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RESEARCH NEWS & VIEWS changes in the emissions of carbon dioxide. when its two-way interaction with meteorology of the climate-change problem and gain better Such actions need to be supported by a good is also included, may make it harder to deter- insight into the processes involved. However, understanding and prediction of the climate mine black carbon’s full climate impact. Sand and co-workers’ findings suggest that role of black carbon. Writing in the Journal The various groups of climate scientists each when it comes to understanding the full climate of Climate, Sand et al.3 report climate simula- focus on specific aspects of the climate system impact of black carbon, it will be crucial to tions that provide insights into these issues. to better understand the effects of atmospheric account for both how black carbon influences The results highlight challenges for upcoming changes. For those who work on atmospheric atmospheric circulation and also how these international initiatives aimed at better under- particulates, such as black carbon, an impor- changes feed back on the atmospheric distri- standing how the climate responds to changes tant aim is to quantify the particulates’ impact bution of black carbon. This highlights the risk in the composition of the atmosphere. on Earth’s energy budget. A largely separate of simplified or idealized approaches, which Sand and colleagues used a numerical community studies atmospheric feedbacks, may produce misleading conclusions about simulator of Earth’s atmosphere and ocean to such as convection and clouds. Plans are the total climate impact of changes in black- compare the effects on climate of artificially already under way to design climate-model carbon concentrations. ■ large increases in the emission of carbon experiments under the Coupled Model Inter- dioxide and black carbon. They find that, comparison Project, Phase 6 (ref. 4), which will Ben Booth is in the Met Office Hadley Centre, although the increases were designed to provide improved knowledge of future climate Exeter EX1 3PB, UK. Nicolas Bellouin is in exert similar perturbations in Earth’s energy responses and feed results to the next assess- the Department of Meteorology, University of budget (the net flow of incoming and outgoing ment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Reading, Reading RG6 6BB, UK. energy), changes in the planet’s surface tem- Climate Change. Contributions to several of e-mails: [email protected]; perature and rainfall are considerably weaker these experiments will either prescribe a fixed [email protected] in the simulation with elevated concentrations meteorology to explore the impacts on Earth’s of black carbon. energy balance, or use fixed concentrations of 1. Bond, T. C. et al. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 118, 5380–5552 (2013). This result confirms the importance of atmospheric particulates to explore atmos- 2. Shindell, D. et al. Science 335, 183–189 (2012). rapid responses in the atmosphere to changes pheric feedbacks. 3. Sand, M. et al. J. Clim. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/ in black carbon. These responses manifest Such a pragmatic approach enables groups JCLI-D-14-00050.1 (2015). themselves as warming at height and changes to concentrate resources on particular aspects 4. www.wcrp-climate.org/wgcm-cmip/wgcm-cmip6 in cloud properties that lead to a net decrease in mid- and high-level cloud (Fig. 1). More­ over, they act to offset the initial artificially EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY large perturbation, mainly because the warm- ing and cloud loss at altitude effectively radiate energy to space, before the surface climate is able to respond. However, the magnitude of The origin of the rapid responses reported by Sand et al. — roughly seven times stronger than those to carbon dioxide — will come as a surprise to terrestrial hearing many climate scientists. The researchers also highlight another A study of the African lungfish reveals that it has a rudimentary ability to detect result, which has implications for numerical pressure waves caused by sound. The finding expands our knowledge of how simulations of climate change. By using a pair hearing evolved in early tetrapods, the first vertebrates to have limbs and digits. of experiments, both of which explore the cli- mate impacts of black carbon and differ only in whether black-carbon changes can also JENNIFER A. CLACK unclear, because ray-finned fishes are a adjust to atmospheric-circulation responses, separate branch of bony fishes (osteichthyans) Sand et al. demonstrate the role of the two-way long-standing problem in the evolution from the lobe-finned fishes (sarcopterygians), black carbon–atmosphere interactions in driv- of land vertebrates has been how they the group to which tetrapods and lungfishes ing the full climate response. Their findings are evolved to detect sound. Lungfishes belong. unexpected because these interactions seem to Aare the closest living relatives of tetrapods Lungfishes have no obvious adaptations for be the dominant cause of the climate response (vertebrates that have limbs and digits), and so hearing — that is, they have no middle-ear to changes in black carbon. The change in may help to provide an answer. Until recently, cavity or a bone equivalent to the stapes bone global surface temperature varies by a factor however, there have been few investigations in tetrapods, through which sound could of two between the two experiments, with con- into lungfish hearing. Writing in the Journal be conveyed to the inner ear. However, they siderably larger differences at altitude. Indeed, of Experimental Biology, Christensen et al.1 do have paired lungs, and Christensen and many rainfall responses appear only when report their findings about whether the Afri- co-workers find that these are key to enabling feedbacks of black carbon-to-atmosphere-to- can lungfish Protopterus annectens can detect the lungfish to detect sound. black carbon are included. sound, casting fresh light on our understand- Overcoming the obstacles to investigating The authors point out that the feedback loop ing of the hearing capabilities of the earliest sound detection by fishes is not simple. Ideally, of black carbon to itself through changes in cli- tetrapods. the experiments should be done in open water mate may be particularly strong in their simula- The earliest tetrapods seem not to have had to avoid the influence of the experimental set- tions because their model contains an unusually a specialized apparatus that would enable ter- up on the characteristics of the sound field. active atmospheric convection. Moreover, this restrial hearing2, so to what extent could they However, a sound field that can reasonably strength may be exacerbated further by the pick up air-borne sound as they came onto be used to examine the different aspects of artificially large perturbation imposed. Experi- land? Although there have been many stud- fish hearing3,4 can be established by creating a ments with other numerical models may find ies of the hearing capacities of ray-finned standing wave in a metal tube. weaker responses. Nevertheless, the large dif- fishes (actinopterygians), how relevant these By placing lungfish at different locations ferences in the climate impacts of black carbon, findings are to early tetrapods has remained within the tube, Christensen and colleagues 168 | NATURE | VOL 519 | 12 MARCH 2015 © 2015 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved NEWS & VIEWS RESEARCH a Eusthenopteron b Acanthostega c Lungsh Otic capsule Gill pouch Otic capsule Gill pouch Otic capsule Lung Fenestra vestibuli Hyomandibula Stapes Figure 1 | Evolution of the hearing apparatus in tetrapods. a, In the hyomandibula) penetrates the otic capsule through an opening called the extinct lobe-finned fish Eusthenopteron, a bone called the hyomandibula fenestra vestibuli. The stapes could transmit vibrations emanating from is associated with an air-filled gill pouch and articulates with the otic sound-induced pressure changes in the air-filled gill pouch to the otic capsule (the ear region) to control movements of the lower jaw and other capsule. c, Christensen et al.1 report that the modern African lungfish, parts of the head and throat. b, Acanthostega is intermediate between Protopterus annectens, uses its lung to transmit sound vibrations to the otic lobe-finned fishes and the first tetrapods that were fully capable of coming capsule, and provides a model for hearing in early tetrapods. (a, b adapted onto land. A bone called the stapes (formed in part from a reduced-size from ref. 10; c adapted from ref. 11.) calibrated both pressure and particle motion the early bony fishes were also equipped with that have an eardrum and a middle-ear cavity, in the set-up, to establish which of these a bone called a hyomandibula that articulated but was nonetheless capable of transmitting components of the sound wave the fish were with the ear capsule at a mobile joint and con- vibrations emanating from pressure changes responding to. They show that the lungfish trolled ventilatory movements. It operated the in the air-filled gill pouch with which it was responds more strongly to the pressure gen- pumping action of the gill chamber, throat and in contact. erated by the sound than to particle motion. the buccal cavity (the mouth), drawing water The new discovery may also help to resolve More specifically, it uses its air-filled lungs to or air into these spaces. Air could also pass into an anomaly. One genus of Devonian tetrapod, convert pressure to particle motion in its lung the air bladder by this mechanism. Lungfishes, Ichthyostega, had an ear region configured that is then perceived by the inner ear. This is however, lost the hyomandibula during their unlike that of any other known tetrapod. It similar to the way in which ray-finned fishes evolution, although they still breathe air using seems to have had an air-filled chamber on each use their swim bladder5 (an internal gas-filled a similar, but elaborated, buccal-pumping side of its head, roofed by thick walls formed organ that allows a fish to control its buoyancy) mechanism.

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