The Catalyst

Volume 2 | Issue 1 Article 7

2012 The mpI overished Island: Development Intervention in Taylor Eubanks University of Southern Mississippi

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Recommended Citation Eubanks, Taylor (2012) "The mpoI verished Island: Development Intervention in Madagascar," The Catalyst: Vol. 2: Iss. 1, Article 7. DOI: 10.18785/cat.0201.07 Available at: http://aquila.usm.edu/southernmisscatalyst/vol2/iss1/7

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For more information, please contact [email protected]. only 24.5% of The Impoverished Island: Development Intervention in Madagascar men are illit­ Taylor Eubanks erate.10 Mada­ gascar pro­ adagascar, an island nation in Africa, is mired in pov­ vides mandatory schooling for erty; approximately 76.5% of its population lives be­ boys and girls aged six to four­ low the national line of less than $1 per day. 1 M teen, which includes five years Instances of extreme poverty cannot be explained by single dimen­ of primary education and four sion, clearly delineated, universally applicable causes and solutions; years of secondary education. 11 rather, extreme poverty must be analyzed as a multi-dimensional Since its implementation, man­ phenomenon created and perpetuated by conditions specific to indi­ datory education has greatly vidual societies and communities. To speak broadly of poverty and affected the overall percentage its causes fails to provide an accurate depiction of why a country is of Malagasy children enrolled poor. The extreme impoverishment found in Madagascar is the re­ in school; almost 90% of all sult of cumulative conditions specific to the country, none of which children in Madagascar were can be fully ascertained without first examining factors relevant to enrolled in school in 2008.12 Madagascar and its poverty; these factors are its geography and cli­ However, since the coup d'etat mate, its population and quality of life, its economy and political m 2009, national budget­ structure, as well as its history. It is only through this understanding ary cuts have undermined the that workable solutions to the challenges facing Madagascar can be progress in education achieved established. in the past decade. Down from Located off the east coast of Africa, Madagascar is the fourth almost full enrollment in pri­ largest island nation in the world. Due to its geographical isolation mary school in 2008, 14% of from the mainland of Africa, Madagascar holds unique species of children between the ages of flora and fauna; in fact, an estimated 75 percent of the wildlife is six and ten are no longer en­ indigenous to the island.2 As fragile as it is distinctive, the eco­ rolled in school. 13 The cuts 3 system of Madagascar has suffered dramatic deterioration. Once in funding for education have teeming with flora, Madagascar's barren plains can be attributed to also affected completion rates widespread deforestation caused by slash-and-bum and of primary education, in which 4 clear-cutting for firewood. Deforestation is a serious impediment only a meager 60% of Mala­ to the country's economic development.5 In addition, the warm gasy children complete their waters of the Indian Ocean make the island extremely vulnerable primary education. Of those to cyclones and tropical storms, which frequently cause destruc­ that do complete their primary tive flooding and torrential rain.6 The interaction of geography and education, less than 35% con­ climate in Madagascar simultaneously enriches and imperils the is­ tinue on to enroll in secondary land through its biodiversity and its vulnerability to natural hazards education; ofthose that do, only respectively.7 54.3% complete the secondary The population ofMadagascar is approximately 22 million with a level of education. At the ter­ stable annual growth rate of roughly 3% over the past decade.8 As tiary level, only 11.6% enroll previously mentioned, the most recent data reveals that 76.5% of and just 8.3% complete their the population is below the poverty line, with a per capita income tertiary education.14 Howev­ of just $1,000.9 While the majority of Malagasy over the age of 15 er, because mandatory educa­ are literate, 31.1% of Malagasy are still unable to read and write. tion is coeducational, girls and Illiteracy is more prevalent among with boys have similar enrollment 37.5% of women unable to read and write, whereas ratios. As education levels ad- 33 vance, a small gap emerges be­ Malagasy population. The un­ amenities like roads, water, and tween enrollment levels of girls employment rate in Madagascar sanitation. Natural capital refers and boys; the ratio of girls to is at a low 2.6%, though many to fertile land and biodiversity. boys attending school is 97% in Malagasy are self-employed in Public institutional capital re­ primary, 94% in secondary, and the agricultural sector.21 The fers to government institutions 89% in tertiary education. 15 primary export of Madagascar and law. Lastly, knowledge While these numbers indi­ IS , which constituted capital refers to skill in science cate a higher level of structural 39% of the country's total ex­ and technology. While Mada­ equality in Madagascar than in ports in 2009. The latest figures gascar does lack many of the other similarly impoverished from 2008 show that foreign aid components of the major types nations, there is still a discrep­ counts for 8.3% of total GDP; of capital, these do not lock the ancy between men and women however, since 2009, foreign country in poverty. Madagas­ within the workforce in both aid has decreased due to inter­ car is caught in a series of traps, position and pay rate. Men are nal political turmoil. Economic which interact with and shape typically paid more and given growth has been mostly incon­ one another; these are the geog­ better positions than women; sistent with occasional dramatic raphy trap, the conflict trap, and 23 this gap has diminished in re­ fluctuations. Since the coup the demographic trap. cent years, but the disparity per­ d'etat in March of 2009, the Geography Trap sists.16 Women earn just 7 1% economic growth rate has plum­ meted.22 The distinctive geographical of what men earn and comprise location and features of Mada­ 17 only 8% ofParli ament. Wom­ The poverty found in Mada­ gascar in conjunction with its en do have the same legal rights gascar cannot be explained climatic conditions contribute as men in Madagascar, but cus­ quantitatively with an additive to both the immense signifi­ toms frequently restrict women approach because poverty Is cance of its land and the ex­ 18 from exercising these rights. caused by many dynamic fac­ treme impoverishment of its High fertility rates of 5.02 chil­ tors which intersect and influ­ people. Because of geographic dren born per woman serve as ence one another. Malagasy and climate conditions, Mada­ another indication of the limi­ poverty is best explained by gascar is prone to natural disas­ 19 tations on Malagasy women. focusing on the conditions that ters; the three natural hazards Poor nutrition is another serious trap Madagascar, their impacts which pose the greatest risk human capital impediment in on the different types of capital, to the island and its impover­ Madagascar; the caloric intake and how each ofthese intersects. ished inhabitants are cyclones of more than two-thirds of the The major types of capital that and tropical storms, floods, and population in Madagascar is be­ the poor lack are human capital, . Cyclones and tropical low the minimum standard of business capital, infrastructure, storms are the leading causes of what supports normal function­ natural capital, public institu­ disaster in the country; with an ing.2o tional capital, and knowledge average of three passing through Madagascar's GDP is $20.73 capital. Human capital refers to every year.24 Nineteen cyclones billion; for scale, this places what a person needs to be eco­ have made landfall on the is­ Madagascar's GDP as lower nomically productive such as land since January of 2000.25 than 122 other countries. Ag­ nutrition and education. Busi­ Madagascar is exposed to more riculture accounts for a quar­ ness capital refers to the equip­ tropical cyclones than any oth­ ter of Madagascar's GDP and ment and facilities that enable er African country.26 Flooding the employment of 80% of the and promote industry. Infra­ is a common consequence of structure consists of 34 cyclones and tropical storms, among the impoverished Mala- nana was finally able to end the which exacerbates the destruc- gasy population who suffer the blockade with growing military tion of the storm. The water consequences of the govern- support, but the blockade had a and sanitation problems caused ment's corruption. Since inde- lasting damaging effect on ci­ by extended flooding play a key pendence in 1960, a series of vilians who faced bankruptcy, role in the spread of infectious resignations caused by politi- severe malnutrition, and death. diseases. Long-term cal crises and power seizes by During Ravalomanana's pres­ are also common in the southern the military have occurred. In idency, Madagascar was seem­ and of- 1975, the military appointed a ingly improving as evidenced ten lead to the fait- The unyielding series of natural bt.Y strondger i~stittuh- ure of crops. While wns, a rop m e seasonal food short- disasters prevents any real form percentage ofMala- ages are common, f gasy under the pov- continued droughts 0 recovery. erty line, increased exhaust alternative political accountability, a more sources of sustenance, leaving naval officer, , involved civil society, moder­ those in the affected areas with to the presidency, which he ately successful anti-corruption no food or sanitary drinking maintained for 17 years. Due efforts, and improved interna­ waterY The unyielding series to political unrest, Ratsiraka re- tional relations. However, in of natural disasters prevents any signed and consented to a refer- December of 2008, the closure real form of recovery. As one endum in 1991 , which produced of an opposition television sta­ of the poorest countries in the a new constitution and called tion by Ravalomanana prompt­ world with 70% of its popula- for democratic elections in the ed violent protests in the capi­ tion below the poverty line, it upcoming year. In 1993, demo- tal. In response, the mayor of is beyond the resource capabil- cratically elected the capital, Andry Rajoelina, ity of the Malagasy to repair quickly overstepped the bounds demanded Ravalomanana's res­ the damage of these natural di- of his position, completely dis- ignation.31 In absence ofRaval­ sasters without assistance; eco- regarding the limitations of omanana's acquiescence, Raja­ nomic growth becomes a distant executive power set out in the elina declared himself President fantasy. The geography trap constitution, a fact which led in January of 2009, effectively leaves Madagascar exposed to to his impeachment in 1996.29 staging a coup d'etat. With the destructive natural disasters, Elections were held the follow- military backing Rajoelina, Ra­ which can have devastating im- ing year, and former dictator valomanana was forced to abdi­ pacts on human capital, busi- Ratsiraka was democratically cate authority and ftee.32 Since ness capital, infrastructure, and elected.30 The 2001 elections failed attempts to establish a natural capital.28 caused a political crisis in Mad- democratic resolution to the po- Conflict Trap agascar when the results were litical struggle in Madagascar in disputed between the two candi- the fall of 2009, Rajoelina has Since the time of French co- · k d dates, incumbent Ratstra a an served as the illegitimate inter- lonial rule, a pattern has devel­ . This led im president of the country.33 oped in the political history of to Ratsiraka staging a six-month Madagascar; exposed to a series According to Freedom House, blockade of the capital city An­ of corrupt politicians marked by which ranks political and civil tananarivo where Ravaloma­ illegitimacy and abuse, politi­ freedom of countries on a scale nana's government was based. cal unrest is a recurring theme of 1 (highest degree of freedom) By June, Ravaloma- 35 to 7 (lowest degree of freedom), very apparent.39 The economic more children born into an im­ Madagascar is ranked as partly consequences of Madagascar's poverished family means fewer free with a political rights score long-term political strife are ap­ resources for each individual in of 6 and a civil liberties score of parent through the drops in both the family. If a family has only 4.34 According to the scale pro­ economic growth and GDP per one child, all resources can be vided by Transparency Interna­ capita in the years these political invested into the education and tional, Madagascar is very cor­ upheavals occur. For instance, livelihood of one child rather rupt with a score of 2.6; out of during the removal of the dic­ than being split amongst many 178 countries, Madagascar was tator Didier Ratsiraka in 1990- children, which increases human 123rd with the same corruption 1991, GDP per capita dropped capital. This dynamic causes an perception score as Niger, Er­ by almost 6% while the total overall decline in standard of itrea, and .35 These low GDP dropped by over 300%; living by reducing the supply of scores can be attributed to the similarly, during the political resources per capita, undermin­ events surrounding the coup in struggle of Ratsiraka and Marc ing the development of human 2009; prior to this political up­ Ravalomanana m 2001-2002, capital, weakening natural capi­ heaval, Madagascar was ranked GDP per capita dropped by al­ tal, and placing additional bur­ higher in transparency, political most 14% while the total GDP dens on infrastructure. Fertility rights, and civil rights.36 While again dropped by over 300%. rates are also strong indicators the coup that stripped Marc Ra­ Since the coup in 2009, GDP of poverty because they provide valomanana of his executive per capita has declined by ap­ insight into the social position power and placed Andre Rajo­ proximately 9% and total GDP of women; women in countries elina as President is the most re­ has declined by over 300%.40 with high fertility rates typically cent political upheaval in Mad­ Cyclical political turmoil is evi­ have less access to educational agascar, illegitimate politicians, dent by the recurring prevalence and econom1c opportunities. violence, and abuse are clearly of political upheaval within The absence of half of a coun­ common themes in Malagasy the Malagasy political system. try's potential labor force is a society.37 Beyond the obvious Locked into the conflict trap severe impediment to economic charges of poor governance, which not only creates cyclical growth. For these reasons, it the political conflict and so­ poverty, but also cyclical politi­ is apparent that high fertility cial unrest itself carries with it cal turmoil, Madagascar suffers rates exacerbate poverty by di­ economically disabling conse­ the depletion of already scarce minishing human capital and quences for the country. When capital.41 knowledge capital.43 economies are already impov­ Demographic Trap Development Intervention erished, political instability in­ While the number of women While Madagascar is severe­ tensifies the situation, reducing taking advantage of the avail­ ly impoverished and caught in and sometimes completely dev­ ability of education in Mada­ the geography trap, the con­ astating the already limited sup­ gascar 1s comparable to the flict trap, and the demographic ply of human capital, infrastruc­ number of men, the fertility trap, it is also a country fortu­ ture, natural capital, and public rate in Madagascar is still high institutional capitat.38 By trac­ nate enough to have plentiful at 5.02 children per woman.42 coasts, biodiversity, natural re­ ing the political leadership since High fertility rates are strong sources, varied climates, and a Madagascar became an inde­ indicators of poverty; as fertil­ population pursuing education pendent state in 1960, a strong ity rates drop, poverty declines, and economic growth. Each of pattern of coups, violent power partially because these factors offers hope that changes, and political turmoil is 36 the extreme poverty in which tion in Madagascar will be best is essential to empowering the Madagascar has been trapped achieved through a five-stage impoverished and ending their for decades is but a phase, that process of development inter­ economic destitution. Howev­ the Malagasy may find their vention in conjunction with an er, structural inequality is per­ way out of poverty. At pres- ongoing program that responds vasive in developing economies ent, the traps locking the coun- directly to the interactive nature and exceptionally debilitating try into a downward economic of the poverty traps and capital to the poor. External efforts are spiral are interwoven, securely shortages afflicting the nation. therefore required in some sec­ gripping Madagascar and its While recognizing the chat­ tors to allow the impoverished people. With time and tailored Jenges that face the Malagasy is fair access to initiatives, posi­ development intervention ef- a necessary component of a so­ tively influencing their socio­ forts, the clutch ofthese traps on )uti on to their impoverishment, economic statusY Madagascar can be weakened if there are certain approaches Stage 1: Resolving the Con­ not entirely removed. Like the that will be more effective than flict Trap multi-dimensional factors that others. Many approaches to de­ Since the coup d'etat in 2009, contribute to poverty, which velopment undermine the con­ Madagascar's economy has dra­ are specific to each society and fidence of the impoverished matically contracted; the politi- community, the solution to pov- by treating them as "half-devil cal crisis has erty IS not depleted aid found m a Once political order is maintained in funding, pn­ universally vate invest­ applicable Madagascar, the development of volun­ ment, and package. tary non-state organizations should be fiscal spend­ The eradica- widespread in order to mobilize citizens ing. For this tion of ex- reason, it ts treme pov­ against any future coup attempts. of paramount erty in any importance that the conflict trap society is a complex process, and half-child," responsible for is resolved in Madagascar. Un­ which must take into consid­ their situation and incapable of til political security is restored eration how each independent contributing to the solution. To m Madagascar, its economy variable contributes to impov­ implement developmental inter­ will continue to decline and fur­ erishment and how these vari­ vention under these assumptions ther impoverish its population.46 ables intersect and influence is self-defeating and results in The resolution of the current po­ one another. The impoverish­ continued poverty and the dis­ litical crisis in Madagascar is the ment found in Madagascar is couragement of both donors and most pressing issue. Because the result of a chronic lack of the poor because confidence in there is evidence that elections the major types of capital and individual agency within im­ can pose a greater threat to un­ a series of poverty traps.44 To poverished communities is cor­ stable governments in develop­ develop workable solutions to related with greater individual ing countries than their absence, poverty in Madagascar, the pov­ and communal economic sue- an interim consensus govern­ erty traps and the absence of the cess. For this reason, partici­ ment should take the place of major types of capital corroding patory and community-driven the illegitimate leadership of the Malagasy economy must be approaches are the favorable op- Andry Rajoelina. All actions in addressed independently and tion. The utilization responding to the conflict trap collectively. Poverty allevia- of these approaches 37 ~------~ should focus on strengthen­ limiting the duration of the in­ and manage the organization. ing public institutional capital. tervention to a maximum of The government would be re­ Madagascar needs the focus of ten years provides enough time quired to provide every orga­ the international community to to establish a political security nization with documentation of place pressure on the current re­ base upon which to build and any actions taken by the state as gime to facilitate the necessary destroys the indefinite military well as any plans or proposals power change. If international intervention timeline frequently through its council. The gov­ pressure is ineffective, the mu­ found in nation building inter­ ernment would also be required tual efforts of the ventions. to provide organizations with and United Nations need to pro­ Once the current political cri­ documentation of its aid budget vide external military interven­ sis is resolved, further measures and aid dispersal plan. In taking tion; the African Union provides can be taken to prevent future these steps, communities would legitimacy to this cause, while coups. Madagascar's suscepti­ be able to track adherence to the United Nations provides bility to political upheaval and these plans as well as moni­ military equipment and finan­ high coup risk is a reflection of tor the activities of the govern­ cial supportY The goal of this structural conditions that have ment. Council heads would military intervention is to re­ followed the country since in­ attend a monthly meeting with store authority to the presidency dependence. Primary explana­ the leaders of the country to dis­ and to maintain a military pres­ tions for this susceptibility are cuss community concerns, and ence to prevent future coups; a weak civil society in Mada­ transport would be provided peacekeeping forces should not gascar and a history of effective to ensure that all communities remain in Madagascar for lon­ coups.49 While nothing can be are fairly represented. In this ger than a decade. During this done to alter Madagascar's po­ way, the non-state organizations period, the Malagasy govern­ litical history, the military inter­ would be able to hold the state ment should reduce its own mil­ vention provided by the inter­ accountable for any detected itary spending and devote the national community can change corruption and to mobilize in 48 resources towards other areas. the political future of the coun­ the event of a coup. This approach does have a po­ try; in the long-term, this is the Stage 2: Human Capital In­ tential downfall: the actions of most effective way to reduce vestment and the Demograph­ the United Nations and African Madagascar's coup risk. Once ic Trap Union in this intervention could political order is maintained in The next stage of the Mala­ be perceived as a neocolonial Madagascar, the development gasy development intervention occupation of the country; if the of voluntary non-state organiza­ should focus on empowering operation lacks public support tions should be widespread in or­ the poor in Madagascar through from the Malagasy population, der to mobilize citizens against human capital investment. Hu­ long-term success is unlikely. any future coup attempts. 5° This man capital refers to the eco­ However, safeguards can be put sort of mobilization would re­ nomic productivity of an indi­ in place to reduce the likelihood quire every community in Mad­ vidual in a society as well as of this occurring. For instance, agascar to form at least one or­ contributing components like the African Union's military ganization; all members of the presence holds more legitimacy nutrition, health, education, community must be required to and skills.51 The types of hu­ than that of the United Nations register in their respective or­ man capital are interrelated and and is less likely to be perceived ganizations. The communities interactive; the presence of one as an exercise in neocolonial­ would then select council mem­ serves as a collective reinforce- ism from the West. In addition, bers to represent .______~ 38 ~------~ ment, while the absence of one for their investment in the hu­ tee meetings to offer assistance results in their shared deteriora­ man capital of their children and provide insight into the tion. For example, malnutrition (Child Investment Scheme), the program capabilities and ben­ leads to depleted health, increas­ other to provide cash incentives efits. After the CIS program is ing susceptibility to illness and to girls and women who invest established, a CIS Program Ad­ parasitic disease, while lower in their own human capital by ministrator would return once levels of health result in higher not having children (Women's every four months for a review nutritional needs, unlikely to be Investment Scheme). These meeting with each committee; met in impoverished communi­ programs would address the these meetings would celebrate ties. 52 Malnutrition also causes shortage of human capital in the progress of the program, extensive damage to cognitive Madagascar as well as over­ address any shortcomings of ability, which limits intelligence come the demographic trap. the program, and make adjust­ and learning capability; thus, The Child Investment Scheme ments as deemed necessary by the efficacy of education and at­ (CIS) would provide weekly im­ the community. To determine tainment of skills is reducedY bursements to eligible impover­ which households are eligible In addition, poor health causes ished households who achieve for this program, the committee lower attendance at work and all of the benchmarks set up in would create a relative measure in school, which lessens pro­ the program. Because the Mal­ of poverty for the community ductivity and diminishes the agasy possess a greater under­ and determine a community effect of education. This dy­ standing of their communities poverty line. Each committee namic illustrates that lack of and challenges than external would provide a li st of eli gibil­ one type of human capital cre­ assistance representatives do, ity requirements based on their ates a downward spiral of total the CIS program would be es­ conclusions, which households human capital. Consequently, tablished as a communal project within that community would the Malagasy development in­ with only a few external regula­ need to satisfy to be eligible for tervention should first target tions. This structure would ac­ the program. Next, committees the shortage of human capital knowledge the superior insight would determine the most ef­ in Madagascar. This would be provided by the communities fective strategies of investment achieved through several simul­ of Madagascar and strengthen in human capital in their com­ taneous initiatives that improve the collective confidence of the munity. By using this approach, education, mcrease agricul­ population. Every community the Malagasy would have sig­ tural production, stimulate eco­ would form a CIS committee nificant influence over their own nomic productivity, and ensure comprised of approximately 30 communal progress, thereby adequate nutrition and health local members; these commit­ fostering independent agency 55 care to all of the Malagasy. To tees would be responsible for and stronger community ties. meet this need, conditional cash determining the standards of There would be some external transfers should be implement­ eligibility as well as the bench­ regulations for the program. Stu­ ed; conditional cash transfers marks households must meet to dents who receive fai ling marks provide households or individu­ stay in the program. Each com­ for one term would be placed als with financial incentives for munity would select its commit­ on probation, which requires an 54 investing m human capital. tee members, and women would individual assessment of what There should be two conditional comprise at least half of every areas need to be addressed for cash transfer programs in effect committee. A CIS Program Ad­ improvement and a plan of ac­ in Madagascar: one to provide ministrator would be present at tion to meet these needs. This cash incentives to households the initial c o m m i t- period would grant the student 39 an additional term to improve age in the community. Two themselves, they become eco­ his marks before discontinuing women from each group would nomically independent.56 This his participating in the CIS pro­ be trained to provide informa­ process is critical to a strong gram. If he meets the require­ tion to their group about contra­ development intervention pro­ ments established by his local ceptives, birth control pills, and gram. committee and tmproves his sexually transmitted diseases; Stage 3: The Green Revolu­ marks in any subsequent terms, these women would also be re­ tion he would be eligible for reentry sponsible for distributing con­ While the CIS and WIS pro­ into the program. In addition, traceptives, specifically birth grams are being implemented, a high scores would be reward­ control pi lls. Groups would widespread public information ed with a bonus at the end of have mandatory meetings every initiative would be introduced each term. Lastly, to w ·th t d . d to the coun- try focusing Increase ' an ecosys em as •verse an valu- community able as Madagascar's, further environ- on agricul- 1 interest m the success menta/ destruction is not in the best inter- ~r;i ca~~~e~~ of the pro­ est of the country's future growth. atmmg to mcrease the gram, the yield of already cultivated land. CIS program for Madagascar month. During these meetings, The Green Revolution has still would reward the community the women would be educated not made its way to Madagas­ with a monthly development on topics related to their repro­ car, a fact that has prevented the grant if over 90 percent of par­ ductive health. Upon enroll­ Malagasy from transitioning ticipating households meet all of ing in the WIS program, any away from subsistence farm­ the human capital benchmarks woman of reproductive age who mg. The Agricultural Intensi­ each month. The community does not get pregnant would re­ fication Initiative (All) would would have the option to put ceive financial imbursement for teach farmers better techniques the grant in communal savings their effective utilization of the and provide access to neces­ for later use or to make a com­ program. The rationale behind sary technology. This initiative munal investment in a develop­ the WIS program is to reduce would also address the concern ment project, for which advise­ the number of unplanned preg­ of environmental degradation in ment would be offered through nancies as well as the high fer­ Madagascar by promoting soil the CIS Program Administrator. tility rate in Madagascar. By conservation and reforestation. providing women with a finan­ The Women's Investment Madagascar's agricultural his­ cial incentive to use contracep­ Scheme (WIS) would be part tory provides a salient example tives, they are more likely to of the multifaceted approach to of the environmental cost of un­ break out of the poverty cycle. solving the demographic trap in regulated, uninformed, and un­ In addition, women's groups Madagascar. To reduce Mada­ sustainable farming techniques. strengthen the collective voice gascar's high fertility rate of With an ecosystem as diverse of women m communities 5.02 children per woman, the ' and valuable as Madagascar's, which is conducive to achieving WIS program would be avail­ further environmental destruc­ greater gender equality. When able for all females from the tion is not in the best interest of women take control of their age of 12. The WIS program the country's future growth.s7 reproductive lives and begin would create a women's group Because improved agricultural for all women of reproductive to make choices for 40 techniques and access to af­ increased agricultural output access to technology, which can fordable inputs mcrease pro­ achieved, infrastructure would create livelihood opportunities ductivity, the All would pro­ serve as the logical next step for the poor and allow work to vide necessary fertilizer, seeds, in alleviating poverty in Mada­ continue after the sun has set. and technology at an affordable gascar. All aid and government In addition, telephones would cost to farmers. 58 To ensure that funded projects should be led assist in alleviating the poverty farmers are able to take advan­ and implemented by Malagasy in Madagascar by saving time tage of the All, payment plans citizens through social business; and money for workers who no would be offered. The All giving the population a stake in longer have to travel for com­ would place farmers into groups the success of infrastructure de­ munication purposes. Lastly, of five with other farmers from velopment serves as a tool of providing computers and inter­ their communities; these farm­ empowerment and increases the net access to communities in ers would work together to likelihood of program success.60 Madagascar would expose the ensure that all succeed. Like Constructing roads in Madagas­ population to new technologies, the community-driven model car would serve as a catalyst for provide new financial opportu­ provided by Grameen Bank, economic activity; roads pro­ nities, and offer an abundance the All would only allow one vide opportunities to the poor of information; all of these steps member of the group to take through lower transport costs would serve to empower the advantage of the payment plan and access to new occupations. Malagasy population.61 59 option at a time, thereby en­ Furthermore, roads would save In addition to infrastructure, couraging payment and promot­ time for the Malagasy, which local markets are easy and ef­ ing resource sharing for greater can be spent pursuing other fective ways to increase income productivity. In addition, the economic activities. In addition in communities. These markets All would be the best method to roads, providing a secure, would provide space for peo­ to eliminate the threat of de­ sanitary water supply is a criti­ ple to set up shops to sell their forestation in Madagascar. By cal step towards development goods without having to pay increasing knowledge and crop in Madagascar, especially since travel expenses to reach mar­ yields, farmers would no longer its main source of livelihood is kets in other areas. When farm­ partake in shifting cultivation or agriculture. Permanent irriga­ ers and traders must travel to slash and bum farming. tion structures are necessary for distant markets, they are forced Stage 4: Infrastructure and farmers whose dependence on to carry products long distanc­ Local Markets rain serves as a great disadvan­ es. Not wanting to carry these tage. However, a secure, sani­ For continued development items back, they settle for prices tary water supply is also needed in Madagascar, investments in below market value. Because for human consumption. When infrastructure are necessary. local markets do not pose this there is no stable water supply, Funding for infrastructure m problem, vendors are able to se­ the people of Madagascar spend Madagascar would come from a cure better prices. Furthermore, hours searching for water and combination of aid, government creating local markets increases frequently resort to drinking investment, and foreign direct the demand for new products water that is unsafe for human investment. Investments should and provides the incentive for consumption, a fact that results focus primarily on providing locals to meet those needs. Lo­ in waterborne di seases. Elec­ roads, safe water, electricity, cal markets are strong commu­ tricity is another valuable re­ and communication technology. nity builders and provide further source for development. Elec­ With the Green Revolution and economic opportunities to those tricity provides that need them most. The es- 41 tablishment of weekly or daily eign direct investment. For this removal of competition results markets is a project that would reason, the Malagasy economy m industrial inefficiency and mcrease economic prosperity needs to diversify; economic low-quality products at higher in rural communities in Mada­ policy should place an emphasis pnces. However, to encour­ gascar. Furthermore, because on export diversification and the age innovation and increased the communities are entirely creation of new sectors that pro­ efficiency in home industries, responsible for the implemen­ duce more value-added, manu­ the government of Madagascar tation of these local markets, factured goods for export.65 would set industry-specific tar­ communal participation in the Structural models of economic iffs so that competing products markets is more likely.62 development show that diver­ are of comparable value to the Stage 5: Diversification and sification from primary exports Malagasy versions. Through Industrial Transition into manufactured exports is a this system, home industries route to sustainable economic would be able to participate in It is commonly believed that growth.66 This move would cre­ market competition and thereby there is a natural resource curse, ate additional sources of rev­ yield higher levels of productiv­ which plagues countries with enue for the country, encourage ity and innovation. This policy economic instability due to the foreign direct investment, and would protect Madagascar's inherent volatility of export provide some protection from new industries from the dam­ prices. However, the abundance the bust phase of the boom and agmg impact of international of natural resources in a country bust cycle. competition while maintaining is not what leads to low growth; Once Madagascar has tran­ the benefits of market competi­ rather, it is the dependency on a tion.68 single primary export that limits sitioned beyond subsistence the ability of a country to pros­ farming, investments should be Ongoing Development Inter­ per. 63 In 2009, textiles com­ refocused to the development vention: Recovery from the prised 39% of Madagascar's of manufacturing. With infra­ Geography Trap total export sector; the concen­ structure in place, foreign direct Because there is no method tration of trade on a single ex­ investment would increase and of influencing the prevalence 67 port leaves Madagascar vulner­ allow industrial growth. As of natural disasters in Mada­ able to any cyclical variations.64 industries are forming in Mad­ gascar, the geography trap does While the transition from an ag­ agascar, cheap imports pose a not have an obvious remedy. riculturally based export market great threat to continued growth. There are methods to minimize to a manufactured good market Unable to compete with inter­ the devastating consequences is a positive step towards de­ national industries in the early of natural disasters in Mada­ velopment, with no other sub­ stages of the transition from ag­ gascar, however. While the risk stantial exports in the sector, riculture to industry, the home of natural disasters cannot be a country as impoverished as industries in Madagascar would eliminated, the geography trap Madagascar is not equipped to need some protection to prevent can be overcome.69 is cope with the bust phase of the closure. During this transition, an example of an island nation boom and bust cycle of a prima­ the government of Madagascar with a high risk of natural di­ ry export market. The volatility should implement industry spe­ sasters that is equipped to cope of the primary export dependent cific protectionist-trading poli­ with the geography trap because economy of Madagascar also cies so that home industries are of its economic development.70 creates macroeconomic uncer­ able to develop. A common cri­ For this reason, it becomes clear tainty, which discourages for- tique of protectionist economic that until Madagascar has de- poI i c i e s is that the 42 veloped its economy, it will be ished society; however, excess inexcusable. While financial unable to recover from natural loss insurance coverage would capabilities of the West may disasters without external as­ take the economic burden of have suffered because of the sistance. The geography trap recovery from the victims and economic downturn, the abil­ recovery must therefore be an the Malagasy government. Ex­ ity of developed countries to do ongoing project in Madagascar; cess loss insurance is the most what is ethical has not dimin­ reducing the devastation of nat­ common tool of risk transfer ished. The high levels of pov­ ural disasters and responding to used in response to natural di­ erty found in Madagascar is but the needs of those impacted by sasters; this policy spreads the one example of the failures of them would allow Madagascar risk to the world capital markets the modem world, and the West to continue developing.71 The so that the financial shock is ab­ has not only the ability but also most effective approach to the sorbed by an entity capable of the obligation to work towards geography trap is to be prepared handling the bill. Through this its eradication. for natural hazards; this means program, of which the govern­ that systems should be set up in ment of Madagascar would take advance to meet the needs of the advantage, the citizens of Mada­ Endnotes Malagasy impacted by natural gascar would be protected from I Integrated Regional In- disasters. The primary concerns financial ruin, and damaged in­ formation Networks (IRIN), in the wake of a natural disaster frastructure could be repaired. 74 "Madagascar: A poor country gets are malnutrition, infrastructure poorer," 20 II , http://www.unhcr. Why It Matters org/refworld/docid/4d884f46c. damage, and economic rum. Alleviating poverty in Mada­ html (accessed 6 May 20 11 ). While malnutrition is a continu­ gascar is an important task for ous problem m Madagascar, 2 Hilary Bradt, Madagas- the global community for many nutrition depravation is inten­ car, (Guilford, Connecticut: The reasons; the most compelling Globe Pequot Press Inc., 2007), 2. sified during the lean season in of these is humanitarian relief. January and February when one 3 United Nations Develop- Even during an economic down­ million additional Malagasy fall ment Programme, "Madagascar tum in the developed world, the beneath the poverty line, but - Country Profile," Water, Winds, standard of living enjoyed by and Fires, 2008, http://www.undp. it is especially devastating to the West is extravagant luxury org.mz/waterswindsfires/Country­ the drought-laden south. 72 The to what many of the citizens of profi les/Madagascar. most effective approach to en­ Madagascar experience. The 4 Lucy Jarosz, "Defining suring access to nutrition in the standard of living in the devel­ Deforestation m Madagascar," south of the island is through in­ oped world is frequently taken m Liberation Ecologies: Envi­ creased agricultural productivity for granted; the vast majority of ronment, Development, Social throughout the year, specifically Westerners do not worry about Movements, ed. Richard Peet and , , and crops. where their next meal will come Michael Watts (New York: Rout­ Through this approach, the ledge, 1996), 152. from or where they will find Malagasy would be empowered safe drinking water. These are 5 Fard, "Greening the Red because they would be serving not concerns that plague West­ Island: Tensions between Rural as the catalyst for their own suc­ em society, but they are the Development and Environmental cess; this approach would also Conservation in Madagascar." norm for many Malagasy. With increase income for farmers.73 so much excess in the West, 6 United Nations Develop- Concerns over damaged infra­ the severe deprivation found ment Programme, "Madagascar - structure and financial loss are Country Profile." m Mada- gascar IS especially valid in an impover- 7 Bradt, Madagascar, 4. 43 8 Central Intelligence Agen- plete Report, 23-24. "Madagascar - Country Profile." cy and Office of Public Affairs, 17 Norwegian Agency for 28 Sachs, The End of Pover- "Madagascar," World Factbook Development Cooperation, "Facts ty, 57, 244-245; The , 2011, https://www.cia.gov/library/ About Madagascar." "Madagascar Data." publications/the-world-factbook/ 18 World Trade Press, 29 Bradt, Madagascar, 9; geos/ma.html (accessed March 15, Mada­ Monty G. Marshall and Donna 201 1) . gascar Society and Culture Com­ plete Report, 24. Ramsey Marshall, Coup D 'etat 9 Integrated Regional In- 19 Central Intelli gence Agen­ Events, 1946-2009 Codebook, formation Networks (IRIN), cy and Office of Public Affairs, Center for Systemic Peace, (20 10), "Madagascar: A poor country gets "Madagascar." 9, http:/ /www.systemicpeace.org/ poorer;" The World Bank, "Mada­ i nscr/CS PCou psCodebook2009. gascar Data," The World Bank, 20 B. Dostie, S. Haggblade, pdf. 2011 , http://data.worldbank.org/ and 1. Randriamamonjy, "Season­ 30 Bradt, 9. country/ madagascar. al Poverty in Madagascar: Magni­ Madagascar, tude and Solutions," 31 Freedom House, "Free- l 0 Central Intelligence Agen­ Food Policy dom in the World 20 I 0 - Mada­ cy and Office of Public Affairs, 27, no. 5/6 (2002): 494. gascar," 2010, "Madagascar." 21 The World Bank, "Mada- Freedom House, gascar Data." http:/ /freedom house. org/ temp late. I I World Trade Press, cfm?page=22&year=20 1O&count Madagascar Society and Cul­ 22 Central Intelligence Agen­ ry=7867. ture Complete Report (World cy and Office of Public Affairs, 32 Aaron Mattis, "No Man's Trade Press, 20 I 0), 24, http://site. "Madagascar." Island," ebrary.com.logon.lynx.l ib. usm. Harvard International 23 Jeffrey Sachs, The End Review 32, no. 3 (Fall 201 0): 6. edu/1i b/southernmiss/docDetai I. of Poverty, (New York: Penguin action?dociD= I 0389257. Press, 2005), 56-66; Paul Collier, 33 Freedom House, "Free- dom in the World 20 l 0 - Mada­ 12 Norwegian Agency for The Bottom Billion, (New York: gascar." Development Cooperation, "Facts Oxford University Press, 2007), About Madagascar," Norwegian 35-37. 34 Ibid. Agency for Development Cooper­ 24 United Nations Develop- 35 Transparency Internation- ation, 2009, http://www.norad.no/ ment Programme, "Madagascar - al, "Corruption Perceptions In­ en/Countries/ Africa/Madagascar/ Country Profile." dex 20 I 0 Results," (20 10), http:// Facts. 25 U.K. Ministry of Defence, www. transparency.org/pol icy_ re­ 13 UNICEF, "Primary school Met Office, "Past Tropical Cy­ search/surveys_indices/cpi/20 10/ years," UNICEF - Madagascar, clones," Met Office, 2011 , http:// results. http://www. un icef.org/madagas­ www.metoffice.gov.uk/ weather/ 36 Freedom House, "Free- car/55 14 6478.html. tropicalcyclone/tctracks/compos­ dom in the World 20 I 0 - Mada­ 14 International Monetary ites/swi.html. gascar." Fund, Republic of Madagascar: 26 Margaret L. Brown, 37 Mattis, "No Man's Is- Poverty Reduction Strategy "Madagascar's Cyclone Vulnera­ land," 6. (Washington D.C.: International bility and the Global Econ­ 38 Collier, The Bottom Bil- Monetary Fund Publication Ser­ omy," in The Political Economy of lion, 35; Jeffery Sachs, The End of vices, 2009), 14-17. Hazards and Disasters, ed. Eric C. Poverty, 244-245. 15 Norwegian Agency for Jones and Arthur D. Murphy (Lan­ 39 Bradt, Madagascar, 8- 10 ; Development Cooperation, "Facts ham, MD: AltaMira Press, 2009), Freedom House, "Freedom in the About Madagascar." 241. World 20 I 0 - Madagascar;" Mat­ 16 World Trade Press, Mada­ 27 United Nations Develop- tis, "No Man's Island," 6; U.S. gascar Society and Culture Com- ment Pro- ....------. g r a m m e , Department of State and Bureau of 44 African Affairs, Background Note: for Control of Disease in the De­ 66 Ibid, 56. Madagascar, 20 I 0, http://www. veloping World," Reviews of In­ 67 Ibid, 101-105. state.gov/r/pa!ei/bgn/5460.htm. fectious Diseases 8, no. 2 ( 1986): 274-279. 68 Ha Chang, Bad Samari- 40 International Monetary tans: The Myth ofFree Trade and Fund, "Republic of Madagascar 53 Rita Bakan, "Malnutri- the Secret History of Capitalism and the IMF," International Mon­ tion and Learning," The Phi Delta (New York: Bl oomsbury Press, etary Fund, 20 II , http://www.imf. Kappan 5 1, no. 10 (1970): 527. 2008). org/externa l/country/mdg/index. 54 Ariel Fiszbein, Norbert htm?type=9998. 69 Paul K. Freeman, "Infra- Schady, and Francisco H. G. Fer­ structure, Natural Disasters, and 41 Collier, The Bottom Bil- reira, "Overvi ew," In Conditional Poverty," in Managing Disaster lion, 35-36. Cash Transfers: Reducing Present Risk in Emerging Economies, ed. 42 Central Intelligence Agen­ and Future Poverty (Washington Alcira Kreimer and Margaret Ar­ cy and Office of Public Affairs, D.C.: World Bank, 2009), 1. nold (Washington D.C.: The World "Madagascar." 55 Narayan, Petesch, and Ka­ Bank, 2000), 57. 43 Sachs, The End of Pover- poor, Moving Out of Poverty, 11- 70 Maxx Dilley eta!., "Natu- ty, 64. 30. ral Disaster Hotspots: A Global 44 Sachs, The End ofPo verty, 56 Ibid, 322. Risk Analysis," 2005, Center for 56-66; Collier, The Bottom Billion, 57 Fard, "Greening the Red Hazards and Risk Research, Co­ 35-37. Island: Tensions between Rural lumbia University, http://sedac. ciesin.columbia.edu/hazards/hot­ 45 Deepa Narayan, Patti Development and Environmental spots/synthesisreport.pdf. Petesch, and Soumya Kapoor, Conservation in Madagascar." Moving Out of Poverty, Volume 58 Narayan, Petesch, and Ka­ 7 1 Freeman, "Infrastructure, 2: Success from the Bottom Up poor, Moving Out ofPov erty, 208. Natural Disasters, and Poverty," 57. (Herndon, VA: World Bank Publi­ 59 Muhammad Yunus, Cre- cations, 2009), 30-31. ating a World Without Poverty: 72 B. Dostie, S. Haggblade, 46 World Bank, "Madagas- Social Business and the Future of and J. Randriamamonjy, "Season­ car - Economic Update: 2009 and Capitalism (New York: PublicAf­ al Poverty in Madagascar," 495; Beyond," The World Bank. 2010. fairs, 2007), 57-58. UNICEF, "Failure of seasonal rains leads to hardship and malnu­ http://s iteresources. worldbank. 60 Ibid, 125-128. org/INTMAD AGASCAR/ Re­ trition in Madagascar," UNICEF sources/EcoUp021O.pdf 61 Narayan, Petesch, and Ka- - Madagascar, http://www.un i­ poor, Moving Out ofP overty, 202- cef.org/ infobycountry/madagas­ 47 Colli er, The Bottom Bil- 208. car 50348. html. lion, 129-130. 62 Ibid, 204. 73 Dostie, Haggblade, and 48 Ibid, 152. 63 Richard Newfarmer, Wi l- Randriamamonj y, "Seasonal Pov­ 49 Aaron Belkin and Evan liam Shaw, and Peter Walkenhorst, erty in Madagascar," 508-513. Schofer, "Toward a Structural Un­ ed., Breaking into New Markets: 74 Freeman, "Infrastructure, derstanding of Coup Risk," The Emerging Lessons for Export Di­ Natural Disasters, and Poverty," Journal of Conflict Resolution 4 7, versification (Herndon, VA: World 58-59. no. 5 (2003): 598. Bank Publications, 2009), 39-51. 50 Ibid, 605. 64 International Trade Cen- 51 Sachs, The End of Pover- tre, Madagascar. ty, 244. 65 Newfarrner, Shaw, and 52 Gerald T. Keusch and Walkenhorst, ed., Breaking into Nevin S. Scrimshaw, "Selective New Mar- kets, 55. Primary Health Care: Strategies 45