Including

hile teaching at an academy in the United Second- States, I (LS) asked stu - dents to write personal- experience stories. One Wstudent, a girl from Burma, turned in language a painstakingly written account of her experiences coming to the United States from a refugee camp in Thai - Learners land. Unfortunately, despite all her hard work, her story made little sense in English. Since the paper needed a major in the overhaul, and we lacked the time in class, I invited her to my house. Start - ing at the beginning, we talked through her story step by step, crafting it on the computer as the details emerged from her memory. Yes, the writing came from me, but the story was hers. I believe that by giving her a voice in English, I was not only build - Writing ing her language abilities, but also bringing her story to life. Helping students to write across a language barrier is not always such a drastic process. Writing, however, is arguably one of the most cognitively demanding things that we do in school, and for that reason, it poses Classroom significant challenges to second-lan - guage learners and the teachers who work with them.

A Significant Challenge with more diverse sending and re - In addition—and this is often over - Educators worldwide face a ceiving countries than in the past. looked—a skilled writer needs to growing challenge as migration Teachers in more and more countries know what different types of docu - brings learners from other parts of now face the daunting challenge of ments look like and how they are the world. According to the United working with learners struggling to constructed. What is appropriate and Nations Economic and Social Coun - write across a language barrier. typical varies with the genre—poem cil, in 2010, three percent of the Writing demands linguistic knowl - or personal letter, blog or résumé, world’s population lived outside their edge, fluency, and rhetorical exper - book report or literary analysis paper. country of origin. 1 In the United tise. Since writing is a productive Writing is a skill learned through ex - States, where we work, more than rather than receptive skill, writers perience in different settings where nine percent of American public need sufficient vocabulary and the expectations about language, style, school students—some 4.6 million, ability to construct sentences in the and structure may also differ widely. according to 2014-2015 statistics— new language. Further, they need Learning to write—in any language— were classified as English-language knowledge of the writing system for is a lifelong process. learners. 2 Migration is a global trend, that language, including spelling and punctuation rules.

BY LAURIE STANKAVICH and AMANDA LIVANOS

16 The Journal of Adventist Education • July-September 2017 http://jae.adventist.org Younger learners can more easily the assignment. Hyland and Hyland ment. But periodic error correction surmount the obstacles posed by observe that “Teachers respond to s tu- will give students a realistic idea of crossing a language barrier, not only dents in their comments as much as areas in which they need to improve. because they study more basic materi - texts, and experienced teachers often In some circumstances, indirect als, but also because they have a lan - tailor their feedback to suit each stu- feedback may be helpful as well. In guage learning advantage. Research dent, considering their backgrounds, this type of feedback, the teacher suggests that, if in an immersion situ - needs and preferences as well as the draws attention to errors without cor - ation, younger learners can attain na - relationship they have with them and recting them; for example, underlining tive-like proficiency in a few years. the ongoing dialogue between them.”7 each instance or using an error coding Jill Fitzgerald’s survey of 56 studies Ultimately, teachers should keep the system. In this type of system, a of multilingual writing in preschool learners’ needs at the forefront. teacher might use a “V” to refer to through 12th grade uncovered few When a writer makes many lan- problems with verb tense, a “C” to de - surefire solutions, but several studies guage-related mistakes, teachers tend note comma errors, and so on. Coding did show that preschool and primary to focus their energy on those areas, goes a step beyond underlining by di - learners developed very similarly to often neglecting content as a result. recting students’ attention to the types native speakers of the same age However, the ideas shared by lan- of mistakes they frequently make and group. 3 In general, second-language- guage learners are as meaningful as pointing them toward the correction. acquisition research supports the per - those of the other students in the At high school and college levels, ception that younger learners have an classes. Teachers should strive to look depending on students’ maturity, push - advantage in terms of developing a past students’ language errors and ing them to correct mistakes them - native-like intuition about grammar hear what they really have to say. I selves with this approach can foster patterns in a second language. (AL) often read written assignments valuable proofreading skills. A study by The sensitive period for language at least once without marking any Ferris and Roberts showed that even learning seems to diminish around pu - mechanical errors in order to inten- when the results from only underlining berty, possibly because of neurological tionally give feedback about content. mistakes seemed equally effective com - changes that take place around that However, teachers are doing lan- pared with coding, students neverthe - 4 10 age. For this reason, emotional sup - guage learners a disservice if they sim- less preferred the coding option. port from teachers may help younger ply ignore their errors. “Since lan- Both types of indirect feedback students adjust to learning in a new guage problems constrain the entire work best for easily defined types of language, but providing specific in - composing process, editing is a critical errors. If students already understand struction is not linguistically vital. and necessary facet of the text creat- the grammatical principle behind the Therefore, for the rest of the article, ing process, not just a clean-up activ- error, they will often be able to cor - we will offer recommendations about ity.”8 Students must be taught the im- rect it themselves just by having their learners who are not conversationally portance of clean writing, and without attention drawn to it (like problems fluent in the language in which they help, they may be unaware of the er- with pronouns, articles, and even are writing and who are approaching rors they are making. This is why we verb tenses). However, fixing other or have passed puberty—in other (LS and AL) believe that teachers errors presents a challenge. For exam - words, those over the age of 12. should select specific assignments for ple, writing “wrong word” may not which they will correct all errors. help the student find the right word. Giving Effective Feedback Chandler’s study has shown such di- Instead, it may be helpful to provide One of the most hotly debated rect error correction to be the best suggestions, perhaps by underlining a challenges in teaching writing to sec - method at increasing accuracy both phrase and, above it, writing how a ond-language learners is how to effec - immediately and in the long term.9 native speaker might typically convey tively give them feedback. The litera - I (AL) often correct all the errors the idea. In one recent example, a ture is inconclusive about whether on my students’ short, in-class jour- student wrote that CD’s were “a com - direct correction or student self-cor - naling assignments. I don’t take off mon thing to listen to music.” The rection works best in the long term. 5 points for their mistakes, but when I teacher underlined the word thing For example, some teachers correct return their papers, I ask them to re- and, in class, pointed out that a more every error on every assignment, but view the corrections. They often ex- appropriate word was way . this time-consuming process may not claim, “Wow, I didn’t realize I made Since marking all errors can be help students write better. Other so many mistakes!” This exercise time-consuming, even if indirect meth - teachers believe that students should should not be discouraging, which is ods are used, it may be helpful at correct their own errors (self-correc - one reason we don’t recommend cor- times to focus the feedback on certain tion), but this may not always be ef - recting all errors on every assign- areas. Ferris and Hedgcock suggest fo - fective, either. 6 Most teachers rely on cusing on serious errors—those “inter - common sense, varying the approach fering with the comprehensibility of a to fit the learners and the purpose of

http://jae.adventist.org The Journal of Adventist Education • July-September 2017 17 text”—and those that are “frequent” ment, students will benefit more from or “stigmatizing.” 11 Alternatively, reading preschool books than listen - teachers may choose to focus on a Language learners ing to college graduates holding a grammatical concept that has recently conversation. 14 Language learners been covered in class or a recurring may find it daunting may find it daunting to read materials problem for this particular student. to read materials beamed to their own age group, but Whatever type of feedback teach - books for elementary students and ers choose, they should also remem - beamed to their own even picture books with a few sen - ber the value of positive feedback. In tences on each page can provide other words, when we catch students age group, but books valuable exposure to written lan - using authentic, native speaker phras - guage and new vocabulary. ing, we can let them know that they for elementary stu - 3. Use peer tutoring to supplement “got it right.” Language learning is a dents and even pic - instruction by the teacher. In immer - constant search for feedback. Learn - sion contexts, peer tutoring can be an ers get positive feedback when they ture books with a few excellent way to help students build try something that “works.” Since skills. One young refugee arrived as an what works can diverge from what sentences on each academy freshman with almost no fluent speakers do, letting the learner English skills, not even the ability to know that something both works and page can provide hold a simple conversation. Lacking matches usual practice can be valu - valuable exposure to the resources to deal with her situa - able feedback and positively reinforce tion, the best I (LS) could do was to the things the learner is doing right. written language and set her up with two student tutors, one for an hour in the morning and one for Beyond Feedback new vocabulary. another hour in the afternoon. Over While writing instruction for lan - the course of the year, these tutors guage learners may primarily involve shifted from working on basic conver - providing plenty of feedback (both sational skills to providing guided help pointing out what students need to ers seldom appear in language-arts with assignments. Without much di - learn and affirming what they may al - materials for native speakers. For in - rection from me, these high school stu - ready know), certain instructional stance, even in the early grades, native dents were able to perceive the refugee strategies and resources can facilitate speakers typically use past tenses auto - student’s needs and adapt as her abili - the process. Here are several that we matically and fluently, so language-arts ties grew. In fact, one of the tutors have found useful: materials offer limited drills in this built such a strong bond with the stu - 1. Enhance the regular language- area. Yet non-native speakers need this dent that she arranged for an intensive arts lesson with materials explicitly practice. More and more of these mate - period of tutoring during the summer. designed for non-native speakers. rials are available online and are usu - Inviting the student to her home, the Not every language has appro - ally appropriate for non-native speak - tutor helped her work through the his - priate materials developed for non- ers since research shows that learners tory and English requirements for 9th native speakers, but when these ma - from different language backgrounds grade, a plan that ultimately allowed terials are available, they can be share many of the same problems the student to catch up and graduate valuable. Materials designed for na - when learning a new language. 12 on time. Peer tutoring can often sup - tive speakers sometimes address 2. Encourage outside reading. plement classroom instruction and, in issues that are not an issue for non- Reading and writing have a close some cases, it may be the only cus - native speakers. Some English learn - relationship. Reading helps learners tomized approach available. ers, for example, have an awareness develop the knowledge of the compo - 4. Within each lesson, use pair of aspects of grammar that allows nents of written language that corre - and group work . When students are them to escape some of the persistent late with success in writing. 13 This is working in mixed groups of native problems of native speakers. A sub - particularly true in the area of vocab - and non-native speakers, activities ject-verb agreement problem that ulary development. For both native such as collaborative writing and peer fools a native speaker may appear ob - speakers and language learners, sig - review can help both groups. The na - vious to a learner who can readily nificant exposure to oral language tive speakers benefit from construct - identify the subject of a sentence. Of may be insufficient to develop a ing meaning and giving feedback. course, the converse is also true. strong vocabulary. Anne E. Cunning - However, the language learners may Assignments focusing on areas des - ham and Keith E. Stanovich point out make valuable contributions in these perately needed by non-native speak - that nearly all written sources out - areas as well. We once had a college strip oral sources for improving vo - cabulary. For vocabulary develop -

18 The Journal of Adventist Education • July-September 2017 http://jae.adventist.org student who took three semesters of with polar challenges—providing feed- NOTES AND REFERENCES ESL writing before progressing into back that encourages and yet guides, 1. United Nations Economic and Social the standard English Composition se - demonstrating conventional usage Council, “New Trends in Migration: Demo - graphic Aspects” (April 22-26, 2013): quence. She felt very insecure about while still fostering creativity. Both the http://www.un.org/esa/population/cpd/ participating in peer review. We reas - challenge and the reward come from cpd2013/SGreport13February.v2_changes. sured her that the time she spent in our interactions with the individual accepted.FP_advance%20unedited%20ver the additional writing classes would learners, seeing them grow and change sion_converted.pdf. pay off. During our first peer-review before our eyes. i 2. “English Language Learners in Public Schools,” National Center for Education Sta - session, she found she had several tistics , last modified March 2017: http:// valid suggestions regarding her class - nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_cgf.asp. mate’s paper. This experience justifi - This article has been peer reviewed. 3. Jill Fitzgerald, “Multilingual Writing in ably increased her confidence in her Preschool Through 12th Grade,” in Handbook own writing abilities. of Writing Research, Charles A. Mac Arthur, Steve Graham, and Jill Fitzgerald, eds. (New 5. Allow students to revise for a Laurie Stank a - York: The Guilford Press, 2006), 344, 345. higher grade. Giving students the op - vich, MA, i s an 4. Lourdes Ortega, Understanding Second portunity to redo a paper reduces Assistant Professor Language Acquisition (London: Hodder Edu - their anxiety about getting it right the of English at cation, 2009), 12-22. first time and allows them to experi - Southern Adventist 5. Ken Hyland and Fiona Hyland, “Feed - back on Second Language Students’ Writing,” ment with the new language without University in Col- Language Teaching 39:2 (April 2006): 88. the persistent threat of a bad grade. legedale, Ten- 6. Ibid., 84-88. At the academy where I (LS) taught, nessee, U.S.A. She 7. Ibid., 88. the school had a policy that allowed completed a BS at Andrews University, 8. Sang-Keun Shin, “‘Fire Your Proof - all students to improve and resubmit an MA from the University of Texas, reader!’ Grammar Correction in the Lan - guage Classroom,” ELT Journal 62:4 (Octo - work for higher grades as long as this Arlington, and is currently pursuing a ber 2008): 360. was done in a timely manner. This PhD in English at Old Dominion Uni- 9. Jean Chandler, “The Efficacy of Vari - proved to be valuable for many stu - versity in Norfolk, Virginia, U.S.A. ous Kinds of Error Feedback for Improve - dents, but especially for English-lan - Prior to her appointment at Southern ment in the Accuracy and Fluency of L2 Stu - guage learners. Since then, we have Adventist University, Ms. Stankavich dent Writing,” Journal of Second Language Writing 12:3 (August 2003): 291. become aware of related policies in served as a language-school director in 10. Dana Ferris and Barrie Roberts, “Error other educational contexts. While re - Taiwan and has taught English and Feedback in L2 Writing Classes: How Specific search on this practice is limited, a ESL in China, Costa Rica, Korea, Tai- Does It Need to Be?” Journal of Second Lan - study of Australian university stu - wan, California, and New York. Her guage Writing 10:3 (August 2001): 177, 178. dents found that low-performing stu - areas of research interests are writing 11. Dana Ferris and John Hedgcock, Teaching ESL Composition: Purpose, Process, dents appreciated having a “safety studies and rhetoric. and Practice (Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erl - net” that allowed them to revise final baum, 2005), 266, 267. drafts; and ultimately, those who Amanda Livanos, 12. Lourdes Ortega, Understanding Sec - chose this option improved their writ - MA, i s an Assis- ond Language Acquisition (London: Hodder ing. 15 Many teachers find writing tant Professor of Education, 2009), 34. 13. Timothy Shanahan, “Relations portfolios to be an efficient way to in - English at South- Among Oral Language, Reading, and Writing corporate this principle, and several ern Adventist Uni- Development,” in Handbook of Writing Re - studies specific to language learners versity (SAU). She search, Charles A. MacArthur, Steve Graham, support the efficacy of portfolios. 16 received a Mas- and Jill Fitzgerald, eds. (New York: The Guil - ter’s in Teaching ford Press, 2006), 175, 176. 14. Anne E. Cunningham and Keith E. Conclusion English to Speakers of Other Lan- Stanovich, “What Reading Does for the At its most effective, writing in - guages (TESOL) from Andrews Uni- Mind,” American Educator 22 (Spring/Sum - struction involves coaching and men - versity in Berrien Springs, Michigan, mer 1998): 3. toring. Nowhere is this truer than U.S.A. Since 2010, she has taught ESL, 15. Tanya Covic and Mairwen K. Jones, when working with students who are TESOL, and writing. Ms. Livanos has “Is the Essay Resubmission Option a Forma - tive or a Summative Assessment, and Does It also becoming familiar with a new lan - served as the Writing Committee Matter as Long as the Grades Improve?” As - guage. By enriching their writing peda - Chair and is currently the Composi- sessment & Evaluation in Higher Education gogy with additional linguistic feed - tion Coordinator at SAU. Additionally, 33:1 (February 2008): 75-85. back through selective correction, peer she has taught ESL courses interna- 16. Mansoor Fahim and Shahriar Jalili, tutoring, activities that call attention to tionally and in a variety of commu- “The Impact of Writing Portfolio Assessment on Developing Editing Ability of Iranian EFL language patterns, and revision oppor - nity settings. Learners,” Journal of Language Teaching and tunities, teachers can make the process Research 4:3 (May 2013): 496-503. more productive for language learners. Everyone who teaches writing grapples

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