Ancient Theaters in Greece and the Contribution of Geoinformatics to Their Macroscopic Constructional Features

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1409800

ANCIENT THEATERS IN GREECE AND THE CONTRIBUTION OF GEOINFORMATICS TO THEIR MACROSCOPIC CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES

Dimitris Kaimaris

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Faculty of Engineering, School of Spatial Planning and Development, Thessaloniki, Greece, ([email protected])

Received: 15/04/2018 Accepted: 22/06/2018

ABSTRACT

Among the countless monuments of world cultural heritage of Greece, ancient theaters are studied in this work from the engineer’s point of view. With the help of aerial and satellite archeology, and of bibliographic research, their positions were determined and their size characteristics were calculated. Images of three different Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, UAV (Remote Control Helicopter, Balloon, Drone), Ikonos-2 satellite images, and images from Google Earth were used. Remote sensing image processing and its products are also presented, such as Digital Surface Models (DSMs) and the ortho images of the ancient theaters with spatial resolutions ranging from 1cm to 2.5m, referenced to the Greek Geodetic Reference System of 1987 (GGRS 87). In addition, information and conclusions were made through Geographical Information Systems (GIS) about the macroscopic characteristics of ancient theaters, such as orientation (the main orientation of the theaters is from 90ο to 270ο, while for the construction of the theaters the average direction of the winds, which should be lateral, was taken very seriously,), area (the area of the koilon of ancient Greek theaters ranges from 56m2 to 7,640m2), altitude (the altitudes of the ancient Greek theaters range from 6m to 870m), distances from the coastline (ranges from 11m to 42,559m), visibility (ranges from 0.63% to 100%), etc.

KEYWORDS: Ancient Greek theatre, UAV, Remote Sensing, GIS.

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1. INTRODUCTION semi-columns. At both ends of the scene, the wings The ancient Greek theatre appeared in the 6th centu- (or proskenion) stood out, which were two parts that ry B.C. (Archaic Period). It is an open-air amphithe- gave the shape of the Greek letter "Π" to the scene. atrical construction of a semi-circular plan around a The koilon is the sloping cone-shape level, in which circular square (Fig. 1). It served religious rituals, the spectators’ seats are spread amphitheatrically. Its music and poetry contests, theatrical performances, curvature follows the curvature of the orchestra, and municipality assemblies or city-state parliament as- its ends end up in retaining walls (or analemmata) semblies, and was even used as a market. The archi- made of rectangular stonework. The koilon is usual- tectural style of the theatre resulted in its stone form ly united with the building of the scene. Between its around 335-330 B.C. In the centre of the ancient retaining walls and the edges of the scene, there Greek theatre, a circular, often paved square, the were corridors for the attendance of the spectators orchestra (the stage of today's theatres) is found. The and the entrance of the dance after the opening of amphitheatrical area that surrounds the orchestra is the play. These corridors are called parodoi. Hori- the koilon (or cavea). The scene is a rectangular, ob- zontal corridors, the diazomata, divided the koilon long, roofed building, added in the 5th century B.C. into zones. Each zone is divided by transverse radial in the circumference of the orchestra opposite the stairs into wedge sections, the kerkides. Above the koilon. Initially, the scene was on ground level and last row of seats the theatre could be extended, if was used only as a dressing room (such as the cur- required by the needs, with the addition of the epi- rent backstage and the dressing room). In front of theatron (Kuritz, 1988; Brockett, 1999; Frederiksen, the scene, to the side of the orchestra, the prosceni- 2000). um is located which was a gallery with columns or

Figure 1. Ancient Greek theatre parts. There are fifty-seven (57) ancient theaters (Fig.1, radedos, 2005; Schwandner, 2006; Fraisse and Moret- Table 1) dating from the 6th century B.C. until the ti, 2007; Dietz et al., 2007; Farinetti, 2008; Dyggve, Roman era, which are saved and can be visited 1960; Spanakis, 1966). Apart from these theaters, (Fiechter, 1933; Renfrew and Wagstaff, 1982; Andre- there is evidence that there were another 35 ancient ou, 1983; Papadakis, 1983; Kappel, 1989; Preka- theaters (Dyggve, 1960; Spanakis, 1966; Lazaridis, Alexandri, 1999; Intzesiloglou, 1991; Kapokakis, 1989; Velenis and Abam-Veleni, 1992; Livadiotti and 1991; Kolonas, 1994; Isler, 1994; Rizakis, 1995; Bom- Rocco, 1996; Pliakou, 1997). Only a few remains of a melaer, 1996; Bonniai and Mark, 1996; Karadedos et small number of theaters are saved (but cannot visit- al., 1999; Katsikoudis, 2000; Welch, 2000; Tziafalia, ed yet), while most of them have not been discov- 2000; Palyvou, 2001; Karadedos and Koukouli- ered yet. Their date of construction is unknown. Chrysanthaki, 2001; Korres, 2002; Gogos, 2004; Ka-

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Table 1. Ancient theaters in Greece.

Theaters known from sources or theaters with few Theaters that are saved saved remains that can been studied Theater’s position (lati- Theater’s position (lati- Construc- tude Ν and longitude Ε in tude Ν and longitude Ε in Theater tion centu- Α/Α Theater Α/Α decimal degrees, Reference decimal degrees, Reference name ry (B.C.)/ System: WGS84) name System: WGS84) Era Ν Ε Ν Ε 1 Dionysus 6th 37,9703327 23,7279769 1 Acharnon 38,077723 23,731602 2 Thoriko 5th 37,7380710 24,0536724 2 Ramnouda 38,219932 24,026795 Ikaria in 3 Amphiariou 4th 38,2916302 23,8453615 3 38,093006 23,898738 Attica

4 Zea 4th 37,9372513 23,6447575 4 Amphipolis 40,816335 23,846298

Samothraki 5 Evonimos 4th 37,9159513 23,7415695 5 40,498240 25,528947 Kaveirio 6 Epidaurus 4th 37,5961220 23,0794588 6 Kos 36,883588 27,285306 7 Argus 4th 37,6316160 22,7196434 7 Alasarna’s 36,775939 27,134882

8 Githion R.P.* 36,7637603 22,5626825 8 Lindos 36,087538 28,079857

9 Sparta 2nd 37,0820670 22,4235940 9 Lisso 35,238646 23,784354 10 Aigira 5th 38,1285564 22,3778755 10 Fiskardo 38,451776 20,566072

11 Leontiou 4th 38,0303716 21,9130986 11 Ierapytna 35,013771 25,746823 12 Ilidos 4th 37,8937107 21,3760130 12 Argos 38,921456 21,183079

13 Platiana 4th 37,5403669 21,7523220 13 Klitora 38,025330 22,137012 14 Isthmia 4th 37,9164060 22,9944971 14 Kerinia 38,146178 22,146735

15 Corinth 5th 37,9059366 22,8774715 15 Flioudos 37,816628 22,719688

Episkopi 16 Sikyon 3rd 37,9840934 22,7113286 16 37,484633 22,419257 Tegea 17 Messini 4th 37,1778204 21,9189859 17 Thebes 38,326495 23,317837 Kaveirio in 18 Mantinia 4th 37,6182137 22,3924597 18 38,367643 23,177842 Thebes

19 Megalopoli 4th 37,4101170 22,1272406 19 Feres 39,371512 22,708011

20 Orchomenu 4th 38,4933116 22,9751533 20 Thessaliki 40,629054 22,948161 21 Delphi 4th 38,4824423 22,5005320 21 Avdira 40,931854 24,970205

22 Eretria 4th 38,3986087 23,7905539 22 Isthmos 36,727226 26,953764 23 Pleurona 3rd 38,4136048 21,4086537 23 Lefkada 38,810128 20,705015

24 Makinia 6th 38,3558915 21,7250017 24 Aigina 37,723176 23,475038 25 Stratou 4th 38,6717038 21,3194594 25 Amorgos 36,866993 25,959686

26 Oiniades 4th 38,4095655 21,1989425 26 Androu 37,882714 24,952368

27 Kalydona 3rd 38,3714063 21,5313197 27 Antiparos 36,996542 25,025768 28 Gitanon 3rd 39,5711486 20,2597563 28 Exonis 37,874213 23,765885 29 Nicopoli 1st 39,0234462 20,7372607 29 Elefsina 38,069559 23,508869 30 Kassopi 3rd 39,1467933 20,6717472 30 Kastelorizo 36,139914 29,580195 31 Dodoni 3rd 39,5466906 20,7877600 31 Mithimna 39,367160 26,169745 32 Dimitriada 3rd 39,3434318 22,9242449 32 Paros 37,080661 25,155149 Fthiotidis 33 3rd 39,2717652 22,7664432 33 Tinos 37,553313 25,138123 Thebes 34 Larissa I 4th 39,6403469 22,4152704 34 Trizina 37,500849 23,344320 35 Larissa II 4th 39,6403686 22,4120351 35 Tirnavos 39,709605 22,314894

36 Vergina 4th 40,4789741 22,3220385 37 Mieza 2nd 40,6442142 22,1223950 38 Dion 3rd 40,1723535 22,4918826

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39 Philippi 4th 41,0128807 24,2866648 40 Thassou 4th 40,7820502 24,7175838 41 Maroneia 3rd 40,8788018 25,5191887 42 Hephestia 5th 39,9645880 25,3181173 43 Mytilene 4th 39,1105642 26,5466536 44 Delos 3rd 37,3970012 25,2680602 45 Milos 4th 36,7378256 24,4208524 46 Thira 3rd 36,3633327 25,4788330 47 Kathrea 1st 37,5604409 24,3297138 Gortina 48 R.P. 35,0634085 24,9457585 (large) Gortina 49 R.P. 35,0592446 24,9493814 (small) 50 Koufonissi R.P. 34,9474206 26,1298520

51 Aptera 3rd 35,4612799 24,1410909 52 Eliros R.P. 35,2874068 23,7951709

53 Chersonisou R.P. 35,3188043 25,3891480

Orchomenos 54 R.P. 37,7246118 22,3151961 in Arcadia 55 Samos R.P. 37,6952218 26,9349244

56 Chaeronea 5th 38,4942829 22,8417398 57 Amvrakia 4th 39,1609208 20,9837309 *Roman Period

In this paper, fifty-seven (57) ancient theaters will destruction of Old Plevronas by Dimitrios II Aetoli- be studied in particular, which can be documented kos (King of Macedonia, Greece). It develops at an with the help of aerial and satellite archeology. altitude of 195 to 280 m, at the southwest end of The measuring information will be derived from Mount Arakountos (or Libra). Homer states that the image processing from Ikonos-2 satellite city participated in the campaign against Troy. Neos (Hadjimitsis et al., 2012), Google Earth (Kaimaris et Plevronas experienced great prosperity during the al., 2017a), and three (3) different Unmanned Aerial Hellenistic period, but after the Battle of Aktion in 31 Vehicles (UAVs) (Liritzis et al., 2017; Hatzopoulos et B.C. it declined and its inhabitants were transferred al., 2017). to another position by the Romans. The ancient city was built according to the Hippodamian system, on 2. PLATFORMS FOR THE COLLECTION a larger scale than the old city. Having a privileged OF IMAGES OF ANCIENT THEATERS position with a panoramic view, it retained control AND THEIR DIGITAL PROCESSING of the land and sea pathways, as well as the re- 2.1. UAV / RC helicopter sources (salines and lagoons). From the rescued monuments of the city, the ancient theatre occupies The RC (Remote Control) Helicopter (Fig. 2.a) has an important place. It is located at the southwest of a lifting power of eight (8) Kg, 1.39 m length, 0.15 m the city and its proscenion rests in the inner part of width, 1.53 m helix aperture and 5.10 Kg weight. At the fortification wall. The orchestra forms a semicir- the bottom of the helicopter there is the dependence cle of about 11m, while the originality of the theatre of a Canon 1200D, 18MP digital camera (Patias et al., concerns the incorporation of part of the scene into 2008; Patias et al., 2013). the structure of the wall. The functionality of the Of the five (5) ancient theaters depicted with the scene is complemented by a tower of the fortification, RC Helicopter, the case of the ancient theatre of Ne- which was an auxiliary space for the scene and the os Plevronas (Western Sterea Hellas, Fig. 2.d) will be backstage. The koilon is partly carved into the natu- presented. The archaeological position of the great ral rock and partly built. European travellers E. fortification settlement of Neos Plevronas was one of Dodwell and W.J. Woodhouse were aware of the the largest ancient cities of the wider region, which city’s ruins already from the early 19th century. The was established after 235 B.C, immediately after the first excavation research was conducted by R. Her-

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zog and E. Ziebarth in the late 19th century. The significant interventions by the Hellenic Archaeolog- German scholar E. Fiechter published the first sys- ical Service for the protection, preservation and tematic study of the monument in 1933. A short ex- promotion of its monuments. Geodetic measure- cavation research was conducted in 1993 in coopera- ments and images were taken with UAV / RC Heli- tion with the Austrian Archaeological Institute. Since copter for modern measurement documentation of 2002, the ancient city has received and experienced the ancient theatre of Neos Plevronas.

Figure 2. Self-made unmanned aerial vehicles, a. RC Helicopter, b. RC Balloon, c. Drone and d. The positions of the three (3) exam- ples of UAV flights in Greece (the position of Thessaloniki appears only for orientation). In the ancient theatre, measurements of adjacent than 5mm at the Greek Geodetic Reference System of ground control points (GCPs), points with 3D coor- 1987 (GGRS87). GCPs were pre-tagged by archaeol- dinates, X, Y, and Z) were made with a ground sta- ogists with special colored material, not detrimental tion (Total Station TCR 305, with or without reflector, to the monument (Fig. 3). LEICA®) of horizontal and vertical accuracy better

Figure 3. Ground Control Points (GCPs) pre-tagging and their measurement with the ground station (personal file). The RC Helicopter does not have an autopilot, theatre demanded the image acquisition of high and therefore cannot carry out an automated image scale), the relative (not absolute) flight height H = capture. For an average image scale of 1/1,000 (the 20m was calculated, as well as the distance between modern measurement documentation of the ancient the strips. The above were carefully checked during

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the manual flight with measurements from the geo- several built-in filtering algorithms. For the construc- detic station. 159 images of average spatial resolution of the Building mesh in surface type Height tion of 4mm were obtained (due to the manual flight field was chosen and in Source data (specifies the many images were collected), with overlapping up source for the mesh generation procedure) Dense to 65-85% per image, and 30-50% per strip (Fig. 4.a). cloud was chosen (it will generate high quality out- The images were processed in Agisoft PhotoScan®. put based on the previously reconstructed dense After the insertion of the study area images and the point cloud). Moreover, for the creation of the Tex- GCPs the coordinate system was chosen (GGRS87 ture in Mapping mode, Orthophoto was chosen, and (EPSG: 2100)), and the automated alignment of the in Blending mode (selects the way pixel values from images (accuracy: High) was conducted. For the different photos will be combined in the final tex- production of the Points Cloud, High Quality was ture) Mosaic was chosen (gives more quality for or- chosen (specifies the desired reconstruction quality, thophoto and texture atlas, since it does not mix im- and higher quality settings can be used to obtain age details of overlapping photos but uses the most more detailed and accurate geometry). At the stage appropriate photo) (Kaimaris et al., 2017b). Finally, of dense point cloud generation reconstruction the the Digital Surface Model (DSM) and the ortho im- software calculates depth maps for every image. Due age (Fig. 4.b) of the ancient theatre were exported to some factors, there can be some outliers among with a spatial resolution of 1cm, at GGRS 87. the points. To sort out the outliers the software has

Figure 4. a. The 3D model of the ancient theatre of New Plevronas and the images’ location (Agisoft PhotoScan®), b. ortho image (spatial resolution 1 cm) of New Pevronas (personal file). 2.2. UAV/RC balloon vertical rotation sensor and the activation of the jet engine is mounted on the console of the ground sta- The RC balloon (Fig. 2.b) has a diameter of 2m. tion (Kaimaris and Patias, 2015). When filled with helium (~5m3), the balloon has a From the two ancient theaters that have been doc- load capacity of 3.6 Kg. It has four hooks, from umented with the RC Balloon, the case of the ancient which the image acquisition system of carbon fiber is theatre of Philippi (East Macedonia, Greece, Fig. 2.d). anchored. The image acquisition system has a total Philippi was an ancient city of eastern Macedonia weight of 1.24 Kg (without the sensor). It consists of (Greece), and has been inhabited since the Neolithic a base mounting suitable for any DSLR camera, camera. Its history begins in 360/359 B.C, when settlers corder, etc., with a weight of up to 1.5 Kg. The digital from Thassos founded the first city, Krinides. When camera Canon EOS 1200D, 18 MP, was used for im- in 356 B.C Thassos was threatened by the Thracians, ages acquisition. The combined movement (servo- they searched for Philippou’s II help. Meanwhile, mechanisms actuation) of the four members (base, Philippos acknowledged the city's economic and arm, vertical member and cross edge) allows the strategic importance and occupied it, fortified it, and sensor to rotate 360°, horizontally and vertically. A renamed it to Philippi. The city flourished both dur- turbojet electric motor for controlling the mobility of ing the Macedonian Kingdom and during Roman the balloon is fitted to the vertical member. The times. The ancient Via Egnatia road (Kaimaris, 2006) blueprint (dimensions, weights) of the image acqui- passed through the city. In Phillipi, Apostle Paul sition system’s four members was designed in flight- founded the first Christian church on European terri- simulation software that determined the lengths of tory. The ancient theatre of Philippi dates back to the the dependence ropes from the balloon hooks, and years of the King of Macedonia (in the 4th century the position of the jet engine. Lastly, the controller B.C), with the addition of the epitheatron. It was for the image acquisition system, the horizontal /

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documented in 2012 through pilot flights and appli- erage spatial resolution were obtained with an over- cations of RC Balloon (Kaimaris and Patias, 2015). lapping of approximately 60% to 90% per image (Fig. The RC Balloon does not have an autopilot and, 5.a). In addition to the images, GCPs were measured therefore, cannot perform an automated image cap- using Global Position System (GPS) in GGRS87 (hor- ture. For an average picture scale of 1/5,000 (random izontal and vertical accuracy better than 15mm). The scale selection/pilot flight), the flight height of H = images were processed (similar to RC Helicopter) in 80m was calculated. During the manual flight, the Agisoft PhotoScan® (Kaimaris et al., 2017b). Finally, ability of stability of the system for an extended pe- the DSM and the ortho image of the ancient theatre riod of time allows for the acquisition of a small were exported with spatial resolution of 3cm (Fig. number of images. A total of 6 images of 20mm av- 5.b) to GGRS87.

Figure 5. a. The ovelapping of images (1.5cm spatial resolution) collected in 2012 with RC Balloon at the site of the ancient Philippi Theatre, b. The ortho image (3 cm spatial resolution) of the Philippi Theatre (personal fie). 2.3. UAV/Drone removed the Edonoians (Thracian Ancient Gender), The dependency base (camera gimbal) of the cam- and built a city under the name of “Amphipolis”. era sensor of the drone (Fig. 2.c) allows its vertical Approximately 2Km northeast of Amphipolis is the rotation of 180o (± 90o from nadir) during the flight. archaeological site of the Kasta Tomb. During the The used optical sensor is the digital camera DSLR Peloponnesian War, specifically in 422 B.C, the city Canon 1200D, 18 MP, while its autopilot, Wookong was conquered by Sparta after a fierce battle with M of DJI, incorporates Controller, IMU (Inertial the Athenians. For the salvation of the city, the Measurement Unit), and GPS. According to the spec- Athenians sent a mission under the leadership of ifications of the autopilot, the GPS horizontal and Thucydides (the later historian). The mission failed, vertical accuracy are about ±2m and ±0.5m respec- which led Thucydides to exile. Afterwards, Cleon tively, and the IMU angle measurement accuracy in was sent, who was killed during the battle of Am- three axes ranges approximately from 1ο to 2ο. The phipolis, a violent battle in which the Spartan Gen- UAV can take off and land automatically. The eral Brassis died too. With the "Peace of Nicias", UAV’s lifting capacity, beyond its weight, is 2.5 Kg, Sparta pledged to render Amphipolis to Athens, and its flight time ranges from 10 to 15 minutes, de- which did not happen resulting in the violation of pending on the type of flight and the ambient tem- the peace and the restart of the Peloponnesian War. perature. In 357 B.C Amphipolis was captured by Philippos II From the documented archaeological sites by the the father of Alexander the Great and became part of Drone, one only relates to an ancient theatre, which the Kingdom of the Macedonians (Greece). Philippos specifically is the ancient theatre of Amphipolis II transported a large number of his citizens to Am- (Eastern Macedonia, Greece, Fig. 2.d), which will be phipolis in order to change the population's compo- briefly presented (the research is in process). sition for his benefit. During the period of Alexander In 437 B.C Agnon, son of Nikias, sent to eastern the Great, Amphipolis had become a very important Macedonia (Greece) by the Athenians as a settler, naval base of the Macedonians, and the birthplace of occupied the wider area of the position "Nine Roads", three important admirals, Nearchos, Androstene and

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Laomedon. From there, Alexander the Great sailed MP, used for images acquisition) in the area where to Asia (Dadaki, 2012). With the fall of the Macedo- the position of the covered orchestra of the ancient nian Kingdom by the Romans, Amphipolis became theatre was determined. The drone has an autopilot, part of the Roman Empire. The fact that Ancient Via and therefore can perform an automated image cap- Egnatia Road passed through Amphipolis (Kaimaris, ture. For a 1/5,000 (same scale as that of Philippi) 2006) helped to preserve its significance and im- mean image scale, a flight height of H = 85m was portance in the Early Christian period. Through the calculated, allowing 2 cm spatial resolution images Via Egnatia Apostle Paul passed through the city in to be collected. The flight plan was implemented 49-50 AD, on his way from Philippi to Thessaloniki. through four (4) flight strips, with 80% overlap per In the later Roman times, the city had a significant image, and 40% per flight strips. A total of fifty-six economic development, as witnessed by the Early (56) pictures were collected (result of the flight plan). Christian temples of the city of the 5th and 6th cen- In addition to capturing images, GCPs with GPS turies AD. After the raids of the Slavs at the end of (Fernández-Hernandez et al., 2015) measurements the 6th century AD Amphipolis is gradually desert- (horizontal and vertical accuracy better than 15mm) ed and abandoned in the 8th century AD (Dadaki, were performed in GGRS87. The images were pro- 2012). cessed (similar to RC Helicopter) in Agisoft Pho- In the city of Amphipolis there was an ancient toScan® (Kaimaris et al., 2017b). Finally, the DSM theatre, which was recently identified with aerial and the ortho image of the ancient theatre were ex- and satellite archaeology tools (the research is in ported with a spatial resolution of 3cm (Fig. 6) to process). Moreover, a drone was used to capture im- GGRS87. ages of high spatial resolution (Canon EOS 1200D, 18

Figure 6. Products of the digital image processing of the Drone. a. Ortho image, b. Digital Surface Model (DSM), and c. Digital Ter- rain Model (DTM), with altitudes from 79.3m (black) to 123.5m (white), and the possible location (the research is in process) of the theatre’s orchestra (yellow color). Spatial analysis of geospatial products of 3 cm (personal file). 2.4. Satellite Ikonos-2 The broader area of six (6) ancient theaters of Ta- The Ikonos-2 satellite sensor (1999-2015) was a ble 1 is covered geospatially by six (6) Ikonos-2 satel- high-resolution satellite operated by DigitalGlobe. lite images (Fig. 7.a). For the ortho rectification of the Its analysis reached 4m multispectral (R, G, B, Near- images, the Digital Terrain Model (DTM) of the Infrared (NIR)) and 1m panchromatic resolution. It is country with 10m of spatial analysis was used, and an important tool of archaeology prospection (re- GCPs collected from the National Cadastre (NCMA mote sensing archaeology), with hundreds of appli- 2012), of 1m horizontal accuracy. Image processing cations to date (Pavlidis et al., 2001; Campana, 2002; (selection of GCPs and ortho rectification of images Lambers and Remondino, 2007; Sever and Irwi, 2003; using DTM) (Kaimaris and Patias, 2016) took place ® Due Trier et al., 2009; Castrianni et al., 2010; Dore in Erdas Imagine 2015 , where the horizontal accu- and McElroy, 2011; Caspari et al., 2014; Deroin et al., racy of the produced ortho satellite images in 2017). GGRS87 ranges from 1.5m to 2.0m.

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Figure 7. a. Ikonos-2 satellite image (B, G, NIR) of the ancient theater of Vergina, b. Google Earth image of the ancient theater of Epidaurus. 2.5. Google Earth Pro tances from the coastline, their visibility, and their Google Earth Pro images were used (Fig. 7.b) to altitude were calculated. At the same time, the at- capture the information of the remaining forty-four tribute table was updated with the names of the the- (44) ancient theaters of Table 1 (Kaimaris et al., 2011). aters and their preservation state. With the help of After extracting and storing the images, their geo- GIS, the following research was carried out. metric correction followed by the use of GCPs col- 3.2. The location of ancient theatres lected from Maps of the National Cadastre (NCMA 2012). Image processing (selection of GCPs and ge- In figure 8.b presents the positions of the ancient ometric correction) was performed on Erdas Imagine theaters in Greece. The coastal presence (mainly) of 2015®, and the horizontal accuracy of the geometri- the ancient theaters is observed, with the exception cally corrected images produced in GGRS87 ranges of the regions of Peloponnese, Western Greece and from 2.0m to 2.5m. Attica (Fig. 8.a), where several theaters appear in the inner area. No theaters appear in central Greece 3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION (Thessaly), in the northern part of Macedonia, ie in SYSTEMS (GIS) AND RESEARCH the regions of Western, Central and Eastern Mace- donia and Thrace, in the southern part of Central 3.1. GIS Macedonia (Halkidiki) and in the islands of the re- The geometrically corrected images of ancient gion of Central Greece. Uniform theatre distribution theaters, the DTM, the borders and the coastline of is observed in Peloponnese, Western Greece and Greece were imported into the Geographic Infor- Crete. mation System (GIS). The theatres’ koilon were then produced and their areas, their orientation, their dis-

Figure 8. a. The regions of Greece: I. Eastern Macedonia and Thrace, II. Central Macedonia, III. Western Macedonia, IV. Epirus, V. Thessaly, VI. Ionian Islands, VII. Western Greece, VIII. Central Greece, IX. Attica, X. Peloponnese, XI. North Aegean, XII. South Aegean, XIII. Crete. b. With blue the location of ancient theaters, from the 6th century B.C to Roman times. In red, the wider area of the ancient theaters which are known only by historical sources or minimum remains of them are saved but cannot be studied by archaeologists.

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3.3. The construction era of theaters 3.4. Preservation state of the theaters In figure 9.a two (2) theaters of the 6th century B.C The state of preservation of the ancient theaters are presented in the Attica region and in the south of that can be studied is divided into two categories. Western Greece. Four (4) theaters of the 5th century The first category is the good state of preservation B.C appear around the Attica region, and one (1) (Fig. 9.b), in which monuments are preserved and / theatre in northern Aegean. Twenty-five (25) thea- or restored at a large scale, can be visited and can be ters of the 4th century B.C are located in almost eve- studied. The second category is the moderate state of ry part of Greece, except in the region of Crete. Also, preservation, in which the preservation rate is low. thirteen (13) theaters of the 3rd, two (2) theaters of They may have been partly restored and they can be the 2nd, and two (2) theaters of the 1st century B.C visited and be marginally studied. Twenty-five (25) are presented. Finally, eight (8) theaters of the Ro- theaters belong to the first category, while thirty-two man period appear in Peloponnese, Central Aegean (32) theaters are in the second category. With a ratio and Crete. of 1 to 1.3, unfortunately category B is superior. Most of the A 'class Theaters are concentrated mainly around the Attica region.

Figure 9. The construction era of the ancient theaters. b. The state of preservation of the ancient theaters, green in good condition, and red in moderate conservation status. 3.5. The areas of the koilon of the ancient The area of the koilon of ancient Greek theaters theaters ranges from 56m2 (Amvrakia Theater, 4th century B.C) to 7,640m2 (Theatre of Dionysus, 6th century The determination of the outline of the koilon of B.C). 50% of the theatres’ total areas range from 56m2 each theatre in its initial phase requires an in-depth to 1,500m2 (Fig. 10), while the remaining 50% range study of each monument, something which has not between 1501m2 to 7.640m2. The theaters with the been conducted in the present paper. The theaters largest areas appear in the regions of Attica, Pelo- have been altered over the years, meeting the needs ponnesus, Epirus and North Aegean (on the island of their times. Today, the remains of their structures of Mytilene). are in the form of their last phase, before the decline of the ancient cities that created them.

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Figure 10. a. The areas of the koilon of the ancient theaters. b. The diagram of the distribution of theaters according to the area of their koilon. 3.6. Distance of the theaters from the coastline coastline, 33.3% range between 1,001m to 11,000m, The distances of ancient Greek theaters from the and the remaining 33.3% range between 11,001m to coastline were calculated in GIS. The distances (Fig. 42,559m from the coastline. In other words, 21% of 11) range from 11m (Koufonissi theatre, Roman Pe- the theaters lay at a distance of 11m to 500m, and riod) to 42,559m (Mieza’s theatre, 2nd century B.C). 44% at a distance of 501 to 7,500m. 33.4% of the theaters are up to 1,000m way from the

Figure 11. The diagram of the distribution of theaters according to their distance to the coastline. 3.7. Mountainous and foothill location of the Period). 74% of the theaters are located in flat areas theaters of low altitude (0m to 200m), 12% in flat areas of higher altitude (201m to 500m), and the remaining Utilizing the country's DTM, the altitudes (alti- 14% in semi-mountainous areas (501m to 1000m). tude of a point in the center of the koilon) of the an- Analysing the results in a different way, 33.4% of the cient Greek theaters were determined in the GIS. The theaters have an altitude of 6m to 50m, 21.1% range altitudes (Fig. 12) range from 6m (Githion theatre, from 51m to 100m, and the remaining 45.5% from Roman Period, and theatre of Kathrea, 1st century 101m to 870m. B.C) to 870m (Orchomenos Arkadia theatre, Roman

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Figure 12. The diagram of the distribution of theaters according to their altitude. 3.8. Orientation of the theaters the theaters is from 90ο to 270ο, since thirty-nine (39) Using GIS tools the projected azimuth of the axis theaters are included in the above value variation of each theatre was calculated. In other words, the (Fig. 13.b). Most of them have southeast, south or angle that the viewer who is in the centre of the koi- southwest orientation. Twelve (12) theaters are ori- o o o lon and looks towards the centre of the orchestra ented from 0 to 90 , and six (6) theaters from 270 to o creates with the direction of the geographic North 360 . (Fig. 13.a) was calculated. The main orientation of

Figure 13. a. The orientation of the ancient theaters. b. The diagram of the distribution of theaters according to their orientation. By studying figure 13.a, it appears that there is no calculated in GIS (Fig. 14). In 13.33% of the theaters pattern of orientation of the ancient theaters in the differences are positive with values from 90o to Greece. However, it is interesting to study the mean 135o. A corresponding percentage is observed for the wind direction at theatre locations. This requires the negative differences from -90o to -135o. 40% of the assumption that the mean directions of the winds theatres’ differences are positive with values from have been preserved since antiquity to this day. 45o to 90o. Finally, in 33.34% of the theaters the dif- From the website of the National Meteorological ferences are negative with values from -45o to -90o. In Service (HNMS, 2017), the data of the wind direction no theatre, the difference in angles, either negative or (from mid-spring to mid-autumn) in the wider re- positive, has a value ranging from -45° to 45° or from gions of thirty (30) out of a total of fifty-seven (57) of -135° to 135°. In conclusion, it seems that for the con- ancient theaters were gathered (for the other twenty- struction of the theaters, the average direction of the seven (27) theaters there is no relevant information). winds, which should be lateral, was taken very seri- For each theatre, the difference between the angle of ously. This would allow for the smooth ventilation orientation of the theatre and the wind direction was of the structures. The above conclusion is reinforced

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by the fact that if the air would blow from the scene the spectators or the actors. to the koilon or the inverse, it would disturb either

Figure 14. The directions of the winds and the percentages of the theaters in which corresponding winds blow. 3.9. Visibility of the theaters centre of the orchestra. Using the country’s DTM of Visibility refers to the ability to view the horizon the 10m spatial analysis, the percentage of visibility at a certain predefined location, or in other words was calculated for each theatre. A visibility distance measures the sense of openness from a certain point. of 10 kilometers (indicative value) and a visibility In this case, the visibility rate measures the percent- range of 120°, i.e. ± 60° from the observed axis (Fig. age of horizon view of a viewer who is in the centre 15a) was set. The processing was undertaken in GIS of the koilon and looks towards the direction of the (Kaimaris et al., 2017c).

Figure 15. a. Visibility specification, and b. The diagram of the distribution of theaters according to the percentage of visibility. Visibility rates (Fig. 15.b) range from 0.63% (Thea- 100%. By looking at figure 15.b, about 1/4 of the the- ter of Karthia, Larissa II, Amvrakia and Korinthos) to aters have a visibility from 0.63% to 10%, 1/4 visibil- 100% (Theatre of Argos, Philippi and Thira). About ity from 10% to 30% (Fig. 16.a), 1/5 visibility from 50% of ancient Greek theaters have a visibility rate of 30 % to 60%, and 1/3 of the theaters have a visibility 0.63% to 30%, and the remaining 50% is from 30% to rate of 60% to 100% (Fig. 16.b).

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Figure 16. a. Visibility 25%. DTM background (altitude gradient from white to dark grey, from high to lower altitudes), the red surface of the terrain is visible from the theatre, and the magnification of the theatre position in the yellow frame. b. Visibility 90%. 4. CORRELATION OF DATA The only (and expected) correlation with a satisfy- By combining all the above information, namely ing percentage of 47.03% is between the distance the state of preservation of the theaters, the era of from the coastline and the altitude of the theatre their construction, their distance from the coastline, (with p-value: 0.002, less than 0.05). Therefore, there their orientation, the area of each theatre, their alti- is no pattern for the construction of ancient theaters tude, and the visibility rate, an attempt to identify that exploits all or some of the characteristics and / any correlations between the data was conducted, or properties of Table 2. creating a correlation table (Table 2).

Table 2. Correlation of data.

Distance State of Construction Area of the Visibility Data from coast- Orientation Altitute preservation era koilon rate line State of preserva- 1.000 -0.2942 0.1172 -0.1880 -0.2202 0.0637 0.1552 tion Construction era -0.2942 1.000 -0.038 -0.1091 0.1670 -0.0477 -0.1134 Distance from 0.1172 -0.038 1.000 -0.2264 0.1219 0.4703 -0.0380 coastline

Orientation -0.1880 -0.1091 -0.2264 1.000 0.0777 -0.1294 -0.1497

Area of the koilon -0.2202 0.1670 0.1219 0.0777 1.0000 0.0723 -0.0147

Altitude 0.0637 -0.0477 0.4703 -0.1294 0.0723 1.000 -0.0092 Visibility rate 0.1552 -0.1134 -0.0380 -0.1497 -0.0147 -0.0092 1.000

5. CONCLUSIONS urement features, such as distance from the coastline, The tools of geoinformatics, which are some of the orientation, koilon area, altitude, and the percentage tools of archaeological prediction, such as aerial and of their visibility. After their appearance in the 6th satellite images (from RC Helicopter, Balloon, Drone, century BC, the highest number of construction is Ikonos-2, Google Earth Pro), GIS, etc, have allowed observed in the 4th century BC. Most of the ancient for the measuring documentation of ancient Greek theatres are concentrated around Athens, the capital theatres. GCPs with spatial accuracy from 5mm to city, which, on the one hand, are currently in good 1m (in GGRS 87) have been used for the production conservation status, and on the other hand have a of Digital Surface Models (DSMs) and ortho images large area of coverage. As far as the latter is con- of the ancient theatres with spatial resolutions from cerned, about half of ancient theatres have a koilon 2 2 1cm to 2.5m (in GGRS 87). Moreover, the tools of area of 56m to 1,500m . The altitudes of the ancient geoinformatics allowed the extraction of their meas- Greek theatres range from 6m to 870m, while their

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distances from the coastline range from 11m to lation with a satisfying percentage is between the 42,559m. Most of them are oriented from 90ο to 270ο, distance from the coastline and the altitude of the while about half of the theatres have a clear visibility theatre. Apart from these facts, it was interesting to only up to 30% up to a distance of 10Km. Moreover, study the orientation of the ancient theatres in com- an attempt to combine these data and to check pos- bination with the direction of the winds in each loca- sible correlations was made, aiming at the macro- tion. This study proved that during their construc- scopic comprehension of their constructional fea- tion, ancient engineers orientated theatres in such tures. Unfortunately, the only (and expected) corre- way that the wind in the area was lateral.

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