Notes

1: THE NATURE OF THE DIVINE

1. See The Crucified God (London, 1974) p. 277. Moltmann's perspective in this work is very much towards the future, to the 'Trinity in the glorification' in which the whole creation will participate in this End, and this glorification of God in the liberation of his creation is achieved by the inclusion of creation within the divine life. 2. The survey was done in 1981 and published in M. Abrams, D. Gerard and N. Timms (eds), Values and Social Change in Britain, (London, Macmillan, 1985), in association with the European Value Systems Study Group. I take the information from Kenneth Thomp• son, 'How Religious Are The British?', in Terence Thomas (ed.) The British, Their Religious Beliefs and Practices 1800-1986 (London, Routledge, 1988) p. 231, who adds: 'Furthermore, little more than a quarter of the population accept absolute, as opposed to relative, guidelines concerning good and evil, and only a quarter accept the full range of Christian beliefs when these are taken to include both hell and the devil.' 3. There are of course a good many other passages where a threefold formula is found, from the angel's words to Mary (Luke 1:35) to Jesus's commission to his disciples: 'Go therefore to all nations and make them my disciples; baptize them in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit (Matthew 28:19); others are John 20:21-2, 1 Cor. 12:4-6, 2 Cor. 13:14. Examination of the precise significance of these passages for the understanding of the Trinity in the New Testament is beyond the scope of this work. They are cited simply to establish that some doctrine of the Trinity is already found there, even if the focus is on the position of the Christian in relation to God rather than on the elaboration of the doctrine as such. 4. This type of modalist approach, which leads to an overemphasis on the unity of the Godhead by treating the three persons as interchangeable facets of a single, basically undifferentiated deity, was indeed propounded by Sabellius in the third century. 5. No other creed achieved as wide a measure of acceptance as this Nicene Creed. Even the so-called Apostles' Creed, retained by many Protestant churches, in its present form is a later formulation of the eighth century and so is a Western creed, never formally accepted by the Orthodox Church. 6. This way of looking at the world as containing good and evil as

190 Notes to pages 19-25 191

objective and cosmic forces does indeed resemble the explicit dual• ism in the religion propounded by Zoroaster, and elements of that dualistic outlook do seem to have infiltrated Christianity at times, along with certain other ideas from the same source. 7. It is interesting to note that the early missionary, Roberto de Nobili (on whom more will be said later, especially in Chapter 8) tried first of all to use the Vedas as the basis for constructing a Christian• oriented natural theology in the same sort of way that Thomas Aquinas had used Aristotle but later, and with more success, simply adopted Thomas's 'five ways' as a common foundation with theistic Hindus on which to erect a Christian superstructure. 8. The Mima:q1sa system (to be discussed further in Chapter 3) is a school of exegesis of the Vedas which adopts distinctive views that they are eternal and uncreated - with their inerrancy uncompro• mised by any author, whether human or divine - and develops principles of interpretation for those texts. 9. I am indebted for the ideas expressed in this and the preceding paragraph to George Chemparathy, An Indian Rational Theology (Leiden, 1972) and especially to John Clayton, 'Religions, Reasons and Gods' (Religious Studies 23, 1987, pp. 1-17) and 'Piety and the Proofs' (Religious Studies 26, 1990, pp. 19-42). It is incidentally worth no!_ing that such philosophical debate centred around the concept of Isvara, making the same assumption as Western philosophy of religion that there is only one deity. On the other hand, the empha• sis on the self-validating nature of these means of knowledge means that, rather than being concerned with issues of verification as in Western philosophy of religion, Hindu philosophical systems tend to be concerned with theories of error. 10. In fact a more cogent parallel to the concept of Brahman as saccid• tinanda in Western thought is to be found in neo-Platonism as found in the writings of Plotinus in the third century. Here the divine existence took a threefold form: the One which was beyond being and naming, the voil<; or Mind, and the Soul or World-Soul, each of the latter two forms (mr6aTcuru<;) drawing its power from the one above. There are also traces of such ideas in Pythagoreanism. In both instances there is at least a possibility of some influence from Indian thought. 11. The Bhagavadgftti is one of the most popular of Hindu religious texts, though not strictly scriptural, since it is incorporated within the great epic, the Mahtibhtirata, as the sermon preached by Kr~r:ta to Arjuna just before the great battle; further discussion will be found at the beginning of Chapter 2.

2: DIVINE INTERACTION WITH MANKIND

1. The term dharma is not in fact precisely equivalent to 'religion', for which Hinduism has no specific term, since it does not separate off religious activity from the rest of life in the same way that the 192 Notes to pages 27-45

Romans (from whom the term religion comes) once did or the modern West again does; if necessary, contemporary Hindus will designate their own religious and social complex as saniitana dharma, 'the eternal tradition'. 2. This point has been brought out by Madeleine Biardeau in 'Etudes d~ mythologie hindoue, I. Cosmogonies purat:tiques' Bulletin de /'Ecole Fran~aise d'Extreme Orient 63 (1978) pp. 87-238. 3. An account of the rituals performed in connection with images will be given in Chapter 4. 4. In particular Psalm 22 is used, but also Psalms 41 and 69 and Zechariah 9-13. 5. Earlier, Origen (c.185-254, also teaching at Alexandria), though recognising that the Son had been generated in and from eternity, had concluded from the Son's submission to the Father in his earthly life and work that submission was basic to his personhood and thus that the Son was eternally subordinate to the Father, arguing that whatever attributes were predicated of the Father must be predicated of the Son, as image of the Father, in a lesser and relative manner. 6. See in particular his East and West in Religion, London, 1933, pp. 59ff. 7. This is not quite exclusively an Indian view. Aldous Huxley (in The Perennial Philosophy, 1946, pp. 60ff.) criticises the error of Christian• ity, as he terms it, in believing in only one avatiira, on the grounds that it is too pre-occupied with history and so with the uniqueness of the Incarnation. 8. Some account of de Nobili's missionary activity in South India is included below in Chapter 8. 9. In the verse Kr!?t:ta declares: 'Though myself unborn, with an un• changing self, the lord of creatures, I establish myself in my own nature and come into being through my own creativity (maya)'. The ambiguity lies in the term miiyii which can also be translated as 'magical power, illusion' and would be so understood in the Advaita Vedanta tradition, whose greatest figure Sankara glosses this verse thus: 'I seem to be embodied and to be born, through my own miiyii but not in reality, only conventionally.' 10. See in particular his God and the Universe of Faiths, London, 1973. An Advaitin might still reasonably object to the theistic bias of his formulation. A thoughtful critique of Hick's views will be found in J. J. Lipner, 'Does Copernicus Help? Reflections for a Christian Theology of Religions', Religious Studies 13, 1977, pp. 243-58. 11. Before we too readily castigate the psychology underlying such notions about demons and other powers, we should perhaps reflect that modern concepts such as the id and superego of Freudian psychology are no more amenable to ordinary sense perception; they are essentially constructs, the value of which is to provide a model to apply in understanding the world around us and their relationship to reality is not susceptible to scientific testing. Notes to pages 50-78 193

3: AUTHORITY AND MEDIATION

1. On the phenomenon of fundamentalism as a reaction to modernis• ation and secularism I am indebted to E. J. Sharpe, Understanding Religion, London 1983, pp. 120-2, and to Caplan's own contribution to Lionel Caplan, ed., Studies in Religious Fundamentalism, London 1987. 2. Nonetheless, with the decided pragmatism that the Mimaip.sa system also reveals, it accepts the principle that when two com• mands contradict each other there is an option to follow either. The standard example concerns the kinds of grain used in a rite; some texts enjoin rice and others barley (cf. Sahara on Mfmtirrzstisfltra 12.3.15), and so Mimaip.sa allowed the use of either rice or barley. However, the system developed the theory of the eight faults of an option and avoided options whenever possible. 3. As Radhika Herzberger has neatly put it (Bhartrhari and the Buddhists, D. Reidel, Dordrecht, 1986, p. xix): 'Not to make the founder appear incompetent (Uddyotakara's oft repeated phrase: akusala~ sfltraktira~ sytit) becomes a guiding principle of many a philosophical commentary of the period.' 4. Practice on the relationship between confirmation and the first Eucharist has varied. The Catechism of the Council of Trent (issued in 1566) laid down seven to twelve as the proper age for confirmation, preferably twelve. Subsequently, children tended to be admitted to their first communion some years before their confirmation. Since 1971, however, the normal order has been declared as being confirmation and then the Eucharist. 5. Despite the difference in practice and particularly age at which it is administered, the Eastern chrismation is accepted as valid confirmation by the Roman . 6. Outside India funeral practices may well have to be modified to take account of local factors. For example in Trinidad, where crem• ation was illegal until 1936, local Hindus have buried their dead and have taken over the practice of honouring the dead on Halloween, in their case by lighting little clay lamps on the graves. In Britain and elsewhere, the fact that death so commonly occurs in hospital often forces modifications in the rituals around the point of death, with an inevitable concentration of most of the ritual element into the brief period when the body is brought back to the house on its way to the crematorium.

4: DEVOTIONALISM AND PERSONAL PIETY

1. See the beginning of Chapter 8 for a survey of the early history of Christianity in India. 2. More will be said in Chapter 5 on the sarrznytisin as an ascetic and in Chapter 6 on the relationship of this stage of life to the other three. 194 Notes to pages 81-104

3. See Chapter 3. 4. Young India, 10 June 1926. Although Gandhi was certainly influ• enced by Western ideas, in particular by the writings of Tolstoy, the frequency of his allusions to prayer in Young India is striking. 5. Among the most important rituals are the funeral rites and the memorial ceremonies which follow at periodic intervals, some of which are intended for the benefit of the ancestors, regarded as being in some kind of after-life. This point will be examined in more detail in Chapter 7. 6. The cumbersomeness of such cars undoubtedly on occasion led to accidents in which those hauling a car were crushed by it. Since the annual car festival at the JaganncHh temple at Puri is still one of the most famous of such festivals and certainly was during British rule in India, it led to the term juggernaut (from the Anglo-Indian pronunciation of the deity's name) entering the English language to denote an unwieldly monster. 7. Strictly this is not the eleventh day but the eleventh tithi, for the traditional Indian calendar divides the lunar month into thirty tithis, which are thus slightly shorter than the solar day to which they are adjusted by complex calculations. 8. In fact pilgrimage in India may well be older still. Certainly, the tradition of pilgrimage to sites associated with the Buddha is found at a very early period, with the emperor Asoka, for example, record• ing his visit to the Buddha's birthplace, probably in 248 B.c. 9. Though absent on the whole from Hinduism, this concept of a treasury of merit (established by Christ through the infinite merit of his sacrifice on the cross and added to by the merits of Mary and the saints) and the transfer of merit to devotees is not entirely foreign to the Indian context, since the transfer of merit from Bodhi• sattvas (who have gained an inexhaustible treasury by their total altruism) to their worshippers forms an important strand in Maha• yana Buddhism.

5: AND ASCETICISM

1. For a discussion of the way that yogic practice is used for a variety of purposes and at varying levels of importance, see E. J. Lott, Vision, Tradition, Interpretation: Theology, Religion and the Study of Religion (Berlin, 1988), pp. 94-96. 2. These lifestyles will be treated more fully in Chapter 6, as part of the system of vartJiisramadharma. 3. However, it may be noted that Origen was a firm proponent of a life of prayer, celibacy and austerity, while his doctrine of the fall of the soul and its gradual return to God through asceticism and teaching proved influential in Christian monasticism to the extent that he has been called the 'father of monastic theology'. In any case, the impulse to monasticism and asceticism can plausibly be traced in part to the influence of such Jewish communities as the Notes to pages 105-123 195

Essenes or the practices, of John the Baptist, as well as to some facets of St Paul's writings. 4. This summary of Eastern monasticism is mainly based on Nicolas Zernov, Eastern Christendom: A Study of the Origin and Development of the Eastern Orthodox Church (London, 1961), pp. 77-80. 5. Incidentally, the problems of succession posed by the charismatic leadership of the founders of monastic orders are again being illus• trated in this order, with Mother Teres.a recently (September 1990), despite her desire to resign for health reasons, being re-elected as head because the members failed to agree on any successor. The dress of the sisters - a modification of the usual attire of lower• class women in Calcutta - also illustrates the way in which the initial identification of such orders with the poor has been expressed in their dress. 6. These two groups were explicitly compared by Deirdre Green in 'Living between the Worlds: Poetry and the Carmelite Mys• tics' in The Yogi and the Mystic, ed. Karel Werner (London, 1989), pp. 121-39. 7. I am indebted for the substance of this paragraph to material from my wife, Mary Brockington's study on the motif of the Separating Sword, now in preparation.

6: SOCIAL VALUES AND MORALITY

1. This constitutes, therefore, an exception to the striking statement, made on the basis of the centrality of the Eucharist in Christianity by James Mackey Uesus, the Man and the Myth, p. 149): 'The meal is, of course, ready-made for religious ritual, since it is such a natural sacrament. No other ritual could half as effectively convey . to human beings the experience of God as the author of life. There has not been a religion in the history of human kind, nor will there be, to the ritual of which the meal is not of central importance.' Indeed, the development by Sikhism of the institution of communal dining as a deliberate counter to Hindu restrictions on commensal• ity shows how far the reverse is true for Hinduism. 2. The Ravidasis belong mainly to the camar caste of leather-workers. A similar community is that of the Balmikis, who are both a caste (the Punjabi sweeper caste, the cflh~as) and a religious movement, named after Valmiki, the traditional composer of the RamayarJa, which is installed as the sacred scripture in their places of worship; they show an interesting blend of Hindu and Sikh practices. Prob• lems of acceptability by the rest of the Hindu community are not confined to India. Untouchables who have migrated to Britain are liable to find that other Hindus discriminate against them to such an extent that they feel obliged to establish their own separate community centres or temples, as has been done by Ravidasis in Derby, for example, and by Balmikis in Coventry, Bedford, Southall and Birmingham. 196 Notes to pages 125-150

3. Menstruation seems to have been regarded as more than just pol• lution, probably because of ideas that after conception the men• strual blood goes to nourish the foetus; these ideas also perhaps underlie the view that the father of a daughter who has reached puberty is guilty of abortion at each menstruation until she marries, and the equivalent view that the husband has a duty of intercourse with his wife at each fertile period. But there are variant views; for example, Baudhiiyana Grhyasutra 2.2.4 suggests that the temporary impurity of menstruation purifies the woman. 4. For the sati to be able to remove impurity properly, she had to be as pure as possible and so the texts prohibit menstruating women or those still impure from childbirth from becoming a satf, while she had to have a ritual bath and dress in new clothes to ensure her purity before ascending the pyre. For different reasons, a preg• nant wife was barred from becoming a satf- in her case because of the inviolability of the unborn child. Incidentally, there are indi• cations that the practice of burning all of a man's personal pos• sessions with him was a widespread Indo-European practice, which Hinduism has retained for the widow alone, thus emphasising her chattel status. 5. For further information, see Burton Stein, 'Social Mobility and Medieval South Indian Hindu ' in Social Mobility in the Caste System in India, ed. by James Silverberg (1968), pp. 78-94. 6. Probably the oldest presentation of this idea of the three debts is that in Taittiriya Sartthitii 6.3.10.5; it is not, of course, linked there in any way with the concept of the iisramas, which only emerges in the period of the post-Vedic Dharmasutras (roughly the sixth to fourth centuries B.c.).

7: TELEOLOGY: MEANING AND ENDS

1. The term eschatology, literally 'talking about the last things', has in Christian theology traditionally been used to denote examination of the final destiny both of the individual soul and more often of mankind in general. In this sense, its use can readily be extended to Hinduism. Rudolf Bultmann (1884-1976) developed its use to refer to the moment of decision at the start of Christian faith, when an individual puts his trust in God rather than in the things of the world, and to every subsequent occasion on which the individual has to choose decisively between this world and the 'beyond'. 2. The concept of a cycle of rebirth finds a place in Greek thought in Orphism and neo-Platonism (in the latter case, possibly as a result of Indian ideas mediated through Alexandria) and from time to time has surfaced elsewhere within Western thought, for example with the Kabala and with the Doukhobors (a Russian Christian originating in the eighteenth century and holding a number of heretical views). 3. A distinction should be drawn between this and fasting to death Notes to pages 152-170 197

as a means of political blackmail, employed for example in the Quit India campaign and imitated sporadically since, notably but briefly by the IRA; such fasting has the advantage that it is slow and so achieves maximum publicity, maximum opportunity for a con• cession from the authorities and ample time for the faster to change his mind. As a means of protest suicide it is now being replaced in India by brahman students setting themselves on fire in the manner of Jan Palach in Czechoslovakia or of Buddhist monks in Southeast Asia, as a protest against the dilution of their caste privileges involved in extension of the quota of job reservations for Scheduled Castes. 4. On the other hand, elements in the legends which later clustered round Madhva may well have been borrowed from the Gospels: as a boy he successfully disputed with learned brahmans in a temple; when he undertook asceticism a voice from heaven proclaimed his greatness; he fed multitudes with handfuls of food; he walked on water and stilled the raging ocean with a glance. 5. Since the Second Vatican Council in particular, however, there have been considerable shifts of attitude towards greater inclusiveness, which will be examined in more detail in Chapter 8. 6. More recently still, for example, but in an African context which may have influenced its form, there is the so-called 'Alice' move• ment during the 1950s in Zambia (then Northern Rhodesia).

8: CONTACT, CONFLICT AND DIALOGUE

1. For information on the Apostle Thomas and India, see J. F. Fleet, 'St. Thomas and Gondophernes', Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 1905, pp. 223-6, J. N. Farquhar, 'The Apostle Thomas in North India', Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 10.1 (Jan. 1926), P. }. Thomas, 'The South Indian Tradition of the Apostle Thomas', Jour• nal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Centenary Supplement, 1924, pp. 203-23, and Susan Visvanathan, 'Reconstructions of the past among the Syrian Christians of Kerala', Contributions to Indian Sociology, New Series, 20, 1986, pp. 241-60. 2. The hair-tuft is left uncut when the rest of the head is shaved at initiation (so nowadays restricted to traditional brahmans, but in de Nobili's time adopted by the first three var1fas); it is, therefore, in appearance a mirror-image of the tonsure in Roman Catholic monastic orders but has much the same significance. De Nobili was careful to appeal to authority for his policy of adaptation, citing in particular Decretalia Gregorii IX, which instructs clerics to adapt to the customs of the people to whom they are preaching. 3. It was eventually published, over a century and a half later in 1867 at Madras, as Genealogie der Malabarischen Cotter (and an English translation was published a couple of years later). The Danish mission authorities' reaction to such activities was that it was his task to propagate Christianity in India and not Hinduism in Europe. 198 Notes to pages 170-185

4. William Ward was responsible for one of the first published studies of Hinduism in A View of the History, Literature, and Religion of the Hindoos (Serampore: Mission Press, 1811; 4 vols) which, while expressing some admiration for the philosophical and devotional aspects of Hinduism, adopts a broadly condemnatory approach in line with his evangelical outlook. 5. For an analysis of these two types of strategy and the Hindu reac• tion, see D. H. Killingley, 'The Hindu Response to Christian Mis• sions in Nineteenth-Century Bengal' in Changing South Asia: Religion and Society (London, 1984), pp. 113-24. 6. Between 1866 and 1872, during the earlier part of this series of lectures, Sen was greatly taken with the Unitarian social gospel, which he saw something of at first hand during a visit to Britain in 1870, but completely abandoned after about 1876. 7. It also played a role in encouraging interest in ; for example, Mme Blavatsky had considerable influence on W. B. Yeats. In a similar fashion, the Vedanta Society, which Vivek• ananda established in New York in 1894, proved attractive to writers such as Aldous Huxley and Christopher Isherwood. 8. This claim was in fact erroneous, as Vivekananda ought really to have known. Presumably he was claiming continuity with the Dasnami order reputedly founded by Sari.kara (traditionally 788-820), since there is no older monastic tradition within Hindu• ism, although the practice of individual asceticism is of course much older, going back at least to the Upani~ads. Within India, though, the Buddhist monastic order, the sangha, was established by the Buddha in the fifth century B.C., while the Jain monastic tradition claims similarly to go back to Mahavira at the same period. Even in the Christian tradition, the Orthodox monastic tradition looks back to its ordering by St Basil in the middle of the fourth century. However, this claim is all of a piece with Vivekananda's general tactic of utilising the lack of precise historical dating for so much of Indian culture to claim greater antiquity and thus originality for everything Hindu. 9. The concept originated with F. D. Maurice but was developed by Farquhar. Farquhar asserted that this was the attitude of Jesus himself to other religions, for each contains a partial revelation of God's will but each is incomplete, and He comes to fulfil them all. More realistically, one might point to an inclusive attitude (such as is characteristic of neo-Hinduism) in Paul's reference to the 'unknown god' of the Athenians and his claim that without know• ing it they already worship the God whom he proclaims to them (Acts 17:22-28), a claim that de Nobili explicitly referred to. 10. This is the English translation (SCM Press, London, 1969) of the German Christ und Hindu in Vrindaban (Hegner, Koln, 1968). 11. Klaus Klostermaier has put this trenchantly when he states that in some respects ISKCON 'resembles a nineteenth-century British puritanical pietistic movement much more than a typical Hindu Notes to page 187 199

religious movement.' ('Will India's Past be America's Future?', Jour• nal of Asian and African Studies 15 (1980) pp. 94-103 (p. 100)). 12. The material on temples and ritual in Britain in this and two sub• sequent paragraphs is closely based on Kim Knott, 'Other Major Religious Traditions', in The British: their religious beliefs and practices, 1800-1986, ed. Terence Thomas (London, 1988), pp. 133-157 (especially pp. 141-2), which provides a convenient summary of her previous publications on the subject. 13. This right-wing Hindu party is achieving considerable publicity in 1990 for its intransigence over insisting on the erection at Ayodhya of the Ramjanmabhumi temple to mark the presumed birthplace of Rama in place of the Baburi Masjid (the mosque which replaced the earlier Hindu temple in 1528-9); its attitudes to Muslims over this have led to great communal unrest in India and demonstrate that the common stereotype of Hindu tolerance is by no means the whole picture. Bibliography

The purpose of this bibliography is twofold: to indicate those works, in addition to those cited in footnotes, on which the material of this book is based and to suggest suitable books in which the interested reader may wish to pursue the subject further. Preference has been given to books, as more accessible to most readers, but a few articles are included.

Abhishiktananda [Henri le Saux], Saccidananda: a Christian approach to advaitic experience (, I.S.P.C.K., 1974). Anderson, Ray S., Theology, Death and. Dying (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1986). Arokiasamy, Soosai, Dharma, Hindu and Christian, according to Roberto de Nobili (Rome: Editrice Pontificia, 1986). Babb, Lawrence A., The Divine Hierarchy: Popular Hinduism in Central India (New York: Columbia University Press, 1975). Baird, Robert D. (ed.), Religion in Modern India, 2nd edn (: Manohar, 1989). Bebbington, D. W., The Nonconformist Conscience: Chapel and Politics, 187D-1914 (London: Allen & Unwin, 1982). Berkouwer, G. C., The Sacraments (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1969). Bhardwaj, S. M., Hindu Places of Pilgrimage in India (London: University of California Press, 1973). Bolle, Kees W., The Persistence of Religion: an essay on Tantrism and 's philosophy (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1965). Bowes, Pratima, The Hindu Religious Tradition, a philosophical approach (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978). Bowker, John, Problems of Suffering in Religions of the World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970). Brockington, J. L., The Sacred Thread: Hinduism in its continuity and diversity (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1981). Brown, Cheever MacKenzie, God as mother: a feminine theology of India (Hartford, Vermont: Claude Stark, 1974). Brown, W. Norman, Man in the Universe (Berkeley: California University Press, 1966). Burghart, Richard, Hinduism in Great Britain: The Perpetuation of Religion in an Alien Cultural Milieu (London: Tavistock Publications, 1987). Burghart, Richard, and Audrey Cantlie, Indian Religion (London: Curzon Press, 1985). Caplan, Lionel (ed.), Studies in Religious Fundamentalism (London: Macmil• lan, 1987). Carman, J. B., The Theology of Ramanuja (NeW\Haven: Yale University Press, 1974).

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Abhinavagupta 8 Aquinas, StThomas 4, 6, 13, 17, 19, Abhishiktananda, Swami 96, 180-1 58, 62-3, 110, 134, 136, 156 abortion 68, 140, 196 /irati 86, 187-8 Absolute 1-2, 9, 21, 34, 46, 71, 77, 118, area avatara 29, 84 150, 175 arcakas 85 see also Brahman Aristotle 62, 110, 155, 191 absolution 65 Arius/Arian 36-7 Abu, Mount 165 Arminian beliefs 75 Acts of Thomas 167 Arminian Magazine 160 Adam see Fall artha 127, 133 Adam, William 172 32, 52, 130, 172, 174, 188 Advaita Vedanta 4-9, 11-13, 21, 34, asana 98, 150 53-4, 96, 100-1, 118, 147, 150-2, ascetics/asceticism 78, 85, 91, 93, 96-7, 172-3, 179-81, 192 101-7, 109, l14-15, 126-7, 132, after-life 126-7, 143, 147-9, 153-61 197, 198 Agastyasa1f!hita 80 ashrams 180-1, 186 Aghoris 103 asramas see varnasramadharma ahimsa 98, 132, 134 Athanasius 37 · Aiyars 104 Atharvaveda 2, 97, 149 Albigensians 110 atheism 51-2 Alice movement 197 Athenagoras 45 Allahabad 91 Athos, Mount 94, 105, 113 Alvars 60 Iitman 3-10, 12, 33, 73, 96-7, 100, 119, Ambamata 188 144-7, 152 Ambrose of Milan 105 atonement see redemption Anabaptists 65, 75, 160, 163 Augustine of Hippo, St 18-19, 44, 75, ananda 4, 6, 11, 12, 21, 33 89, 105, 134-5, 157-8, 160, 162 Ananda Marg 184-5 Augustinian Canons 105-6 Anandamurti 185 Aurobindo see Chose, Aurobindo ancestors see pitrs auspiciousness 125-6 anchorites 104, 106 authority, sources of 46-57, 174 Anglican Churches 82, 94, 112, 141, avatara 10, 22-9, 32, 40-3, 60-1, 71, 176, 182 77-80, 84, 128, 146, 164, 173, 185 Anselm 19 avidya 5, 132, 133-4 antaryamin 29, 74 Ayodhya 199 anthropomorphism 11, 13,~22 Antichrist 162, 164 Ball, John 162-3 antinomian beliefs 75 Balmikis 195 Antony, St 104-5 Banerjee, K. M. 181 anumati 74 baptism 14, 36, 61-5, 139, 156 Apocalypse of Peter 161 Baptists 65, 75, 139, 170, 172, 182 apocalyptic beliefs 25, 161-5 Barth, Karl 16, 20, 42, 65, 141, 161, 178 Apollonius of Tyana 44 Basava 72 Apostles' Creed 190 Basil the Great, St 16, 105, 198 Apostolic succession 63-4 Basilides 18 Appasamy, A. J. 181 Baudhayana Grhyasiitra 196 apsarases 102 Benedict of Nursia, St 107-9

205 206 Index

Bernard of Clairvaux, St 109 Carey, William 170 Besant, Annie 173 Carmelites 109-10 Bhagavadgfta 22, 26-7, 42-3, 53, 70, 76, Carter, Sidney 142-3 100, 118-20, 144, 149, 151 Carthage, Council of 157 Bhagavat 12 caste 70-1, 76, 77, 87, 89, 92, 114, Bhagavata Pural'!a 73, 79, 152 119-24, 128-31, 139, 146, 152, 168, bhakti 11-13, 22, 26, 31, 42, 60, 70-80, 171, 174, 184, 186-7, 197 85, 92, 100-1, 114, 118, 128-9, 133, Catherine of Genoa, St 96, 114 151-2, 154, 181-2, 184 Catherine of Siena, St 114 Bhaktivedanta Swami, A. C. 184-5 Catholic Apostolic Church 163 Bharatiya Janata Party 121, 187 celibacy/chastity 55--6, 67, 85, 102, 106, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 188 116-17, 124, 126-7, 150, 168, 194 Bhave, Vinoba 150 Chakkarai, V. 40-1 bhutas 147 Chalcedon, Council of 15, 24, 37-8 biblical criticism 39, 50 Chandogya Upani~ad 4, 143--4 birth rituals 63-4, 66-7 Chatterjee, Bankim Chandra 43--4 Blavatsky, Mme H. P. 173 childbirth 125, 196 bliss see iinanda Chrismation 64 Boff, Leonardo 136 Christ, baptism of 14 Book of Common Order by John Knox 82 nature of 35--40, 172 Brahma 21, 147, 165 resurrection of 36, 42, 44, 158 brahmacarin 67-8, 102-3, 116, 124, 131-2 163 Brahma-Kumaris 164-5 Christa Seva Sangha 180 Brahman/brahman 1-12, 22, 34, 46-7, church government 55-7, 10~, 111, 53, 77-8, 80, 96, 100, 118-19, 147, 121 150, 178 circumambulation 64, 66, 128 see also Absolute Cistercians 109 Brahmanas 2-3, 22, 24, 47, 53, 125, 143 cit 4, 6, 8, 12, 21-2, 33 brahmans 25, 47, 53--4, 56-7, 67, 76, Civitate Dei, De by Augustine 135, 158 87-8, 90, 103-4, 121--4, 126, 128-9, Clare of Assisi, St 111 132, 134, 144, 168-9, 184, 197 Clement XVI, Pope 111 Brahmasutra 53 Clement of Alexandria 13, 104 Brahmasutrabha~ya by Sankara ~, 53 clergy 53-7, 60--4, 81-2, 85, 87, 105, Brahmo Samaj 32, 172, 174 110-11, 116, 128, 162, 168, 184 breath control 98, 113 Cluniacs 108-9 B!hadaral'!yaka Upani~ad 4, 6, 143-5 Cokhamela 129 bridal imagery 33, 64, 71, 78, 101, Columba," St 95, 106 113-14 commensality 122, 124 Bridget, St (Irish saint) 57 communal life 61, 79, 88, 9~, 102-16, Bridget of Sweden, St 109 122, 139, 173, 197 Brunner, Emil 141, 178 communion, holy see Eucharist Buddhism 5, 25, 28, 57, 97, 113, 144, Compostela, Santiago de 94 176, 194, 198 confession 61--4 Bultmann, Rudolf 196 Confessiones by Augustine 89 Bunyan, John 94 confirmation 61--4 Congregation of the Missionaries of Caitanya 12, 28, 72, 78-9, 173, 184 Charity 112 · Calcutta 87, 112, 170-3 Congregationalists 75, 182 Calcutta Unitarian Committee 172 consciousness 100, 113, 145 Calvin, Jean 19-20, 56, 82, 94, 135, see also cit 137-8, 159-60 conservatism 30 Calvinism 75, 82, 138 consorts 8, 11, 28, 32-3, 60-1, 74, 87 Cambridge Platonists 160 Constantine, emperor 92, 161 Campbell, Mary 163 Constantinople, First Council of 15 capitalism 137-9 Second Council of 156 Index 207 contemplation 19, 70, 96-7, 100, 106-7, Didache 115 109-12, 114, 162, 181 diksa 102 contraception 68, 140 Diocletian 135 conversion/converts 54-5, 65, 78, 123, Dionysius the pseudo-Areopagite 6, 130-1, 150, 162, 168-9, 172, 174, 113 177, 183-5 Disciples of Christ 65, 163, 182 Coryate, Thomas 93 dispensationalism 164 Cosmas Indicopleustes 167 Dfvalf 187 Cowley Fathers 112 Divine Light Mission 184-5 creation/creator 2, 4, 8-9, 16-17, 19, 21, Docetism 38, 42 34, 45-6, 98, 134, 148, 165 Dolcino, Fra 162 creeds see Apostles' Creed, Nicene Dominic, St 110-11 Creed Dominicans 106, 110 cremation 68-9, 91, 148 Donatist controversy 135 crisis theology 141 doomsday 161 crucifixion 10, 35-6, 42, 62, 114, 153, dualism 2, 12, 17 155, 194 Duff, Alexander 171 Crusades 162 Dumont, Louis 121 Cyprian 18, 56 Dutch in India 168-9 Cyril of Alexandria 38 Dvaita Vedanta 12 Cyril of Jerusalem 92 East India Company, British 170 damnation 152, 159-60 Eckhart, Meister 7, 96 dance, Siva as lord of see Nataraja ecology movement 174 Danes in India 169-70 Edinburgh 178, 188 Dante 158 ekadasf 90 Darby, J. N. 164 election, salvation by 75-6, 159-60 darsana 30 Elwin, Verrier 181 Darwin, Charles see evolutionary endogamy 124 theory England, Church of see Anglican Dasnami order 103, 198 Churches Davidson, Archbishop 141 Enlightenment, Age of 165 Dayananda Sarasvan 32, 52, 130, 172, Ephesus, Council of 15 174 equality 76-7, 114, 121, 128-30, 152 death 68-9, 91, 125-6, 132, 148-50, 153, erastianism 137 156-61 eschatology 142, 161 Decretalia Gregorii IX 197 Essene community 194-5 Dei Verbum 179 ethics 17, 98, 116-19, 132-3, 139-41, Desert Fathers 104 160, 172-3 desire 33, 132, 142 Eucharist 36-7, 60-5, 80-2, 115, 122 see also kama evolutionary theory 17-18, 39, 100 deva 1, 7, 144 Devanandan, Paul 181 faith, salvation by 59, 94, 137, 140, 159 Devil 16-17, 160-1 Fall, the 17-19, 134, 157-8 devotionalism 19, 48, 61 Farquhar, J. N. 177 see also bhakti fasts 89-90, 104, 106, 108, 114-15, 126, dharana 99-100 150 dharnia 25-8, 48, 51-2, 70, 119, 132-3, fatalism 118-19 149 female element 11, 58, 79 Dharma Nirnaya Mandai 67-8 festivals 74, 86-90, 104, 115-16, 183, Dharmasastras 54, 65-6, 114-15, 125-6, 187 149 Florence, Council of 158-9 Dharmasutras 196 forest-dweller see vanaprastha dhyana 99 forgiveness 62-3, 71, 159, 173 Diamper, synod of 168 Forme de Prieres, La by Calvin 82 208 Index

Francis of Assisi, St 111 Consciousness, International Franciscans 111-12 Society for Franciscan Spirituals 162 Hari 128 freewill 18, 74, 118 Harijans 122-4, 128-30 Freud, Sigmund 192 heaven 126, 143, 148-9, 153-5, 158 fulfilment theology 178 Heidelberg Catechism 65 fundamentalism 49-52, 163-4, 185, 189 hell 127, 149, 153-8, 160-1 Fundamentals, The: A Testimony to the Hesychasm 113 TT'Uth 50 Hick, John 42-3, 157 funeral rites 67-8, 91, 102, 129, 132, Hindu Marriage Act 66 143, 147-8 history, place of 43-4, 51-3, 118, 146, 176-7 Gadyatraya by Ramanuja 73-4 Holi 187 da Gama, Vasco 58, 168 Holy Spirit 14-16, 21, 35, 64, 82 Gandhi, Mahatma M. K. 83, 120-1, Honorius III, Pope 110 123, 128-9 householder see grhastha Ganesa 34-5, 54, 188 Hume, David 20 GaAga, River 68, 91, 125 Huss, Jan 59 Garuda 34 Huxley, Aldous 192, 198 Gaudlya Vaishnava Mission 184-5 Huxley, T. H. 17 Gaya 78, 91 Gayatri 67 iconaclasm 31 Gehenna 154, 156 Ignatius Loyola, St 111, 113 Geneva 135, 138 ignorance see avidya Ghose, Aurobindo 28, 100, 164 illusion see maya ghosts see spirits of the dead image worship 9, 13, 29-33, 59, 77, 79 Gftiibhii~ya by Ramanuja 27 84-8 Gnosticism 18-19, 38-9, 157, 162, 175 immanence 1, 9-11, 22, 32-3, 71, 77, goddess-worship 11, 33-4, 54, 58, 86-7, 145 127-8 immigration 184, 186-9 Godhead 6-7, 96 immortality 153-60 gopi 28, 79, 88 impersonality 3, 6, 9, 97, 101 Gosvamins 78 impurity see purity and pollution Govardhana, Mount 79 Incarnation 15, 22-24, 30, 35-43, 45, grace 8, 10-12, 20, 26, 27, 29, 42, 59-60, 156-7, 179 70-3, 75, 78, 84, 119, 122, 139-40, see also avatara 158, 162, 169, 175, 178-9, 183 Indian Christians 21-2, 40-2, 130-1, Gregorios, Mar 168 167-72, 180, 183 Gregory I the Great, Pope 134-5 Indra 143, 149 Gregory VII, Pope 136 indulgences 59, 93-4 Gregory IX, Pope 110, 197 Indus Valley Civilisation 30 Gregory of Nazianzus, St 39 inner controller see antaryamin Gregory of Nyssa 156 Innocent III, Pope 136 Gregory Palamas 113 Inquisition 110-11 grhastha 85, 102, 116, 131-3 Institutes of the Christian Religion by Grhyasutras 65-6, 116 Calvin 19-20, 56 Griffiths, Dom Bede 96, 181 Integral Yoga 100, 164 guiJaS 6, 11, 22, 150-1 intercession see mediation guru 41, 67-8, 86, 102, 110, 124, 132, Interior Castle by St Teresa of Avila 11L 185, 188 International Missionary Council 182 Iona 95 Hades 153 Irenaeus 19, 157 Hanuman 60-1, 80, 90 Irving, Edward 163 Hardwar 91 !sa Upani~ad 7 Hare Krisna movement see Krishna !saurian dynasty 31 Index 209

ISKCON see Krishna Consciousness, Krsna 12, 25-9, 33, 43-4, 53-4, 70-2, International Society for ... 77-9, 85, 88, 92, 101, 119, 144-6, Islam 31, 77-8, 104, 129-30, 168, 172, 149, 164, 183-5, 187-8, 191 174, 176, 189, 199 ~tayuga 146, 164 Isvara/fsvara 1, 5, 7-11, 16, 20-2, 34, 74, k~atriyas 53-4, 56, 67, 119, 123, 126, 80, 98-9, 151-2 132, 144 see also Vi~~u and Siva Kumarila 48 Kumbha Mela festival 104 Jacobite tradition 168 Kiing, Hans 180 Jagannath temple, Puri 78, 194 Jaimini 51-2 Laksmi 11, 61, 127-8 Jainism 97, 138, 144, 150, 152, 198 Laksmf Tantra 127 ]anama~tamf 187 Lakulisa 24 jatis 120, 122-3, 130 Lateran Council, Fourth 62, 110 Jehovah's Witnesses 163 Fifth 156 Jerome, St 158 layayoga 100 Jerusalem 92-4 Lazarus (and Dives) 153 Jesuits see Society of Jesus League of the Elect 163 jfva 145 Lee, Mother Ann 163 Jiva Gosvamin 12 Leicester 186-7 jiiana 22, 33, 70, 77 Leo XIII, Pope 137 Joachim de Fiore 162 liberalism 39, 50-1, 160, 176-8, 189 Joasaph, St 57 liberation see moksa John the Baptist 195 liberation theology 136-7 John of the Cross, St 109, 113-14 lfla 10, 34, 41, 142 John the Divine, St 161 linga 31, 33, 148 John Paul II, Pope 137 Lingayats 31, 48, 72, 101 Judgement, Day of 159-61 Liturgical Movement 81 Julian of Norwich 114 liturgy 64, 81-5, 92, 115, 168 Justin Martyr 45 A6-yo~ 14, 22, 38-9, 45, 46-7, 179 Lollards 59 Kabir 13, 31, 77-9, 101, 129-30 Lombard, Peter 61 kaivalya 99 love 10, 14, 18, 22, 26, 36, 43, 59, 61, Kali 87 70-3, 77-8, 80, 101, 104, 109, 129, Kaliyuga 146, 164 135, 140, 152, 157, 159, 183 Kalkin 25-7, 41, 146, 164 Lucifer 17 kama 29, 102 see also Devil Kampan 79 Lumen Gentium 179 Kanphata Yogins 103 Luther, Martin 56, 59, 82, 94, 137, 155 karma 22, 70, 75, 118-20, 126, 134, 139, Lutherans 182 144, 148-50, 152 Lyons, Council of 158-9 Kashmir Saivism 8, 32-3 Kasi 91 MacLeod, Lord 94 Kafha Upani~ad 97, 144 Madhva 11-12, 72, 76-7, 103, 152 Kau~ftaki Upani~ad 144 Madras Christian College 174, 182 Kena Upani~ad 4 Madurai 87, 169 KEVW(TL~ 39 magic 45, 103 Khrista Seva Sangh 181 Mahabharata 8, 11, 21, 25, 43-4, 53-4, Khristukula Asram 180 98, 146, 148-9, 151, 191 Klostermaier, Klaus 183, 198 Mahadeviyakka 101 knowledge 73, 132-3, 144 Mahanaraya'!a Upani~ad 7 see also jiiana Maharaj Ji 185 Knox, John 82 Maharishi see Mahesh Yogi Krishna Consciousness, International Mahars 129 Society for 184-7 Mahatmyas 91, 93 210 Index

Mahesh Yogi, Maharishi 165, 186 monasticism 56, 61, 88, 96, 102, 104-16, Malabar, Christians in 76, 152, 167--8 173, 197 Mii7Jqiikya Upani~ad 145 see also communal life mantras 46-7, 51, 67, 76, 86, 100, 102, Monchanin, Fr Jules 96, 181 184-5 monism 2, 4, 8, 12, 21-2, 78--80, 118, mantrayoga 100 133, 145--6, 184 Manu 54, 114-15, 123-4, 131 Monophysite doctrine 38, 168 Marcion 18, 38-9 monotheism 1, 13, 32, 57, 71 Miiriyamrnan 58 moral values 39, 43, 116-20, 122, 132-3, marriage 61, 63-4, 66, 68, 116-17, 124-5 135-7, 139-41, 142, 146, 150, 160, Marshman, Joshua 170 169, 172-3, 177 Mar Thoma Church 168 Mormons 163 martyrs 57, 120 Muller, Max 176 Marwaris 139 Munster 163 Marxism 136-7, 185 Muntzer, Thomas 163 Mary (mother of Jesus) 11, 35, 37--8, mystery plays 88 57--8, 60, 92, 128, 168, 194 Mystici Corporis Christi 27 Mary (sister of Pachomius) 105 mysticism 6-7, 96-7, 100-1, 109-10, Mass see Eucharist 112-14, 140, 178 materialism 59, 85, 111, 174 mathas 103-4 niigiis 104 matter 62 Namdev 77, 92, 129 see also prala:ti Nandin 34, 61 Maurice, F. D. 157, 176, 198 Narasimha Mehta 128 5, 8, 12, 41, miiyii 146, 192 Naraya~a 7, 9, 11, 73-4, 119, 151-2 Medellin, Conference of Latin Nataraja 9, 31, 142 American Bishops 136 Naths 77, 103, 127, 153 mediation 31-4, 56-61, 70, 92, 134, 168 National Council of Hindu Temples meditation 69-70, 73-4, 96, 97-102, 187 104, 110-11, 113, 149 natural theology 19-20, 179 Melanchthon, Philip 65 Navariitri 187 Mennonites 65 Neill, Stephen 181 menstruation 68, 125, 196 neo-Platonism 113, 145, 153, 156, 191 merit, acquisition of 91, 93-4, 149 neo-Pythagorean school 44 Merton, Thomas 113 neo-Vedanta 32, 100-1, 175, 178 Messiah 164 Nestorius/Nestorian tradition 38, 168 Methodists 75, 90, 182 Newbigin, Lesslie 181 MeykaJ:.ltar 72-3 New Dispensation, Church of the Michael, St 61 172-3 millennia! beliefs 25, 161-5 Nicaea, Council of 15, 24, 37 Millerites 163 Nicene Creed 15-16, 37, 40, 155 Mimaq1sa system 20, 47-9, 51-2, 143, Nietzsche, Friedrich 174 151 nirgu7Ja 6, 11, 22 Mirabar 101 nirgu7Ja bhakti see sant tradition miracles 17, 44-5, 59, 176, 197 niyama 98 miscegenation 123-4 de Nobili, Roberto 41, 149, 168-9, missionary activity 106, 111-12, 130, 179--80, 191, 198 145, 149, 167-72, 176, 178, 180-1, non-being 4 183-5 North India, Church of 182 see also individual names Nostra Aetate 179 moksa 6, 8, 72, 76-7, 91, 98, 103, 118-19, nuclear holocaust 165 .126--8, 132-3, 142-4, 146-7, 150-3, nyiisa 29, 83, 86 164, 175 Nyaya system 20, 48-9 Moltmann, Jiirgen 10 Nyiiyakusumiifijali by Udayana 20 Index 211

Odes of Solomon 33, 71 possession by the deity 79 offerings 68-9, 73, 84-5, 86-7, 126, posture 98, 106, 113, 150 147-8, 188 Prajapita Brahma (born Dada Lekh Raj) ordination 63-4, 136 165 Origen 15, 104, 15~, 192, 194 prala:ti 7, 9-10, 12, 34, 146, 150 original sin 17-19, 157 Pramukh Swami 188 Orphism 196 prtirJiiyama 98 Otto, Rudolf 41-2 prapatti 73-6 outcastes see Harijans prasada 12, 72, 119, 122 Oxford, University of 17~, 178 see also grace pratyahara 98-9 Pachomius 105 Pravahana Jaibali 144 pacifism 141 Prayaga 91 paganism 57-8, 89, 116-17 prayer 57-60, 70, 74, 81-4, 104, 107-11, Paficaratra school 11, 28-30, 7~, 84, 113-16, 159, 162, 168, 194 127-8 prayopavesana 150 Pandharpur 92, 129 preaching 80-2, 171 panentheism 10 predestination 76, 138, 152, 159-60 Panikkar, Raimundo 22, 179-80 pregnancy 66, 196 papal authority see Pope Presbyterian Churches 82, 182 paramatman 12, 74, 99, 151 pretas 68, 147 Parsis see Zoroastrianism priesthood of all believers 56 Parvati 32-4, 61 Primitive Rule (of the Carmelites) 109 Pasupatas 152-3 propitiation see redemption Patafijali 98-9 puja 84-7, 100, 187-8 Paul, St 10, 14, 3~, 75, 80, 89, 92, 131, pujaris 85 155-7, 195, 198 Purat:tas 8, 21, 30-1, 34, 89-91, 93, Paul of Samosata 37 146-7, 149, 169 Peasants' Revolt 163 purgatory 156, 158-9 Pelagian controversy 75, 157 Puri 78, 87 penance 61-3, 93, 128, 150 purity and pollution 68, 86, 88, 91, 115, Persian Christians 167 121-3, 12~, 129-30, 140, 148-50, personal deity 6-7, 10, 13-14, 21-3, 152, 156, 158, 165 27-9, 41, 71, 77, 97, 100-1, 113, puru~a 99, 150 151 Pu~!imiirga 79, 85 Peter, St 92, 131 Pythagorean school 191 Philo 46 pietism 170, 198 Quakers see Society of Friends pilgrimage 58, 89-95, 108, 127 quest for the historical Jesus 39, 43, 177 pitrs 14~, 147-8 quietism 113 Pius VII, Pope 112 Pius IX, Pope 58, 157 Radhii 28, 78-9 Platonic ideas 153, 155 Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli 39-40, piay see lfla 174-5 Plotinus 113, 191 Rahner, Karl159, 180 pluralism 17~, 180, 189 , Bhagwan Shree 184, 186 Pliitschau, Heinrich 169 Rama 25-7, 43, 5~, 60-1, 71, 77, Plymouth Brethren 65 79-80, 88, 164, 188, 199 pollution see purity and pollution 173 polytheism L 57, 80 32, 172, 174 Poona 181, 186 Ramananda, Ramanandins 77, 79 Pope, papal authority 27, 55, 58, 60, 89, Ramanuja 9-11, 16, 20, 27, 53, 72-6, 93, 109-12, 134-7, 157, 162, 168, 100, 103, 119, 12g_.:.30, 152 197 RamiiyarJa 8, 21, 25, 44, 5~, 60-1, 79, Portuguese in India 168 195 212 Index

Ramcaritmanas by Tulsidiis 60-1, 79-80, Siiktas see Tantrism 88 sakti 8-9, 32-4, 46, 79, 127-8 Riimesvaram 94 salokya 151 Riimjanmabhiimi temple, Ayodhya 199 salvation 19, 35, 49, 59, 75, 79-80, 84, Riimlilii 88 107, 137, 140, 142, 157-60, 169, de Rance, Jean 109 175, 178-80, 183 Ranganiitha 74 Salvation Army 62 Riislilii 88 samadhi 99, 129 rathayatra 87 Samartha, Stanley]. 181 Ravidiis, Ravidiisis 123 samfpya 151 rebirth 196 sa1f1nyasa/sa1f1nyasin 69, 77-8, 102-4, see also samsara 115, 131-3, 169 redemption l8-19, 27, 36-7, 42, 62, 134, samsara 32, 72, 76, 91, 99, 118, 126, 146, 158-61 . 132-4, 143-7, 149, 152, 157, 164 reincarnation see samsara samskaras 61, 65-9, 131, 147-8 release see moksa · Sa~atan mandirs 187 relics 58-9, 92 · Sailkara 4-6, 8-9, 12, 53-4, 103, 192, renunciation see sa1f1nyasa 198 repentance 157-9 Sailkariiciiryas 104, 121 resurrection of the dead 148, 153-8, 161 Sankhyakarika 151 see also after-life and Christ Siiilkhya system 98, 150-1 ~gveda 2, 4, 46, 67, 97, 143, 147-9 Sanskrit 76 Ritschl, Albrecht 160 sant tradition 12-13, 31, 72, 77-8, 101, ritual 2, 22, 30-2, 46-8, 51, 54, 62-9, 123 74-5, 79-88, 100, 102-3, 116, Sarasvati, River 91 121-2, 125, 128-30, 132, 140, 148, Sarkar, Prabhat Ranjan see 184, 188, 193 Anandamurti rivers 68, 91, 125 sarupya 149, 151 Roger, Abraham 169 sat 4, 6, 12, 21-2, 145 Rome 92-4 Satan see Devil Roy, Ram Mohan 32, 171-2 Satapatha Brahmarya 53 rta 2, 16 satf 126-7 Rudra 7 satya 4 Rule of St Augustine 105-6, 110 Satya Sai Baba Fellowship 187 Rule of St Benedict 107-8 le Saux, Dom Henri see Runde, Archbishop Robert 141 Abhishiktananda, Swami Russell, Charles Taze 163 Savarkar, Vir 150 sayujya 149, 151-2 Sabara 193 Schleiermacher, Friedrich 16, 157 sabda 47, 49 Scholastica, St 107 Sabellius 190 scholasticism 19, 157-8 saccidananda 4, 6, 12, 21-2, 181 Schwartz, C. F. 170 Saccidiinanda Asrama 181 Science of Creative Intelligence 186 sacraments 56, 61-5, 74, 157, 180 science, influence of 17-18, 39, 100, sacred thread 67-8, 102, 124-5, 131, 169 160, 171-2, 185 see also upanayana Scotland, Church of 171 sacrifice 2-3, 30, 47-8, 51-3, 62, 68, 87, scripture 46-53, 174 89-91, 93, 102, 126, 132, 143, Second Coming 25, 41, 156, 158, 161, 148-50, 159, 173 163-4 Sacrosanctum Concilium 179 sectarianism 21, 78 Sahajiyii Yogins 127 secularism, secularisation 17, 50, 136, Sai Baba, Satya 188 162-3, 171, 182, 185, 189 saints 1, 45, 57-60, 89, 93, 120, 134, 159, Sen, Keshab Chandra 21, 172-3 168 Serampore 170-1 Saiva Siddhiinta 8-9, 33, 41, 72-3 Seventh-day Adventists 65, 163 Index 213 sexuality 25, 33, 71, 73, 78-9, 101-2, siidras 68, 89, 104, 124, 128-30 105, 108, 113-14, 116-17, 125, 127, suffering 11, 18, 28, 36, 78, 118-19, 133, 185-6, 196 152, 175 142-3, 163 Sufism 78 Sheol 153, 155 Sulpicius, St 113 siddhis 103, 165, 186 Summa Theologiae by Aquinas 13, 63 Simeon Stylites, St 105 Supreme Self see paramiitman Simon Magus 44 Siirdas 28, 79 sin 25, 79, 84, 91, 93, 104, 114, 134-5, surrender to the deity 71-4 142-3, 149, 155f157-61, 164, 174 Suso, Heinrich 7 Sisters of the Immaculate Blessed s1:Uras 53, 65-6, 116, 196 Virgin Mary (Loreto) 112 svarga 126, 143, 148-9 Sita 77 Svetaketu 4, 144 Siva 7-9, 13, 20-1, 24, 31-4, 41, 54, 61, SvetiiSvatara Upani~ad 7 71, 73, 90, 101, 142, 148, 152 Swaminarayan Hindu Mission 187-8 Sivaratri 32, 90 symbols, symbolism 30, 33, 44, 62-4, Sixteen Revelations of Divine Love, The by 78, 89, 101-2, 113-14, 122, 124, 148 Julian of Norwich 114 Symeon the New Theologian, St slavery 129 112-13 smrti 47-8, 52 Syrian Christians 76, 130, 152, 168 social issues 50, 56, 71-2, 106-7, 119, 128, 130-3, 135-7, 139-41, 150, Tagore, Dwarkanath 172 162-3, 174, 181, 188, 198 Taittirfya Araf!yaka 143 Society of Friends 49, 56, 62, 112, 138, Taittirfya San:zhitii 196 141 Taittirfya Upani~ad 4, 6 Society of Jesus 111-13, 149, 168-9 Taize 112 Society of St John the Evangelist Tambaram 182 (Cowley Fathers) 112 Tantrism 29, 33-4, 77, 86, 100, 102, 127, Socinians 160 153, 185 Soma 143 Tatian 45 Song of Songs 33, 113 Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre 100, 178

Tranquebar 169-70 Vasudeva 29 transcendence 1, 5-10, 13, 17, 22-3, 29, Vatakalai 75 33, 42, 71, 76-7, 97, 142, 145, 183 Vatican Council, Second 63, 81, 112, Transcendental Meditation 165, 184--6 179-80, 197 transmigration of souls 144-5 Vedanta Society 198 see also samsara Vedanta system 4, 47, 53, 175 transsubsta~tiation 62, 65, 168 Vedantadesika 75 Trappists 109, 113 Vedantasutra 53 Trent, Council of 62, 81, 158-9 VedasNedic hymns 2, 5, 7, 12, 16, 20, Trika system see Kashmir Saivism 24, 30, 32, 34, 46-8, 51-2, 60, 66-8, Trimurti 21 76, 89, 91, 97, 103, 120, 124, 132, Trinity 1, 11, 14-16, 21-2, 35, 39, 40, 143, 147-8, 153, 172, 174, 192 42, 62, 64, 162, 181 vegetarianism 90, 109, 134 Troeltsch, Ernst 176-7 vigils 90, 115 truth 174 Vrrasaivas see Lingayats see also satya Virgil 148, 158 Tukaram 77, 92 Virgin Birth 35, 37-8 Tulsidas 60-1, 77, 79, 88 Vishwa Hindu Parishad 187 'twice-born' 67, 169 visions 114, 161 Visistadvaita Vedanta 9, 53 Udayana 20 Visn~ 7, 9-13, 21, 24-5, 27-31, 34, 40-1, Uddalaka 4, 6 .. 53-4, 60-1, 71-7, 80, 84, 90, 92, Uma32 127-8, 134,146-7, 152, 164 unction 61, 63-4 Vitthala 72, 77, 92, 129 union with the deity 72-3, 76, 78-9, 83, Vi~ekananda 32, 49, 172-5, 178, 188, 96-7, 99-101, 110, 114, 126, 129, 198 145, 147, 149-52, 154, 175, 178 votive offerings 59, 89 uniqueness of Christ 21, 24, 35, 40-3, VOWS 61, 88-90, 126 141, 178-9, 183, 189 see also vratas Unitarians 32, 172 Vraj 79, 88 universalism 39-40, 173-7, 179-80 vratas 89-90, 114-15, 126 untouchables see Harijans vyuhas 29 Upadhyaya, Brahmabandhab 22, 181 upanayana 67-8, 131, 197 see also sacred thread Walsingham 94 anisads 3-7, 9, 12, 47, 53, 97-8, 118, Ward, William 170 143--5, 147-8, 150, 172, 198 Weber, Max 138 Wesley, John 75, 160 Vac 46 White, Ellen G. 163 vahanas 34-5 widows 126-7 Vaikhanasas 30, 84-5 Wilberforce, Bishop Samuel 17 Vaikuntha 74 Williams, Monier 176 Vaise!?ika system 20 Williams, Rowland 176 vaisyas 67 Wisdom 11, 21, 46 Vajasaneyi Sarrzhita 148 witches see magic Valentinus 18 women, position/role of 56, 63, 67-8, Vallabha 12, 28, 72, 78-9, 85 89-90, 105, 107-9, 124-8, 136, vanaprastha 102-3, 131-2 163-5 Varanasi 91, 94 word see A6'Yo<> and sabda Varkari Panth 72, 91-2 Wordsworth, William 97, 145 varnas 47, 53-4, 56-7, 67-8, 76, 87-90, worker priests 136 . 103-4, 119, 120-4, 126, 128-32, 134, works, salvation by 19, 75, 140, 159, 144, 168-9, 184, 197 169 varnasramadharma 67-9, 102-3, 131-2 World Government of the Age of Varona 2 Enlightenment 165, 186 Index 215

World Mission Conference, Edinburgh Yamuna, River 91 178 Yoga/yoga 86, 96-100, 102-3, 110, 113, World Parliament of Religions 173 126, 132, 150, 165, 185-6 worship 47, 56, 71-3, 80--8, 100, 105, Yogasiitra by Pataftjali 98-9, 132 140, 142-3, 179-81, 183-5, 187 yogins 60, 97, 102-3, 148 Wycliffe, John 59 yoni 33 yugas 26, 41, 146-7, 164-5 Xavier, St Francis 168 Zaehner, R. C. 178 Yama 143 Ziegenbalg, Bartholomaeus 169-70 yama 98 Zoroaster/Zoroastrianism 25, 138, 191