Toward a Geographic Biography: Mi La Ras Pa in the Tibetan Landscape

Numen 55 (2008) 363 – 410 www.brill.nl/nu Toward a Geographic Biography: Mi la ras pa in the Tibetan Landscape Andrew Quintman Department of Religion, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA [email protected] Abstract Few Tibetan figures have left an impression on the Himalayan landscape, both literary and geographic, as indelibly as Mi la ras pa (ca. 1028–1111), whose career as meditator and poet was punctuated by travel across the borderlands of southern Tibet. Th is essay will begin to address the defining role of place in Tibetan biographical literature by examining the intersections of text and terrain in the recording of an individual’s life. In particular, this study examines sites of transformation in Mi la ras pa’s biographical narratives, arguing for what might be called a geographic biography by examining the dialogical relationship between a life story recorded on paper and a life imprinted on the ground. It first considers the broad paradigms for landscaping the environment witnessed in Tibetan literature. It then examines ways in which the yogin’s early biographical tradition treated the category of sacred place, creating increasingly detailed maps of the yogin’s life, and how those maps were understood and reinterpreted. Th e paper concludes by addressing two specific modes of transformation in the life story — contested place and re-imagined place — exploring new geog- raphies of consecration, dominion, and praxis. Keywords Tibet, Tibetan literature, Mi la ras pa, biography, hagiography, sacred geography Geographic Lives Few Tibetan figures have left an impression on the Himalayan landscape, both literary and geographic, as indelibly as Mi la ras pa (ca. 1028–1111), whose career as meditator and poet was punctuated by travel among mountain retreats across the borderlands of southern Tibet. Stories of his converting disciples, taming wild places, and © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2008 DOI: 10.1163/156852708X310509 364 A. Quintman / Numen 55 (2008) 363 – 410 subjugating local spirits carved out a terrain fertile for the spread of dharma, thereby defining the contours of a Buddhist topography on both sides of the Himalayan range. Early versions of the biography recorded dozens of locations connected to his life. It was only at the close of the fifteenth-century, however, that the yogin’s illustrious biog- rapher Gtsang smyon Heruka (1452–1507) — the so-called “Madman of Tsang” — codified the map of authentic Mi la sites along this bor- derland, much as he standardized previous written accounts of the yogin’s activities that were closely associated with them. Th e life of a saint, it has been suggested, is a “composition of places,” charting an itinerary of departures and returns that ultimately comes to define the life through the places it inhabits (Certeau 1988:281). Early scholars of Buddhism, including Alfred Foucher, noted the central role of place and pilgrimage in the development of the Buddha’s biographical tradition.1 Studies of East Asian traditions have explored the relationship between Buddhist lives and places.2 Likewise, a general Tibetan tendency toward topophilia — to invoke Yi-fü Tuan’s famous title — has been widely described, and the role of sacred landscape in the con- 1) Th is thesis is succinctly laid out in Foucher (1963:7–9). Tradition ascribes the ori- gins of Buddhist pilgrimage and its delineation of sacred space to the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, an important work from the Pāli canon recounting the final days of the Bud- dha’s life. In this narrative, the Buddha himself enumerates four sites to be visited and venerated by his disciples after his passing: “Here the Tathāgata was born. Here the Tathāgata attained supreme enlightenment. Here the Tathāgata set in motion the Wheel of Dhamma. Here the Tathāgata attained the Nibbāna-element without remainder” (Mahāparinibbāna Sutta 5.8; translation after Walshe [1987:263].) Th is passage famously describes these locations — later known as the caturmahāprātihārya, or the “four great wonders” — not with geographical place-names but in direct refer- ence to the four central acts of the Buddha’s life. Following Foucher’s theory, Étienne Lamotte (1988:665) re-emphasized the relationship between text and terrain, noting that “It is not possible to separate the biography of the Buddha from the sacred topography of Buddhism.” In his view, one of the earliest extensive accounts of the Buddha’s life, the Lalitavistara Sūtra, appears in the form of an “enlarged . edition of several pilgrimage guide books placed end to end.” 2) See, for example, Grapard (1982); Shinohara (2003). Th e latter forms part of a publication directly addressing the intersections of sacred place and biography mani- festing in various religious traditions across East, South, and Southeast Asia (although Tibet is conspicuously absent). See Granoff and Shinohara (2003). A. Quintman / Numen 55 (2008) 363 – 410 365 text of Himalayan pilgrimage and ritual traditions has become a sub-field in its own right.3 Austrian mountaineer (and companion of Heinrich Harrer) Peter Aufschnaiter was among the first to systemati- cally document the sites associated with Mi la ras pa’s life, based upon his explorations of the Skyid grong valley in southern Tibet.4 Yet little attention has been paid to the relationship between sacred geography and narrative in the context of Tibetan life writing. Th e present essay will thus begin to address this lacuna in contemporary scholarship, examining the defining role of place in Tibetan biographical literature by surveying the intersections of text and terrain in the recording of Mi la ras pa’s life story. In what follows, I will propose two interrelated points about the relationship between biographical narrative and the formulation of sacred geography in Tibet. First, I would like to suggest that the topography of Mi la ras pa’s life constitutes an important (but frequently overlooked) form of life writing in its own right, what might be consid- ered geographic biography. Th e places associated with a life, set forth in literature, can also be read on the ground as a kind of biographical text. Th e notion of a geographic biography is thus useful as a means for teas- ing out the relationship between Tibetan life writing and sacred geography while critically addressing received notions about the forms they inhabit. Mi la ras pa’s biographical tradition is valuable here because it forms such a rich intertextual archive, preserving materials that range from simple vitae to detailed compendia. Th e earliest examples, originating in the records of his direct disciples, grew increasingly complex, and culminate in the standard two-volume edition (the Life and Collected Songs) in 1488, nearly four centuries after the yogin’s death. Together, these sources offer fertile soil for excavating layers of representation that, in cross-section, reveal the programmatic purposes that life writing served in Tibet (much as it did in Medieval Europe). As Mi la ras 3) Recent publications include Diemberger (1991, 1993); Ehrhard (1997, 1999a, 1999b); Huber (1999a, 1999b); and MacDonald (1997). 4) Aufschnaiter’s observations first appeared in his posthumous publication “Lands and Places of Milarepa.” See Aufschnaiter (1976). For an English translation of his journals, which make frequent mention of Mi la ras pa and the yogin’s meditation sites, see Brauen (2002). 366 A. Quintman / Numen 55 (2008) 363 – 410 pa’s followers coalesced into the Buddhist traditions known as the Bkaʾ brgyud (literally, Oral Transmission), stories of the yogin’s life thus became a powerful vehicle for promoting personal, institutional, or doctrinal considerations, including the claiming, demarcating, and mapping of sacred space. Th e narrative tradition of Mi la ras pa’s life is also relevant in this context because it foregrounds the role of place, even as it simultane- ously deemphasizes the element of time. Th e life story records only the most general sense of time passing: Mi la’s early childhood folds into his later years with very few external temporal markers. Th e Songs com- press the element of time even further, serving as biographical networks largely synchronic in nature. Several Tibetan commentators have plot- ted general chronologies of Mi la ras pa’s life, calculating the period he spent with Mar pa (1002/12–1097) and the length of his various retreats, yet even the most basic temporal facts of his biography — the dates of his birth and death — are hotly contested.5 Instead, the biographical tradition manifests largely in terms of place: regions through which Mi la traveled, caves in which he meditated, where he met disciples, tamed demons, sang his songs. Reading through the extensive biographies, we find long lists of the places in Mi la’s life but have almost no idea when he visited them. Th e second point I would like to argue is that the topography of Mi la ras pa’s biographical tradition was unstable, subject to both change and revision much like its literary cousin. As individual locations evolved over time, they appear to have served as powerful sites for remembering episodes of the yogin’s life story and for re-recording how those stories were told. Th e sites of transformation in the geographic biography thus reveal a dialogical relationship between a life story recorded on paper and a life imprinted on the ground. Biographical narratives may landscape the terrain, but sacred sites in turn serve to re-imagine how those narratives can be written and read. Recent studies in geography have begun to argue against notions of place as a static dimension, “devoid of effect or implications” (Massey 1994:3). Rather, place is unstable and changing, not unlike the bio- 5) For an extensive chronological analysis of Mi la ras pa’s life, see Tshe dbang nor bu, SDN.

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