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To Svalbard Colleagues Geological Society Memoirs Series Editor A. J. FLEET

View of Ny-.&lesund settlement seen from the west with three mountain peaks, Tre Kroner, in the distance. The peaks are capped by strata unconformably resting on Early rocks. They are 30 km distant from the buildings, being foreshortened by the telephoto lens. The glacier from which they emerge as nunataks extends about 15 km nearer. The remaining 15 km just visible is the eastern, inner part of Kongsfjorden. To the right in the foreground is a raised, insulated and heated utiliduct supplying water from a small lake. Photo M. J. Hambrey, CSE 1962 (SP.941e).

View WSW from the old road quay at Ny Alesund, with Scheteligf]ellet in the centre right formed mainly of Carboniferous and strata. Typical low cloud is creeping half way up the mountain from the right. The middle foreshortened low with snow is characteristic raised beach or strandflat topography. The cliffs in the foreground usually about 5-10 m high form the coastline of the shallow bay, Thiisbukta, where in somewhat deeper water motorboats have a sheltered anchorage. The ice in the foreground is 'bay ice', which forms each winter and melts in the early summer. After a hard winter (probably in June) this bay ice is grounded in shallow water at low tide. In a few days it would disintegrate and drift away with tide. Photo M. J. Hambrey (SP631). The

By

W. BRIAN HARLAND (University of Cambridge, UK)

Assisted by LESTER M. ANDERSON and DAOUD MANASRAH (CASP, UK)

With contributions by NICHOLAS J. BUTTERFIELD (University of Cambridge, UK)

ANTHONY CHALLINOR (deceased formerly University of Cambridge, UK)

PAUL A. DOUBLEDAY (CASP, UK)

EVELYN K. DOWDESWELL (University of Aberystwyth, UK)

JULIAN A. DOWDESWELL (University of Aberystwyth, UK)

ISOBEL GEDDES (CASP, UK)

SIMON R. A. KELLY (CASP, UK)

EDA L. LESK (CASP, UK)

ANTHONY M. SPENCER (Statoil, )

CLARE F. STEPHENS (CASP, UK)

Memoir 17 1997 Published by The Geological Society London THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

The Society was founded in 1807 as The Geological Society of London and is the oldest geological society in the world. It received its Royal Charter in 1825 for the purpose of 'investigating the mineral structure of the Earth'. The Society is Britain's national society for geology with a membership of around 8000. It has countrywide coverage and approximately 1000 members reside overseas. The Society is responsible for all aspects of the geological sciences including professional matters. The Society has its own publishing house, which produces the Society's international journals, books and maps, and which acts as the European distributor for publications of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, SEPM and the Geological Society of America. Fellowship is open to those holding a recognized honours degree in geology or cognate subject and who have at least two years' relevant postgraduate experience, or who have not less than six years' relevant experience in geology or a cognate subject. A Fellow who has not less than five years' relevant postgraduate experience in the practice of geology may apply for validation and, subject to approval, may be able to use the designatory letters C Geol (Chartered Geologist). Further information about the Society is available from the Membership Manager, The Geological Society, Burlington House, Piccadilly, London W1V 0JU, UK. The Society is a Registered Charity, No. 210161.

Published by The Geological Society from: Distributors The Geological Society Publishing House USA Unit 7 Brassmill Enterprise Centre AAPG Bookstore Brassmill Lane PO Box 979 Bath BA1 3JN Tulsa UK OK 74101-0979 (Orders: Tel. 01225 445046 USA Fax 01225 442836) (Orders: Tel. (918) 584-2555 Fax (918) 560-2652) First published 1997 The publishers make no representation, express or implied, with Australian Mineral Foundation regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book 63 Conyngham Street and cannot accept any legal responsibility for any errors or Glenside omissions that may be made. South Australia 5065 Australia (Orders: Tel. (08) 379-0444 The Geological Society 1998. All rights reserved. Fax (08) 379-4634) No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with the provisions Affiliated East-West Press PVT Ltd of the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, G-l/16 Ansari Road London W1P 9HE. Users registered with the Copyright Clearance New Delhi 110 002 Center, 27 Congress Street, Salem, MA 01970, USA: the item-fee India code for this publication is 0435-4052/97/$10.00. (Orders." Tel. (11) 327-9113 Fax (11) 326-0538) British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Japan Library. Kanda Book Trading Co. Tanikawa Building ISBN 1-897799-93-4 3-2 Kanda Surugadai Chiyoda-Ku Typeset by Aarontype Ltd, Unit 47, Easton Business Centre, Tokyo 101 Felix Road, Bristol BS5 0HE, UK. Japan (Orders: Tel. (03) 3255-3497 Printed by Alden Press, Osney Mead, Fax (03) 3255-3495) Oxford OX2 0EF, UK Contents

List of figures ix 5.4 Northeastern , Wilhelmoya and ..~ List of tables Xln Hinlopenstretet 77 List of photographs Xln 5.5 Southwestern 80 Preface XV 5.6 (with S. R. A. Kelly) 83 Acknowledgements xvii 5.7 Barentsoya, Edgeoya and Tusenoyane 86 Participants ixx 5.8 91 Conventions xxi 5.9 Correlation of four exploratory wells: Edgeoya and Hopen 93

PART 1 Introduction CHAPTER 6 NORTHERN NORDAUSTLANDET 96 6.1 Early work 96 CHAPTER 1 SVALBARD 6.2 Stratal succession 96 1.1 Geographical names 3 6.3 Subjacent metamorphic complex 104 1.2 Topography and bathymetry 7 6.4 Late tectonic plutons 105 1.3 The physical environment 8 6.5 Minor igneous bodies 106 1.4 The biota 10 6.6 Summary of isotopic ages 106 1.5 Political history 11 6.7 Structure of Nordaustlandet 107 1.6 The Spitsbergen Treaty 11 6.8 The Lomonosov Ridge in relation to Nordaustlandet 108 1.7 Settlements 13 1.8 Official publications 13 CHAPTER 7 NORTHEASTERN SPITSBERGEN 110 CHAPTER 2 OUTLINE HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL 7.1 Geological frame 110 RESEARCH 16 7.2 Younger (cover) rocks 112 2.1 Early exploration 16 7.3 Post-Permian deformation 112 2.2 1858 to 1920 16 7.4 Ny Friesland plutons 112 2.3 1920 to 1945 18 7.5 The Hecla Hoek Complex: the continuing debate 113 2.4 1946 to 1960 19 7.6 Hinlopenstretet Supergroup 116 2.5 1960 to 1975 20 7.7 Lomfj orden Supergroup 118 2.6 1975 onwards 21 7.8 Stubendorffbreen Supergroup: succession 121 7.9 Stubendorffbreen Supergroup: genesis 125 7.10 The Hecla Hoek Complex: mid-Paleozoic structure CHAPTER 3 SVALBARD'S GEOLOGICAL FRAME 23 and metamorphism 128 3.1 The space frame: Svalbard's structural frame 23 3.2 The time frame 25 3.3 The frame 29 CHAPTER 8 NORTHWESTERN SPITSBERGEN 132 3.4 Tectonostratigraphic sequences 31 8.1 volcanic rocks of the Woodfjorden area 133 3.5 Geotectonic interpretations 37 8.2 Mesozoic, Permian and Carboniferous cover 134 8.3 Liefde Bay Supergroup (Devonian) 135 8.4 The 'crystalline' rocks of Northwestern Spitsbergen 142 8.5 Structure 145 PART 2 Regional descriptions 8.6 Offshore geology (with P.A. Doubleday) 152 CHAPTER 4 THE CENTRAL BASIN 47 4.1 Geological frame 47 CHAPTER 9 CENTRAL WESTERN SPITSBERGEN 154 4.2 Van Mijenfjorden Group () 48 9.1 Paleogene strata 154 4.3 Group (-) 9.2 Mesozoic strata of Oscar II Land 158 (by S. R. A. Kelly) 52 9.3 Late Paleozoic strata of Oscar II Land 159 4.4 Kapp Toscana and Sassendalen Groups 9.4 Early Paleozoic rocks 162 (Liassic-) (with I. Geddes) 59 9.5 Proterozoic strata of Oscar II Land 165 4.5 Biinsow Land Supergroup (Permian-Carboniferous) 63 9.6 Pre-Carboniferous rocks of 166 4.6 Tempelfjorden Group (Permian) with I. Geddes & 9.7 Structure of Oscar II Land (with P. A. Doubleday) 168 P.A. Doubleday 63 9.8 Structure of Prins Karls Forland 171 4.7 Gipsdalen Group (Permian-Carboniferous) with 9.9 Structure of Forlandsundet Basin I. Geddes & P. A. Doubleday 66 (with P. A. Doubleday) 175 4.8 Group (Early Carboniferous) with I. Geddes 9.10 A tectonic interpretation of the West Spitsbergen & P. A. Doubleday 71 Orogen: northern segment 177 4.9 Structure and development of Central Basin 73

CHAPTER 5 EASTERN SVALBARD PLATFORM 75 CHAPTER 10 SOUTHWESTERN AND SOUTHERN SPITSBERGEN 179 5.1 Platform strata 75 5.2 Igneous rocks 76 10.1 Paleogene strata 180 5.3 Submarine outcrops 76 10.2 Mesozoic strata in southwest Sorkapp Land 182 vi CONTENTS

10.3 Permian and Carboniferous strata of southern CHAPTER 16 DEVONIAN HISTORY 289 Spitsbergen 183 16.1 Devonian time scale and correlation 289 10.4 Devonian strata 187 16.2 Devonian succession 291 10.5 Proterozoic strata of western Nordenski61d Land 188 16.3 Devonian biotas 291 10.6 Proterozoic strata of western Nathorst and 16.4 ? and Devonian sedimentation 296 northwestern Wedel Jarlsberg Lands 189 16.5 Devonian tectonics 299 10.7 Early Paleozoic and Proterozoic strata of 16.6 The question of sinistral Paleozoic strike-slip southwestern 191 faulting, transpression and transtension 303 10.8 Early Paleozoic and Proterozoic strata of 16.7 Sequence of events through Devonian time 306 Sorkapp Land 197 16.8 A Lomonosov conjecture 309 10.9 Pre-Devonian correlation through southwest Spitsbergen 199 10.10 Structure of western Nordenski61d Land 200 CHAPTER 17 CARBONIFEROUS-PERMIAN 10.11 Structure of western 201 HISTORY 310 10.12 Structure of Wedel Jarlsberg Land (with P. A. Doubleday) 201 17.1 Early work 310 10.13 Structure of Sorkapp Land (with P. A. Doubleday) 205 17.2 Stratigraphic frame: Biinsow Land Supergroup 312 17.3 Structural frame 314 17.4 Carboniferous and Permian time scale 316 CHAPTER 11 SOUTHERN SVALBARD: BJORNOYA 17.5 Carboniferous-Permian sedimentary environments {1.~r, I. f"L~,..1,-.l~'~ AND SUBMARINE GEOLOGY ~-~,~,'~nn ~ ,_,y ,_,~uu~) 318 17.6 Carboniferous-Permian record 324 11.1 Early work 210 17.7 Carboniferous-Permian tectonic control of 11.2 Geologic frame of Bjernoya 212 sedimentation (with I. Geddes) 328 11.3 Triassic strata of Bjornoya 212 17.8 Carboniferous and Permian palaeogeology 335 11.4 Late Paleozoic strata of Bjornoya (with I. Geddes) 213 11.5 Pre-Devonian strata of Bjornoya 218 11.6 Structural sequence of Bj~rnoya 219 CHAPTER 18 TRIASSIC HISTORY 340 11.7 Submarine outcrops 222 11.8 Submarine structure (with P. A. Doubleday) 222 18.1 Early work 340 18.2 Structural frame 343 18.3 Triassic rock units 344 18.4 Triassic time scale and international correlation (with I. Geddes) 350 PART 3 Historical Synthesis 18.5 Triassic biotas 353 18.6 Sequence of Triassic environments (with I. Geddes) 356 CHAPTER 12 PRE-VENDIAN HISTORY 227 18.7 Triassic regional palaeogeology 36l 12.1 Precambrian time scales 229 12.2 Pre-Vendian rock successions 229 12.3 Pre-Vendian biotas (by N. J. Butterfield) 231 CHAPTER 19 JURASSIC-CRETACEOUS HISTORY 363 12.4 Precambrian isotopic ages 235 19.1 Early work 363 12.5 Tectonostratigraphic evidence for proto-basement 236 19.2 Jurassic-Cretaceous structural frame 365 12.6 Pre-Vendian correlation 239 19.3 stratigraphic scheme 366 12.7 Palinspastic considerations 240 19.4 Jurassic-Cretaceous time scale and correlation (with S. R. A. Kelly) 368 19.5 Jurassic-Cretaceous formations 372 CHAPTER 13 VENDIAN HISTORY 244 19.6 Jurassic-Cretaceous biotas 378 13.1 Vendian time scale and correlation 244 19.7 Jurassic-Cretaceous events in Svalbard events 13.2 Vendian successions and correlation in Svalbard 246 (with S. R. A. Kelly) 381 13.3 Vendian biotas 248 19.8 Svalbard in a Jurassic-Cretaceous regional context 383 13.4 Vendian environments 249 13.5 Vendian international correlation 252 13.6 Vendian palinspastic discussion 254 CHAPTER 20 PALEOGENE HISTORY 388 20.1 Early work 388 20.2 Structural and stratigraphic frame 390 CHAPTER 14 - HISTORY 257 20.3 Paleogene time scale and correlation 391 14.1 Cambrian-Ordovician time scale 260 20.4 Paleogene biotas of Svalbard 393 14.2 Cambrian-Ordovician biotas and correlation 260 20.5 Paleogene sedimentation and tectonics 394 14.3 Cambrian-Ordovician sedimentary environments 264 20.6 Paleogene structures (with A. Challinor & 14.4 Cambrian-Ordovician tectonic environments 266 P. A. Doubleday) 399 14.5 Cambrian-Ordovician and palinspastics 268 20.7 Structural sequence 410 20.8 Regional tectonic sequence 413 20.9 Paleogene tectonosedimentary history 413 CHAPTER 15 SILURIAN HISTORY 272 15.1 Silurian time 272 CHAPTER 21 NEOGENE-QUATERNARY HISTORY 418 15.2 Silurian supracrustal events: sedimentation and tectonics 275 21.1 Neogene--Quaternary time scale 418 15.3 Silurian tectogenesis 275 21.2 Plate motions (by C. F. Stephens) 418 15.4 Silurian petrogenesis of crystalline rocks 280 21.3 Deep structure of Svalbard 421 15.5 Silurian terranes, provinces and palinspastics 284 21.4 Neogene-Holocene and thermal springs 15.6 Sequence of Silurian (main Caledonian) events 288 (by C.F. Stephens) 423 CONTENTS vii

21.5 Neogene and Pleistocene sedimentation PART 4 (with C.F. Stephens) 426 21.6 Neogene-Holocene uplift and erosion 427 23 APPENDIX: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 449 21.7 Glacial : Neogene-Holocene (with C.F. Stephens) 429 23.1 Coal 449 21.8 Pleistocene and Holocene surficial geology and 23.2 Petroleum (with A. M. Spencer) 251 geomorphic features 431 23.3 Metalliferous minerals 253 21.9 Post-glacial -level and climatic changes 434 23.4 Non-metalliferous minerals 254

INDEX OF PLACE NAMES CHAPTER 22 MODERN GLACIERS AND CLIMATE (by L. M. Anderson) 455 CHANGE (by E. K. Dowdeswell and J. A. Dowdeswell) 436 GLOSSARY OF STRATIGRAPHIC NAMES 463 22.1 Introduction 436 REFERENCES 477 22,2 Modern ice cover 436 22,3 Geophysical characteristics and ice dynamics 438 GENERAL INDEX 515 22.4 Ice-ocean interaction 442 22,5 Late Holocene glacial events and chronology 443 22,6 Glaciers and climatic change 444 22.7 Summary and conclusions 445 Figures

CHAPTER 1 Fig. 4.10 Geological map of Btinsow Land showing the distribution of Permo-Carboniferous formations (Btinsow Fig. 1.1 Regional geographical setting of Svalbard Land Supergroup) 64 Fig. 1.2 Principal islands and fjords of Svalbard Fig. 4.11 Summary of the stratigraphic schemes for Central Fig. 1.3 The 'lands' of Svalbard Spitsbergen since 1950 65 Fig. 1.4 Map showing the principal topographic features Fig. 4.12 Schematic west-east stratigraphic profile showing of Svalbard lateral variations and structural controls on Fig. 1.5 Bathymetry of the western Barents Shelf Carboniferous 66 Fig. 1.6 Prevailing surface currents of the and Fig. 4.13 Stratigraphic schemes for the Billefjorden Group 72 North Atlantic areas Fig. 4.14 Simplified structural cross-sections of the Central Fig. 1.7 Principal ice cover and valleys of Svalbard Basin 73 Fig. 1.8 Diagrammatic map to show boundaries of possible political interest 12 Fig. 1.9 Map showing environmentally protected areas CHAPTER 5 of Svalbard 12 Fig. 5.1 Map of the eastern platform area of Svalbard Fig. 1.10 Marine chart sheet coverage of Svalbard 14 showing the main place names and principal bathymetric Fig. 1.11 Topographic and geological map coverage features 76 of Svalbard 14 Fig. 5.2 Geological map of eastern Ny Friesland 78 Fig. 5.3 Geological map of southwestern Nordaustlandet CHAPTER 2 showing the known extent of Phanerozoic outcrops 80 Fig. 5.4 Stratigraphical schemes for Permian and Triassic Fig. 2.1 Geological sketch map of Spitsbergen by units of Nordaustlandet 81 A. G. Nathorst 17 Fig. 5.5 Sketch map of Svenskoya, Kongsoya and Abeloya 82 Fig. 2.2 Geological map of Spitsbergen by Hans Frebold 19 Fig. 5.6 Sketch map of Svenskoya showing principal topographic features and geology 82 CHAPTER 3 Fig. 5.7 Sketch map of Kongsoya showing principal Fig. 3.1 Svalbard in the (Polar projection) 23 topographic features and geology 83 Fig. 3.2 Generalized geological map of Svalbard 24-5 Fig. 5.8 Summary of schemes of rock units, and their ages, Fig. 3.3 Regions of Svalbard as used in this book for of Kong Karls Land 84 Chapters 4 to 11 25 Fig. 5.9 Correlation of the principal stratigraphic sections Fig. 3.4 Principal discontinuities in Svalbard 26 on Svenskoya 84 Fig. 3.5 Major structural features of the western Barents Fig. 5.10 Correlation of the principal stratigraphic sections Shelf 26 on Kongsoya 85 Fig. 3.6 Russian structural map of Svalbard 27 Fig. 5.11 Proposed nomenclature for local rock units on Fig. 3.7 Provisional time scale used in this book 28 Barentsoya and Edgeoya 87 Fig. 3.8 Svalbard chronometric record 30 Fig. 5.12 Geological map of Barentsoya and Edgeoya 88 Fig. 3.9 Tectonostratigraphic terranes of Svalbard 32 Fig. 5.13 Interpretation of Raddedalen- 1 well (Edgeoya) 90 Fig. 3.10 (a) Simplified stratigraphy and geological Fig. 5.14 Interpretation of Plurdalen-1 well (Edgeoya) 91 evolution of Svalbard 39 Fig. 5.15 Edgeoya and Barentsoya Triassic biostratigraphy 91 (b) Schematic map of rock units and terranes 40 Fig. 5.16 Generalized structural map of Barentsoya and Fig. 3.11 Sequence of palinspastic reconstructions for the Edgeoya, with structure contours for the top of the North Atlantic and Arctic from Cambrian to the Barentsoya Formation 92 present-day 41-2 Fig. 5.17 Geological map of Hopen and a longitudinal Fig. 3.12 Summary of successive palaeolatitudes for section along the island 92 Europe and North America for Silurian to Neogene time 43 Fig. 5.18 Interpretation of Hopen-1 and Hopen-2 wells 94 Fig. 3.13 Plot of subsidence against time for western, Fig. 5.19 Correlation of the Raddedalen-1, Plurdalen- 1, central and eastern areas 44 Hopen-1 and Hopen-2 wells 95

CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 6 Fig. 4.1 Reproduction of the Festningen profile as by Fig. 6.1 Map of northern Nordaustlandet showing Hoel & Orvin (1937) 49 principal topographic features, ice-rock boundaries and Fig. 4.2 Map of the Paleogene outcrops in the Central major place names 97 Basin 50 Fig. 6.2 Preferred names for rock units in Nordaustlandet Fig. 4.3 Stratigraphy of the Van Mijenfjorden Group 51 and their approximate equivalents in Ny Friesland, with Fig. 4.4 Geological map and cross-section of eastern estimated thicknesses 98 Nordenski61d Land and 54 Fig. 6.3 Geological map of northwestern Nordaustlandet 101 Fig. 4.5 Geological map of the east coast of Spitsbergen Fig. 6.4 Summary of isotopic ages from Nordaustlandet 107 from Agardhbukta to Hamburgfjellet 55 Fig. 6.5 Outline geological map of Nordaustlandet and Fig. 4.6 Geological map and cross sections of the adjacent areas of Ny Friesland 108 Adventdalen Group in Wedel Jarlsberg Land and western Torell Lands 56 CHAPTER 7 Fig. 4.7 Geological map and cross sections of the Adventdalen Group in Sorkapp Land 56 Fig. 7.1 Topographic and place name map of Ny Friesland 111 Fig. 4.8 Geological map and cross sections of the Fig. 7.2 Summary of the Hecla Hoek succession of Adventdalen Group in Oscar II Land, Nordenski61d Land Ny Friesland. 114 and Nathorst Land 58 Fig. 7.3 Generalized geological map of Ny Friesland Fig. 4.9 Fence diagram showing the distribution and thickness outlining the distribution and subdivision of the variation of the Sassendalen and Kapp Toscana groups 60 Hecla Hoek Complex 115 x FIGURES

Fig. 7.4 Distribution of the Stubendorffbreen Supergroup Fig. 10.6 Comparison of stratigraphic schemes for in Ny Friesland 121 southwest Spitsbergen 196 Fig. 7.5 (a) Metamorphic rocks of the southern part of Fig. 10.7 Correlation of Pre-Devonian units in Ny Friesland (Lower Hecla Hoek) (b) M.B. Bayly's southwest Spitsbergen 197 metamorphic zones as defined in Ny Friesland 126 Fig. 10.8 Structural map and representative cross-sections Fig. 7.6 Structural map of Ny Friesland 128 of Nordenski61d Land, illustrating the structure of Fig. 7.7 Diagrammatic cross-sections across Ny Friesland 129 Carboniferous to Cretaceous units 202 Fig. 7.8 Alternative structural interpretations across Fig. 10.9 Simplified structural profile across the Ny Friesland 130 Midterhuken Peninsula 203 Fig. 10.10 Schematic structural profile of northern CHAPTER 8 Sorkapp Land 203 Fig. 8.1 Geological map of NW Spitsbergen 133 Fig. 8.2 Liefde Bay Supergroup units 136 CHAPTER 11 Fig. 8.3 Faunal divisions and lithological members of the Fig. 11.1 Bathymetric map of the western Barents Sea Wood Bay Formation 137 around southern Svalbard, with principal bathymetric Fig. 8.4 Geological map of the Raudfjorden/Liefdefjorden features named 209 area, Northwestern Spitsbergen, showing the distribution Fig. 11.2 Summary of stratigraphic schemes for Bjornoya 210 of the Siktefjellet and Red Bay groups 139 Fig. 11.3 Geological map of Bj~rnoya 211-2 Fig. 8.5 Schematic section showing the relationships Fig. 11.4 Summary plot of seismic velocity, porosity and between the units of the Siktefjellet and Red Bay groups 141 estimated minimal subsidence rate 212 Fig. 8.6 Caledonian basement rocks in northwest Fig. 11.5 Structure contour map of the base of the Spitsbergen 143 Roedvika Formation, with diagrammatic profile 213 Fig. 8.7 Generalized geological map of Biskayerhalvoya, Fig. 11.6 Schematic structural map of Bjornoya 220 northwest Spitsbergen 145 Fig. 11.7 Geological map and sketch cross-section through Fig. 8.8 Principal structural elements (mainly Devonian) basement rocks of southern Bjornoya 221 of northwest Spitsbergen 146 Fig. 11.8 Structure of the western Barents Sea showing the Fig. 8.9 Map of central west 146 possible location of the Iapetus suture 223 Fig. 8.10 Generalized cross-section across northwest Spitsbergen, from the High to the Andr6e Land Basin 147 CHAPTER 12 Fig. 8.11 Structural profile across the Andr~e Land Fig. 12.1 Outcrops of pre-Vendian rocks (mainly anticline between Gr~huken and Mushamna 148 Proterozoic) 228 Fig. 8.12 Principal bathymetric features off northwest Fig. 12.2 Precambrian timescale comparing Spitsbergen 152 chronostratigraphic and chronometric scales 229 Fig. 12.3 Correlation of pre-Vendian sequences of CHAPTER 9 Ny Friesland and Nordaustlandet 230 Fig. 9.1 Topographic and place name map of Oscar II Land Fig. 12.4 Correlation of pre-Vendian sequences of the and Prins Karls Forland 155 western terranes 231 Fig. 9.2 Diagrammatic outcrop map of central west Fig. 12.5 Correlation of Precambrian sequences in the Spitsbergen 156 western, central and eastern terranes, with some age Fig. 9.3 Geological map and stratigraphic section of the constraints 236 Ny-.~lesund coalfields 157 Fig. 12.6 Map showing the distribution of proto-basement Fig. 9.4 Summary of the Paleogene stratigraphic units in in Svalbard 237 Forlandsundet 157 Fig. 12.7 Pressure-temperature plot for the metamorphic Fig. 9.5 Fence diagram showing the stratigraphic complex of Biskayer Peninsula 238 relationships within the St Jonsfjorden Trough 160 Fig. 12.8 Correlation of East Greenland and Fig. 9.6 Structural cross-section showing the major folds Ny Friesland Proterozoic sequences 240 and thrusts in the Mediumfjellet-Lappdalen area 171 Fig. 12.9 Schematic reconstruction of eastern Laurentia Fig. 9.7 Alternative structural profiles across northern Prins and for the period 1900-1600 Ma 240 Karls Forland to illustrate the different interpretations of Fig. 12.10 Pre-Vendian aulacogen model showing the the structure 173 distribution of the Greenland, Barents and Baltica cratons 241 Fig. 9.8 Lithostratigraphic formations and geological map Fig. 12.11 Global palinspastic reconstruction for Kanatia of south-central Prins Karls Forland 174 timeshowing the locations of rift margins and Fig. 9.9 Simplified structural map and cross-sections of glacigenic deposits 242 the Forlandsundet Graben 176 Fig. 9.10 Schematic diagram of 'flower structure' within CHAPTER 13 a convergent strike-slip fault zone 177 Fig. 13.1 Outcrop map showing the distribution of Vendian outcrops in Svalbard 245 CHAPTER 10 Fig. 13.2 Vendian biostratigraphy and isotopic variations Fig. 10.1 Topographic and place name map from of carbonate rocks 246 to Sorkapp 180 Fig. 13.3 Correlation of Vendian successions in Svalbard 247 Fig. 10.2 Generalized outcrop map of central and Fig. 13.4 Secular variation in ~513C plotted against southwestern Spitsbergen 181 stratigraphic depth (m) for the Varanger and Sturtian Fig. 10.3 Simplified tectonic map of central and succession of Spitsbergen 249 southwestern Spitsbergen 182 Fig. 13.5 Interpretation of Vendian environments from Fig. 10.4 Vendian geology of northwest Wedel Jarlsberg the successions of northeastern Spitsbergen 250 Land 190 Fig. 13.6 Vendian correlation chart for representative Fig. 10.5 Stratigraphic schemes for the Precambrian successions of Svalbard and adjacent areas of the succession of southern Wedel Jarlsberg Land 193 North Atlantic-Arctic region 252 FIGURES xi

Fig. 13.7 Correlation of the Vendian successions of East Fig. 16.9 Tectonic evolution and stratigraphic sequences Greenland and northeast Svalbard 253 in the Western, Central and Eastern Svalbard Fig. 13.8 Schematic palinspastic model for Vendian time Precambrian to Devonian terranes 303 showing the inferred positions of the Svalbard terranes Fig. 16.10 Geological provinces of the eastern part of the and the postulated Iapetus Ocean 253 Canadian Arctic Archipelago and northern Greenland 306 Fig. 13.9 Global palinspastic reconstruction for Rodinia time Fig. 16.11 Summary of strike-slip displacement along the showing the distribution of Varanger glacigenic deposits 256 major fault and shear zones of Svalbard to illustrate the possible amounts of sinistral displacement 307 CHAPTER 14 CHAPTER 17 Fig. 14.1 Cambrian and Ordovician rock units in contemporary nomenclature and classification 257 Fig. 17.1 Map of Svalbard showing the distribution of Fig. 14.2 Map of Svalbard showing the distribution of Carboniferous and Permian rocks 311 Cambrian and Ordovician outcrops 258 Fig. 17.2 Chart illustrating successive classifications of Fig. 14.3 Cambrian-Ordovician chronostratic time scale rocks units 312 divisions with biostratigraphic correlations and Fig. 17.3 Lithostratigraphic scheme for Carboniferous and estimated chronometric ages 259 Permian formations of the Bfinsow Land Supergroup 313 Fig. 14.4 Cambrian-Ordovician correlation chart Fig. 17.4 Schematic map of Carboniferous and Permian for Svalbard 261 structures 315 Fig. 14.5 Approximate subsidence rates for the Fig. 17.5 Carboniferous and Permian time scale and Cambrian-Ordovican sequence in Ny Friesland 265 biostratigraphy 317 Fig. 14.6 Simplified geological map and representative Fig. 17.6 Some recorded from Carboniferous and profiles of the Motalafjella area (Oscar II Land) 267 Permian formations of Svalbard 325 Fig. 14.7 Pressure-temperaturetime trajectory for the Fig. 17.7 Fence diagram illustrating lateral variations and Motalafjella blueschist-eclogite complex 268 tectonic controls on the Carboniferous stratigraphy 328 Fig. 14.8 Cambrian-Ordovician tectonic events in Svalbard 269 Fig. 17.8 Early Carboniferous lithofacies maps 329 Fig. 14.9 Schematic correlation of North AtlanticArctic Fig. 17.9 (a) Early Bashkirian lithofacies. (b) Moscovian Early Paleozoic sequences 269 lithofacies maps 331 Fig. 14.10 Schematic illustration of the Cambrian- Fig. 17.10 Gzelian lithofacies map 332 Ordovician palinspastic configuration of Greenland and Fig. 17.11 (a) Asselian lithofacies. (b) Early Artinskian adjacent terranes according to the strike-slip hypothesis lithofacies maps 332 conjectured in this work 270 Fig. 17.12 Ufimian lithofacies 333 Fig. 14.11 Ordovician palinspastic map 270 Fig. 17.13 Principal Carboniferous and Permian tectonic events 335 CHAPTER 15 Fig. 17.14 International correlation of Carboniferous Fig. 15.1 Map of Svalbard showing the distribution of and Permian formations in the Arctic 336 Silurian outcrops and areas of tectonism and Fig. 17.15 Carboniferous to Permian paleogeologic metamorphism 273 maps of the Barents Sea region 337-8 Fig. 15.2 Summary of Silurian time scales 274 CHAPTER 18 Fig. 15.3 Field sketch of the Stubendorff Mountains 277 Fig. 15.4 Cartoon illustrating the elements in tectonic Fig. 18.1 Outcrop map showing the distribution of transitions in the Ny Friesland Orogen 277 Triassic deposits in Svalbard 341 Fig. 15.5 Schematic profile of the pre-Red Bay Group Fig. 18.2 Correlation chart to show the relationship of structure as observed in Biskayerfonna-Holtedahlfonna published Triassic stratigraphic names in Svalbard 342 just south of Liefdefjorden 279 Fig. 18.3 Triassic structural framework 344 Fig. 15.6 Quantitative petrographical classification of Fig. 18.4 Triassic lithostratigraphic schemes for Svalbard 346 granitic rocks in Svalbard 281 Fig. 18.5 isopach map 347 Fig. 15.7 Schematic illustration of terranes surrounding Fig. 18.6 isopach map 348 Greenland at approximately the beginning of Silurian time, Fig. 18.7 Localities and thickness of the Wilhelmoya with the closure of the Iapetus Ocean 287 Formation 349 Fig. 15.8 (a) Late Ordovician to Early Silurian global Fig. 18.8 Triassic time scales 351 palinspastic reconstruction, with glacigenic deposits; Fig. 18.9 Comparative zonation of Triassic Svalbard (b) Mid-Silurian palinspastic reconstruction 287 successions 352 Fig. 18.10 Stratigraphic correlation chart 353 CHAPTER 16 Fig. 18.11 (a) Early, (b) Mid-(early Ladinian) and Fig. 16.1 Outcrop map showing the distribution of (c) Late Triassic sedimentary facies of Spitsbergen, Devonian deposits in Svalbard and locations of identified Barentsoya and Edgeoya 357 thermal events 290 Fig. 18.12 Triassic sedimentation sequences on Barentsoya Fig. 16.2 Stratigraphic correlation chart for the (Devonian) and Edgeoya 359 Liefde Bay Supergroup of Svalbard 292 Fig. 18.13 Regional Triassic tectonics 359 Fig. 16.3 Devonian fossil fish reconstructions 293 Fig. 18.14 Comparison of Arctic shelf sequences in Svalbard Fig. 16.4 Devonian fossil fish ranges 294 and the Queen Elizabeth Islands plotted for the Fig. 16.5 Distribution of Svalbard Devonian fish genera Tournaisian to Maastrichtian interval 360 with time 295 Fig. 18.15 Triassic palaeogeology of the Barents Sea. Fig. 16.6 Illustration of a Devonian 296 (a) Early to Mid-Triassic; (b) Late Triassic 361 Fig. 16.7 Schematic diagrams to illustrate successive CHAPTER 19 sedimentation patterns through Devonian time 297 Fig. 16.8 True-scale cross-sections of fold and fault zones Fig. 19.1 Map of Svalbard showing the distribution of in the Devonian rocks of the Gronhorgdalen Belt, Jurassic and Cretaceous outcrops 364 Eastern Boundary Belt and an EW cross-section from Fig. 19.2 Hydrocarbon potential and depositional to the Balliolbreen Fault 302 environment of Triassic to Cretaceous rocks of Svalbard 365 xii FIGURES

Fig. 19.3 Historical review of the principal stratigraphic Fig. 20.15 Palaeogeologic map of Spitsbergen in schemes for the Jurassic and Cretaceous of Spitsbergen 366 Mid-Paleocene time 415 Fig. 19.4 Jurassic and Cretaceous structural framework Fig. 20.16 Paleogene palaeogeologic maps of Fig. 19.5 Summary of the principal lithostratigraphic units Spitsbergen latest Paleocene to early Mid-Eocene 415-6 of the Adventdalen and Kapp Toscana groups in Svalbard 367 CHAPTER 21 Fig. 19.6 Jurassic-Cretaceous international time scale 369 Fig. 21.1 Neogene and Quaternary volcanics; Quaternary Fig. 19.7 Summary of the biozonal schemes for Svalbard hydrothermal springs, seeps and microseismic zones 419 and the adjacent Barents Sea 370 Fig. 21.2 Neogene and Quaternary time scale 420 Fig. 19.8 Biostratigraphic distribution of belemnite genera Fig. 21.3 Bathymetric features and structures of the in Svalbard 372 Norwegian-Greenland Sea and eastern 420 Fig. 19.9 Summary of the Jurassic and Cretaceous Fig. 21.4 Present-day bathymetric structures in the stratigraphy of Svalbard and the adjacent Barents Sea 373 North Atlantic 422 Fig. 19.10 Summary of the lateral development of the Helvetiafjellet Formation 375 Fig. 21.5 Map showing depth to basement in Spitsbergen as defined from aeromagnetic data 423 Fig. 19.11 Fence diagram showing lateral variations in Fig. 21.6 Map of the Bockfjorden area indicating the the Carolinefjellet Formation 376 locations of hydrothermal springs 424 Fig. 19.12 Map showing the distribution of Jurassic- Fig. 21.7 Compositions of Neogene plateau lavas 424 Cretaceous igneous rocks 377 Fig. 19.13 Summary of events in the Jurassic and Fig. 21.8 Simplified profiles and Tertiary stratigraphy of the Western Barents Shelf 426 Cretaceous history of Svalbard 381 Fig. 19.14 Lateral variation of the Agardhfjellet and Fig. 21.9 Summary of the Neogene units of the western Barents Shelf margin 427 Rurikfjellet formations across Spitsbergen 382 Fig. 21.10 Interpretation of the Neogene fluvial drainage Fig. 19.15 Summary of structural and tectonic events in the pattern in the Barents Sea 427 Arctic in mid-Jurassic and mid-Cretaceous time 383 Fig. 21.11 Map of the Barents Sea delineating the main Fig. 19.16 Jurassic to Cretaceous palaeogeologic maps erosion areas from mid- to Recent 428 of the Barents Sea 384-5 Fig. 21.12 Summit-height map of Svalbard 429 Fig. 21.13 Diagrammatic model of the chronology CHAPTER 20 of the deglaciation pattern of the Western Barents Sea 430 Fig. 21.14 Diagrammatic illustrations of patterned ground 433 Fig. 20.1 Map of Svalbard showing the distribution of Fig. 21.15 Late Pleistocene stratigraphy of inner Isfjorden 434 Paleogene deposits and deformation 389 Fig. 20.2 Sequence of classification of Paleogene deposits CHAPTER 22 in the Central Basin 390 Fig. 22.1 Map of Svalbard with the distribution of the Fig. 20.3 Generalized Paleogene structural framework of modern glaciers and ice caps 437 Spitsbergen 391 Fig. 20.4 Paleogene time scale 392 Fig. 22.2 (a) Map of estimated precipitation over Svalbard; (b) Map of estimated equilibrium line altitude over Fig. 20.5 Successive interpretations of the age of Paleogene Svalbard 438 strata and events in Svalbard 393 Fig. 22.3 Landsat satellite image of Nordaustlandet with Fig. 20.6 Map showing the geographic-stratigraphic distribution, preservation state and sedimentary facies the interpretation of ice-cap drainage basins inset 439 Fig. 22.4 Airborne radio-echo sounding data from of palynomorph assemblages 398 , Nordaustlandet 440 Fig. 20.7 Schematic cross-section of the northern part of Fig. 22.5 Ice surface and bedrock profiles from radio-echo the West Spitsbergen Orogen 399 sounding of Nordaustlandet 441 Fig. 20.8 (a) Map showing the location of unpublished Fig. 22.6 Fast-flowing glaciers on Vestfonna 441 structural profiles of the West Spitsbergen Orogen 402 Fig. 22.7 Photographs of a surge of Bakaninbreen, (b) Selection of unpublished cross-sections of the West Spitsbergen 442 Spitsbergen Orogen by A. Challinor 403-8 Fig. 22.8 The terminus of a tidewater glacier 443 Fig. 20.9 Schematic model illustrating the various Fig. 22.9 Photographs of constrasting iceberg morphology: structural configurations within an area of strike-slip (a) tabular, (b) irregular 444 deformation 409 Fig. 22.10 Temperature records from 1912 444 Fig. 20.10 Interpretation of the structural development of Fig. 22.11 Mass balance records for three Spitsbergen Paleogene structures in Nordenski61d Land 411 glaciers 445 Fig. 20.11 Historical review of Paleogene tectonic models for Svalbard 411 Fig. 22.12 balance model predictions of glacier response to future global warming 445 Fig. 20.12 Paleogene time-scale 412 Fig. 20.13 Sequence of maps showing the motion of Fig. 22.13 Oxygen isotope ratios from Lomonosovfonna since about AD 1200 445 Svalbard relative to Greenland (fixed) for latest Cretaceous to time 413 APPENDIX Fig. 20.14 Diagrammatic model for the Cenozoic sea-floor spreading, dextral strike-slip and transpression between Fig. 23.1 Plot of major wells in Svalbard 451 Svalbard and Greenland 414 Fig. 23.2 Mesozoic petroleum source-rocks of the Arctic 453 Tables

Table 1.1 Geographical nomenclature for Svalbard archipelago 5 Table 17.1 Divisions of the Kapp Starostin Formation 327 Table 1.2 Arctic summers and winters in Svalbard 8 Table 17.2 Carboniferous and Permian sedimentation rates 334 Table 3.1 Precambrian chronometric scale 28 Table 19.1 Average of chemical analysis made by Table 15.1 Eastern and western outcrops of Ny Friesland 276 Tyrrell & Sandford (1933) 378 Table 16.1 Divisions of the Devonian 289 Table 23.1 Deep well data for Svalbard 452

Photographs

Interior of south central Spitsbergen from the air Cover Tracked amphibious vehicle hauling sledges at Draken, Ny-Alesund and Tre Kroner ii Ny Friesland 46 Bay ice in Thiisbukta and Scheteligfjellet seen from Camp on Nordenski61dkysten, a strandflat on the west Ny-A.lesund ii coast of Spitsbergen 225 Comfortlessbreen and Aavartsmarkbreen from near the shore 1 Camp by Siktefjellet on raised beach north of Liefderfjorden 225 Crevassed Monacobreen snout seen from the east 1 The motor boat Arctoceras equipped for living aboard and Small bergs in inner Kongsfjorden with Broggerhalvoya working ashore 226 beyond 2 The motor boat Salterella helped on her way through Late summer in mid Kongsfjorden with Kapp Mitra and pack ice 226 the motor boat Salterella 2 A safe anchorage for easy access ashore below Alkhornet 447 Snow camp in southwest Lomonosovfonna looking down Routine boat passage through en route Wilsonbreen 45 to the north 447 Snow-capped mountains of Ny Friesland from northern The motor boat Salterella in north Liefdefjorden anchored Lomonosovfonna 45 off Erikbeen 448 Snow scooter in the middle reaches of Tryggvebreen, Access up Hannabreen from Liefdefjorden with signs of the Ny Friesland 46 end of summer 448 Preface

'I think that we shall have to get accustomed to the idea that we must not look upon science as a "body of knowledge", but rather as a system of hypotheses; that is to say, as a system of guesses or anticipations which in principle cannot be justified, but with which we work as long as they stand up to tests, and of which we are never justified in saying that we know they are "true" or "more or less certain" or even "probable".' Karl A. Popper (From a paper that Popper read in 1934 when his Logik den Forschung was in proof. It was published in English in the new appendices of his Logic of Scientific Discovery 1959, p. 317).

This work attempts to present the geology of Svalbard in some This is a personal synthesis at the conclusion of work epitomizing detail, arranged systematically as a definitive study and so reflecting a journey that began for me in Spitsbergen on graduation in 1938. the present conjuncture of research. It may thus meet the needs of I have been privileged as a student and teaching officer in a great specialists with information on related fields or of any geoscientist University and as a member and Fellow of an ancient Cambridge wanting an indication of what is known about this key region. College. These positions require specified duties in teaching and Spitsbergen (peaked mountains), the name earlier referred to the administration, but with freedom to pursue investigations whenever whole archipelago. It is now replaced by the name Svalbard (cold and wherever they may lead, provided the necessary resources can coasts), within which Spitsbergen is the principal landmass. Spits- be found. bergen alone is about the size of Switzerland and the whole I came into a culture where the older generation worked out their archipelago a little less than the area of Scotland. Geologically it has own research as individuals with little or no organized cooperation. the wealth in variety and complexity in stratigraphy and structure After two abortive research lines I decided in 1948 both to attempt no less than these classic areas. Moreover with an international to tie up some unfinished work in Spitsbergen and at the same time history and present treaty status many nations have participated in to try out a pattern of cooperative research with our students. All I research so the geological literature currently comprising far more have learned about research was gained through such interaction than 3000 publications is widely scattered and rapidly increasing. and that is why I dedicate this work to those colleagues. Some, There are indeed excellent published geological outlines, but no hardly junior, have long achieved distinction. About 400 persons comprehensive work. have in diverse ways contributed to our joint enterprises. I draw Part 1 of this work is introductory, setting the stage. Chapter 3 in attention to the early decades when fieldwork involved long boat particular presents the principal geological conventions used journeys to Spitsbergen and then transport by small open boats, throughout and outlines the main geological features and tectonic manhauled sledges and always much pack-carrying to the study hypotheses. Part 2 divides Svalbard into eight somewhat arbitrary area. Equipment was primitive and conditions often harsh. We regions/sectors which are described with minimal interpretation. thought ourselves fortunate indeed to share the experience of our The rock successions are described briefly from the top down as predecessors in Svalbard exploration. I mention only two collea- observed, and the structures are outlined and to some extent gues. Colin B. Wilson worked with me in Ny Friesland contributing illustrated. Part 3 interprets historical events and environments greatly to the work in Chapter 7. His contribution, first in our from oldest to youngest in successive time-slices. Part 4 comprises systematic survey of Ny Friesland and later on his private solo an appendix on economic geology and four alphabetical lists (place excursions by small boat with outboard, carrying sledges and names, stratigraphic names, references and general index). Small supplies from round the northwest to Ny Friesland type has been used throughout the text for detail that may be where he recorded exemplary observations across enormous dis- skipped when only the main argument is of interest. tances. His motivation was the shear joy of discovery and only with My interest in the project stems from about 50 years of research difficulty was he persuaded to prepare work for publication. His in many aspects of Svalbard geology with some 50 colleagues and death in 1959, not in Spitsbergen, but by an accident in Cambridge, collaborators listed below. However this book purports to be an deprived us of a remarkable investigator. C. John B. Kirton a objective study of contributions from international sources. Where brilliant first year student was killed in 1958 by a flying stone while there are differences of opinion alternative views are presented. holding a fossil at a new locality on a mountain later named after Obviously, however, no single person could comprehend the whole him. A service was held in 1959 at his remote grave and memorial literature nor avoid some personal bias when making a coherent cairns were built nearby and by the shoreside base. He represents synthesis that has been thought through. These objectives would the best in our university tradition. take more than a life-time to fulfil. This work is presented as a Our research group was never an official university project and contemporary statement in the spirit of the quotation at the head of we paid our way as best we could in the early days, contributing this preface. By venturing conjectures and exposing them freely in personally. The need for independence led to the formation of graphic form as well as in the text it is intended that they shall be Cambridge Spitsbergen Expeditions, (later Cambridge Svalbard subject to critical assessment. Lack of appropriate evidence does Exploration). This then led to the formation of the Cambridge not vitiate an hypothesis nor can abundant supporting evidence Arctic Shelf Programme to give more security of employment and establish it. Only contradictory evidence provides effective criti- to spread our interests so as not to compete for limited funds in cism. This work presents a challenge and a platform for further Britain or Norway. research and will be superseded in the normal course of science. Finally I acknowledge one colleague, my wife Elisabeth, who in The philosophy behind this study is that all geological data may the early years looked after our family taking domestic responsi- be integrated in space and time, that is stratigraphy in the broad bility single handed. In the middle years she assisted in Svalbard on sense. This regional synthesis is offered as a contribution to Earth 13 field seasons and has latterly given invaluable support to my history. It is a two way interaction. Understanding of process writing of this work for which I alone must bear full responsibility. enables and demands the interpretation of historical data and the attempt to understand history leads to further modifications in W. B. Harland the theory of the Earth. For example: the attempt to make sense July 1997 of the field data led to early hypotheses of continental drift; of cooling and heating of the with regional subsidence and Department of Earth Sciences uplift; of compression leading to lateral escape, transpression and University of Cambridge transtension; of large scale paleo-strike-slip of former provinces Downing Street and allochthonous terranes; and of global Vendian glaciation. Cambridge CB2 3EQ Acknowledgements

Two kinds of acknowledgement relate to the research and to this the chapter headings. The late Dr A. Challinor gave permission to publication. include the serial cross sections of the West Spitsbergen Orogen First paying tribute to those to whom the book is dedicated the from his dissertation and later CSE reports (Section 20.6); research has benefited from the participation of many colleagues D. I. M. Macdonald, Chief Geologist of CASP, supported this during 45 field seasons as well as in Cambridge. They contributed work throughout and seconded CASP staff at different times to this greatly to my education and determination to write this book. project. I. Geddes helped with the proofs. The place name list was It may be of interest to other Svalbard geologists to note who have compiled by Mr L.M. Anderson published from this experience. In list A those names with asterisks The lexicon of stratigraphic names begun in the fifties was worked on Svalbard material for their research degrees, others abbreviated and checked recently in co-operation with W. K. Dall- participated, some over long periods. mann (Norsk Polarinstitutt Geologist and Chairman of the SKS) It would, however, be wrong to think only of the geologists The more comprehensive bibliography (the basis of the reference whose reward was in their work. We depended throughout on list here) has a long history beginning with the earliest research. logistic support. Of the hundred or more who supported the work Managed for many years as a card index by K.N. Herod it was in in this way list C names those who took responsibility for more due course computerised initially by R. A. Scott (CASP) and than one season, for example captaining boats. subsequently updated at regular intervals with the continuing help More than a hundred geology undergraduates joined as assistants of D. Manasrah (CASP), and E. L. Lesk, Information Officer in and many have gone on to distinguish themselves. They often asked CASP, who scanned new literature for me through this work. the most penetrating questions, made unlikely observations and Publications were listed as met in the work and not sought out for a were rewarding companions. comprehensive bibliography. Whereas the above thanks are for my own personal indebtedness Unless otherwise stated in the captions, the figures were devised to those who have shared in the work I gladly acknowledge the and sketched by me and then executed on disc by those who have immense debt due to the larger scientific community whose initialled the diagrams, mainly L. M. Anderson, C. F. Stephens, published work is the basis of this book as may be noted from the S. R. A. Kelly, D. Manasrah and P. A. Doubleday. list of publications cited. At the same time I should declare that by M. J. Hambrey, P. W. Webb and N. I. Cox provided most of the no means have the extensive files of CSE and CASP unpublished supplementary photographs that appear as the frontispiece and on work been abstracted here. I remembered only what seemed relevant the cover page for each of the four parts of the book. to the arguments. Nevertheless to have traversed the ground myself At a late stage in preparation of the manuscript I owe much to enabled the literature to be better appreciated. help from those who made useful improvements, especially to For help with the many aspects of the book it is both a pleasure M. J. Wells (University College London) for correcting my and a duty to acknowledge the following: Norwegian (and English), to F. Cooley (CASP) for checking D. Manasrah's patient committal to disc of my scribble and good most of the Russian transliterations in the reference list. The tempered acceptance of the need for innumerable revisions. remaining mistakes would not be due to any failure on their parts. L. M. Anderson helped manage the later stages of the book, Named referees contributed significantly: in addition to A. M. executing most of the figures, listing place names and checking the Spencer's contribution in the Appendix, P. F. Friend, A. J. Martin whole for submission on disc. Both were employed by CASP on this and J. R. Parker suggested where improvements could be made. work, (Cambridge Arctic Shelf Programme, West Building, Gravel Finally the work has benefited from the professionalism of the Hill, Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB30DJ). staff of the Geological Society Publishing House in Bath, partic- Whereas I drafted most of the text and sketched most of ularly the Staff Editor Angharad Hills. the figures others contributed of their expertise as indicated in

(A) Geologists accompanying Cambridge field parties (and/or) who have had Svalbard research published

* K. C. Allen * M. D. Fuller J. Lowry L. M. Anderson * R. A. Gayer S.R. Lu K. A. Auckland I. Geddes D.I.M. Macdonald * D. J. Batten * D. G. Gee * A. J. McCann * M. B. Bayly E.R. Gee * J. R. H. McWhae * D. E. T. Bidgood * D. J. Gobbet * G. M. Manby G. S. Boulton A. Hallam * A. Mann S. H. Buchan M.J. Hambrey * D. Masson-Smith * H. J. Campbell M. Head * P. I. Maton * A. Challinor A.P. Heafford * M. Moody-Stuart * C. Croxton W.G. Henderson * A. P. Morris * J. L. Cutbill K.N. Herod J.E. Odell * M. Dettmann * D. W. Holliday * J. R. Parker J. A. D. Dickson * W. T. Horsfield C.A.G. Pickton P. W. Ditchfield * K. Howells * G. Playford E. K. Dowdeswell N.F. Hughes * D. J. W. Piper J. A. Dowdeswell * P. F. Hutchins S.P. Price * M. Dowling * L. Kanat M. Quest P. Doyle S.R.A. Kelly P.F. Rawson I. J. Fairchild A.H. Knoll A.B. Reynolds * C. L. Forbes J. Laing W. Schwarzacher * R. A. Fortey U. Lehmann R.A. Scott * P. F. Friend B.E. Lock * D. G. Smith xvm... ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

M. P. Smith F. Thiedig * P. Waddams I. Snape R.S.W. Thornley * C. B. Wilson H. Spall C. Townsend T.S. Winsnes C. F. Stephens G. Vallance N.J.R. Wright K. Swett R.H. Wallis R.T. Wu

* Svalbard research students at one time

(B) Some of those who contributed to the field work and later in other ways

M. J. Allderidge J.G. Elbo B. Moore T. R. Astin N. Golenko M.J. O'Hara P. B. H. Bailey G.E. Groom P.C. Parks M. H. P. Bott B. Harte C.V. Reeves D. D. Clark-Lowes E.M. Himsworth O.P. Singleton A. P. R. Cooper C.A. Jourdan J.C. Tippen L. E. Craig R. Mason F.J. Vine T. A. Davies D.P. McKenzie P.T. Warren

(C) Logistic leaders (e.g. boat captains) for more than one season

R. A. Browne W.D.H. Fairbairn RN A. C. Smith M. F. Chantrey J. H Gammage M. Tuson N. I. Cox A.H. Neilson Participants

W. B. HARLAND Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EQ, UK

L. M. ANDERSON CASP, West Building, Gravel Hill, Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 0DJ, UK

D. MANASRAH CASP, West Building, Gravel Hill, Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 0DJ, UK

N. J. BUTTERFIELD Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EQ, UK

A. CHALLINOR (DECEASED) Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EQ, UK

P. A. DOUBLEDAY CASP. Present address: Amerada Hess Ltd, 33 Grosvenor Place, London SW1 X7HY, UK

E. K. DOWDESWELL Centre for Glaciology, Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, University of Wales, Aberystwyth, Cardigan SY23 3DB, UK

J. A. DOWDESWELL Centre for Glaciology, Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, University of Wales, Aberystwyth, Cardigan SY23 3DB, UK

I. GEDDES CASP. Present address." 1 School Close, Keevil, Trowbridge BA14 6SB, UK

S. R. A. KELLY Consultant with CASP, 10 Belvoir Road, Cambridge CB4 1JJ, UK

E. L. LESK CASP, West Building, Gravel Hill, Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 0DJ, UK

A. M. SPENCER Statoil, Forushagen, 4035 Stavanger, Norway

C. F. STEPHENS CASP. Present address." Amoco (UK), Amoco House, West Gate, London W5 1XL, UK Conventions

Geological conventions employed throughout the work are treated Authority in Chapter 3. These include the international time scale, principles for lithostratigraphic nomenclatures, the uses of some technical It is intended that any positive statement be supported by a terms and the descriptive names for Svalbard structures. Place reference at the end of the paragraph or subsection. If none it may names are explained in Chapter 1 and listed in Part 4. be assumed either that the statement is common knowledge or that it is the original contribution (opinion) of this work. The names of up to three authors may be cited in the text and 'et al.' generally refers to four or more. Acronyms in common use

CSE: Cambridge Spitsbergen Expeditions, Cambridge Svalbard Use of contemporary nomenclature and compass orientation Exploration. CASP: Cambridge Arctic Shelf Programme. In recording earlier work, unless original wording is quoted (in GSSP: Global stratotype section and point. quotes), the present usage (for example of place and stratigraphic IKU: Institute, Trondheim. names) is generally substituted. Original names may be added in lUGS: International Union of Geological Sciences. parentheses. Compass directions for earlier geological ages are NP: Norsk Polarinstitutt. expressed in the present orientation without implication as to what SKS: Stratigrafisk Komit6 for Svalbard. was the ancient orientation.

Contractions in figures where space is critical Transfiteration

-fjt (-fjellet); -fdn; fin (-fjorden); -fja (-fjella); -bn (-breen) The Norwegian alphabet places symbols o and 6 ~t a~ at the end whereas they are placed here as though unmodified in the English language alphabetical order. For Chinese: Pinyin Time conventions For Cyrillic: The system used was jointly recommended by the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names (PCGN) for British Three-letter abbreviation of age names follow Harland et al. (1990), Official use and the United States Board on Geographical Names see Chapter 3.2. Formal use of subscript numbers 1, 2 & 3 = Early, (USBGN), as revised in 1970 and 1972. It is used in the Times Mid- and Late, which are not abbreviated. Ma is the usual symbol of the World, the Scott Polar Research Institute and the Geo- for the age in millions of years as also ka for thousands of years graphical Names Division of the US Army Topographic Com- before present (BP). mand, which has published perhaps the most comprehensive gazeteer of the FSU. The ISO system has advantages but requires the addition to normal type of accurate diacritical symbols unfamiliar in the west. Rock units

U, M & L upper, middle and lower for rock units only. Use of stratigraphic nomenclature (as explained in Section 3) 'Thickness' in metres is not added to numbers i.e. 100m to indicate 100m thick unless otherwise specified. The problem of divergent stratigraphic nomenclature and classifica- tion has been met by a discussion arriving at a conclusion generally early in each historical chapter. That discussion, often seemingly of miniscule interest, may then be confined to that particular section. Lithologies The conclusions may be applied in the rest of the work both in earlier or later parts. Therefore, the reader who finds a different Lst, dst, sst, slst, sh, cgl (conglomerate), qi (quartzite); aren. scheme employed and is possibly irritated thereby, should find the (arenaceous); dol (dolomite-except. dst); unto. (unconformity, reasoning behind such a choice in a section in each of the historical unconformable). chapters. The Stratigraphic Glossary may help.