within Palm Beach County. The greatest limiting factor in conducting archaeological research at Lake Okeechobee is the artificially controlled water levels that have been raised, inundating the prehistoric shoreline. This held true until a severe drought during 2007 lowered water levels to an all-time low, exposing extensive areas of lakebed.
From March to October 2007, a survey was undertaken in the Palm Beach
County area of the lake to locate and document cultural resources exposed due to low water levels. This survey was named the Boyer Survey of Lake
Okeechobee after George “Boots” Boyer, Jr., who made the initial discoveries that prompted the investigation and whose continued support has enabled further research. This survey resulted in the discovery of 33 new sites.
2 This research study focuses on two of the three previously recorded sites.
Both are located on and named after islands within the lake. Ritta and Kreamer islands are situated in the southeast section of the lake within the boundaries of
Palm Beach County and are approximately 10 km apart from each other (Figure
1).
Ritta Island
The Ritta Island site (8PB92) is located on the northern tip of Ritta Island
(see Figure 1), adjacent to what appears to be an inlet or outlet for an extinct river or slough. Carr (1975) first recorded the site based on information given in
Lawrence Will’s book, Swamp to Sugar Bowl: Pioneer Days in Belle Glade (Will
1984:106). An update was filed with the Florida Master Site File (FMSF) in
August 2001 by Ryan Wheeler during another period of low water in Lake
Okeechobee. There were no formal excavations conducted at the site prior to the Boyer Survey. Nevertheless, the site file indicates that people had removed materials that are now either in private collections or have been donated to local museums (Carr 1975, 2001; Wheeler 2001a).
Ritta Island is typical of the local lacustrine environment, though the interior of the island has been extensively modified for agricultural use. Along the shore, exposed low-lying ground is covered in grasses while higher areas are covered by pond apple trees, moon vine and maidencane. The soil matrix consists of deep deposits (>1.8 m) of Torry Muck covered by a thin lens (<10 cm) of colluvium and debris.
3
The assemblage of artifacts from Ritta Island is unique when compared to other typical Belle Glade sites (Sears et al. 1994; Willey 1949). The site contained a high concentration of lithic debitage and chert nodules, as well as a finely made basalt pendant. There are no known comparable lithic outcrops in south Florida (Petuch and Roberts 2007). Other nonlocal artifacts included a
shell tool fragment and three modified shark’s teeth.
Kreamer Island
Kreamer Island is located approximately 10 km to the east of Ritta Island.
The site was first discovered in the 1930s but was not documented until 1951 by
Goggin (FMSF 8PB43). Updates to the Florida Master Site File followed in 1975
and 2001 by Carr and Wheeler, respectively (Carr 1975; Wheeler 2001b). As at
Ritta, there was no previous archaeological work conducted at Kreamer, though
some materials were removed by local collectors and are currently in private collections (FMSF 8PB43).
Although relatively close to Ritta Island, Kreamer Island differs geologically. The island is covered by Torry Muck underlain in some areas by a mixture of fine white sand. Pond apples are located near the interior, while low grasses and maidencane occupy areas close to the present shoreline. Although there is no accurate bathymetry of Lake Okeechobee, Kreamer appears to be at a lower elevation than Ritta as indicated by water levels observed during the survey.
Like Ritta, the assemblage from Kreamer site also contained artifacts derived from nonlocal materials. At Kreamer, a large number of artifacts were 5 made from several kinds of marine shell. These artifacts included hammers,
adzes, chisels, scrapers, as well as numerous columella pendants and a single
Objectives
This project analyzes the cultural material remains collected during the
Boyer Survey of Lake Okeechobee and subsequent excavations at the Ritta and
Kreamer Island sites. The study focuses on the nonlocal artifacts recovered at
the two sites in order to gain insight into pre-Columbian exchange networks in
the Lake Okeechobee Region.
The research seeks to accomplish the following objectives:
• Determine the source of nonlocal materials
• Reconstruct the potential trade routes
• Examine the relationship of Ritta and Kreamer Island sites to other south Florida sites near Lake Okeechobee
• Determine the extent of the exchange network that connected Lake Okeechobee to other regions in Florida in pre-Columbian times
• Examine the role of trade in the evolution of cultural complexity within the Lake Okeechobee Region
Environmental Setting
The project area is situated in the southeast section of Lake Okeechobee, which is centrally located in south Florida. Over the past two centuries, there have been a number of efforts to control the water levels of Lake Okeechobee. 6 Early attempts included a dike made of local muck soil but a more effective measure was necessary due to frequent hurricanes. During the hurricane of
1928, the lake flooded and drowned thousands of people. Afterwards, the federal government took action. From 1930 to 1960, the United States Army Corps of
Engineers (USACE) built the Herbert Hoover Dike in order to artificially control the water level of the lake and thus prevent such disasters in the future.
Regulatory agencies continue to adjust the depth of the lake according to agricultural needs and precipitation predictions. In 2006, unseasonably high rainfall was anticipated, so the water levels of the lake were lowered. Instead, precipitation was extremely low that year, and a drought ensued, resulting in the lake becoming extremely shallow. As the lake waters receded, once submerged lands were exposed, revealing archaeological deposits.
Florida Paleolandscape
The Florida peninsula was formed approximately 18,000 years ago during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). During this period, Florida’s sea level was approximately 100–130 m below our present-day shoreline. The bathymetry of the east coast of Florida is vastly different from that of the west coast. Whereas an average depth of 100–130 m would be reached off the east coast approximately 3 to 5 km from shore, one would not encounter that same depth until approximately 270 km west of Cape Sable on the west coast (Gagliano
1977; Widmer 1988:138-149).
The end of the Last Glacial Maximum resulted in the rise of sea levels, the inundation of the vast plain surrounding Florida, and the eventual formation of 7 present-day climatic conditions. By 8,000 B.C., the beginning of the Holocene,
sea levels were still approximately 9 m below current levels (Robbins 1984). Sea
levels continued to rise until 5,000 B.C. when modern environmental conditions were reached. At this time, sheet flow creating Lake Okeechobee occurred, which played an important role in the formation of the modern climate of south
Florida (Petuch and Roberts 2007:147).
Physiographic Regions
The physiographic regions that surround Lake Okeechobee are the
Everglades, eastern flatlands, and western flatlands (Figure 2). McPherson et al.
(1976) describe the ecological communities found in each of the regions. The kinds of habitats present are directly related to the amount of water available and the impact of development.
The Everglades is one of the largest freshwater marshes in North America
(Craighead 1971:163). This flat open expanse of grassy marsh extends from the southern rim of Lake Okeechobee and Loxahatchee Slough south to the mouth of Shark River Slough at Florida Bay (Petuch and Roberts 2007:4). The
Everglades and Lake Okeechobee together form the lower section of a large,
naturally integrated drainage system in the southern part of the Florida peninsula.
This system begins in the Kissimmee River basin in central Florida. Waters flow
southward into Lake Okeechobee and subsequently overflow into the Everglades
where the waters eventually discharge into Florida Bay (McPherson et al.1976;
Parker 1984).
8
Surrounding the Everglades and Lake Okeechobee are the eastern and western flatlands (McPherson et al. 1976). The two physiographic regions are similar in terms of ecological communities and vegetation types. Both can be described as mosaic landscapes consisting of wet prairies, palmetto and dry prairies, pine forests or flatwoods, cypress forests, mixed swamp forests as well as ponds and sloughs. These areas are low, sandy, and poorly drained. The eastern flatlands are drained by the Loxahatchee River, which empties into the
Atlantic Ocean. The western flatlands are drained by the Caloosahatchee River, which empties into the Gulf of Mexico.
Lake Okeechobee Region Geology
Petuch and Roberts (2007) give an in-depth look at the geology of the
Everglades. My research is most concerned with the upper stratigraphy, referred to as the surficial complex.
The two geological formations present in the study area are known as the
Lake Flirt and Pamlico formations. The Lake Flirt Formation is defined by Petuch and Roberts as a friable-to-dense freshwater limestone. The limestone ranges from white to cream-white in color and is typically composed of three thin layers.
The uppermost layer, known as caprock, is pitted with microkarstic solution holes
(Petuch and Roberts 2007:195-196).
Above the Lake Flirt Formation is the Pamlico Formation, a name given to the surficial sands and beach dunes of South Florida. The presence of this sand is the result of longshore transport during the late Pleistocene. This sand then was blown across the state from the east, forming transverse dunes and thin 10 layers. Petuch and Roberts state that the name Pamlico Formation should only be used in its broadest sense due to intermixing of Quaternary and older sands, resulting in a mixture and not a homogenous deposit (Petuch and Roberts
2007:196). The Pamlico Formation is defined as well rounded quartz sand, fine to medium sized grains, ranging in color from white, tan, and brown to grey.
Typically deposits range from 1 to 3 m. Of great interest is the presence of clay lenses within some of the higher elevations. These clay layers resulted from deposition within Holocene ponds and marshlands (Petuch and Roberts 2007).
Lake Okeechobee Region Soils
The formation of Lake Okeechobee and the Everglades is responsible for the deep deposits of peat and muck found throughout the Lake Okeechobee
Region. Gleason and others (1984) date the beginning of this deposition to approximately 5,000 B.P. Varying rates of muck deposition are known. Rates of
7.3 cm per century from 3,500 to 1,200 B.P. and 16 cm per century from 1,200
B.P. to the present day have been reported (Gleason et al. 1984:311). In recent years, however, a large amount of muck-filled land is not being seasonally replenished. Drainage efforts and intense agriculture have resulted in the oxidation of peat and muck soils in many areas.
Hydrology and Historical and Modern Drainage
South Florida receives on average of 127 cm to 152 cm of rainfall per year
(McPherson et al.1976:54). This amount of rainfall constitutes the bulk of the sheet flow that feeds the lower Everglades. Historically, the excess water flowed
11 into the lake through various rivers, streams and creeks. V.P. Keller, an engineer for Hamilton Diston, states in a historical account (Will 2002) that there were 17 streams leading out of Lake Okeechobee.
Due to drainage efforts in the early twentieth century as well as continued flood and water control by SFWMD, the area around the lake has been markedly changed. Streams and rivers that had drained into and out of Lake Okeechobee have been turned into canals or even filled in, to produce the desired layout of agricultural fields. Though changes have been made, some large rivers still exist. The largest of these rivers are the Kissimmee, St. Lucie, Caloosahatchee, and Fisheating Creek. The Kissimmee is the largest, and empties into the north end of Lake Okeechobee; the St. Lucie Canal (a canalized river) empties into the
Atlantic Ocean; the Caloosahatchee River empties into the Gulf of Mexico; and
Fisheating Creek flows into the northwest portion of Lake Okeechobee (Figure
3).
Historically, the Caloosahatchee and St. Lucie rivers were not directly connected to Lake Okeechobee. The headwaters of the Caloosahatchee River started in a sawgrass marsh approximately 5 km west of Lake Hicpochee which is located southwest of Lake Okeechobee. Based on historic aerial photographs, however, it is clear that at least three additional rivers were located in approximately the same area. Two of these now extinct rivers were named during the early twentieth century as the Ritta and Democratic rivers. Further analysis of aerial imagery has shown other areas where rivers once ran before the inception of the Everglades drainage programs. To the east of Pahokee, the
12
Pelican River is still visible, and historic accounts mention other tributaries in the vicinity (Tebeau 1984). The flow of water through the region is currently directed through the Caloosahatchee and St. Lucie rivers. Historically, the flow of water would have occurred west through the Big Cypress system and south through the Everglades.
In summary, the modern hydrology is much different from the historic and prehistoric drainage system. We must, however, take the prehistoric drainages and geomorphology into account when analyzing prehistoric settlement, subsistence and exchange systems.
14
CHAPTER II
PREVIOUS ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH AND CULTURAL HISTORY
Early explorers and, subsequently, archaeologists have noted the presence of massive earthworks unique to the Lake Okeechobee Region. These features appeared to be different from those in the rest of south Florida and consequently the region was designated as a separate cultural area (Figure 4).
The first written description of Native Americans from the Lake
Okeechobee area is an ethnographic account by Do. D’escalante Fontenada, a
Spaniard who was shipwrecked along the west coast of Florida and spent 17 years living among the Calusa. Although the Calusa resided mainly in west
Florida, their chiefdom had wide-ranging trade and tribute networks and their sphere of influence extended to Florida’s east coast as far north as Cape
Canaveral (Widmer 1988). One account given by Fontenada refers to Lake
Mayaimi, now known as Lake Okeechobee. Fontenada gives a brief description of the Native Americans around the lake, noting that they lived in small settlements of 30 to 40 individuals (Fontenada 1945:67-68).
In the late nineteenth century, there are further written accounts of early explorations in the Lake Okeechobee region. A.W. Conklin visited the Highland
Mound site in Highlands County and provided the first written description of it in
1875 (Conklin 1875; Mitchell 1996:32). Conklin also traveled farther south to the areas directly surrounding the lake and recorded the Ortona earthworks and 15
canals as well as other earthworks in the area (Conklin 1875:331; Mitchell
1996:32). Another explorer was Kentworthy (1883), who traveled throughout the
Lake Okeechobee Region and mentioned some of the canals dug by Native
Americans (Carr et. al. 2003:18; Mitchell 1996:32).
The twentieth century saw sporadic periods of archaeological interest in
the Lake Okeechobee and surrounding areas. In the early 1930s, the federal
government developed the Federal Relief Program to help combat the
depression and provide jobs for people. Because archaeologists needed a large
labor pool and work could be carried out year-round due to Florida’s warm
climate, many federally funded archaeological projects were established in
Florida (Milanich 1994:9-10). Under this program and sponsorship, Gene M.
Sterling and D. Lloyd Reichard began excavations at Belle Glade Mound
(8PB40) and Belle Glade Midden (8PB41) and did limited testing at Big Mound
City (8PB56) (Willey 1949:5).
John W. Griffin, who was the first head of the new state archaeology program created by the Florida Parks Service in 1946, conducted some work in the Lake Okeechobee Region. Griffin’s discussion of Calusa ceremonial tablets as well as his joint effort with Hale G. Smith at the Goodnow Mound in Highlands
County provided a basis for future studies and contributed to the information known about the area (Griffin and Smith 1948:14-18).
Gordon Willey reported on the findings and analysis of the excavations conducted by G. Sterling in the Okeechobee Region (Willey 1949). In Willey’s analysis of the materials from Belle Glade Mound and Midden, two temporal
17 periods for the Lake Okeechobee Region (then called the Glades Region) were developed: Belle Glade I and Belle Glade II. Sears would later modify this chronology into a four period sequence based on his excavations at Fort Center
(Sears et al. 1994).
John M. Goggin (ca. 1949) synthesized a large body of archaeological information known about south Florida in his dissertation. Though Goggin did not focus on the Lake Okeechobee Region, his work at Fort Center (Goggin 1952) expanded the information known about the area. Goggin’s work at this site and at the Platt Site led to the connection, by way of similar ceramic sequences, of these northern areas to Belle Glade Midden (Goggin 1952:65). Johnson (1991) attributes the first use of aerial photography as a remote sensing technique in south Florida to Goggin, a technique that was later used by Carr (1975) as well as by Johnson (1991).
The most extensive excavations in the Okeechobee Region were conducted in the 1960s at the Fort Center site under the direction of William
Sears. Fort Center lies along a 1.6 km section of Fisheating Creek in Glades
County, Florida, along the northwest coast of Lake Okeechobee. The site is made up of large earthworks consisting of mounds, linear embankments, middens, ditches and ponds (Sears et al. 1994). Information gained from Sears’ excavations and analysis has provided a vast array of data about the Belle Glade people who lived around Lake Okeechobee. It is from this work that Sears developed the four period cultural chronology for the region.
18 W. Jerald Kennedy of Florida Atlantic University completed the first
systematic survey and predictive model of Palm Beach County in 1991. This
survey covered approximately 1,214 ha resulting in the discovery of five
previously undocumented sites bordering the Okeechobee region (Kennedy et al.
1991).
The Archaeological and Historical Conservancy, Inc. (AHC), under the
direction of Robert Carr, has carried out a large body of archaeological work in
Palm Beach County. In 2003, AHC completed an archaeological survey of the
county. This work resulted in the identification and evaluation of 182
archaeological sites (eight previously unknown) and the delineation of 41
archaeological conservation zones, portions of which are in the Lake
Okeechobee Region (Carr et. al. 2003).
H. Stephen Hale (1989) examined seasonal fluctuation of the lake’s water
levels and its impact on pre-Columbian settlement patterns and subsistence
strategies. Hale analyzed faunal assemblages from three sites, and his results
demonstrated a subsistence strategy focused on aquatic animals, thus
necessitating prehistoric settlement locations near flooded areas. Hale has
completed zooarchaeological work on other sites in the region as well (Hale
1984, 1989, 1995).
Scott Mitchell (1996) explored the importance of freshwater resources to
the late pre-Columbian people in the Lake Okeechobee Region. Mitchell
compared original data from the Blueberry Site in Highlands County, Florida, to published data on contemporaneous Belle Glade middens. Mitchell also
19 suggests that pre-Columbian people relied heavily upon aquatic animals, such as turtles and fish, even though other resources were available (Mitchell 1996).
William Johnson (1991) developed a typological classification of Belle
Glade earthworks for the western section of the Lake Okeechobee Region. This typology was combined with chronological data from Fort Center (Sears et al.
1994) in order to synthesize a Belle Glade cultural history. In his work, Johnson refuted Sears’ theory regarding a migration from Venezuela through the Antilles to Florida as well as the role of maize in the subsistence strategy of the Belle
Glade people.
Robert Austin (1992) has also contributed to our knowledge about the northern extent of the region. As part of his dissertation, Austin focused on lithic materials from sites found in Highlands County, Florida. Due to the general lack of information about the area, Austin relied on local collectors and avocational archaeologists to locate sites and document the type of artifacts that had been recovered and removed (Austin 1992). Austin also has carried out numerous archaeological investigations in the Okeechobee area.
Cultural History
The prehistory of South Florida and of the Lake Okeechobee Region in particular is divided into three periods: Paleoindian; Archaic; and Formative, which is known as the Belle Glade in this region. This summary is based upon the synthesis presented by Milanich (1994).
20 The Paleoindian Period
The Paleoindian period (10,000-7,500 B.C.) represents the earliest known
human occupation in Florida. Paleoindians were nomadic hunters and gatherers who subsisted on large as well as small game animals and wild plant resources.
During this time, Florida was significantly cooler and drier than at present, due to greatly lowered sea levels, and was approximately twice the size it is today.
Because of arid conditions and the absence of surface water bodies such as
Lake Okeechobee, water was in short supply at inland locations and
Paleoindians tended to occupy areas near the coast or near waterholes (Milanich
1994:38-40). By the end of the Paleoindian period, warmer and wetter climatic conditions, a rise in sea levels, and the extinction of large Pleistocene megafauna led to changes in human adaptations in Florida and to the onset of the Archaic period.
The Archaic Period
The Archaic period (7,500-500 B.C.) is divided into three temporal
divisions: Early, Middle, and Late. This division is based upon environmental and
climatic data, artifact assemblages, and settlement patterns. The Archaic is
marked by the onset of less arid conditions and the transition from drier and cooler conditions to a wetter and warmer climate as well as a significant rise in sea level.
The Early Archaic (7,500-5,000 B.C.) is characterized by cultural changes induced by the climatic changes at the end of the Pleistocene and the beginning of the Holocene. In terms of projectile points, there was a transition from the 21 Paleoindian lanceolate to Archaic stemmed varieties. Paleoindian style tool kits disappear after 7,500 B.C. (Milanich 1994:63-75). The climate of the Early
Archaic was milder than that of the Paleoindian period.
The Middle Archaic (5,000-3,000 B.C.) is characterized by a continuing trend toward warmer and wetter conditions. By this time, more and larger surface water sources were available and both Lake Okeechobee and the Everglades were formed (Milanich 1994:75-85). Sites are found in a variety of locations, though there was a preference for higher elevated areas, as exemplified by sites on the Pahokee Ridge, one of the few locales with Archaic period sites within the region.
The Late Archaic period (3,000-500 B.C.) is marked by the appearance of modern environmental and climatic conditions. With sea levels stabilized, Florida was reduced to its present size. Settlement patterns depended on access to fresh water, which at this time was found not only on the coast but also in the interior of Florida. Increased populations were occupying most inhabitable areas of Florida.
The Late Archaic period also marks the appearance of the earliest pottery made in Florida. This pottery was fiber-tempered and first appeared at approximately 2,000 B.C., though the technique may have originated in Georgia and South Carolina (Milanich 1994:86).
During the Late Archaic, human populations were adapting to their local environments. By the end of the period, ca. 500 B.C., Florida’s indigenous populations were practicing a number of distinct lifeways, each adapted to
22 specific regions within Florida, resulting in the development of regional cultures
(Milanich 1994:85-86).
The Belle Glade Period
The Lake Okeechobee Region was home to the Belle Glade people. This
culture was named after Belle Glade Mound, an archaeological site in Palm
Beach County which was excavated in 1934 by Sterling, Lamae, and Squires as
part of the Works Progress Administration (WPA) (Willey 1949). The Belle Glade
culture is characterized by a unique assemblage of earthworks, including
mounds, ditches, linear and angular embankments, canals, and ponds. Typically, these earthworks and sites are found near the headwaters of sloughs and drainages from as far south as Boynton Mounds (8PB100) to as far north as
Lake Kissimmee (Austin 1992). In addition to the earthworks, a pottery type
known as Belle Glade Plain is also used to define the region.
Most of the information about Belle Glade culture is based on excavations
conducted by Sears at Fort Center (Sears et al. 1994). This is the only site
thoroughly excavated in the Lake Okeechobee Region. Sears divided the Belle
Glade culture sequence into four temporal periods: Belle Glade I, Belle Glade II,
Belle Glade III, and Belle Glade IV. These periods were based on a seriation of
ceramics and settlement patterns. Chronometric dates were assigned to the
temporal periods by means of Carbon 14 dates obtained from organic materials
recovered during excavation.
During Belle Glade I (1,000/800 B.C.- A.D. 200) the inhabitants of Fort
Center constructed three circular ditches, perhaps for the cultivation of maize, 23 and lived on higher elevations along the bank of Fisheating Creek or on small
earthen house mounds. People made fiber-tempered pottery and eventually
sand tempered ceramics (Sears et al. 1994).
During Belle Glade II (A.D. 200-600/800) several structures were built,
forming a mortuary complex. These included a low platform mound with a
charnel-house structure, an artificial pond, a dense midden and a surrounding
earthwork. The ceramic assemblage collected from this period included nonlocal
wares, suggesting contact with St. Johns populations due to the introduction of
St. John’s type pottery to the area. Excavations also showed a number of
nonlocal decorated sherds such as Deptford and Crystal River Series ceramics
from northern Florida (Sears et al. 1994).
Belle Glade III (A.D. 600/800-A.D. 1200/1400) is marked by the end of the
importance of the site as a ceremonial center, though people continued to live
along the creek midden or adjacent to the charnel pond (Sears et al. 1994:189).
Belle Glade Plain pottery continued as the majority ware. The presence of trade
ceramics in this period, particularly St. Johns Check Stamped and a small
number of St. Johns plain ware sherds, suggests ongoing trade relations with
populations to the north and along the west coast near Tampa Bay (Sears et al.
1994:189).
During Belle Glade IV (A.D. 1200/1400-A.D. 1700), earthwork construction
increased with the building of linear, raised earthen embankments (Sears et al.
1994). Trade pottery continued to be prevalent during this period, consisting mainly of types from western Florida. It is also during this late period that we first
24 see European trade goods such as gold and silver in the artifact assemblage, specifically within the burial mound. Also during this time period, Fort Center was well within the boundaries of the Calusa chiefdom, as characteristic badges or plaques had been found. Ethnographic accounts from this time period further corroborate Calusa ties to village sites around Lake Okeechobee, once known as
Lake Mayaimi (Fontenada 1945).
In summary, the Lake Okeechobee region has been occupied by Native
Americans beginning some 12,000 years ago. During this time the people adapted to various climatic changes resulting in a three period chronology:
Paleoindian, Archaic and Formative (Belle Glade). The Belle Glade period is further divided based on archaeological work completed at Fort Center and by other scholars working in the region. It is assumed that cultural change occurred almost at the same time across Florida and included all its occupants. The vast differences in sites across the landscape may actually prove that what we are seeing is far more complex than this broad generalization.
25
CHAPTER III
MATERIALS AND METHODS
In anticipation of a severe hurricane season with potentially
unprecedented amount of rainfall, south Florida water managers, in Fall 2006,
lowered Lake Okeechobee to lessen the strain on the already weakened Herbert
Hoover Dike circumscribing the lake. Contrary to predictions, precipitation
measurements were at an all-time low. This severe drought lowered water levels
all across south Florida and reduced the depth of Lake Okeechobee to a record
low of 2.69 m.
Vast areas of the lakebed were exposed and so were a number of
archaeological sites. Consequently, there was an urgency to document and
investigate these sites before the drought ended and water levels rose once
more. The Palm Beach County archaeology office developed a research design,
and fieldwork was initiated immediately to capitalize on this opportunity.
The project was designed to allow for a large expanse of the lakebed to be
surveyed within a brief period of time. Because the rise of the lake waters back
to normal levels was slower than predicted, the survey was extended to
additional areas, and limited excavations were conducted at the larger sites of
Ritta and Kreamer.
All work was conducted under a Florida Bureau of Archaeological
Research 1A-32 permit (number 0607.67) granted to Palm Beach County 26 archaeologist Christian Davenport, who served as principal investigator. As an intern at the Palm Beach County Planning, Zoning & Building division, I was appointed project manager and oversaw all field and laboratory work. Fieldwork
(survey and excavation) was carried out from March to October 2007.
Subsequent lab work (data processing and analysis) was done from November
2007 to May 2008.
Survey
Because of the tenuous situation, an expeditious method of survey was essential. Our field crews used swamp buggies, airboats, all terrain vehicles, and even a helicopter to cover as much lakebed as possible. In some areas, we used pedestrian survey techniques whereby teams of two to five people walked transects and scanned the ground surface. We used a survey grade Trimble
Global Positioning System (GPS) unit to mark the location of surficial artifacts found.
Our criteria for surface collection of artifacts were based on the diagnostic characteristic of the artifact, the ability to record its provenience, and the likelihood of the artifact being collected by looters. Consequently, a large number of ceramic sherds and animal bones were left in situ. Potsherds occurred in such large quantities that collection of all would have been impossible. The lakebed was littered with alligator and turtle bones as well as the remains of other species that were clearly modern, making a determination of age or association with the archaeological sites ambiguous at best.
27 In addition, I completed a remote sensing survey utilizing vertical aerial
photographs of the lake and surrounding areas. These aerial photographs were
enhanced by manipulation of hues and contrast using Adobe Photoshop™. I
then rectified these images using digital imaging and geographical information
systems (GIS) software. In order to detect change over time, I chose a selection
of early photos (University of Florida 1938) as well as current orthophotos (Palm
Beach County 2007) showing the same areas. Information gained from these
photographs aided in denoting areas where there was a high probability for locating additional sites.
Excavation
On Ritta Island we excavated nine shovel test pits measuring 50 cm wide, and one test unit measuring 50 cm by 2 m (Figure 5). These were dug in 10 cm arbitrary levels within natural strata until sterile soil was encountered. In all of the excavations, sterile soil was reached approximately 15 to 30 cm below surface.
Then we used a Dutch Auger with a sand bucket bit to bore to a depth of 1 m. All soils removed from the shovel test pits were screened through 6.4 mm mesh in the field. Soil samples from the test unit were bagged and brought back to the lab where they were water-screened through 3.2 mm mesh. All ceramics and faunal remains from the excavations were retained for analysis.
On Kreamer Island, three shovel test pits measuring 50 cm wide by 1 m deep, were excavated (Figure 6). These were dug in 10 cm arbitrary levels within natural strata until sterile soil was encountered. All excavated materials
28
were screened though 6.4 mm mesh in the field. There were no artifacts recovered during testing at Kreamer Island.
Data Processing and Analysis
All materials were washed and sorted. Artifacts were bagged, marked, and recorded with a field specimen (FS) number. We took digital photographs of selected artifacts using a copy stand and a digital single lens reflex camera. In order to present the images clearly and accurately, we created a composite image of obverse and reverse of the artifact in Adobe Photoshop CS3® without altering the scale of the photographs.
Shell artifacts were identified to the lowest taxon possible using Abbott
(1954, 1974) and my personal comparative shell collection. Then I classified the shell artifacts according to the typology created by Marquardt (1992) for southwest Florida. For artifacts that did not fit into his typology, I created new categories. Evidence of use wear, breakage patterns, and re-use was noted
(Masson 1988).
Other material remains examined were ceramics and lithics. Pottery sherds were sorted by type and subsequently tabulated for each provenience by
Dorothy Block for a future publication in draft at the time of this writing. Her identifications were made based on Goggin (ca. 1949), Sears (1994) and Willey
(1949). Of the major types, Sand-Tempered Plain, Belle Glade Plain and St.
Johns Plain are notoriously difficult to differentiate. In general, Sand-Tempered
Plain ceramics are tempered with a generous amount of fine to coarse grained sand; these sherds are gritty to the touch with no surface decoration and appear 31 throughout the Belle Glade chronology, though their quantities relative to other
ceramics decrease over time (Willey 1949). Belle Glade ceramics also contain a
small amount of fine sand in the paste. However, they are differentiated from
Sand-Tempered Plain by the presence of sponge spicules. Some Belle Glade
sherds, depending on the integrity of the surface, may exhibit drag marks
resulting from an attempt at making the vessel smooth by dragging a piece of
wood across the surface. Belle Glade Plain first appears during Belle Glade II
and increases in frequency throughout south Florida until it becomes the
dominant ware. St. Johns Plain (sourced from the St. Johns River area, north of
the Okeechobee region) is very similar to Belle Glade Plain ceramics but it has a
greater amount of sponge spicules and therefore has a much chalkier feel. The
identification of St Johns ceramics is best made under magnification when you
are able to see the ratios of sponge spicules to very fine sand and coarse silt.
This resulting mixture results in sherds that have an overall chalky feel. A sub-
type, St. Johns Check Stamped, has a check marked surface decoration made
with a wooden paddle. This type has been found across the central and southern portions of the state. It first appears in Palm Beach County at Jupiter
Inlet as early as A.D. 1000. It appears on the west coast at approximately A.D.
1200 in Caloosahatchee period assemblages (Milanich 1994). Intermediate
Chalky ware, as defined by Block (2009 personal communication) to differentiate
between St. Johns and Belle Glade, was sometimes impossible. This ware
exhibits some of the characteristics of each type, in varying stages, but does not
32 exhibit the wear of an indeterminate sherd. Indeterminate sherds are those that were too eroded to be identified by the methods mentioned above.
All lithic materials were analyzed by Dr. Robert Austin (2008) and appear in a publication submitted to the Palm Beach County Archaeologist for inclusion to the state report required by the terms of the 1A-32 permit. Clarifications of his results and my interpretations of his data follow.
33
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
Ritta Island
At Ritta Island, a total of 1,634 lithic, ceramic, and marine shell artifacts
were recovered from surface collections and excavations. The bulk of the
artifacts were recovered from the top 10 cm levels in Test Unit 1 and in Shovel
Test Pits 4 and 7 (Tables 1 and 2). Previous site file entries had cautioned about the presence of buried deposits. Although surface deposits were rich in artifacts, project excavations, however, did not yield any significant finds below 10 cm nor
was any stratigraphy observed. Thus, the site was not stratigraphically intact. It
is probable that the site had been adversely impacted by fluctuating water levels,
subsidence and degradation of the muck soils over time. The appearance of the
site as a dense surficial scatter of artifacts speaks to the taphonomic processes
at work on sites in Lake Okeechobee. The deflation of the site is similar to what
happens in arid environments such as the formation of desert pavements. As the
soil matrix dries out during periods of low water it is easily degraded and lighter
particles are removed by wind or washed away by water leaving the heavier
particles behind. In the case of Ritta, the artifacts have been consolidated by this
process, packed densely into a surficial layer. The lack of water rounding and
34
other signs of erosion on the artifacts themselves suggests that the artifacts may
not have been widely redistributed across the site. It is suggested here that, most likely, the artifacts were intact and were in the same general areas that they
were originally deposited.
Lithics
A total of 513 lithic artifacts were recovered. These were examined by Dr.
Robert Austin who separated them into eight classes: 4 bifaces, 30 microliths, 2
modified flakes, 6 utilized flakes, 6 cores, 462 debitage, 2 tested cobbles and 1 split cobble (see Table 2) (Austin 2008:1). The presence of chert cobbles in the assemblage is not unique as they have also been found at Ft. Center and Miami
Circle but are very rare in the region. Cobbles are rounded or semi-rounded pieces of chert, some of which could have been shaped by water rounding or tumbling. Tested cobbles are characterized by the presence of one of more flake scars measuring less than 10 mm in length (Austin 1997:187). Of the 30 microlithic tools and tool fragments recovered, 25 of them were made from cobble chert (Austin 2008:9). Microliths are small tools, rhomboidal in cross section, with unifacial retouch to fashion a tool such as a drill. They are commonly made from flakes and flake fragments resulting from the bipolar reduction of cobble chert (Austin 2008:9). Among the four bifaces recovered, the only complete specimen was a large thick percussion-flaked side-notched Bolen projectile point. Bolen points are Early Archaic in age and date to about 9950 14C yrbp with a calendar span of about 11,650 to 11,200 B.P. (Carter and Dunbar
2006:498). Austin (2008) states that the presence of a Bolen point at Ritta Island
36 should not be used as an indicator of an Early Archaic occupation. It is more likely that it was salvaged by later Woodland-era peoples and traded south. The presence of Paleoindian and Archaic bifaces on Woodland and Mississippian- period sites is common in south Florida where chert exposures are non-existent and the trade and reuse of older artifacts held both economic and social importance (Austin 1997, 2004, 2008:7). Modified flakes, utilized flakes and debitage are also differentiated by Austin (2008). Modified flakes are percussion derived flakes that exhibit some form of retouch. Utilized flakes do not exhibit retouch but show use-wear. Debitage is defined as waste flakes, those resulting from the bipolar reduction of cores and pieces of chert that have been shattered during a heating process (Austin 2008:14).
Ceramics
A total of 1,119 sherds were recovered. Table 1 presents the types of ceramics identified. The predominant type was Sand-Tempered Plain, representing 56 percent of the pottery sherds recovered. Belle Glade Plain constituted 20 percent whereas other types including Belle Glade Incised and St.
Johns varieties each made up less than 2 percent of the ceramics.
Marine Shell
There was only one marine shell artifact recovered at Ritta, which consisted of a broken anterior end of a lightning whelk (Busycon contrarium).
Although this artifact could not be identified to a formal tool type (Marquardt
1992:191-227), it is probably the fractured end of a cutting-edged tool.
37 Kreamer Island
At Kreamer Island, a total of 382 marine shell, ceramic, and lithic artifacts
were recovered from surface collections. Although three shovel test pits were
excavated, none produced cultural materials. No obvious stratigraphy was
apparent; only a homogeneous layer of fine white sand was observed throughout
the excavated levels.
The Kreamer Island site is different than Ritta due to the types of sands
and soils present. The large number of artifacts found on top of the white sand
can be attributed to erosion of the muck overburden exposing the sand deposit.
Artifacts recovered from the site exhibit some degree of water rounding. It is probable that deflation of the muck soils, erosion due to wave action and fluctuating water levels have significantly impacted the site. Similar to Ritta, the deposits at Kreamer were not intact. However, the sites differed due to the effects of erosion and the subsequent redepostion of artifacts across the sandy beach at Kreamer Island. A large number of artifacts from Kreamer exhibit water rounding due to wave action and the movement of the artifacts across the sandy substrate.
Marine Shell
A total of 190 artifacts were made from marine shell. Of these, 83 were classified to formal tool types (Marquardt 1992:191-227) and represented 13 species. Table 3 shows the taxa represented in the assemblage, and Table 4 lists the tool types represented.
38 Table 3. Taxa Present in Shell Artifact Assemblage from Kreamer Island Scientific Name Common Name # of Specimens (%) Gastropoda Gastropods Strombus costatus Milk conch 3 (1.58%) Strombus gigas Queen or Pink conch 36 (18.95%) Strombus spp. Conch 15 (7.89%) Cassis spp. Helmet 7 (3.68%) Busycon contrarium Lightning whelk 35 (18.42%) Busycon perversum Perverse whelk 6 (3.16%) Busycon spp. Whelk 2 (1.05%) Pleuroploca gigantea Horse conch 3 (1.58%) Olivella sp. Olive 1 (0.53%) Indeterminate Gastropoda 31 (16.32%) Total Gastropoda 139 Bivalvia Bivalves Glycymeris undata Wavy bittersweet 1 (0.53%) Macrocallista nimbosa Sunray venus 5 (2.63%) Mercenaria sp. Quahog 45 (23.68%) Total Bivalvia 51 Total Taxa Present 190
39 Table 4. Formal Marine Shell Tool Types from Kreamer Island Type Name Taxon # of Specimens Gastropod Cutting-Edged Tool A Busycon contrarium 2 Gastropod Cutting-Edged Tool Indeterminate Busycon contrarium 6 Gastropod Hammer A Busycon contrarium 1 Gastropod Hammer Indeterminate Busycon contrarium 2 Columella Cutting-Edged Tool Busycon contrarium 2 Pleuroploca gigantea 1 Indeterminate 3 Columella Perforator Busycon contrarium 1 Columella Hammer, Single-ended Busycon contrarium 3 Columella Sinker, Plummet Variety Indeterminate 1 Columella Sinker, Single-grooved Variety Busycon contrarium 2 Columella Sinker, Double-grooved Variety Busycon contrarium 7 Pleuroploca gigantea 1 Indeterminate 1 Gastropod Adze/Celt Strombus costatus 1 Strombus gigas 24 Strombus spp. 4 Anvil Mercenaria spp. 1 Net Mesh Gauge Strombus gigas 1 Gorget Strombus gigas 1 Debitage Cassis spp. 1 Gastropod Scraper Type A a Busycon contrarium 1 Busycon perversum 6 Busycon spp. 1 Gastropod Scraper Type B a Strombus costatus 1 Pendant, Non-Columella, Double-grooved Variety a Strombus gigas 2 Cassis spp. 3 Indeterminate 1 Pendant Preform, Non-Columella a Cassis spp. 1 Total 83 a denotes new artifact types not included in Marquardt’s (1992) typology.
40 Among the gastropods, the most common species was the queen or pink
conch (Strombus gigas), followed by the lightning whelk (Busycon contrarium).
The lightning whelk has also been referred to as the perverse whelk (Busycon
perversum and Busycon sinistrum) (Wheeler et. al 2004:160; Willey 1949:47). In
this thesis, the two species, Busycon contrarium and Busycon perversum, are
differentiated based upon Abbott (1954:Plate 23k, 1974:222). Moreover, B.
sinistrum is considered here as synonymous with B. contrarium (Abbott
1954:236, 1974:222). According to Abbott (1954:236, 1974:222), the lightning
whelk (Busycon contrarium) is a left-handed shell, whereas the perverse whelk
(B. perversum) may be left- or right-handed. Moreover, the latter species can be
distinguished by a rounded bulge on the outside of the mid-section of the body whorl (Abbott 1954:236).
Several additional gastropods were identified. These included helmet
(Cassis spp.), milk conch (Strombus costatus), and Florida horse conch
(Pleuroploca gigantea).
Of the bivalves, quahogs (Mercenaria spp.) were the most commonly
represented. Because the southern quahog (Mercenaria campechiensis) and
northern quahog (Mercenaria mercenaria) are very similar in appearance and
their geographical ranges overlap in Florida, quahog archaeological specimens
were identified only to the genus level. Other bivalves identified were sunray
venus (Macrocallista nimbosa) and waxy bittersweet (Glycymeris undata).
Based on Marquardt’s (1992) shell tool typology for southwest Florida, a
total of 15 different tool types were present in the Kreamer assemblage. In
41 addition, there were four tool types identified which did not fit into his typology
(see Table 4).
The most common tool type was the gastropod adze/celt which was
typically made from the shell of a queen conch (Strombus gigas). Additional tools made from this shell included sinkers/pendants, a gorget, and a net mesh gauge. Several pendants were also made out of the helmet shell (Cassis spp).
Other types well represented included gastropod cutting-edged tools and
hammers, usually crafted out of lightning whelk (Busycon contrarium), and
scrapers, made from this species and that of the perverse whelk (Busycon
perversum).
Several kinds of tools were made from the columella portion of
gastropods, including hammers, sinkers/pendants, and a perforator. These were
usually made out of lightning whelk (Busycon contrarium), though one
sinker/pendant was made from a horse conch (Pleuroploca gigantea).
Only one tool was made from a bivalve shell. An anvil was made from a
quahog clam (Mercenaria sp.). Appendix 1 lists all the tools identified and
provides their measurements.
Ceramics
A total of 193 sherds were recovered. Table 5 presents the types of
ceramics identified based on the same criteria used to differentiate the ceramics
at Ritta Island. Belle Glade Plain predominated, representing 67 percent of the
pottery sherds recovered. Sand-Tempered Plain comprised 24 percent whereas
other types such as St. Johns Plain and St. Johns Check-Stamped each
42 constituted less than 4 percent of the ceramics. A fragment of a platform pipestem made of sand-tempered paste was also recovered.
Lithics
Three lithic artifacts were found at Kreamer: a biface and two pendants.
The biface is triangular in shape with a concave base and was identified as an unserrated Tallahassee point (Austin 2008:6). The two pendants were both made of nonlocal stone. One pendant is similar in shape to the single-grooved shell variety (Marquardt 1992:207) and appears to be made from basalt. The other pendant is similar to a plumb-bob and appears to be made of limestone.
43
Overall, the assemblages from Ritta and Kreamer Islands are very different and most likely represent two occupations during different temporal periods in the Lake Okeechobee region.
The assemblage from Ritta Island consists mainly of lithic materials and a ceramic assemblage consisting of predominantly Sand-Tempered Plain ceramics
(56.48%) when compared to Belle Glade Plain (19.39%) (see Table 1). Based on the ceramics this would suggest an earlier (Belle Glade I or II) occupation.
Further support of the earlier occupation is given by the presence of similar cobble chert found in early contexts at Fort Center and Brickell Point (Austin
2004, 2008).
The assemblage from Kreamer Island is mainly marine shell artifacts and a Belle Glade Plain dominated assemblage (66.84%) when compared to the
Sand-Tempered Plain (23.83%), (see Table 5). Once again, based on the ceramic assemblage it is suggestive of a later (Belle Glade III or IV) occupation.
In summary, the temporal variations of the sites are critical when one is to consider the trade networks that enabled the occupants of the sites to acquire these goods, discussed later in this thesis. The lithic materials must have come from areas in the north as no materials suitable for lithic tool manufacture exist in south Florida. Marine shells must come from saltwater environments, which can be found east or west of the lake. The difference in time as shown by the ceramics and the difference in materials suggests a north to south trade network and an east to west network that operated during different time periods. This
45 could be the result of cultural affiliations and changes in trade relationships over time.
46
CHAPTER V
RECONSTRUCTING TRADE ROUTES
This chapter seeks to reconstruct the pre-Columbian trade routes in the
Lake Okeechobee region and to elaborate on the role this exchange played in the lives of the Belle Glade people. To accomplish this I will present an analysis and discussion of the non-local artifacts including their probable point of origin and the means by which they arrived in the region. The non-local artifacts from
Ritta and Kreamer provide a means to reconstruct trade relationships within the
Okeechobee Region proper as well as between Belle Glade people and other populations within Florida. Such trade relationships, in turn, may provide insight into the socio-cultural processes that led to the increasing complexity of the hunting-gathering-fishing Belle Glade people.
Source of Non-Local Artifacts
Lithics
The lithic artifacts recovered at Ritta Island illustrate other trade relationships, particularly between the Lake Okeechobee region and areas to the north. As there are no natural sources of chert in south Florida suitable for the manufacture of tools, lithic materials had to be brought into the region (Austin
2008; Upchurch et al. 1982). This north-south trade may have taken place
47 during the early Belle Glade period based on the frequency or lack of Sand-
Tempered Plain ceramics versus Belle Glade Plain ceramics found during excavations at Ritta Island. The projectile points might suggest an earlier occupation at Ritta, though it is the position of Austin (2008) that the presence of
these artifacts are the result of curation and transport by early Woodland peoples
as this has been used to explain similar findings in contemporaneous sites.
The chert cobbles and other lithic materials recovered from Ritta Island are distinctive enough to be sourced to a general area in Florida where they
occur naturally. Using the sourcing method devised by Upchurch et al. (1982),
Austin was able to identify the provenance of 370 of the artifacts to four known
lithic sources in Florida: Tampa/St. Marks, Suwannee, Ocala, and Peace River
areas (Figure 7). These known lithic sources are all north and west of the Ritta
Island site and lithic materials could have been traded into the area along the
Kissimmee River and the Lake Wales Ridge. Austin (2008) only shows sourcing
for certain artifacts in his text and provides by table in general terms the source
of materials by artifact type, reproduced in this thesis as Table 6.
The presence of chert cobbles in the assemblage is unique for two
reasons. First, the Belle Glade people acquired the raw material in a nearly
whole form. Second, chert cobbles and similar types are also found at other
south Florida sites such as Ft. Center and Brickell Point, which may have been
contemporaneous with Ritta Island (Austin 2004; Steinen 1982).
48
Marine Shell
The shell artifacts recovered from Kreamer Island serve to illustrate the
coastal to inland trade patterns that existed during the later Belle Glade period in
the Lake Okeechobee region. The species most indicative of this trade are
lightning whelk (Busycon contrarium), queen conch (Strombus gigas), and
helmet (Cassis spp.) (see Table 4). These three species have limited geographical ranges and appear in differing frequencies in archaeological
assemblages throughout south Florida.
Lightning whelk is a very common species in west Florida and is often
found in shallow tidal areas and mudflats surrounding mangroves, though it can
also inhabit deeper waters (Abbott 1974:222). It occurs in high frequencies in archaeological sites along Florida’s Gulf coast (Marquardt 1992:192, 1999).
Therefore it is assumed that the most likely source for lightning whelk (Hale
1976:71; Kozuch 1998:12) is the west coast of Florida.
Queen conch naturally occurs in southeast Florida and the West Indies
(Abbott 1974:144). Whereas the lightening whelk is commonly found in shallow muddy areas, the queen conch prefers shallow areas with a sandy substrate such as those found near sea grass beds. As the animal matures, it moves to deeper, offshore areas (Rhines 2002). The queen conch is very common in artifact assemblages from archaeological sites along Florida’s southeast coast
(Kennedy et al. 1991). The combination of suitable habitat and frequency of its appearance in the archaeological record suggests that queen conchs recovered from Kreamer Island originated from the east coast of Florida.
51 Helmet species are typically rare in Florida (Abbott 1974:161). Like the queen conch, this animal is found near sea grass beds near bays, lagoons and other protected shallow areas. Its geographic range is limited to the Caribbean,
Florida Keys and southeast Florida. Only a few specimens have been identified in archaeological assemblages within the Lake Okeechobee Region (Goggin ca.
1949; Willey:1949). Most likely, the helmet shells at Kreamer came from the lower southeast Florida coast and the Florida Keys where these protected shallow habitats are most plentiful.
Based on their geographic ranges and habitats as well as their distribution in the archaeological assemblages of south Florida, these shells were traded into the Lake Okeechobee Region in the following manner (Figure 8):
• Queen conch (Strombus gigas) – were collected on the east coast of Florida and traded into the Lake Okeechobee Region by means of the Everglades and the Loxahatchee Slough.
• Lightning whelk (Busycon contrarium) – were collected on the west coast of Florida and were traded into the Lake Okeechobee Region via the Caloosahatchee River.
• Helmet (Cassis spp.) shells – were collected along the lower southeast Florida coast and possibly the Florida Keys and traded up the Everglades and into the Lake Okeechobee Region.
52
Ceramics
Only a small number of nonlocal ceramics were recovered at both Ritta and Kreamer Islands (see Tables 1 and 5). These types were single occurrences at each site with the exception of St. Johns wares. These St. Johns ceramics serve not only as a temporal marker, as St. Johns Check Stamp occurs in the region between 1000 A.D. to 1200 A.D., but also are suggestive of ongoing trade and interaction with St. Johns groups located north of present-day Jupiter
Inlet. I suggest that St. Johns wares were transferred between coastal and inland groups via the Loxahatchee Slough, through the Lake Okeechobee
Region, and farther into the Caloosahatchee Region.
The marine shell, lithic artifacts, and to a lesser extent, the ceramics present in the assemblages come from several sources, thereby illustrating the multiple trade routes that were utilized in the Lake Okeechobee region by the
Belle Glade peoples. These trade routes link the source of these materials to the sites at Ritta and Kreamer islands.
Reconstructing Trade Routes
Based on the nonlocal marine shell and lithic artifacts, it appears that there were two separate trade networks operating during the Belle Glade period, facilitating the transport of these materials to Lake Okeechobee. Marine shells would have been traded from both the east and west coasts of Florida. Lithics would have been traded from north to south. Figure 9 presents a map showing the two major trade routes.
54
Most likely, transporting these materials would have been undertaken by the most effective means possible, by canoe in aquatic areas such as rivers and wetlands and by foot over dry land. The Kissimmee River provided a route for materials being imported from the north. The Caloosahatchee facilitated access for materials from the west coast. The Everglades and Loxahatchee Slough provided a means of access from the east coast. Overland routes, such as the
Lake Wales Ridge, may have been possible, as suggested by Austin (2008).
While most of the Lake Okeechobee region is surrounded by the
Everglades, the presence of numerous rivers around the southern rim of the lake has also been mentioned in local texts (Will 1984, 2002). Aerial photographs show that a once vast network of interconnected streams and rivers linked sites such as Democrat River Mound (8PB91), Belle Glade Mound and Midden
(8PB40/41) to Vinegar Bend (8PB39), Kreamer Island Mound (8PB93) and
Kreamer Island (8PB43) (Figure 10). The Democrat River may have facilitated inter-site trade in the area around Kreamer Island and suggests the presence of a large group of people living along the river and interacting on some level.
In areas without direct access to water, it is known that pre-Columbian people in south Florida dug canals, which have been documented at sites such as Ortona (8GL4A&B), Pine Island Site Complex (8LL1902), Belle Glade Mound
(8PB41) and Belle Glade Midden (8PB40) (Luer 1989a, 1989b; Marquardt
1999:313; Wheeler 1995). These artificial waterways would have provided a route of transportation for pre-Columbian occupants of the region when direct access to natural waterways was impossible.
56
All of these factors when combined created an ideal and vast pre-
Columbian transportation network that would have allowed for the movement of people, goods, and information into and through the Lake Okeechobee region.
These trade networks contributed to the cultural complexity of the Belle Glade
people and allowed for them to participate in the larger interaction sphere of
south Florida.
Types of Exchange
In general, there are two mechanisms by which nonlocal materials could
have reached the sites at Ritta and Kreamer Islands: indirect and direct
procurement. Indirect procurement could have occurred as down-the-line or as
redistributional exchange (Renfrew 1975, 1977:77-79, 85-87). Down-the-line
exchange is a method by which materials are passed along from site to site in a
series of successive exchanges. In redistributional exchange, materials are
brought to a central location and then distributed back again to members of
society. In some instances, these goods may pass through many hands to reach
the central location. In direct procurement, individuals would venture out from
the group, travel to the source, where they would acquire the materials firsthand
and bring them back to the group.
The lithic materials from Ritta Island are most likely the result of indirect
procurement (either down-the-line or redistributional) from the general area
where these outcrops occur (Austin 2004, 2008). Austin supports this method of
procurement/distribution in south Florida due to an “observable decrease in the
58 quantity of raw materials and/or the size of individual specimens as the materials
change hands between communities” (Austin 2008:20).
The marine shells from Kreamer Island may have been traded into the
Lake Okeechobee Region by either direct or indirect procurement. Determining
the exact means is difficult because a multitude of formal shell tool types in
different stages of reduction are present in the assemblage. Furthermore, the
occurrence of only a single piece of debitage, shell left over from the direct
manufacture of an artifact, does very little to suggest a definitive mode of
procurement. The relative absence of debitage suggests either that whole tools
or blanks were traded or that tools were fashioned away from the main site. The
multiple waterways linking Lake Okeechobee to either coast would facilitate travel to areas where shells could be directly procured and the various sites
along the trade route could be locations of indirect procurement.
Overall, the methods of acquisition are probably an amalgam of direct and
indirect procurement over time as local and regional political affiliations shifted.
The paucity of lithic materials at other sites near Lake Okeechobee may be due
to sampling strategies or just a lack of archaeological investigation. Moreover,
the absence of lithic materials at Kreamer is troubling if one were to assume the
sites were occupied contemporaneously.
Implications of Trade in the Paradigm of Cultural Complexity
Complexity in its broadest sense is the presence of multiple interrelated or
interconnected parts. The definition of complexity as it relates to a cultural group
is not so straightforward. Many scholars have specified certain characteristics in 59 defining a society as being complex. These characteristics typically include elaborate technologies, sedentary communities, intensive subsistence practices, large dense populations, and organizational changes in social, economic and ritual structures (Brown and Price 1985). These characteristics may be manifested in the archaeological record by the presence of certain kinds of artifact assemblages, features, and structures.
Several scholars assert that social complexity is defined by aspects intended to overcome problems in the logistics of access to resources (Cohen
1985:104). Cohen suggests 12 features of socially complex cultures all of which in some manner are related to access to resources and the methods utilized to control them. Among the features that deal expressly with trade and exchange networks include the emergence of chiefs, reciprocal social relations and ceremonial obligations, interregional alliances, expansion of trade networks, emergence of prestige as an economic commodity, and demand for prestigious goods that symbolize social hierarchies.
Other scholars have attempted to justify the presence of trade and the role it played by applying World Systems Theory to individual sites, particularly in
South and Central America (Carmack and Gonzalez 2006; Frank and Gills 1993;
Schortman and Urban 1994; Wallerstein 1974a ). World Systems Theory postulates that the interaction of polities occurred in a core and periphery system.
The core is the developed controlling group or center, whereas the periphery sites are the underdeveloped groups, providing support under the control of the center (Wallerstein 1974a). Previous studies, such as Wallerstein (1974a,
60 1974b) and Frank and Gills (1993) suggest that periphery sites were relied upon
and were dominated both politically and economically by the core (Carmack and
Gonzalez 2006:21). Other authors have suggested that peripheries play a much
less significant role in the core and refer to these periphery sites as unspecialized
peripheral zones and contact peripheries (Carmack and Gonzalez 2006:219). If one were to place Ritta and Kreamer Islands into the latter periphery category of
sites it would be consistent with the ethnographic accounts given for the contact
period. The Calusa, who lived along the southwest coast of Florida, were more
or less self-sufficient in terms of subsistence, yet relied on alliances and tribute
with other Native American populations (Widmer 1988).
While ethnohistoric accounts suggest that the Calusa were the dominant
group with a wide-ranging sphere of influence, there are no data supporting that
claim for the entirety of the Belle Glade period. An alternative explanation is that
the core and periphery relationship between sites and groups was a dynamic
process, subject to change over time. This idea is supported by the
archaeological evidence from the Ritta and Kreamer Island sites and possibly
from the large radiating earthworks such as those found at Fort Center and Big
Mound City, amongst others. The presence of imported materials and, after contact, European metal artifacts, such as the gold and silver that had been fashioned into items of adornment at Fort Center (Sears 1994), seems to contradict the Calusa’s control and the classification of these sites as peripheries.
The radiating earthworks that span nearly a kilometer and mounds that stand approximately 10 m high would suggest the areas near Lake Okeechobee were
61 once seen as a position of power, perhaps acting as a core area for a period of
time in prehistory. Future research focusing on these earthworks, especially
establishing a temporal framework, would benefit the study of trade relations and
cultural complexity over time.
In addition to defining complexity, varying schools of thought have
identified how these cultures became increasingly complex. There continues to
be an ongoing debate in anthropology between those who profess an
evolutionary-ecological approach to cultural change and those that support a
historical-materialist approach. Other scholars prefer to combine the two
approaches, emphasizing certain aspects of each. Such is the case with
Marquardt (1985) who suggests an amalgam of the two schools of thought in his synopsis concerning Fisher-Gatherer-Hunters. He calls this amalgam synthetic processualism which combines the body of knowledge gathered by natural scientists and the dialectical method of analysis and exposition used by Marx in his critique of capitalist social formations (Marquardt 1985:70).
Previous research in south Florida suggests that the Florida peninsula functioned as its own world system, with separate polities or cultural groups in constant interaction (Milanich 1994; Sears et. al. 1994; Widmer 1988). One example of these interactions as mentioned before is trade, as shown by the presence of exotic materials in artifact assemblages. These trade networks directly and indirectly allowed for increased social complexity by creating a system that permitted the exchange of exotic materials and presumably the exchange of information over a wide area. This trade would allow for the
62 participation of different societies in a spatially extensive social identity, further supporting the power exerted by the paramount chief (Schortman and Urban
1994:411) as well as giving control over said resources to the paramount.
Based on ethnographic accounts from the contact period (Belle Glade III and IV), scholars assert that the Calusa were a non-agricultural chiefdom which subsisted on the plentiful marine and estuarine resources locally available. The ability of this group to command the environment and utilize it in such a manner as to reach population carrying capacity allowed for increased cultural complexity including social stratification of the group and practices such as trade and tribute in order to perpetuate the hegemony of the ruling class (Widmer 1988).
The Calusa had a wide-ranging sphere of influence that encompassed the
Lake Okeechobee Region and extended to the Atlantic coast (Widmer 1988).
According to Fontenada (1945), this sphere of influence required subjugated groups to pay into a system necessitating the movement of goods to the paramount chief who then redistributed these goods accordingly. The large number of exotic materials recovered in remote locations such as at Ritta and
Kreamer Islands lends credence to the possibility of such a system. However, the possibility of changes in the seat of power of time should not be left out.
Presumably, the paramount chief had lesser control over subjugated groups in the Lake Okeechobee Region due to their distance. Regardless of the seat of power, the assemblages at Ritta and Kreamer suggest that a stratified society existed in the Lake Okeechobee Region by contact time and that peoples living around the lake interacted with other native populations in Florida.
63
CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The Belle Glade people were prolific hunters, gatherers, fishers and traders. They utilized the resources of their local environment to sustain a population large enough to construct the massive earthworks along the
Loxahatchee Scarp as well as the mounds located around Lake Okeechobee.
To obtain the resources they did not have, they employed a system of direct and indirect procurement, establishing connections and relationships with distant groups. Over time, the society became increasingly complex. By the time of
Spanish contact, the Calusa, a chiefdom along the southwest coast, included the
Lake Okeechobee Region within their sphere of influence.
The analysis of non-local artifacts from Ritta and Kreamer Island has indicated the source and the probable routes these materials traveled to reach the sites in the Lake Okeechobee region. These data serve to illustrate the relationships between groups, changes in trade relations over time, and the increasing complexity of the Belle Glade peoples. Analysis of aerial photographs enabled the reconstruction of portions of trade routes in the Lake Okeechobee
Region, whereas data concerning the source of materials allowed for the delineation of inter-regional trade routes.
64 The marine shells recovered from Kreamer Island were acquired by either direct or indirect procurement. Lightning whelk (Busycon contrarium) from the west coast, queen conch (Strombus gigas) from the east coast and helmet
(Cassis spp.) from the southernmost portion of Florida are all marine species and cannot exist in a freshwater lake. These shells were acquired and utilized during later periods at Kreamer Island (Belle Glade III and Belle Glade IV) and may have been used as a substitute for lithic tools.
The lithics found at Ritta are similar in material, form and function to those found at Brickell Point/Miami Circle and Mound B at Fort Center. These materials had to have been brought in, as stone suitable for the manufacture of tools is not found in south Florida. These materials came from points north of
Lake Okeechobee and were most likely traded down the Kississimee River and the Lake Wales Ridge to sites south in the Lake Okeechobee region.
In summary, trade is characteristic of an increasingly complex of society.
It allows for ranking and status differentiation as well as the perpetuation of authority through the exchange of information over wide areas. The former is indicated by differential access to resources and the value ascribed to objects.
Exchange of information goes hand in hand with the trading of materials and could allow for the participation of different cultural groups in a spatially extensive social identity, further supporting the power exerted by the paramount chief.
Moreover, different trade networks resulting in the acquisition of materials can illustrate alliances among groups.
65
APPENDIX
SHELL TOOL DATA BY TOOL TYPE
Table A-1. Gastropod Cutting-Edged Tools
FS MCE Tool Type Taxon Lt (cm) W (cm) Wt (g) SH TH SN Catalog (cm) # Gastropod Busycon Cutting-Edged 8.665 5.822 1.184 53.0 1 0 0 2.06 contrarium Tool Type A 13.031 8.720 1.872 211.6 1 0 1 18.02 Gastropod Cutting-Edged B. contrarium 16.800 11.201 2.765 317.1 4 / 3 1 1 2.08 Tool Type Indeterminate 10.589 8.490 1.408 121.0 0 0 0 2.10 11.384 7.156 1.223 121.2 0 0 0 2.31 14.737 6.677 2.106 204.2 0 0 0 9.20 14.400 8.467 2.118 224.5 0 1 0 11.06 14.534 6.611 1.93 121.4 0 0 0 15.10
Gastropod Mean Values 13.018 7.893 1.826 132.1 Cutting-Edged Minimum 8.665 5.822 1.184 53.0 Tools Maximum 16.800 11.201 2.765 317.1 Key: Lt = Length, W = Width, MCE = Maximum Cutting Edge, Wt = Weight, SH = Number of Side Holes, TH = Number of Top Holes, SN = Number of Side Notches
Table A-2. Gastropod Hammers
FS Catalog Tool Type Taxon Lt (cm) W (cm) Wt (g) SH TH SN # Gastropod Hammer Busycon 10.329 9.609 263.8 1 1 0 2.07 Type A contrarium Gastropod Hammer B. contrarium 12.231 6.989 117.9 1 0 0 2.09 Type Indeterminate 9.892 8.479 266.8 1 1 0 7.02
Mean 10.817 8.359 216.2 Gastropod Values Hammers Minimum 9.892 6.989 117.9 Maximum 12.231 9.609 266.8 Key: Lt = Length, W = Width, Wt = Weight, SH = Number of Side Holes, TH = Number of Top Holes, SN = Number of Side Notches
66 Table A-3. Anvil, Gorget and Debitage
Tool Type Taxon Ht (cm) Lt (cm) Wt (g) FS Catalog # Anvil Mercenaria spp. 13.039 4.963 172.5 9.24
Gorget Strombus gigas 1.056 6.589a 39.3 2.18
Debitage Cassis spp. 2.05 a Lt = Length, Ht = Height, Wt = Weight, = Diameter in cm
Table A-4. Columella Cutting-Edged Tools, Perforators and Hammers
Tool Type Taxon Lt (cm) W (cm) Wt (g) FS Catalog # Columella Cutting-Edged Busycon contrarium 11.755 2.66 90.2 23.02 Tool 7.384 1.462 18.8 24.02 Pleuroploca 13.335 3.077 115.0 19.03 gigantea Indeterminate 6.787 2.086 32.0 2.23 10.464 2.171 48.4 4.02 8.409 1.825 28.8 11.02
Mean Values 9.689 2.21 55.5 Columella Cutting-Edged Minimum 6.787 1.462 18.8 Tools Maximum 13.335 3.077 115.0
Columella Perforator Indeterminate 12.116 2.654 64.9 4.07
Columella Hammer, Single- Indeterminate 10.369 2.397 57.5 4.08 Ended 6.728 2.225 48.8 12.04 8.549 2.877 51.4 12.07
Mean Values 8.549 2.500 52.6 Columella Hammers Minimum 6.728 2.225 48.8 Maximum 10.369 2.877 57.5 Key: Lt = Length, W = Width, Wt = Weight
67 Table A-5. Sinkers and Pendants
FS Catalog Tool Type Taxon Lt (cm) W (cm) Wt (g) # Columella Sinker, Plummet Variety Indeterminate 6.426 2.573 31.2 2.20 Columella Sinker, Single-groove Variety Busycon contrarium 15.900 1.446 45.5 2.19 11.423 2.095 63.0 2.21 Columella Sinker, Double-groove Variety B. contrarium 9.230 1.606 22.9 3.02 11.875 2.367 72.2 6.03 9.037 1.837 28.4 8.03 7.494 1.494 27.6 8.032 8.948 1.633 31.5 11.03 6.702 2.132 34.2 11.04 10.594 2.578 59.0 23.02 Indeterminate 5.494 1.881 19.7 11.05 Pleuroploca 6.188 1.739 19.0 19.02 gigantea Pendant, Non-Columella, Double-groove Strombus gigas 6.804 2.417 49.7 4.03 Variety 7.103 2.710 27.6 4.05 Cassis spp. 11.241 1.946 50.3 4.04 10.514 2.052 41.9 9.241 10.834 1.752 26.3 20.01 Indeterminate 5.005 1.595 15.5 12.03 Pendant, Non-Columella, Preform Cassis spp. 10.295 2.166 43.1 12.06
Mean Values 9.006 2.001 37.3 Sinkers or Pendants Minimum 5.005 1.446 15.5 Maximum 15.900 2.710 72.2 Key: Lt = Length, W = Width, Wt = Weight
68 Table A-6. Gastropod Adzes/Celts
Taxon Lt (cm) W (cm) Ht.(cm) Wt (g) Break/Wear a FS Catalog # Strombus costatus 5.20 4.07 .740 18.3 R-D-DB/Snap 15.06 Strombus gigas 5.82 2.562 1.028 20.8 R-D-DB 2.12 10.13 5.45 .880 69.7 Haft 2.25 5.33 4.05 1.580 59.9 Snap 2.26 4.57 3.90 .680 18.8 Snap 2.27 8.50 3.23 .790 33.3 Distal Impact Scar 2.3 3.90 3.60 1.000 21.5 Snap 3.03 11.00 3.69 1.150 57.1 L-P-DB/R-LS 6.01 8.86 4.60 2.200 131.7 Indeterminate 9.15 8.30 4.00 1.900 83.8 Haft 9.16 7.64 3.80 .840 35.1 Indeterminate 9.19 8.58 4.15 1.090 43.9 R-D-DB 9.25 9.71 4.76 2.400 149.6 Haft 9.26 10.58 3.64 1.210 54.0 R-D-DB/Haft 9.27 5.00 5.26 .590 25.6 Snap 9.29 9.11 4.72 .130 69.8 Snap 9.3 9.39 4.00 1.000 45.1 R-D-DB 9.31 7.56 3.64 1.400 60.6 Haft 9.32 6.22 3.57 .660 21.7 R-Nicking 9.34 13.25 3.80 1.480 100.0 L-LB 13.03 8.50 3.92 1.430 58.5 R-LB 15.12 5.78 3.05 .832 25.1 Indeterminate 22.01 6.40 2.89 1.059 34.1 Indeterminate 22.02 5.33 3.63 .822 24.9 Snap 22.03 6.65 2.14 .790 15.1 Indeterminate 13.11 Strombus spp. 11.17 6.127 1.240 90.8 Nicking/Haft 2.24 8.00 3.60 .890 45.5 Indeterminate 3.01 8.85 3.28 .750 25.2 R-D-DB 13.1 6.76 4.67 1.280 50.9 Snap 15.07
Mean 7.74 3.96 1.124 52.16 Min 3.9 2.14 0.13 15.1 Max 13.25 6.127 2.4 149.6 Key: Lt = Length, W = Width, Ht. = Height, Wt = Weight. a denotes attributes as defined by Masson (1988) R = Right, L =Left, D = Distal, P = Proximal, DB = Diagonal Break, LB = Longitudinal Break, LS = Longitudinal Split
69 Table A-7. Gastropod Scraper Type A and Type B
Tool Type Taxon Lt (cm) W (cm) Ht (cm) Wt (g) FS Catalog # Gastropod Scraper Type A Busycon contrarium 11.587 6.269 1.019 69.4 8.033 Busycon perversum 7.927 5.484 2.522 80.9 2.13 9.800 6.524 2.846 88.2 14.02 8.667 4.875 1.976 82.7 14.04 8.347 5.572 2.831 96.0 15.04 10.245 7.016 2.474 85.6 17.01 7.511 4.647 1.534 29.5 19.06 Busycon spp. 10.950 6.809 6.554 107.4 15.09 Gastropod Scraper Type B Strombus costatus 10.346 8.326 3.868 99.2 14.03
Mean 9.487 6.169 2.847 82.1 Gastropod Scrapers Min 7.511 4.647 1.019 29.5 Max 11.587 8.326 6.554 107.4 Key: Lt = Length, W = Width, Ht. = Height, Wt = Weight.
70 Table A-8. Bivalve Tools
Tool Type Taxon Ht (cm) Lt (cm) Wt (g) Remarks FS Catalog # Expedient Mercenaria spp. 7.716 5.703 49.0 RV 2.11 5.828 3.638 21.6 2.32 6.587 7.135 53 LV 2.33 5.893 9.027 70.4 LV 2.34 8.206 8.994 103.1 LV 2.35 7.675 9.327 138.3 LV 2.36 10.786 5.706 111.4 9.12 6.720 4.927 46.0 VMS 9.13 13.039 4.963 172.5 9.24 5.286 7.199 39.0 9.33 4.647 9.178 54.2 VMS 12.01 6.859 6.161 81.2 LV 12.08 4.928 6.928 41.1 12.09 6.477 5.792 39.8 12.10 6.025 6.581 43.9 12.11 4.181 6.592 47.4 12.12 4.170 6.812 47.5 12.13 4.685 5.233 46.3 LV 12.14 3.719 6.672 24.2 12.15 4.035 10.96 84.3 RV 12.16 9.887 9.336 179.6 LV 13.04 6.985 10.083 124.1 LV 13.06 6.388 5.667 51.8 13.07 11.551 7.692 158.1 RV 13.12 4.952 9.720 80.0 15.01 9.741 10.591 182.2 W,LV 15.03 5.494 8.502 104.4 15.11 5.900 5.734 65.2 15.14 8.662 9.647 123.7 W,LV 15.15 5.529 8.653 39.6 15.16 4.477 5.843 38.4 15.17 5.791 5.600 46.3 LV 18.03 4.226 5.855 24.8 19.07 5.772 5.066 33.7 20.05 8.430 5.638 126.1 22.04 4.509 7.041 45.3 23.01 4.625 6.909 29.9 24.03
Mean 6.497 7.165 74.8 Bivalve Minimum 3.719 3.638 21.6 Tools Maximum 13.039 10.96 182.2 Ht = Height, Lt = Length, Wt = Weight, RV = Right Valve, LV = Left Valve, W = Whole, VMS = Ventral Margin Section
71
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