2015 MEDITERRANEAN ASSESSMENTIN THE MARINE LITTER 1 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 2 © Isabelle Poitou / MerTerre Marine Litter AssessmentMarine intheMediterranean 2015 www.unepmap.org 48, Vassileos Konstantinou Ave., 11635Athens, Greece UNEP/M Development intheEuro Organizations inthefields ofEnvironment (NGOs)working and of theEU’s Strategy Marine Framework Directive. UNEP/MAP to implement EcAp insynergy withtheimplementation and itsProtocols”(EcAp 2012-2015)aimsto MEDproject support EnvironmentMarine andtheCoastal region ofthe Mediterranean to achievenational efforts sustainabledevelopment. andcoastalthe marine environment whileboostingregional and P.O. Box 18019,Athens, Greece PlanAction (UNEP/MAP) © 2015United Nations Environment Programme /Mediterranean Assessment intheMediterranean, UNEP/MAP, Athens, 2015. bibliographic thisvolume purposes may Litter becited as:Marine whatsoever from in writing without permission UNEP/MAP. For cannot beusedfor resale orfor any othercommercial purpose any publication that usesthispublication asasource. This publication the source ismade. UNEP/MAP would appreciate receiving acopy of frompermission thecopyright holder, provided of acknowledgement form for educational or non-profit without special purposes This publication may be reproduced and in any in whole or in part concerning thedelimitation oftheirfrontiers orboundaries. status ofany State, Territory, orarea, city orofitsauthorities, or ofUNEP/MAPwhatsoever ortheEUconcerning thelegal onthepart this document do not imply the expression of any opinion The designations employed andthepresentation ofthematerial in finalization ofthisassessment. MAP wishesto thankallothercontributors whowere involved inthe have beenincludedinthefinal version asfarappropriate. UNEP/ version ofthisassessment from theMEDPOLFocal Points. These UNEP/MAP thecomments acknowledges received onthedraft Francoise Claro (National ofNatural Museum History, Paris, France). (IFREMER, Laboratoire LER/PAC), assisted for theFrench version, by El Turk (UNEP/MAP). The maincontributor was Dr. Francois Galgani The chiefeditors were Tatjana Hema(UNEP/MAP MEDPOL)andHoda Mediterranean Trust Fund oftheUNEP/MAP Barcelona Convention. me through theEcAp This publication was prepared by theUNEP/MAP MEDPOLProgram­ Final pagelayout &cover pagewere prepared by P. Alexandropoulou ISBN No:978-92807 -35642 Cop Legal Notice A Cover Photo: cknoledgements yright AP Partner, aFederation of130Non- (MIO ronment, Culture andSustainableDevelopment The Mediterranean Information Office for Envi­ Convention for theProtection ofthe Barcelona by theContracting Parties inthecontext ofthe of theEcosystem Approach intheMediterranean The EcAp determined to meet the challenges of protecting to theBarcelona Convention anditsProtocols are Union. Through UNEP/MAP, theContracting Parties aswellthe Mediterranean Sea, astheEuropean seas programme involving 21countries bordering UNEP © IsabellePoitou /MerTerre -ECSDE |www.mio -MAP (www.unepmap.org) isthefirst regional MED project co-MED project -Mediterranean area. MED project onthe -MED project ­ “Imple funded by the EU and the -funded by theEUand - ecsde.org) isaMAP

Governmental mentation 2015 MEDITERRANEAN ASSESSMENTIN THE MARINE LITTER 3 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 4

© Thomais Vlachogianni/MIO-ECSDE Preface presenting updated results ofmodelling. patterns,in theircomposition and transport sources oflitter,most important itspecifieschanges Mediterranean country. additionto providing In the andcoastalthe marine environment for each alsoprovidesIt data onwaste andplasticinputsto litterstudies onmarine have beenalsointegrated. The results ofmonitoring andnational andregional andprojects. reports and technical activity reports, data publishedover thelastfive years inscientific outlines thefindingsofassessment andincludes that entered into force in2014. The present report 11(e)oftheRegional Plan conformity withArticle This regional isdelivered assessment report in coastal environment. the adverse litter and effectsofmarine onthe marine implementation timetablesto prevent andreduce set oflegallybindingprogrammes ofmeasures and Litter in2013,providing ofMarine Management for a ProgrammeSea to develop aRegional Plan onthe Mediterranean, UNEP/MAP was thefirsteverRegional To address litter theissue ofmarine inthe of litter from urbanized areas. rivers andvery traffic passingthrough andadditionalinputs various developed tourism, 30%oftheworld’s maritime other oceans, itsdenselypopulated coasts, highly exacerbated by thebasin’s limited exchanges with issue.confirmed asacritical The problem is litter theMediterranean, marine hasbeen In Development andSDGs. processes includingthe2030Agenda for Sustainable relevantby globalandregional themostimportant assessments have andurgent action beencalled for over theworld. Consequently, integrated litter marine and coastal environment all andhumanactivities problem withsignificant implications for themarine litter isacomplexMarine andmulti- dimensional Barcelona Convention -UNEP Coordinator oftheMediterranean Plan Action LeoneGaetano litter to andcoastal themarine environment. address thegrowing severe threat posedby marine most effective andprevention reduction measures to set ambitiousandrealistic the targets andselect a valuable source ofinformation to andknowledge useful, as Parties andstakeholderswillfindthis report environmental status. I amconfident that Contracting timetables for theirimplementation to achieve good littermarine prevention and andreduction, containing programmes ofmeasures, includingon their National Plans Action to combat pollution, Parties to theBarcelona Convention are finalizing ispreparedThis report at atimewhenallContracting LitterRegional Plan Management. on Marine towardaction implementing themeasures ofthe evidence ismore thansufficient tojustifyimmediate environment,the marine existing orimpacts, litter,marine eitherrelated to theiramounts, fate in gapson andknowledge Despite theuncertainties and management measures. monitoring andscience basedprevention, reduction scientific and technical background for a consistent understanding ofthechallengesandto provide the number ofpoints to beaddressed to attain abetter implemented andcoordinated. alsohighlights a It developed,Mediterranean needto befurther management measures andreduction inthe The assessment concludes thatlitter marine

5 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 6

© Thomais Vlachogianni/MIO-ECSDE T able of Contents 2. MARINE 1. LITTER EXECUTIVE INTRODUCTION IN PREFACE SUMMARY TO THE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS THE MEDITERRANEAN ASSESMENT SEA 8. 7. REFERENCES PRIORITIES 6. RESEARCHGAPS,KNOWLEDGES NEEDS,ANDPROPOSALSASBASIS FORSETTING ABBREVIATIONS 5. AND MANAGEMENT ACRONYMS AND REDUCTION MEASURES MONITORING4. MARINE IN PROGRAMS LITTER THE MEDITERRANEAN 3. IMPACT IN OFMARINE LITTER THE MEDITERRANEAN 1.2. 1.1. The general framework: Litter Marine Programme UNEP’S The Mediterranean context 2.1. 2.2. 4.2 4.1 3.1. 3.4. 3.3. 3.2

Origin, typology and pathways Litter ofMarine intheMediterraneanDistribution (Regional, National, Local) Baselines andtargetsBaselines inthecontext Litter ofMonitoring Marine intheMediterranean Sea Monitoring Impacts on wildlife Socio-economic Socio-economic impacts Secondary Secondary pollution from marine litter Marine Marine litter and human health 2.1.1. 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.2.1 2.1.4 2.2.2. 2.2.3. 2.2.4 2.2.5 3.1.1 2.2.6 3.1.2. 3.1.3

Sources litter ofmarine intheMediterranean Circulation Typology litter ofmarine intheMediterranean Beaches Beaches Degradation Regional of surveys marine litter at sea Floating oftheMediterranean Sea Litter onthesurface Sea Sea floor Derelict Derelict fishing gear Microplastics fishinggears ofderelict Entanglement /impact oflitter data intheMediterranean Sea Summary Ingestion Transport of species/ New habitats

18 13 13 16 12 8 4 2 18 23 29 24 29 28 31 34 78 76 72 66 61 36 59 47 40 58 46 55 48 42 53 49 51 50 7 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 8

© Thomais Vlachogianni/MIO-ECSDE Summary Executive Parties oftheBarcelona Convention at their18 was adopted by IG.21/7oftheContractingIt Decision Litter intheMediterranean. ofMarine Management UNEP/MAP developed theRegional Plan onthe urbanized areas.very To address issue, thiscritical and various additionalinputsoflitter from rivers and 30% oftheworld’s traffic maritime passingthrough densely populated coasts, highlydeveloped tourism, basin’s limited exchanges withotheroceans, its issue.critical The problem isexacerbated by the litter intheMediterranean isaconfirmed Marine Seas Programme).Seas Litter Initiative ofUNEP(GPA andthe Regional preparation by MEDPOLwithintheGlobalMarine for Litter Management, at Marine thetimeunder recommendations inviewoftheStrategic Framework the countries oftheregion, and(iii)makepractical in theMediterranean, (ii)how itwas dealtwithby understand (i)thestatus litter ofthemarine problem The ofthe2008assessment mainobjective was to results ofmany European projects. done at theEuropean andinternational level andthe litter were integrated. alsoincorporates It thework monitoring orregional/national studiesonmarine andtheresults of reports technical activity reports, published over thelastfive years inscientific and updated basedonexisting information. Data Mediterranean prepared by UNEP/MAP MEDPOLwas assessment ofthestatuslitter ofmarine inthe the EUfundedEcAp of accordance 11(e)andwiththesupport withArticle The Regional Plan entered into force in2014and andcoastalmarine environment. and reduce theadverse litter effectsofmarine onthe measures andimplementation timetablesto prevent inIstanbulandprovidesMeeting for programmes of -MED project,the2008 th

in theMediterranean. quantifiable estimationlitter ofthemarine problem extrapolated tostatistics give that could befurther a unrecorded). were Efforts made to provide useful reliable data litter onmarine (recorded or as scientists andindividuals, whocould provide governmental organizations andassociations, aswell withlocalauthorities, contacts direct non- (2015), analysis ofbeachclean-updata, initiatives and the recent fishinggear regional onderelict survey previous data reports, from themain NGOsinvovled, scientific literature, monitoring results, data from The assessment relied oninformation from collected Mediterranean Sea. forespecially thosethat are the important anddetailsthegeneral measures, reduction impact micro alsoprovidesreport original data andinformation on seabed, andingestedsurface, litter). This updated environment ofthemarine compartments (beaches, comprehensive review ofexisting data for thefour updated results ofmodellingandprovides a patterns presentingcomposition andtransport sources oflitter,the mostimportant changesintheir andspecifies the seafor eachMediterranean country providesreport data onwaste andplasticinputsto Compared to the2008assessment, thisupdated -plastics, fishinggearandtheir onderelict 9 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 10

© Thomais Vlachogianni/MIO-ECSDE • • • • summarized asfollows: The mainfindings oftheassessment canbe dominant (pellets/granules, films, fishing threads, findings, five different typesofmicro . Accordingof micro-plastics to themostrecent assess theamounts, composition anddistribution intheMediterranean aimingto been performed To date, onlyalimited numberofstudieshave are considered to problem. beaserious indicated that fishinggearandghostnets derelict Mediterranean fishinggearinthe on derelict organizedsurvey by UNEP/MAP concern. The findingsofthe recent regional data, ithasbeenrecognized as anissueofmajor ofderelict fishinggearrelatedinconsistency theMediterranean, despite thescarcity and In in commercial fishing zones. Fishing related litter, includingghostnets, prevail are predominant ranging from 45%to 95%. worldwide. As for litter plastics onthesea-floor fromthose reported many othercoastal areas and litter densitiesare generally comparable to in thesea,plasticsaccount for more than85% global average. litter terms ofmarine floating In beaches) whichisconsiderably higherthanthe may locallyaccount for items 40%(collected on related litter from Marine smoking activities global average inprevious (UNEP, periods 2011). tabs) andglass(bottles). This isinlinewiththe bags, caps/lids, etc.), aluminium(cans, pull and iscomposed mainlyofplastics (bottles, originates from tourism andrecreational activities litter intheMediterranean onbeaches Marine rather thansea -based sources, were confirmed. the Mediterranean originates from land-based Previous thatlitter mostofmarine in deductions information system. sharing data needsto beimproved through acommon etc. intheregion regarding litter marine related IGOs, research institutes, relevant authorities, information between andamongNGOs, sharing litter and inthe Mediterranean isstillanecessity statistical concerning purposes theproblem of Mediterranean. Standardized research data for geographically mainlyto restricted theNorth (types, quantities, etc.) itisinconsistent and and hasbeenrecently improved intheregion Although usefuldata litter onmarine exists -MED POL -plastics are • • • • provide agoodindicator ofchangesintheiroverall However, thestranded may debris notnecessarily therefore are themostfrequently performed. simplest andthemostcost effective methodand region. are surveys widely viewed Beach asthe harmonized monitoring methodsacross the in acoherent manner(ifat all)viatheuseof litter marine monitoring programmes their up Mediterranean countries have notyet drawn considered, hasnotbeen quantified indetail. due to litter, marine althoughrecognized and costs are. The lossof tourism related revenues is littleornoreliable data onwhat theexact in theMediterranean remains limited. There another. understandingoftheseimpacts Our interrelated andfrequently dependent uponone negative environmental effects are also often and wide range ofeconomic andsocialimpacts Litter environment inthemarine gives to rise a source ofpollutants.secondary studies show asa that litter marine indeedacts that ittakesto decompose. The results ofthe over oftime thelongperiods particularly source ofpollutants, asasecondary debris, acts if litter, beyond itsunfavorable effectsas metallic ororganic chemicalsandto understand litterof marine to thepollutionofseaby toMediterranean Sea, estimate thecontribution been extensively studied, includinginthe the leachingofpollutants from litter has recentIn years, pollutionfrom secondary colonization andrafting. were classifiedinto entanglement, ingestion, reptiles to cetaceans. Effects from thestudies ascidians, bryozoans, sponges, etc.), fishand litter, ranging from invertebrates (polychaetes, a vast array ofspeciesthat are affected by in theMediterranean basin. These studiesunveil litter biotawithmarine (mainlyplastics) of marine several studieshave investigated theinteractions spatial scale, far, isofincreasing So importance. of alltrophic levels at thesametemporal and onbiota thestudyofitsimpacts compartments, As litter marine affectsdifferent marine of bagsorwrappings). e.g. bottles, caps)andthinfilms(~6%; e.g. pieces being fragments (~88%, oflarger rigid objects foam andfragments), ofitems with themajority • • • • hotspots,Good Environmental defining Status, to sources, patterns litter, ofmarine transport knowledgemust address gaps identified relating now become intheMediterranean. It critical and thusfacilitate management schemeshas Research to improve monitoring approaches intheMediterranean. Management identifiedRegional inthe Plan LitterMarine for of themanagement measures agreed and required inorder to facilitate theimplementation A better definitionofbaselinesandtargets is 20% by 2020compared to 2015. target ofreducing litter marine onbeachesby UNEP/MAP (beach, seafloor, waterIn 2015 column) orbiota. environment orinany ofitscompartments overall amount oflitter present inthemarine have definedtargets inthe asa reduction countries.neighboring Various countries ambition, andmeasurability, even between Mediterranean countries interms ofnature, targetsreduction that may bedefined by There isquite litter awidediversity ofmarine years ofresearch andprotocols have beentested. in theMediterranean was suggested many after for monitoring ingested litteruse ofseaturtles indicator speciesofenvironmental pollution. The “endangered”, isadopted worldwide asabio classified as Theworldwide turtle, loggerhead it. good scientific and technical basis to start on biotaintheMediterranean, butthere isa There litter isnomonitoring ofmarine impacts the onefor whichmostdata isavailable. abundance butitisthemostmature indicator and -MED POLproposed anaspirational - • • • Management. measures Litter oftheRegional Plan onMarine towardimmediate action implementing the existing evidence ismore thansufficient tojustify fate environment, inthemarine ortheirimpacts, litter,on marine eitherrelated to amounts, their gaps andknowledge Despite theuncertainties Mediterranean. and management litter ofmarine inthe bothmonitoring andto support knowledge future, to beinitiated inorder to improve basic recommends 15points ofrelevance for the near science measures. basedreduction The report monitoring, abetter management system, and and technical background for aconsistent have beconsidered inorder to provide ascientific understand thechallengeandkeyissueswill points needto beaddressed inorder to better The assessment concludes that anumberof litter ofa gathering thousandsofvolunteers insupport almost allMediterranean countries succeeding in at national andlocallevel in and otherpartners are imperative inmobilizinglocalauthorities andcleanupoperations.collection They also NGO initiatives are significant in ofdataterms awareness-raising andeducation activities, fromMediterranean isprominent. running Apart litterThe marine inthe role ofNGOsintackling discarded fishinggear. andlocalization ofabandoned,quantity lostand indicator speciesfor assessingthe impacts, microplastics insediments andbeaches, new assessing speciessuchasturtles, marine onsentinel onbiota,inparticular impacts -free Mediterranean. 11 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 12

© Milica Mandic/IBM INTR ODUCTIN T O THE ASSESMENT pass through thefollowing three phases: and implementation ofaRegional Strategy should Litter. hasalsobeenagreed It that thedevelopment Strategies for ofMarine theSustainableManagement the Regional Plans Action for Litter orRegional Marine based onthedevelopment andimplementation of litterof marine at the regional level needsto be been agreed that thestrategy to address theproblem 2nd Intergovernmental oftheGPA, Review ithas Environment Programme, andtheoutcome ofthe ProgrammeRegional Seas oftheUnited Nations ongoing regional organized activities through the Taking into account the theUNGAResolution, and implementing litter. regional onmarine activities EastPacific,South and Wider inorganizing Caribbean) Pacific,Sea andGulfof South Seas,Red Aden, Asian Seas, Eastern Northwest Africa, Mediterranean Sea, Caspian EastAsian world BlackSea, Sea, (BalticSea, challenge by around assisting11Regional Seas the Litter Initiative, took role anactive inaddressing the Programme),Regional Seas through itsGlobalMarine call, UNEP(Global Programme (GPA) ofAction andthe programs for litter. marine response In to theUNGA develop andimplement joint prevention andrecovery them to cooperate regionally andsub national environmental strategies, andencourages States to integrate litter theissueofmarine within andcivilsociety, withindustry urges partnerships data litter, onmarine encourages States to develop This GAresolution notes thelack ofinformation and to addressglobal actions theproblem litter. ofmarine 65-70,callsfor national,2005, inarticles regional, and Oceans andtheLaw -of29November oftheSea Assembly (UNGA), A/60/L.22- whichinitsResolution litterof marine was recognized by theUNGeneral from landbasedsources andactivities. The problem UNEP/GPA for environment theprotection ofmarine litter isoneofthe 8contaminantsMarine ofthe continues to worsen. are indications thatlitter themarine problem made internationally, regionally, andnationally, there safety, health,andcultural Despite impacts. efforts ofnegativewide spectrum environmental, economic, world over. originates from It many sources andhasa and coastal environment the andhumanactivities problem withsignificant implications for themarine litter isacomplexMarine andmulti- 1.1 UNEP’S MarineLitterPr The general framework: dimensional -regionally to ogramme

by plasticstandingat US$13billioneachyear. of theoverall financialdamage ecosystemsto marine ecosystems onmarine with clearimpacts andestimates March –4 Maritime OrganizationMaritime (IMO) at its 57 Protection Committee oftheInternational (MEPC) 73/78 Convention. EnvironmentThe Marine Area for ofAnnex the purposes V oftheMARPOL The Mediterranean was alsodesignated aSpecial andcoastalabandoned inthemarine environment». solid material whichis discarded, disposedof, or «Litter asany persistent orprocessed manufactured Annex Idefinedasone ofthecategories ofsubstances recognized. The Protocol was amendedin1996,and dealing withtheproblem litter ofmarine was Based Sources. thisProtocol, In of theimportance againstPollutionof theMediterranean Sea from Land- countries adopted in1980aProtocol for theProtection of theBarcelona Convention, theMediterranean Mediterranean since the1970s. Within theframework litter hasbeenanissueofconcernMarine inthe 1.2 ) &ArticleID=10903 newscentre/default.aspx?DocumentID=2791 «tremendous challenge»(http://www.unep.org/ thatlitter marine remainedacknowledged a More recently, leadingscientists andpolicymakers such issuesat amore globallevel. given2012 are clearindications to ofthehighpriority litter Summit emphasis onmarine issuesat theRio+20 Commitment in2011and, more recently, theparticular The adoptionof theHonoluluStrategy andHonolulu • • • that thedischarge requirements for specialareas of MediterraneanSea. MEPC decided take effect inthe from Ships)specialareaGarbage regulations shall (Regulations for thePrevention ofPollution by establishing thedate onwhichtheMARPOL Annex V national andregional level. oftheRegionalImplementation Strategy at the respective Programmes Regional Seas andthe Strategy into theProgramme of Work ofthe Phase III: The integration oftheRegional national and authorities; and including aregional meetingofexperts Phase II:Preparation oftheRegional Strategy, Phase I:Assessment oftheregional situation; The Mediterranean c th April 2008)adopted April aMEPCresolution

in almostallregions oftheworld, ontext th Session (31 Session st

13 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 14 by thepublication ofaComprehensive Bibliography littermarine inthe Mediterranean. This was followed for theassessment ofcoastal activity and landmark Spain and Turkey). isconsidered This pilotsurvey asa countries with five(Cyprus, participating Italy, Israel, 1988 by UNEP/MAP incooperation withIOCandFAO, recommended that was organized apilotsurvey in on persistent materials (UNEP/IOC/FAO, 1991)and Mediterranean, convened meeting in1987anadhoc lack ofinformation andcoastal onmarine litter inthe UNEP/MAP, jointly withIOC andFAO, recognizing the shipboard incinerator. record63), garbage books, cargo residues, anda management MEPC.220- garbage plans(Resolution state control, suchasplacards for passengersships, special considerations hadto beimplemented for port exchange, endangered species, marine etc. This meant traffic, maritime heavy low water and theparticular area dueto itsoceanographic andecological condition area the Mediterranean Sea was definedasaspecial terminals for thereception ofgarbage. UnderAnnex V, provision ofadequate and reception facilitiesat ports This Annex alsoobligesGovernments to ensure the of aquaculture activities. thevoyage, during undertaken orasaresultactivities include fresh fishgenerated asa result offishing continuously orperiodically. doesnot Garbage operation oftheshipandliableto bedisposedof and animalcarcasses generated thenormal during residues, incinerator ashes,oil, fishinggear, cooking domestic andoperational waste, allplastics, cargo MARPOL Annex V, offood, includesallkinds garbage (resolution MEPC.220(63)).Undertherevised development management ofgarbage plans MEPC.219(63)) andthe2012Guidelinesfor the implementation ofMARPOL Annex V (resolution MEPC 63adopted the2012Guidelinesfor the entered into March 2012, force 2013.In on1January MEPC.201 (62),therevised MARPOL Annex V, which July2011,MEPC62adopted,In by resolution, materials.dunnage, liningandpacking products, rags, glass, metal, bottles, crockery, bags; andallothergarbage, includingpaper ropes, synthetic fishingnetsandplasticgarbage all plastics, includingbutnotlimited to synthetic ofthefollowingMediterranean Sea was prohibited: Mediterranean Sea on1 Mediterranean Sea MARPOL Annex V shalltakeeffect for the all ships, asfrom 1 st May 2009,disposalinto the st May 2009.Consequently, for Association (HELMEPA), andCleanUpGreece (Clean Environmentthe HellenicMarine Protection Culture and SustainableDevelopment (MIO Mediterranean Information Office for Environment, implemented by regional NGOssuchasthe “Keep theMediterranean Litter public awareness andeducation campaign entitled UNEP, UNEP/MAP Programme oftheRegional Seas With thesupport of Region (MAP/UNEP/MED POL,2004). ofCoastalManagement Litter for theMediterranean Programme (SAP),prepared Guidelinesfor within theframework oftheStrategic Action cooperation with World Health Organisation and (UNEP/MAP/MEDproject POL,2004)and, in implemented andUNADEPapilot withRAMOGE environment.the marine Along thisline, MEDPOL solid waste andprevent theintroduction oflitter into toauthorities improve themanagement ofcoastal Programme builtupastrategy to assistcoastal local UNEP/MAPBased onthesefacts, environment islimited to itscontrol. of litter intheregion whentherole oftheMinistry for themanagementresponsible ofcoastal parties administration andmunicipalitiesare theultimate administrations dealingwithsolidwaste issues. Local coordination between different national andlocal enforcement ofthepoliciesisweak dueto thepoor management ofcoastal solidwaste, butthe Mediterranean countries have policiesfor the in thewater, andontheseabed. Almost allthe responsible for thepresence oflitter onthebeaches, inadequate management ofcoastal solidwaste is and coastal centers. urban This indicates that the litter intheregion are river runoff, activities, tourist assessment showed that themainsources ofcoastal Coastal Litter Management. The results ofthe were and prepared, onMarine aproject supporting Mediterranean was held, andseveral documents andCoastal onMarine Meeting Wastes inthe and to prepare arelevant assessment. AConsultation oncoastal litterSecretariat andmarine to takeaction (COP11, Tunisia, 1999)askedtheUNEP/MAP The Eleventh oftheContracting Meeting Parties UNEP/MAP in1991(UNEP/IOC/FAO, 1991). which canFloat, inSuspensionby SinkorRemain byMediterranean Sea Persistent Synthetic Materials, Assessment oftheState of Pollution ofthe Litter containingon Marine 440references andan -MED POLdeveloped in2006a -free Campaign” -MED POL -ECSDE), the development Litter andadoptionoftheMarine by COP12, February 2012,Paris, France, whichguided strategic framework intheMediterranean, adopted assessment ledto thepreparation Litter ofaMarine The findingsand recommendations ofthis Mediterranen followed in2013. LitterPlan management onMarine inthe Barcelona Convention in2012andtheRegional eventually adopted by theContracting Parties ofthe the Mediterranean. The Strategic Framework was adequately address theproblem litter ofmarine in initiatives ofUNEP/MAPto initsefforts andactivities regarded asthefollow Greece Environmental Organizationcan, andwas Protection Association (HELMEPA), andCleanup (MIO Environment, Culture and SustainableDevelopment prepared by theMediterranean Information Office for inseveraleconomic sectors Mediterranean countries, relevant authorities, IGOs, NGOs, scientists, and Programme). was theresult of ofajoint It effort Litter Initiative ofUNEP(GPA andthe Regional Seas preparation by MEDPOLwithintheGlobalMarine for Litter Management, at Marine thetimeunder recommendations inviewoftheStrategic Framework countries oftheregion, and(iii)makepractical in theMediterranean, (ii)how itwas dealtwithby the understand (i)thestatus litter ofthemarine problem under UNEP/MAP. The was mainobjective to littermarine intheMediterranean was conducted Furthermore, in2008,anassessment ofthestatus of sources ofdata andinformation. which remain ongoing, are considered to bereliable pollution oftheMediterranean Sea. These efforts, and information andcoastal onmarine litter data andbeachcleanupcampaigns yielding surveys international organizations andNGOshave conducted authorities, NGOs, themedia,etc. Numerous the tourism sector, agriculture, regional andnational all otherstakeholders, industry, suchasthemaritime wasobjective to educate thegeneral publicaswell as Up Greece/HELMPEPA/MIO ECSDE), the Hellenic Marine Environment-ECSDE), theHellenicMarine -up ofthecollective previous -ECSDE, 2007). The of measures andassessingtheireffectiveness. knowledge, facilitating theefficient implementation to contribute actively to fillingthesegapsin litteron marine andinvites theresearch community The research MLRPindicates alistof30priority topics ecosystem approach by allMediterranean countries. littermarine monitoring programme basedonan coordinate the formulation andimplementation ofa year basisat theMediterranean level aswell asto theassessment litter ofmarine onasix undertake MED POLprogramme ofUNEP/MAP ismandated to andthelargecommunity public. thisrespect, the In regional andnational levels, including thescientific amongdifferentand partnerships stakeholders at assessment, research, awareness, andcooperation enhancement,knowledge monitoring and spots, etc. The MLRPprovides asoundframework for removing litter existing marine andeliminating ofhot and consumption, usingeconomic incentives, and innovative tools related to asustainableproduction improving solidwaste management, implementing to ofthemeasures aminimum.Most aimat environmental, health,andsocio litter ofmarine andbyand reduction limitingits good environmental status through theprevention The oftheMLRPare majorobjectives to achieve litter +20marine target.Rio contributing to theHonoluluCommitment andthe management at regional andnational levels, thus implementation litter timetablesonmarine legally bindingmeasures, programmes, andrelated Mediterranean thefirst regional sea committed to The adoptionof theMLRPin2013made management. Mediterranean withregards to litter marine frameworks andinstruments applicableinthe Framework Directive (MSFD) are theonlylegal MLRP andwhere appropriate Strategy theEUMarine The Barcelona Convention anditsProtocols, the Protocol oftheBarcelona Convention. 15oftheLBS 2013, intheframework ofArticle Regional Plan (MLRP) by COP18, Istanbul, Turkey, - economic impacts economic impacts - 15 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 16

© Thomais Vlachogianni/MIO-ECSDE MARINE LITTERIN THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA central coordination mechanism. Unfortunately, this related alongwithasophisticated to thesubject considerable human resources andindirectly directly ofinformationCollection isataskthat requires NGOs ontheother. most countries onthe onehandandby competent institutions andsub complicated, as it is addressed by principally scientific in theMediterranean isratherthe amounts andtypes The litter issueofmarine andrelated information on and hence variabledispersal potential. sources. addition,litter items In have variablefloatability sources (upto 26%)asthetwo predominant litter land-based sources (upto 69%oflitter) andvessel-based (Koutsodendris from Greece theMediterranean, reports In (Koutsodendris Mediterranean, was found to increase over theyears indeepwaters,debris suchasthecentral (Galgani not changebetween 1994and2009intheGulfofLion et al. , 2000).Plastic densitiesonthe deepseafloordid sometimes reaching over (Galgani 100,000items /km² litterdensities ofmarine stranded ontheseafloor, Mediterranean basin,whichhassomeofthehighest activities. They are higherinenclosedseassuchasthe large cities, shore use, hydrodynamics, andmaritime influenced by many factors, suchasthepresence of variability. Accumulation widelyandare rates vary to conducted dateSurveys show considerable spatial Ioakeimidis etal., 2014) 100%. (Galil etal. etal. 1995,Galgani , 1995&2000, ofthesea,where that figuresurface can reach up to benthic trawls isplastic, andeven more soonthe ontheseafloor,critical where 90%oflitter caught in decompose slowly. This phenomenonisparticularly ofthese materials donotdecompose,A majority or shorelines, orseafloor. theocean surface, and may comprise upto 95%ofwaste accumulated on the mainlitter component, hasnow become ubiquitous Year, http://www.atlas.d- person occur (208–760 kg/ intheMediterranean Sea Solid Municipal generated annuallyper Waste (MSW) between countries. ofthelargest Some amountsvary of waste, andquantities are increasing, althoughthey generateHuman activities considerable amounts of the areas mostaffected litterby marine inthe world. asoneof The hasbeendescribed Mediterranean Sea et al., 2011).Conversely, theabundance of et al. , 2008;Ioakeimidisetal., 2014)classify et al., 2008;Ioakeimidisetal. , 2014). -regional in andlocalauthorities waste.com/). Plastic, which is • • • • of coast to sources oflitter, etc.). (lengthofcoast cleaned, ofcoast, type proximity lacking crucialinformationetc.), iscompletely whilecertain litter ismeasured initems whileinothersby weight, aretypes classifieddifferently, if atall;insomecases different data cards, standards, andmeasures (litter that each initiativeto thefact with isconducted deduced that acommon synthesis isnotpossible due from variousclean-upswere compared, anditwas For ofthisassessment, thepurpose thefigures resulting environmental conduct. people to makeadifference andimprove theirdaily implicationslitterserious ofmarine andto inspire students, citizens, andvarious stakeholdersaboutthe communities butalso to raise awareness amongst to cleanthecoasts, rivers, andlakesintheirlocal Mediterranean countries notonly withthepurpose succeed ingatheringthousandsofvolunteers inthe Mediterranean countries. All oftheabove initiatives at national andlocallevel in almostall partners taken upby NGOs, andother localauthorities Furthermore, are importance initiatives ofvarying initiatives at theregional level are thefollowing: Mediterranean. The mostsignificant ofthese the volume oflitter existing andtypes inthe beaches andtheseaproviding information on andcleaning most significant in ofsurveying terms NGO initiatives intheregion. are the NGOefforts for oflitter amounts isusuallytheexisting andtypes However, arelatively systematic andreliable source for theMediterranean. is arecent undertaking beach cleanupsintheMediterranean.beach Legambiente coordinates spring-summer every environmentalThe Italian organization cleanup event intheworld. in over 100countries andisthelargest one-day incooperation Conservancy NGO Ocean withNGOs is coordinated globallyby theWashington-based The International Coastal Cleanup (ICC) campaign Mediterranean. 115 countries worldwide, many ofwhichinthe organizes witharound clean-upsinSeptember The Australian organization CleanuptheWorld Mediterranean countries. from 12 NGOs ofmember average participation Mediterranean (since Action 1998)withan Day including clean-ups, intheframework ofitsannual organizes marinelitterMIO-ECSDE related events, 17 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 18 2010 and 2025 in the Mediterranean Sea. 2010 and2025 intheMediterranean Sea. decadeandby of2.17between afactor in thenext amount ofplasticdumpedwillraise by often afactor that,predict withoutmanagement measures, the (table2.1.1a).Researchers depending oncountry differenceslittered day withimportant every litter studies).An estimated 731tons ofplasticwas ending upaslitter on beaches(From USnational of whichisplastic, withanestimated 2%of waste were generating 360,939tons ofwaste everyday, 10% tons. The 208,519millionsinhabitants ofcoastal areas ocean in2010,theaverage beingabout8.8million 12.7 milliontons ofplastic were dumpedinto the sources andestimated debris ofmarine that 4.8to recent etal., 2015)analyzed study(Jambeck the rivers, and storm drains/sewers to ocean areas. A being blown into thewater, by creeks, oriscarried litter reaches the ocean by beach- to 80%oftheworld’s ofthe pollution.Much marine (GESAMP) (1991), land-basedsources account for up EnvironmentalMarine of Scientific Aspects Pollution According onthe to theJoint Group ofExperts unprotected waste disposalsites. tipping, localbusinesses, industry, harbours, and recreational useofthecoast, general publiclitter, fly winds. Land-basedsources includetourism and outflows, road run- rivers, drains, sewage outletsandstorm water to indirectly theseaorcoast bycan betransported contribute to litter themarine problem.litter Marine recreational beaches, andillegaldumpingall fromand garbage coastal landfills, water transports, bottom oftheocean, sea,orbays. The release of litter being deposited onto shorelines orsettlingonthe ocean-based, andcantravel longdistances before point anddiffusesources bothland-basedand litter asmarine enterscomplex theocean task, from Identifying thesource ofmany litter items isa areas.ocean, includingunderwater in openocean areas alongbeachesand orcollected type andamount litterinfluence ofmarine the found areas, shippinglanes, andcommercial fishing grounds, centres, waste disposalsites, andrecreational industrial current patterns, climate, tides, andproximity to urban the litter enters thewater. factors, suchasocean Other either land-basedorseabased, dependingonwhere Sources litter ofmarine are traditionally classifiedas 2.1.1. Sources ofmarinelitter intheMediterranean 2.1. Origin, typol off, orcanbeblown there by ogy and pathw going activities, going activities, a y s grams per1000m industrial, 20.6%others)whichequates to 4.8-24.2 the range of317–4,665items per1000m the Danuberiver indicated anaverage plasticloadin year. every Mediterranean Sea in Data onmicroparticles that 677tons ofmicroplastics were entering the year. Another study(Tweehyusen, 2015)demonstrated averaging every inputsat alevel of50billonsparticles ranging from to 1(Spring) 12.2items/m al. et thereMediterranean Sea, isonlyonestudy(Vianello heterogeneity dueto weather events. the In in rivers orstorm drains, althoughthere istemporal Land basedsource pollutioncanbemeasured mainly garbage cominggarbage from ships to theMedite rranean. moresea, onemay expect thanamillion tons of occuring intheMediterranean about/distribution/) (http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/ worldwide traffic and30%ofthemaritime worldwide an evaluation ofinputsfrom ships at 6milliontons from However, shipsintheMediterranean Sea. with There isno specificevaluation oflitter originating rigs, andaquaculture sites. installations suchasoilandgasplatforms, drilling fleets, research vessels, pleasure andoffshore craft, commercial andrecreational fishing vessels, military merchant shipping, ferries andcruiseliners, Ocean-based sources f illegal depositinaccount (Makhoukf, 2012). waste discharges inadapted structures, withouttaking 133 coastal citiesfrom are Algeria controlling their ForMediterranean Sea. example, only39(29%)ofthe asmainsourcesdischarges alsoact oflitter inthe (Achite 2007,Ludwig &Ouillon, etal. , 2009).Uncontrolled asformeans ofriver sediment transport transport spreading rainfall pollutionduring onlyby ofdebris into justafew months. This may exacerbate the climatesemi-arid where annualrainfall isconcentrated persistent ina isparticularly of pollutionandgarbage the Mediterranean isofspecialinterest. The presence 2014). The situation ofthe wadi onthesouthshore of farfrom (Galgani estuaries etal.very , 2000;Pham etal. , (Rhone, Po, Ebro, where litter Nile) flow may transport distance from the river mouthexcept for large rivers abundance generally declineswithanincrease in sides oftheriver mouthsoncoastal beaches, andtheir litter deposited 2014). Riverine ismostoften to both to 22%ofriverine inputs(innumber, etal. Moritt , may products constitute plastic, up andthat sanitary Europe alsodemonstrated oflitter is that themajority , 2015)ontheconcentration oflitter inthePo river, 3 . Information from studies in northern . Information from studiesinnorthern or marine litteror marine include 3 (winter), 3 (79.4% (79.4% extrapolated/calculated. landplasticinput). (1)Coastal were populations estimated from bufferfrom around globalpopulation the a50km coastline, (2) World bankestimates, (3)modelled, (4) Table 2.1.1a:Coastal Population andWaste/plastic generation in2010theMediterranean countries (After etal., Jambeck 2015andhttp://jambeck.engr.uga.edu/ Information Office for Environment, Culture and MED POLincollaboration withtheMediterranean Mediterranean” by UNEP/MAP (2009)undertaken “Assessment ofthestatuslitter ofmarine inthe affected litter.by marine The findingsofthe Even oftheMediterranean are themostremote parts overall litter pollution. polystyrene) of makeupthelargest proportion nets, andsmallpieces ofunidentifiable plastic and synthetic materials (bottles, bags, caps/lids, fishing different regionsMediterraneanSea show ofthe that Assessments ofthecomposition ofbeachlitter in easily linkedto measures. targets measures, andreduction astheyare themost categories provide valuable information for setting “sanitary” litter and “medical” litter. These sub fishing litter, sewage sources suchasrecreational litter, shippinglitter, detailedinto use categories canbefurther sources withahighlevel ofconfidence, thebroad someitems Because canbeattributed to certain Bosnia/Herzegovina Montenegro Total/mean Lebanon Morocco Slovenia Monaco Country Albania Croatia Algeria Greece Tunisia Cyprus France Turkey Egypt Malta Spain Libya Israel Gaza Syria Italy 208 519478 population 16 556580 17 287280 21 750943 33 822532 17 303431 22 771488 34 042862 2 530533 1 602782 9 794702 6 677810 3 890871 4 050128 3 045258 3 621997 7 274973 585 582 840 556 404 707 260 336 336 594 Coastal 34 050 -related debris, tourist litter, 1 [kg/person/day] generation rate Waste 0,77 2,07 1,92 1,37 2,12 2,23 1,18 1,78 1,46 0,79 1,21 2,13 1,37 1,77 1,2 1,2 2,1 1,2 2,1 1,2 1,2 2 2 2 % Plastic - in waste stream categories 12 12 12 12 10 13 10 14 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 12 11 12 - 9 6 8 5 8 2 Inadequately managed waste 45 58 40 67 23 34 66 30 65 60 23 16 % 9 0 0 0 1 0 6 0 6 1 0 3 shipping industry, especiallyoffthe African coast. isofsignificance (UNEP,industry 2013),as well asthe suggest(UNEP2009).Finally,surveys thefishing significant problemMediterranean, inthe asseveral relatedSmoking wastes ingeneral alsoseemsto bea greatly increases thetourism season. andafter during litter originating from recreational/tourism activities relevance 2014). (40%inARCADIS, The amount of waste,waste, isalsoofgreat includingsanitary 2002-2006).HouseholdrelatedConservancy/ICC, 2014, >50%inÖko from recreational/tourism (40%inARCADIS, activities predominance ofland-basedlitter, stemming mostly foundItems onMediterranean beachesindicate a Mediterranean. oftheNorth mainly to parts region, itisinconsistent andgeographically restricted litter ofmarine exists andquantity inthe types Organization, illustrate that althoughusefuldata on (HELMEPA), andCleanupGreece Environmental EnvironmentMarine Protection Association Sustainable Development (MIO 360 939138 19 867896 29 798792 33 191578 19 589404 14 156957 75 424246 25 263009 48 503269 60 255866 generation 1 948510 3 365842 1 739951 4 860154 4 591228 2 405754 4 962136 8 729968 [kg/day] 702 698 720 378 312 403 407 279 71 505 Waste Plastic waste 36 560188 generation 2 374214 3 858944 3 302562 1 949146 1 974896 4 487743 1 250519 6 281173 1 043231 7 200576 [kg/day] 174 392 402 218 207 924 580 788 365 003 191 257 642 597 83 972 86 085 37 332 48 670 8 545 Institut, 2012andOcean -Institut, managed plastic waste [kg/day] Inadequately 1 378693 2 572170 1 187323 7 451413 132 985 123 700 824 650 419 763 621 077 77 897 33 813 37 053 12 577 11 353 11 515 -ECSDE), theHellenic 5 456 831 550 0 0 0 0 0 4 Plastic waste [kg/day] 125 623 144 012 731 036 littered 47 484 77 179 66 051 38 983 39 498 89 755 11 616 25 010 12 852 20 865 3 488 1 679 8 044 4 158 7 300 1 722 3 825 171 747 973 4 19 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 20 Table 2.1.1b:Classification ofmarinelitter by source (inaccordance Conservancy’s withOcean ICC campaign –withminoradjustments). could belargely that allvessels dueto thefact above steadily low throughout understudy. theperiod This litter intheMediterranean andhave remained account andwaterway activities forSea 5%ofmarine inaRegional Strategypriority to address the issue. constitutes problem aserious that hasto begiven average, especiallyinsomecountries (Greece), and Mediterranean isconsiderably higherthantheglobal again. has beenontherise The figure inthe significantly between 2004and2005,since 2005it the numberoflitter items from smokersdropped 53.5% ofthetop ten items counted in2013.Although for 40%oftotal litter and marine inthesameperiod related litter from accountsMarine smoking activities cleanup/) provided aclassification system (table2.1.1b). oceanconservancy.org/our in Mediterranean countries (http://www. withintheframeworkcollected oftheICC campaigns basedontheanalysis ofdataA studyprimarily -relatedby smoking waste (UNEP, 2011). year ofthelastdecade,every until itwas surpassed and recreational were activities themainsource According to theanalysis ofdata collected, shoreline monitoring theirincreasing/decreasing trends. according that produce to theactivities themandfor overall basisfor litter classifyingmarine items vessels andboats), thissystem provides agood and from crews/passengers onboard of alltypes in theShoreline andRecreational Activities category example, litter from food consumption may beboth drawbacksWhile (for classification has certain category includescondoms,category diapers, andtampons. syringes waste stream through sewer systems, itspresence onthebeachcanindicate thepresence ofother, unseen pollutants. Litter items classifiedinthis This litter canresult from people improperly disposingofwaste streets. intoilets andcity Since medicalandpersonalhygiene litter enters often the Medical/Personal Hygiene includebatteries, tires anddrums.category cars/carparts, Legal materials, andillegaldumpingofconstruction large householditems, etc. results often incoastal litter. litter items classifiedinthis Other Activities Dumping Improper disposalofcigarette filters, cigartips, lighters and is tobaccocommon onbothlandandsea. packaging product Activities Smoking-Related light sticks, light bulbs/tubes, oil/lubetubes, pallets, plasticsheeting, rope andstrapping bands. drilling. Litter items includedbaitcontainers, bleach/cleaner bottles, buoys/floats, crab/lobster/fish traps, crates, fishingnets and lines, fishing lures/ Recreational fishing andboating, commercial andcruiseshipoperations fishing, and cargo/military/passenger offshore suchasoil industries Sea/Waterway Activities wrappers/containers, pulltabs, shotgun shells/wadding, six include plasticbags, balloons, beverage bottles(plastic&glass)andaluminiumcans, caps/lids, clothing, cups/plates/forks/knives/spoons, food streets, lotsandstorm drains andasaresult ofpoorwaste parking disposalschemesandillegaldumping. Litter items classifiedinthiscategory Litter suchasfastfood from land-basedactivities consumption, andrecreation, beachgoers, picnics, sports festivals, aswell aslitter washed from Shoreline andRecreational Activities - work/international- -pack holders, straws/stirrers andtoys. coastal- of waste. This needismore urgent inthecaseof facilities, treatment, andthecollection, anddisposal problems reception regarding theavailability ofport their cooperation inorder to address allremaining industry,maritime andotherstakeholdersenhance that governments, authorities, the local/port the environment isessential andhumanhealth.It land inamannerthat for isoptimalinterms ofcaring inreceptionleft facilitiesis properly takencare ofon coastal municipalitiesmustmakesure that thewaste regulations, customs regulations, etc. Furthermore, excessive paperwork, sanitary unnecessary facilities dueto highcosts, complicated procedures, deterred from discharging reception waste to port remainsoften inquestion. Ships shouldnotbe side management oftheseseparated waste streams legislative requirements, oftheshore theefficiency solid wastes inaccordance withinternational management plansthat includetheseparation of board merchant vessels may implement waste companies stillcomplain that, althoughcrews on reception facilities.use ofport Seafarers andshipping Problems stillexist inrelation to theoperation and the MARPOL InternationalConvention. Mediterranean, whichistermed aSpecialArea under sea areas withspecialcharacteristics, suchasthe in strict the disposalofsolidwastes are particularly has improved inrecent years. Prohibitions regarding reception facilitiesinthemajorMediterranean ports true that thesituation concerning theavailability of accordance withinternational law. maritime isalso It obliged to implementmanagement garbage plansin more than15personsare 400 tons orcarrying Table 2.1.1d:Tourism in theMediterranean related (source activity Sea http://www2.unwto.org/) Source: (http://www.eib.org/infocentre/publications/all/femip-for-the-mediterranean-promoting-tourism-development.htm?lang=fr). from west (1)Data bank. Table 2.1.1c:Tourist arrivals andtourist expenditures insouthern/eastern Mediterranean countries from 2006to 2010 environment despite thebenefitsfrom thistrend. sector, there are boundto benegative effectsonthe from governments andinto thehandsofprivate developers. With power globalisation shifting away regulations by governments to thetourism planning oftourism zones andintherequirements/ efficient handlingofsolid waste isakeyissueinthe Tourism needsacleanenvironment. Therefore, the littermarine problem. watersmarine are contributing practices to the into garbage domestic andindustrial coastal and beach androadside litter, andtheillegaldumpingof fromand garbage water recreational transports, The release inadvertent oflitter from coastal landfills contributepractices to thepresence litter. ofmarine area. Currently, bothlegalandillegalwaste handling individuals, are andgoodpractices insufficient inthis poor.is stillvery Funding, awareness, of participation waste management inmostMediterranean countries thathas itsroot thesituation ofsolid causeinthefact litter fromMarine shoreline andrecreational activities awareness raising campaigns intheMediterranean. byareas regional action for policiesor priority related andfromare smoking two activities it isclearthat litter marine from shoreline andrecreational Mediterranean respectively. From theabove evidence, litterwhich makeup2%and1%ofallmarine inthe andmedical/personal“dumping activities hygiene”, Equally low are thefigures litterfor marine relating to greater problems exist. andmarinas,smaller fishingharbours where even Lebanon Morocco Country Gaza(1) Algeria Tourist expenditure Tunisia Egypt Israel Syria Tourists arrivals Activity Activity Tourists arrival ND 1,4 9,1 1,8 1,1 6,6 6,6 8 1995 175 87 2006 Tourist expenditure ND ND 0,1 5,3 1,4 4,8 1,7 1,6 1998 205 116 Tourists arrival 2011(table 2.1.1d). from 175millionto 306millionbetween 1995and At thebasinlevel, have tourist arrivals increased andtouristtourist expenditure. arrivals doubling theworld average asmeasured interms of annual average growth rate in2006was 12%, unrest insomeofthePartner Countries, thetotal Investment andPartnership (FEMIP).Despite political belonging to theFacility for Euro andEastern Mediterranean countries Southern last five years, between 2006and2010, for the Table 2.1.1cshows thetourism development over the intheregion. and politicoreconomic uncertainties given risks, natural thesecurity disasters, oilprice rises, oftourism intheregionperformance hasbeensurprising, these countries alsogrew progressively. The economic annual growth). At thesametime, domestictourism in highest growth rates ininboundworld tourism (9% andEastern Mediterranean haveSouthern recorded the in 2006.For thelasttwo decades, thecountries ofthe million tourists visited theregion, upfrom 38.5million countries. 2010,50 for In theMediterranean partner the coastal growth regions andisanimportant sector revenue isofsignificant socio dependence environment.heavy onthemarine Tourist with summerasthemostpopularseason,andhave a tourist destinations are concentrated alongthecoast the biggesttourist regions intheworld. Many ofthe close to keymarkets, isoneof theMediterranean Sea and cultural resources, desirable climate, andlocation tohighly connected to tourism. Due theregion’s natural litter fromMarine shoreline andrecreational is activities 2001 235 155 0,52 1,9 2,8 2,1 9,3 8,5 6,9 14 2010 2004 251 162 Tourist expenditure 11,4 0,2 0,3 3,8 2,3 5,9 2,2 2,7 - economic importance for for economic importance 2007 292 186 -Mediterranean Annual growth 2006-2010 13,5 13,8 22,7 10,2 ND 8,9 1,6 1,4 2011 306 190 21 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 22 Ribes -Ribes (Martinez Research fundedby Government theBalearic in2005 an increasing waste percapitaandtourism. production available, from andthelatest 2005stillshows report data regarding theresults oftheintroduction isyet 2005,inUNEP2011).Unfortunately,Malta, nonew installed by 2006(State oftheEnvironment Report and introduced -in sites”“bring with400stations (37%ofmunicipalsolidwaste) in2004 packaging is generated from tourism, realized anincrease of whereMalta, over 20%oftheGlobalNetProduction produced (UNEP2011). thisperiod during October, with70%ofthetotal annualwaste Kos Island, isfrom thetourism period to April 15% more waste thaninhabitants. theexample of In Kos/Greece), tourists generate anaverage of10%to and destinations intheMediterranean (Bibione/Italy season. According to statistics from holiday the annualwaste isgenerated production insummer sometourist areas, In wintertime. more than75%of seaside towns are sometimesdoublewhat theyare in summerseason,thepopulations of tourism. During provideand litter collection information onlitter and Many studiesdedicated to thelocalbeachessurveys Figure 2.1.1f: TopFigure 2.1.1f: ten items (A) andmainsources oflitter (B) collected samplesaround 2008and 2014(Source on52beach Mer-terre.org). Marseillebetween etal., 2007). (Source Martinez-Ribes Figure 2.1.1e:Monthlyvariation ofdebrisitems (A) andpercentage ofhotel occupation forthecorresponding date (B)intheBalearic Islands et al., 2007)focused ontheorigin and A A related asmainsources activities oflitter. confirmed the existance of andfishing tourism 2.1.1f) sample of52beachesinFrance (Mer Finally, data from amonitoring experiment ona litter problem on theshorelines ofIsrael. continued onayearly basisto the continue to tackle the strategy, willbe andtheongoingefforts competitions intourism andpublicareas supported publicawarenessbeaches. Raising withleafletsand published index shows oflittered a30%reduction quantities oflitter pollutioninthecoastal areas, the Although there and isnodata aboutthetypes ofEnvironmental Protection,(Ministry 2008). involving and NGOs in beach clean-ups Municipalities their pollutionabatement CleanCoast Index, anotherexample,In Israel achieved goodresults with winter (Figure 2.1.1e). asmuchin istwice Litter found insummertime littering, whichare to highlyconnected tourism. therefore helpfulregarding very thesources of shows to similarities othertourism areas andis main tourist destinations. This fundamental study whichareincluding Mallorca, Menorca, andIbiza, all Islands,abundance intheBalearic ofbeachdebris B B -terre.org, figure well andidentified described (Lebreton etal., 2012;) densities areas that debris are ofmarine now quite (‘‘garbage patches’’) are by characterised high The mainlarge oceanic aggregation patterns for litter assessingbudgetsofmarine at large scale. and offshore flow fields. Models are however crucial formation ofattractive andrepulsive features ofcoastal Lagrangian behaviour expressions, resulting inthe difficult andcausesanumberofnon-trivial to predict dimensional time ofevenpossible chaoticcharacteristics two role ofcurrents, however, may bequite complex. The thus easilyaccumulateing inconvergent regions. The less densethanseawater andfloats at thesurface, al. their composition andspecific weight (Zambianchiet size atof items of alldepths, ofevery asafunction Currentstransport. are responsible for theadvection driver litter ofmarine Circulation istheprimary 2.1.2 Circulation Mediterranean (Erikssenetal., (Mansuietal., Beaches 2014) 2014)and floatingplasticparticles Figure 2.1.2a:General predictive schemeof(A) water thesurface circulation intheMediterranean (data from Sea drifters, Poullain etal., 2012),(B)litter stranding on C A , inCIESM,2014). This isalsotruefor litter that is - dependent flows makes transport dependent flows makestransport in situdata andthedevelopment ofsophisticated accurate thanksto theever increasing abundance of (predictive) mode. They are gettingmore andmore the scientific community, even inanoperational arein theMediterranean Sea presently available to Three dimensionalmodelssimulating thecirculation -LlodraRamirez etal., 2013). etal.1995 aand1996;Galil , 1995;Pham etal., 2014; and itsaccumulation ontheseafloor etal.(Galgani , (Aliani etal. etal.the surface , 2003,Mansui , 2014), documented thebeachingoflitter, on itstransport etal.2005; Galgani , 2014). There, studieshave already concentration andMilner, (Barnes debris ofmarine areMediterranean Sea, high likely to have particularly surrounded by developed areas, suchasthe investigation.- Semi finer scale, regional seashave alsobeenunder wind force At a transport. anditsassociated Ekman oceanic correlated basinsdirectly to theanticyclonic with accumulation inmostofthemain structures B enclosed seasthat are 23 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 24 western Mediterranean coasts low presents a very inthelarge scalecirculation. ashift the them after If and floatingredistribute objects retain andexport of thespecificgyresSome inthe western basin could movements oflitter. and thedistribution seasonal andinter are intheMediterranean andbecause occurring permanent gyres, lastinglongerthanafew months, longer duration journeys however, becauseno These regions losetheirretention for character (PoullainGulf ofSyrt etal.et al. , 2012;Mansui , 2014). Tyrrhenian sub - namely thenorth sub deployment oflitter (Figure 2.1.2.a).Onlyfew large simulations basedonhomogeneousandcontinuous to evaluate arealistic through distribution somescenarios couldNevertheless, behypothesised routes aswell at sea. astourism seasonalvariability inland sources, andlarge cargo andpassengerships highly populated coastal cities, river outflows for the consider anthropogenic sources, suchasharbours, andreal debris marine world simulation must constraints. Noglobaldata setexists onsurface highasthebasinhasmanycirculation isvery ofthesurface theMediterranean, thevariability In offloatingdebris. marine likely coastal impacts possible scenarios ofaccumulation andto quantify The simulations existing numerical enableto picture of litter representing avector for invasive species. formust notbeoverlooked, the possibility inparticular to this, floating items flowing from theSuez Canal items lessdensethanseawater anywhere. addition In the Strait ofGibraltar, withnooutflow possibility for waters of net inflow ofsurface Atlantic origin through floating plastics, since thebasinischaracterized by a delicate regarding thepossibleaccumulation of The Mediterranean situation appearsparticularly characterized by higherspatial andtemporal resolutions. refinement andfocusing ofregional models, For this, coastal studiesmay require thedevelopment or and stranding processes alsoneedto beinvestigated. three mesoscale structures, bothinatwo possible functioning, role, andparametrization ofsub needed however, asare dedicated investigations onthe floating material, windage, and Stokes’ isstill drift better understandlocalwind-induced effectson assimilation techniques for suchdata.to An effort -basins appearaspossibleretention areas, - dimensional perspective. Coastal related input -basins, Adriatic, thesouthern andthe western Mediterranean andthe annual variability alter thewater-annual variability - dimensional and a dimensional anda • • Mediterranean (Table 2.1.3c): ofthe part on thebeachesinnorthern Four categories ofitems seemto be most prominent more concern. fast, intherange ofmonths oryears, indicating factor,litter isanimportant assomemay degrade per volunteer. The degradation timefor of eachtype global average in2006was only3.66cigarette filters almost 19.6cigarette filters per volunteer, whilethe cigarette filters in2013,which corresponds to coastal areas. Thus, 4858volunteers 95641 collected region andcanbe found even inthemostremote cigar tips),whichconstitute areal menace to the Mediterranean iscigarette filters (closely followed by fartheNo.By litter ofmarine inthe 1type table 2.1.3bhereunder. or lyingontheseabedare listed in Table 2.1.3aand Mediterranean beaches, floating ontheseasurface, ICC oflitter campaign, found themaintypes on Mediterranean countries withintheframework ofthe and analyzed by HELMEPA from beachclean-upsin andprocessedprovided by theOcean Conservancy andcoastalmarine areas oftheworld. Basedondata ofsubstances alsoencounteredvariety inother litter intheMediterranean includesawide Marine 2.1.3 Typology ofmarinelitter (Mansui etal.(Mansui , 2014). as alocalandpotential source for ofdebris itscoast theLevantinecounterpart, sub etal. (Erikssen etal., 2014;Mansui Syrt , 2014).As a from theopenseaaccumulation region intheGulfof the Tunisian andLibyan coasts could come to rest beaching destination, where stagnating debris along Mediterranean basinseemsto beaprefered coastal oftheeastern thesouthern strip impact, during and after the tourism season. andafter during recreational/tourism greatly activities increases 2014); theamount oflitter originating from waste, isalsoofgreat relevance (40%inARCADIS Household-related waste, includingsanitary 2002-2006). in Öko 2014,>50% (40% inARCADIS, tourism activities based litter, stemming mostlyfrom recreational/ foundItems indicate apredominance ofland- in theMediterranean Institut, 2012 and Ocean Conservancy/ICC 2012andOcean Conservancy/ICC -Institut, -basin appearsmore Table 2.1.3c:Composition/ sources ofmarinelitter intheMediterranean etal., (After 2013) Interwies from 8different countries. Table 2.1.3b:Top ten items intheMediterranean (International Coastal Sea Clean-up, ICC, 2014).Total number isthenumber ofitems collected on59.2milesofbeaches Table ofmarinelitter intheMediterranean 2.1.3a:Maintypes (ICC UNEP, after 2011) ARCADIS 2014) ARCADIS from UNEP, 2009) (2012; figures mainly Öko (cited in ARCADIS 2014) (cited inARCADIS UNEP/MAP JRC IES(2011) JRC 2002-2006 Ocean Conservancy/ICC /100m number number collected Total Sanitary orsewage relatedSanitary litter: Paper andcardboard ofalltypes Source (Literature) Institut -Institut Cigarette filters andcigartips Fishing related waste: cigarette 98117 175 butts Polystyrene: Munitions: Plastics: 3: Cotton budsticks 2: Cigarette butts 1: Crisp/sweets packetsandlolly sticks Ports: - Charcoal (201items) items sanitary - Other - Crisp/sweets/chips - Plastic/polystyrene pieces - Cotton budsticks - Cigarette lighters: 5,2% - Beverage bottles(glass):5,5% - Beverage cans:6,3% - Caps/lids: 6,7% - Cigarette butts:29,1% - Aluminum cans:7,6% - Plastic bottles:9,8%Plastic -bags:8,5% - Cigar Tips: 10% - Cigarette butts/filters: 27% Rubber: Metals: Wood: Items/Consistency (beaches;top five) Other: Other: Cloth: Glass: wrappers 6796 12 food construction timber,construction crates andpallets, furniture, fragments ofalltheprevious shotgun shells/wadding abandoned/lost fishingnets/lineandothergear gloves, boots/soles, tires clothing, furniture, shoes cups/plates/cutlery, packaging, buoys aluminium beverage cans, pulltabs, oildrums, aerosol containers, tincans, scrap, householdappliances, carparts beverage bottles, light bulbs sheeting/tarps, tobacco andlighters packaging bags, balloons, beverage bottles, caps/lids, food wrappers/ containers, six rope, toys, strapping bands condoms, diapers, syringes, tampons 11295 bottles plastic 20 caps 16490 29 21% organic matter 22% wood, 29% plastics, Ports: cited inARCADIS) (Barcelona Provincial Government, by volume: 80% Plastics: 50% Beaches: -90% plastics 36 -floor: Sea Floating: 60-83%plastics 37-80%plastics Beaches: Floating: 83%plastics Beach: 83%plastics/polystyreneBeach: straws/ stirrers 24724 44 Type ofmaterial bags (plast.) Grocery Grocery 6350 11 bottles glass 3443 Recreational: 5,6% Waste 6% collection: Household: 11,2% Toilet/sanitary: 26,2% Coastal tourism: 32,3% Households(combined):40% Recreational &tourism:40% Increase intourism season Recreational/shoreline >50%, activities: waterways activities: 5% waterways activities: -related 40% Smoking activities: recreational 52% activities: litter: Beach 6 -pack holders, straws/stirrers, plastic other 4706 bags 8 Sources paper 2436 bags 4 6405 cans 11 25 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 26 rains start at the end of October andintensify at in theend ofOctober rains start experience hightourismwhilethefirst activities, weather.season anddry August andSeptember of October, coinciding withtheendoftourism The lowest percentages were recorded inthemonth categories occurred insomemonths andnotothers. over thefive monthwhiletheotherlitter period month ofsampling. Plastic andmetalwere present occurred at different frequencies according to the that thepresence ofthedifferent litter categories the Mediterranean. Analysis ofthedata alsorevealed validated andcanbeappliedto other areas around littermonitoring marine at minimalcosts hasbeen sporadically.collected This passive methodfor whileallothercategories were ofcollection, period the presence ofplasticandmetalover thewhole andriver inputs.activities Temporal trends indicated Reserve. The results revealed theinfluence ofhuman headland, andaroundthe El-Mina thePalm Island commercial theconglomeration ports, ofrocks off mouth oftheAbou Ali River, thefishingand in areas ofhighanthropological stress, mainlyat the 0.87%; and6)Plastic: 77.68%. Litter was mostlyfound 16.81%; 5)Paper:1.74%; 3)Glass:1.16%;4)Metal: percentages: 1)Cloth:1.74%;2)Fishing material: waters ofEl-Mina/Tripoli inthefollowing were generated. All sixcategories were present inthe and mapsidentifying thelocationlitter ofmarine Information System, percentages were calculated, processed inaspecially designed Geographical Volumes were estimated, data was entered and 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. litter was Marine dividedinsixcategories:activities. the fishing vessel andthelocation offishing store theminplasticbagsandrecord date, nameof littermarine caught intheirnetsonadailybasis, Lebanon, ten fishermen were all to selected collect and alongtheCoasts aproject ofEl-Mina In Tripoli/ • • the African coast). 2013), aswell asshipping(thelatter especiallyoff Also, isofsignificance (UNEP, thefishingindustry several suggest(UNEP, surveys 2009). a significant problemMediterranean, inthe as -relatedSmoking waste ingeneral seemsto be Plastic Paper; and Metal; Glass; Fishing material; Cloth; dominant type of debris (89%)consisted ofdebris dominant offishing type using aRemotely Operated VehicleThe (ROV). coast regions ofthree Italian inthe Tyrrhenian Sea, outin26areas(30–300 mdepth)was carried off the assessment present ofdebris inthedeepseafloor As anexample (Figure 2.1.3c),aquantitative ofdebris, dependingonfishingactivity.largest part some areas,In fishinggearsmay account for the of thedifferentactivities considered. fishing area.bunkering Glass was positively correlated to all patterns, aswell asdepthanddistance to thenearest main litter constituent, showed thesamecorrelation density, anddistance to thenearest shore. Plastic, the correlated to meanwave height, meanwave energy 2012), litter was found to besignificantly positively (Fabri etal. etal. theMalteseIslands(Misfud , , 2014).In variance oflitter inthedistribution between canyons variableaccountedthe coast“ for lessthan20%ofthe analysisDeep that finallydetected the “Distance to was fishinggear(59%), followed by plastic(31%). (25%), Onslopes, thedominant litter items recovered dominant litter items (50%)followed by fishinggear et al., 2014) showed that incanyons, plasticwas the European laboratories between 1999and2011(Pham An analysis ofdata from ledby various surveys canyons, thusdecreasing thepercentage ofplastics. of inupperpart ofdebris part for animportant lossesoffishinggearsaccountwhere theimportant somewhat different slopes, when considering rocky between 50and750m(figure 2.1.3b). This pattern is demonstrated theconstant percentage ofplastics unpublished) and2013(Guven etal., 2013) of data from 2011(Gulf etal. ofLion,Galgani the depthwhenconsidering sandybottoms. Analysis 2013). This highpercentage ofplasticisnot related to (found in98%ofthetrawls, lodrat Ramirez etal. , plastic to bethemostcommon litter recovered Analysis from oflitter density trawl revealed surveys (figure 2.1.3a). monitoring oflitter ontheseaflooringulfofLion confirmed by ananalysis ofdata from regular plastic, at 62.7%+/-5.47oftotal debris. This was also of (see chapter 2.2.4)confirmed theimportance covering theentire basinoftheMediterranean Sea On theseafloor, compilation ofdata from 16studies Zone ManagementProgram, 2005). month period. (Source: MarineResources &Coastal difference inpercent waste thefive during collected November andDecember. This might explain the fragments lessthan2.5cmreferred measuring as including considerably large andsmall debris Finally, analysis ofthecomposition offloating litter, 0.12 debris/m found banksinSicilyandCampania onrocky (0.09– only occasionally. Abundant quantities ofgearwere gear, were mainlylines, whileplasticobjects recorded region (Angiolillo etal., 2015,inpress) Figure 2.1.3c:Frequency ofoccurrence ofmarine debrisitems foundineachregion by debris category. ‘‘n’’ refers to thetotal number ofdebrisitems recorded ineach of18canyonsslopes offthe French Mediterranean ROV divescoasts (101 in2009,700-800m, Fabri etal.,2014). south eastTurkey (white bars, 2013,38tows, Guven etal., 2013)and(B)percentages on rocky (blackbars)andfishinggears(white ofplastics bars)ofdebrisobserved Figure 2.1.3b:(A) Percentage inlitter ofplastics collected by trawling atdifferent depthsinthegulfofLion(blackbars, 2011,69 tows,Galgani etal, original data)and 1994-2009, Galgani etal.,1994-2009, Galgani 2011). Figure 2.1.3a:Typology ofdebriscollected 30and800mintheGulfofLion,France between cruises, (MEDITS average from 70stations/year and15years monitoring, 2 ), proving intense fishingactivity. A (drums, bottles, etc.). such asmetalsandglass, sinkunlesstheyare closed to whilemostheavier float materials,at thesurface, such aspolyethylene andpolypropylene, allows them ofmanybecause thedensity synthetic polymers, than 95%,sometimesupto 100%). This ismainly again theprevalence ofplastic(accounting for more demonstrates andmicroparticles, mesoparticles B 27 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 28 (mechanical), photo degradation, and thermal, will needto consider manysuch as abrasion aspects improving ondegradation ourknowledge processes As persistence ofplastics at sea, isakeycharacteristic andlowerthe dark concentrations ofoxygen. duetoperiods lower degradation bacterial rates in Moreover, litter ontheseafloormay persist for longer problems to faunaandflora marine (UNEP, 2011). chemicals, whichmay health alsocauseserious contained substances suchasfoamed plasticand decomposition ofcigarette filters ismainlydue to decompose environment. inthemarine The slow take between 1-5years for acigarette filter to ofthepublic, to itmay themajority unbeknownst environment.notingthat,the marine isworth It time for thedecomposition ofvariouslitter items in 2.1.4a below provides anindication ofthenecessary microplastics (OSPAR, 2015)intheoceans. Table biological processes to degrade plastics to secondary may takecenturies forIt physical, chemicaland flame retardants andpigments. for aproduct. These includeplasticisers, adhesives, additives inorder to obtainthedesired properties usually mixed withsomeotherchemicalsor high molecularnatural materials. These materials are (polyethylene, polypropylene, etc.) orby modifying assyntheticcompounds polymers known toreactions makehighmolecularweight (ethylene, propylene, etc.) indifferent chemical low molecular weight moleculescalledmonomers dominated by plastics. They are madeby bonding Studies have shown thatfound debris inoceans is 2.1.4 Table 2.1.4a:How ittake longdoes formarinelitter to decompose? Source: The Conservancy Ocean Degradation ofmarinelitter at sea rubber bootsole aluminium can plastic bottle nylon fabric Glass bottle fishing line plastic bag plastic cup tin can Item Degradation time 1 millionyears 80-200 years 50-80 years 10-20 years 30-40 years 600 years 450 years 50 years 50 years concentrations andimpacts. methodologies anddata onenvironmental There is, however, alackofvalidated research and passmore easilythrough biological membranes. to ingested bedirectly by species thesmallestmarine andtheirpotentialclose to membrane permeability) ratio, slow rate ofsedimentation orflotation, size physico ecosystem special marine because oftheirvery much greater thanmicroplastics onthe impacts caused by thesenanoplastics, buttheymay have aboutthetrueextent ofthedamage Little isknown which could andmonitored notbedetected sofar. micrometric fragments, definedasnanoplastics, fragmentation processes may finallylead to sub degradation of “missing” plasticat seaisthat the hypothesesOne oftheserious regarding the approaches for biodegradation studies. degradation processes usesculture needed, onplastic andmostoftheknowledge pollutants. However, Standardized tests are still interaction between plastics, microbes, and that may explain properties changes insurface degradation during that with mayfactors vary point ofzero charge, andcolor changeare important groups, topography, functional surface as surface such related properties studies. to laboratory Surface data available ontheevaluation ofdegradation is assimilation andbio bio the entire process (attachment andbiofilm formation, species andmetabolicpathways involved, butalso to notonlyconsider the the lastpoint, it isimportant chemical andbiological degradation. With to respect - deterioration, bio woollen clothes cigarette filter paper towel orange peel Newspaper apple core Cartboard Plywood - chemical properties (high surface to volume (highsurface chemical properties Item -mineralisation). To date, thelittle -fragmentation, bio Degradation time -based 2-5 weeks 2-4 weeks 3 months 2 months 1-5 years 1-5 years 1-3 years 6 weeks - Table 2.2.1a:Top ten items (International by Coastal country Clean-up, ICC 2014)expressed asnumber ofitems/100m ofbeach oflitter dependingtheuse inthedensity variability the 1item/m2 range (Table 2.2.6)butshow ahigh to date haveperformed demonstrated densitiesin patterns andcycles. ofstudies The majority approach for assessinglong-term accumulation iscurrentlysurveys themostcommonly which litter accumulates onbeachesthrough regular degradation andclean-ups. Recording therate at sources orstranding, burial, andoutputsfrom export, long-term balance between inputs, land-based Standing stock evaluations ofbeachlitter the reflect densities have beenfound insomeareas. high foundof thedebris onbeachesandvery stranding rates. They cancomprise alarge proportion toin litter slow amounts at seawillonlyserve fluxes are therefore difficult toassess, andadecrease clean-up campaigns ormonitoring surveys. Stranding are andmaydebris), buried notbetargeted often by cm, alsoreferred to (versus asmesodebris macro Moreover, smallfragments lessthan2.5 measuring byconducted NGOswithafocus oncleaning. purposes.collection However, are mostsurveys quantities orfluxes have beenadopted for data Various strategies basedonthemeasurement of information ontemporal andspatial distribution. Mediterranean countries for theaimofproviding sea are gradually beingorganized inmany Strandline surveys, cleaning, andregular at surveys 2.2.1 2.2. COUNTRY Slovenia Croatia Greece Turkey Egypt Spain Malta Italy (Re in Distribution of MarineL itter Beaches Regional surveysBeaches the Mediterranean gional, National, Lo cal) Cigarette butts 1540 785 116 79 21 0 0 1 wrappers Food 14 15 97 9 5 0 6 2 Beverage (plastic) bottles 29 15 22 11 40 21 3 2 -used Bottle caps Bottle (plastic) 73 23 40 15 18 86 6 0 Number ofitems per100m Stirrers Straws 22 57 13 13 6 0 1 0 environmental NGOs’ intheregion. action to Due this warming, and/or(iii)areduced of impact current environmental concerns suchasglobal focus ofthegeneral public’s attention to other coastal of inhabitants intheMediterranean, (ii)ashift environmental awareness and/orvolunteer of spirit 2013). This may beinterpreted as(i)adecrease inthe 70% between 2002and2013(4830volunteers in volunteers in2002,7,3052006)and participating volunteers between 2002and2007(15,648 constant; for example, there was a50%decrease of strong However, intheMediterranean Sea. itisnot inthecleaningcampaignsPublic is participation information sharing. the scientific relevance ofinformation and programmes shouldincreaseof publicknowledge not somuchfor andcleanup data collection, NGOs are usuallyorganized to raise awareness and data for by statistical purposes. Cleanupactions toabout thenecessity submitstandardized research however, that volunteer groups shouldbeinformed oflitter.on thedistribution to note, isimportant It information onlocalconstraints andeffective factors National Case Studies may provide more detailed 80% oflitter stranded onbeaches. the mostcommonly equipment, and food andbeverage are packaging 2.2.2a), cigarette butts, plasticbags, fishing (Styrofoam, etc.) oruse(fishinggear). (TableFor ICC are widely many areas,types ofplastic althoughotherspecific ofthelitterlarge found proportion onbeachesin ofeachbeach.Plastic accountsor characteristics for a (plastic) Grocery Grocery bags 26 13 15 83 1 0 4 4 found in certain areas,-found incertain according to type Beverage bottles (glass) 18 14 33 34 5 1 7 3 -found items, accounting for over plastic Other Other bags 74 4 9 2 3 0 3 6 Paper bags 36 4 4 0 0 0 2 0 Beverage cans 26 22 8 2 0 7 5 6 29 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 30 items and110698items collected in2009and2013respectively from onbeaches Greece, Turkey, Egypt andSpain(data from http://www.oceanconservancy.org/) Figure 2.2.1a:Changesinpercentages ofthetop from ofdebris303522 8items Coastal Ocean intheMediterranean 2009and2013.Data Cleanup ontypes between Sea actions, donot usebeachesasdisposalsitesactions, for general public, oftheir conscious oftheimpact Environmental awareness whenthis isalsoobserved from sources suchasthegeneral public. for larger items tomanageinputs andthedifficulty legislation withregards to etc.) dumpingactivities, recycling, adoptionand/orimplementation ofstricter of preventive efficiency action (easier collection, materials, tires, etc.) This could berelated to the (householdappliances, activities construction cans, seefigure 2.2.1a)orlitter from dumping opposed to heavier items from basicuse(bottles, -related(plastics, aluminumandsmoking litter), as lighter litter marine items intheMediterranean haveobservations beenmadeontheproliferation of understudy.the period However, interesting decrease litter ofmarine intheMediterranean during to draw conclusions regarding theoverall increase or year,number ofchanging variables every itisdifficult Figure 2.2.1b:Litter composition (A) andestimated origin (B) ofthelitter collected etal., inlow and hightourist seasoninBalearic Islands(source 2007) Martinez-ribes A results ofotherstudiesintheMediterranean. Strong of 32±25gperm-1,whichiscomparable to the items perlinearmeter, withacorresponding weight abundance reached intheBalearics approximately 36 investigated in2005(Figure summer 2.2.1b). Mean were Islands(Mediterranean Sea) on theBalearic nature, andpossiblesources oflitter on32 beaches increased dueto illegaldumping. The abundance, items (metal, rubber, glass, have andtextile) isolated beaches, othervisibleandlarger sized litter onislandbeaches.abandoned andwindborn On indicated however plasticandpaper theimportance Data from CleanupGreece between 2004and2008 to thechanging nature litter ofmarine intheregion. considerable numbersintheMediterranean, hasled lighter litter marine items that canstillbefound in with thepersistent nature ofplasticsandother the past. The removal oftheseheavier items, combined astheydidin items garbage aslightheartedly heavy B floating monitoring through debris visual for larger items. of Although thebasicprinciple are Aerialobservations. surveys now beingemployed commercial shippingcarriers, anddedicated litter research vessels, mammalsurveys, marine Visual assessment approaches includetheuseof to expected accumulatedebris (Lebreton etal., 2012). madeup7-8%ofthetotalas theMediterranean Sea, of floatinginocean debris gyres andclosedseas, such using variousinputscenarios showed theaccumulation are degraded over time. A30- sink to theseafloor, are deposited ontheshore, or byThey currents canalsobetransported until they intoturn micro litter, lessthan5mm. measuring physically degraded into smallerfragments andhence chemical degradation processes, theycanbe synthetic polymersare resistant to biological or debris, withfigures reaching up to 100%. Although Polymers offloating marine comprise themajority to weathering and biofouling etal., (Barnes 2009). plastics may theirstay changeduring intheseadue than seawater. However, of anddensity thebuoyancy environment, inthemarine debris asitislessdense Floating of comprises themobilefraction debris 2.2.2. m2 (0.771 – 1.507) in North m2 (0.771–1.507)inNorth Western Adriatic. Adriatic to IonianSea/South Sea 1.139items/ 6.38) In densities ranging from 0.715items/m2 (range: 0.03– (underpress,project See Table 2.2.6)indicated Finally, more recent data obtainedwithintheDefishgear attributedwas to primarily drainage andoutfallsystems. main source ofsummerdebris, low tourist seasonlitter local land-basedorigins. While beachuserswere the suggestedcharacteristics astrong relationship with bydebris weight bothseasons, (75%).In litter (67%) andnatural wood was themostimportant hygiene/medical items were predominant inwintertime contrast,season. In plasticsrelated to personal inthehightourist observed up to 46%oftheobjects butts were themostabundant item, accounting for nature associated withbeachuse. Again, cigarette that inthelow seasonandshowed aheterogeneous contaminationhigh tourist season),debris was double and abundance were demonstrated. summer(the In significant seasonalevolution oflitter composition between islandsandastatisticallysimilarities of theMediterranean Sea Floating Litter onthesurface year circulation model routes closeto coastal areas, whilethere were cases concentrations litter ofmarine were along observed from 0.08to 71items/n.m. Relatively higher per km to aconcentration ofoneitem per3n.m.,or2.1items littermarine recorded was 366items, corresponding and Morocco, andintheAdriatic Sea. The total of Levantine intheAlboran between Spain Sea), Sea (Aegean Libyan andEastern Sea, Mediterranean Sea were outmainlyintheeastern Mediterranean carried between 22and150meters.fluctuated Observations and volume litter, ofmarine etc., andgenerally the Observer, theuseofbinoculars, thefreeboard the weather conditions, theseastate, thepositionof 172.8 km2. dependedon The widthofobservation corresponding area ofaround to anobservation 1,051.8 nauticalmiles(1,947kilometers), out bylitter HELMEPA carried membervessels was forThe total floating lengthofobservation marine the recording of500.8Kg litter ofmarine (Table 2.2.2a). resultednautical miles(n.m.)ofMediterranean Sea in of1,051.8 total,Mediterranean. In observations from variousseaareaslitter observations inthe HELMEPA member wereFebruary 2008,14reports –April received by theperiod During floating ontheseasurface. programme for themonitoring andrecording oflitter in ortransiting theMediterranean to implement a its membermanaging companies withships traveling Greek organisation stakeholders, ofmaritime invited Data may alsobeobtainedfrom NGOs. HELMEPA, a decreased to 1.5 -3 items in2000(Aliani etal., 2003). were2000. 15-25items/km² found in1997,which through ship areas data worldwide. was Sea, collected theLigurian In comparable from to thosebeingreported many coastal pollution are found, butdensitiesare generally the world. For floating litter, highlevels ofplastic very the places withthehighestconcentrations oflitter in referredThe isoften Mediterranean Sea to asoneof range from 0to over 600items persquare kilometer. quantitiesover measuring and thereported 2cm 2010, Gerigny etal., andAliani, 2015), 2011,Suaria waters (Aliani etal., 2003;UNEP, 2009; Topcu etal., floating macroMediterranean in andmegadebris studies have beenpublishedontheabundance of occasionally (Tableonly performed 2.2.6).Onlyafew assessment abundance, ofdebris andmonitoring is there are few datasets available for thecomparable for beaches, simple, particularly isvery observation 2 . The concentration litter ofmarine ranged based visual observations in1997and -based visualobservations - vessels containing information on 31 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 32 1.89 m day, whiletheaverage volume was estimated to be per day. Although quantitative information regarding litter from fluctuated 1.47m3perday to 3.46m boats.manually from auxiliary The volume ofmarine vessels outby specializedand/or carried skimmer was (including thepassengerandcontainer port) seaarea offloatingfrom debris collection theport which itthenprocessed andanalyzed. The daily Table by HELMEPA 2.2.2a:MarineLitter Survey Vessels: Member offloatinglitter Number items km in2008alongasamplingareacollected of172.8 significantly higher, reaching an average of2.96m passengers annually),thevolume litter ofmarine is 19,000,000 servicing passenger transportation, Europe andthethird largest intheworld interms of should benoted that Piraeus in isthelargest port isextremelyhigh(it operation ofthepassengerport ofPiraeus forport atwo littermarine recovered ofthe from theseasurface ΗΕLMEPA alsoprovided data onthevolume of theaverageof observation, weight was 0.47kg/n.m. routes. litterof marine terms incertain ofthelength In were responsibleon theseasurface for themajority as steel drums, wooden pallets, andcrates observed Relatively items heavy 0.002 to such 2,627.0kg/km2. was ranging estimated tofrom be230.8kg/km2 extrapolations, theaverage litter ofmarine quantity 17%, asthefollowing graph shows. Basedonweight while allothermajorcategories accounted for about accounted for litter about83.0%ofmarine items, revealed noexistence litter. ofmarine Plastics (morein whichlengthy than120n.m.) observations Off South Cyprus Off (South Aegean)(South (South Aegean)(South Mediterranean) Saronikos Gulf Mediterranean (Northeastern (Northeastern Myrtoon Sea Sea Myrtoon Mytilene sea Mytilene Mirtoon Sea Sea Mirtoon South CreteSouth Adriatic Sea (off Athens) Off Algeria Algeria Off East coast surveyed Off Egypt Off Gibraltar e area Sea of Crete West 3 perday. thesummerseasonwhen During Fishing Nets 3 3 6

Wooden Pallets - year (2006-2007), period 2 2 2

Packaging Plastic 25 50 3

Ropes 5 1

Plastic 3 Bags per 30 10 30 9 1

3

Clothing 6 6

indicated larger quantities incoastal areas. [few] centimeter[s]. These methodshave also different colors andshapes, down to thesize ofa recognise floating orslightly submerged material of onboard regular shippinglinesthat are enabledto 2011), where boxes data from ferry usescameras and tested (HankeandPiha, intheMediterranean Sea Automated methodshave beenrecently developed conditions encountered inthedifferent surveys. diversity incounting protocols andviewing different regions or years are altered often by the smaller objects. Therefore, comparisons among vessels show lower rates, detection especiallyfor to from mention that surveys ferries andcommercial of lessthan2.5items/ km Mediterranean (Topcu etal., densities 2010)reported madeintheEastern A subsequent survey 2012 andFigure 2.2.2a). current vein routing to debris the West (Gerigny etal., relating to residual circulation andaLiguro found, discernible spatial withaclearly variability was channel. of55items/km² Amaximumdensity andintheCorsican andNice between Marseille offshore ina100x200km areaMediterranean Sea western basin cruisesinthenorthern observation wasmammal alsoquantifiedmarine Debris during sewersin theseaviaurban are theprevailing categories. fromdomestic garbage passengersandlitter endingup doesnotexist,the origin ofthedebris itappearsthat Drums Steel 3 1 1

Wooden trace 12 1

Buoys 5 3 6 8 8 5

Paperboard 2 . It is important, however, isimportant, . It boxes 12

bottles Plastic 10 4 9 8

2 -Provencal containers Plastic 6 2 1 2 4

from 0to 194.6items/km Throughout theentire studyarea, densitiesranged petrochemical derivatives (i.e. plasticandStyrofoam). were ofanthropogenic origin, 95.6%ofwhichwere 2.2.2b), demonstrated that 78%ofallsighted objects (Figure oftheMediterranean Sea western part anthropogenic (>2cm)inthecentral debris and dedicated to thefirstlarge More recently, results from andAliani (2014), Suaria (items/km2) intheWestern,(items/km2) IonianbasinsoftheMediterranean (From Adriatic Sea andNorthern Suaria andAliani,2014) ParticipeFutur project forinitialMSFDassessment(Gerigny etal., 2011).Figure (blackbars)andNatural 2.2.2b:Anthropogenic densities (white bars)MarineDebris Figure Mediterranean offloatinglitter inthenorthwestern Sea (2006-2008)(visual 2.2.2a:Distribution IFREMER/SHOMmapusingdatafrom observations). the Ecocean/ Mediterranean (From Sea Suaria andAliani, 2014) Figure (blackbars)andNatural intheWestern, 2.2.2b:Anthropogenic densities(items/km2) (white bars)MarineDebris Ionianbasinsofthe Adriatic andNorthern 2 , withameanabundance of scale survey of -scale survey Mediterranean basinto bemore than62million. ofthewhole items currently floating onthesurface authors thenevaluated thenumberofmacro items/km 24.9 items/km km basin,whilethelowestAlgerian densities(<6.3items/ densities ranging from 10.9to 30.7items/km All oftheotherareasthe SicilianSea. hadmean 2 ) were intheCentral observed Tyrrhenian andin 2 ) were found intheAdriatic andinthe Sea 2 . The densities(>52 highestdebris 2 -litter . The 33 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 34 and Blacksea/Mediterranean sea water exchanges. of floating litter are higher due to circulating waters ofthe Aegean where Sea, densities part Northeastern middle ofthebasin). This isalsotheCase inthe favouring theretention offloatinginthe debris Adriatic andAliani,and southern 2014), (Suaria Sea cyclonicsignificant gyres are found alsointhe central thetouristic season.Finally,passengers during cargo per year andaconsiderable volume of handlingmore thanamilliontonnes of seaports and arefisheries tourism significant sources, with19 populated by more than3.5millionpeople, and addition, theshores oftheAdriaticIn are Sea (UNEP, 2012). basinandtheAlbanian rivers River inthenorthern frombasin flows the into thisbasin,particularly Po annual river discharge into thewholeMediterranean be noticed that aboutone nearest shore. For Adriatic thesouthern itshould Sea, basinatAlgerian around 80nauticalmilesfrom the explain thehighlitter densitiesfound inthecentral retention zones for floatingand debris would help permanent, thesemesoscalefeatures as could act wandering inthemiddlebasin.Despite notbeing indiameter eddies50–100km ofanticyclonic series Sardinia leadsto andmostoften thegeneration ofa Current,Algerian whichflows until theChannelof whole Algero strait ofGibraltar andcirculate inthe anticlockwise waters enter through theMediterranean Sea the accumulation, Atlantic anddistribution. surface rolebasin may initstransport, play animportant environment, thehydrographic ofthe characteristics Once floatinghasentered debris into themarine (UNEP, 2009). beyond disposal isstilloften theirfinancialcapacity implemented yet, andthe cost ofproper solidwaste appropriate recycling facilitieshave notbeenfully addition, itshouldbenoted that insomecountries coastlines inthewholebasin(UNEP, 2009).In represents oneofthemostdenselypopulated by 112%inthe last30years, anditcurrently instance, hasacoastal population that hasincreased densities, includingtouristic densities. for Algeria, highest rates ofgrowth incoastal population alsohave African countriesthe inparticular North of theentire Mediterranean basin(UNEP/MAP 2012). some oftheheaviest densitiesincoastal population - along theNorth The highestdensities found intheAdriatic and Sea -Provencal Basin,forming theso western African coast are related to -third ofthetotal mean - called waters, creating highaccumulation areas. distal deltasofrivers may alsofanoutinto deeper to accumulate inhighsedimentation zones. The water away debris movements from thecoast carry and indepressions andchannels. someareas, In local areas, suchasaroundparticular rocks and wrecks, bottom densitiesaredeep sea.Higher alsofound in into debris conduit ofmarine the for thetransport concluded that canyons submarine asa may act videosurveys remote operated vehicle (ROV), aggregation canyons. insubmarine Using adeepsea anddebris with extremely variabledistribution deep seapollutionover timeoffthe European coast, decreasing etal. trendsGalgani (2000)observed in -Llodra2014; Ramirez etal., 2013)(table 2.2.6). etal.,1995; Galgani 1996,2000,2004;Pham etal., depths ofover 500mintheMediterranean (Galil, Only afew studieshave focused located ondebris at associated withoffshoreriver windsand plumes. than canyons; iswashed debris offshore by currents gather smallerconcentrationsbut theyoften ofdebris Continental shelves are proven accumulation zones, hydrodynamics, geomorphology, andhumanfactors. by ishighlyimpacted ofplasticdebris distribution presence ofcoastal canyons. The geographical its deepseaenvironments canbeinfluenced by the is aspecialcase, asitsshelves are notextensive and areas orconsiderable depths. The Mediterranean Sea until recently few covered very extensive geographic worldwideconducted between 2000and2015,but ofbenthic species.type More than50studieswere similar to thoseusedto assess theabundance and strategies for theinvestigation are ofseabeddebris under theweight offouling oradditives. General such aspolyethylene andpolypropylene, may sink hence sinks. Even low litterMost iscomprised ofhigh- 2.2.3. a greater effectonlitter distribution (CIESM, 2014). wherethe Mediterranean Sea localdrivers may have there are nopermanent hydrodynamic in structures Patches’’ shouldbeinvestigated inmore detail, as existence ofoneormore ‘‘Mediterranean Garbage recently etal.,supported (Mansui 2015). The stimulating hypothesis, astheirpresence was Floating accumulation Debris zones isa Marine gyres andconvergence zones, theexistence of As for anthropogenic accumulating debris inoceans Sea floor Sea - density synthetic polymers,density density materials and density Figure Adriatic cruises, (Solemon 2011-2012, Strafella 2.2.3a:Marine litter collected from etal., onseabed thenorthern 2015). approcimately 0.5billionlitter items are currently lying 2014. Onthebasisofthisdata, we canassumethat with trawl data on3sites by described Pham etal., shelves, slopes, canyons, anddeepseaplains, inline for including plastic items/ allcompartments, km2 worldatlas.com) indicate anaverage of179 density (2,500,000km², andBlackSea Mediterranean Sea Counts from and295samplesinthe 7surveys circulation, where sediments accumulate. tendsdebris to become trapped inareas withlow exchanges limited to Gibraltar. general, In bottom shipping, limited tidalflows, andaclosedbasinwith combination ofapopulated coastline, coastal tend to show thehighestdensities, dueto the (table2.2.6).Mediterranean sites 7,700 items perkm² dependent, with meanvalues ranging from 0to over location- The abundance isvery ofplasticdebris areas devoid oflight andwithlower oxygen content. in deepwaters andmostpolymersdegrade slowly in increases concern, asplasticlongevity are ofparticular More generally, accumulation trends inthe deepsea zones andcanconstitute highpercentages oftotal litter. including ghostnets, prevails incommercial fishing Fishingpatterns distribution. ofseabeddebris debris, development,urban andtourism, contribute to these suchasfishing, ofhumanactivities, A widevariety et al., 2011).Different types ofdebris were between 1994and2009(Galgani cruises undertaken annual during northwestern Mediterranean Sea continental slopeandbathyal plainofthe of large were debris marine investigated onthe anotherexample,In andabundance thedistribution maximum values of21.9%and22.4%,respectively. 45.2% toandGlass/Ceramics 95%.Metals reached were predominant inallstudyareas ranging from Saronikos Gulfbeingthemostaffected area. Plastics ranged from withthe 24to 1211items/km2, Densities Patras andEchinades Gulfs; LimassolGulf). study areas from theEastern Mediterranean (Saronikos; Recently, litter benthic marine was investigated in4 inflow, and extensive navigation. consequence ofhighcoastal river urbanization, of litter was found closeto thecoast, likelyasa weight, followed by metal. The highestconcentration that plasticisdominant interms ofconcentration by andclassifiedinmajorcategories confirmed sorted using commercial trawl litter analysis ofMarine astudyon67sites intheAdriatic conducted In Sea the accumulation areas (Figures 2.2.3a- the seafloorallows for theprecise determination of floor.on theMediterranean Sea Mapping thelitter in c). 35 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 36 in items per hectare of the following categories: total Debris (DT), total plastics (TP) and fishing gears (PE). Data wereGalgani et al., andfishing gears(PE).cruises (Source: from MEDITS 1996). total (TP) plastics in items hectare ofthefollowing per categories: (DT), total Debris Figure 2.2.3c:Meanannual litter fromof15 densitiesontheseafloor period theGulfofLionfora years ofsampling(1994–2009).Resultsare extrapolated densitiesexpressed (Cyprus/ Levantine basin,D.) corresponds Linepositioning to trawling transect; relates linethickness (After to marine litter Ioakeimidis density etal., 2014). Figure inSaronikos (items/km2) 2.2.3b:MarineLitter Gulf(Greece, density AegeanA),Echinades Gulf(B),ofPatras Sea, (Greece, andLimassolGulf C) IonianSea, Table ofdebrisintheGulfLionrelation 2.2.3a:Distribution to thedepth(Galgani etal., 1996) organisms marine (fishandcrustaceans,and kill birds, by storms. ofthesecanthen continue Some to catch other fishinggearmay alsobebroken ordispersed abandoned by fishermen atsea.Gillnets, or driftnets, nets, wreck nets, pots, andtraps) may bediscarded or Damaged orworn outfishinggear(gillnets, trammel 2.2.4 depth ofmore than500m(figure 2.2.3c). bathyal plain,withhighamounts to occurring a descending from thecontinental slopeandinthe shelf. was ofthedebris found Most incanyons amounts were ofdebris onthecontinental collected 70%) oftotal theGulfofLions, debris. In onlysmall accounted highpercentage for avery (more than moststations sampled, In debris/ha. plasticbags concentrations ranging from 0to 176pieces of considerable geographical variation, with materials includingfishinggear. The results showed glass bottles, glass, metallicobjects, anddiverse piecesenumerated, ofplastic, plasticand particularly Depth (m) Depth 200-1000 Derelict fishinggear Derelict >1000 <200 Tows Tows 57 21 10 Total area (km 0.816 3.03 0.17 2 ) world oceans, representing anincredible 10 tons ofsuchghostnetsare scattered overall inthe Regulation 3),ithasbeenestimated that 640,000 abandonment/dumping offishinggear (Annex V, MARPOL 73/78)that specificallyprohibits the Pollution from Ships(commonly referred to as (IMO) Convention for thePrevention ofthe OrganisationDespite theInternationalMaritime them asfood. occasionally otherorganisms attract that regard may have food organisms growing onthemandmay litter consist ofnetfragments. ofthefragments Some of issue, highproportions since very an important the FAO Committee onFisheries 1985. inApril This is first gainedglobal recognitionSession of at the16th management responses. The issueof ‘ghost fishing’ ofghostfishingorthe of eithertheimpacts littleattention tovery thesocio however, by biological andtechnical analysis, with and Macfayden, 2007). Work hasbeendominated, decades, until theyare 2002;Brown degraded (Bearzi, commercial ornot, for mammalsandturtles), marine Total debris 337 631 568 229 (68%) 537 (85%) 483 (85%) Plastics - economic elements Debris (km-2) 111.2 3712 696 no longeruseful endupthrowing thelitter and gear ‘fished’ ornetsandotherfishingequipment that are bins orbagsonboard to store litter items that are moment however, thosevessels that donothave schemes, ifsuchscheme could besetin place. For the in be willingto participate “Fishing for Litter” (iv) claim ofMediterranean fishermen to The majority andfinally to biodiversity; inconnection particularly litter andthat isserious itisgettingworse, (iii) theproblem fishinggearandmarine withderelict legislation exists butisnotimplemented orenforced; onboard,collected etc. are insufficient; Relevant (ii) management fishinggear, ofderelict litter marine Proper andotherfacilitiesfor effective port results demonstrated alsoclearly of thesurvey that (i) to minimizein theeffort theseproblems. The analysis positiveoverwhelmingly regarding theircooperation abandoned andlostfishinggearare litter, ofmarine impacts and, to alesserextent, of well aware oftheenvironmental damagesand andsailorsareproblem. skippers, fishermen, Most litterconsidering marine to ormoderate beaserious related target groups, with91%oftherespondents problem andotherfisheries amongthefishermen There was strong recognition litter ofthemarine or amoderate respondents. oneby 29%ofthesurvey nets are considered to problem beaserious by 42% results indicated that fishinggearandghost derelict Morocco, Tunisia, Turkey, Syria, Palestine andLibya), (Albania, Croatia, Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, addressed to various Mediterranean countries through aquestionnaire fishinggears onderelict from MIOECSDE(2015) MED POLwithsupport arecentIn regional organized survey by UNEP/MAP the retrieval more difficult). loss (depthandrougher ground conditions making long time, dependingonthecircumstances ofthe motivation to retrieve or lostfishinggears, inashort Moreover, there isgenerally ahigheconomic losseshavefishermen, decreased in recent years. Thanks to improved communications between more gearthancanbehauledregularly.working hard ground,longfleets, and (v) very (iv)working water, (iii)poorweather conditions and/oronvery indeep withothersectors, (ii) (i) conflict working include, indecreasing order ofrelative importance, investigated undertheFANTARED (2003), 2project the conditions inwhichtheyoccur. Factors, “metiers,” withsomecommon features, particularly of the losses fishing and varyfisheries between (UNEP, debris marine 2009). all The causes of percent - discarded in deepwater withlittletidal/current justafewsometimes after months, whilegearlost/ dynamic conditions tend to stop fishing earlier, 2003) showed, however, that gearin shallower, continuing onlyat low levels. FANTARED (Fantared 2, catch rates slows down considerably, withcatches (Browne et al., 2007).After 90days, thedeclinein catches at catches 5%oftheactive 90days after catches withghost are assumedto declinequickly declining ghostcatch rates. Onadailybasis, the a negative withrapidly exponential function The decliningghostcatch rate over time isfollowing from theplace theywere set. net retrieval rates asthenetsare usuallymoved away aware ofbadweather conditions, leaving thelowest storms are lessfrequent, are asusuallyfishermen number ofnetsthat are set. Finally, lossesdueto the rate remains low whenconsidering thetotal considerable to efforts avoid lossesbecauseof costs, recovery favoured by GPSpositioningand and/or ropes, bundlesofnets, etc.). ofself- Because variableresultsand giving (pieces very ofnetting strong currents complicating theretrieval ofthegear combination ofrough bottom (rocks, wrecks) and of ghostfishing. Losses are a often result ofa part theMediterranean, static gearisanimportant In suchincidents (Pawson,fishers to report 2003). to under due been documented (seetable),thismay beinpart Although few entrapments inbottom gillnets have demersal andbentho en). Target speciesare largely represented by boats involved (http://firms.fao.org/firms/fishery/761/ the Mediterranean basin,withmore than20,000 Bottom gillnet arecommon throughout fisheries very compared to by catch inoperating fishing gear. precisely therelative ofthisthreat, as importance data for theMediterranean donotallow evaluating theirpresenceBecause isnotcontrolled, theavailable low, below 1%ofnetsdeployed. withtypically permanent netlossinEuropean waters appearto be largestRates amount offishinggearlost. of The openground usuallyaccount fisheries for the or programs fishinggear derelict recycling collection itself,sector whichshouldgohandinwith for better waste management anddisposalby the awareness calling -raising andeducational activities isthe needfor surveys increased of allcountry back into thesea.Oneofmainrecommendations reporting asaresult ofthereluctance of -reporting -pelagic fishandcrustaceans. 37 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 38 estimated net lossesintheFrench Mediterranean Sea According to thetargets species, FANTARED 2(2003) ofdataextrapolation from the losses.Turkish industry 3342 tons basedonan intheMediterranean Sea, offishinggearlost quantity to bebetween 2637and efficiency. 1997)estimated the Golik, Bingel(1989,in their movement through water for their catching are alsobelieved to below becausethisgearrelies on levels from losttrawls loss. after Mortality or shortly are alsousuallylow, astheystop fishingimmediately lost demersallonglines, seinenets, andjigging gear rates fromdamage to thepotsand traps. Mortality organisms, low lossandhighretrieval rates, and believed to below dueto escapeoftrapped rates from lostpotsandtrapsfisheries, are mortality the studiesthat haveIn beendoneinEuropean of ghostcatch giving itvalue (Browne etal., 2012). there isnoanalysis beyond abiological quantification commercial landings (2072–4144individuals),but estimated at 0.27%and0.54%ofthetotal anannuallossofhakewas Mediterranean Sea, well under1%oflandedcatches. the French In Estimated ghostcatches are generally believed to be progressively to catches dominated by crustaceans. showing ahighpercentage offishbefore switch almost allbottom conditions, ghost catches initially 6–12 months (Brown andMacfayden, 2007),and in studied inEurope was inmostcasesnotmore than many years, theeffective fishinglifetime of nets showed deepwater that may netssetinvery fish for gillnetof normal rates insomecases. While studies rates may nonethelesscontinue at rates ofupto 15% be nearzero over an 8–11-month period. Fishing of exposure to theelements, gillnet catch rates can by bottoms, biota.Onrocky dependent onthelevel completely collapsed andwere excessively colonized respectively. Oneyear deployment, after allhad 55% (monofilament) and63%(multifilaments) declinedexponentially,gillnet types decreasing by thestudy.during Weekly fishcatch rates ofboth the endangered speciesPinna nobiliswere killed captured by theghostgillnets and17specimensof crustaceans, 1cephalopod, and1gastropod) were multifilament gillnets, a total of29species(22fish,5 for themonofilament gillnets and112days for were monitored day by every divers. After 106days Baygillnets (eastern Aegean inIzmir Gillnets Sea). ghost fishing by monofilament andmultifilament months. Ayaz etal. (2006)investigated andcompared cancontinue to fish activity for years rather than Mediterranean Sea. Mediterranean Sea. programmes. They are, however, limited inthe Europe taketheform often ofgearretrieval conditions could bedeveloped. Curative measures in as ameasure before longterm management banned nettingbelow 200mfrom 1February 2006 management measures. The European Community butforterms ofimpacts developing appropriate notonlyin The causesofgearlossare important tourism issignificant. mainlyinareas where important may beparticularly fishing gearasasource by It oflitterregion. will vary systems. The of significance oftheaestheticimpact entangle fishinggearand active vessel propulsion of litter at seaandonbeachescanpotentially Lost gearhasanegative asasource aestheticimpact expected, althoughthere are gapsinourknowledge. ghost fishinginfisheries may beless interesting than oncefisheries nets/potshave beenlost, the of extent associated withghostfishingdecline rapidly inmost Macfayden, 2007).However, rates since mortality vulnerability, andghostgearstatus (Browne and species present, speciesabundance, species attributed to lostfishinggearisdependent onthe habitat andbiodiversity damage. rates The mortality catch, non-target catch, anddiscards, aswell as greater thanstatic gearinterms oftarget impacts gearsuchastrawlsMobile generally have much the environmental ofotherfishingmethods. impacts considered inthe broader context ascompared to may beconsiderable, mustalsobe theseimpacts While theenvironmental ofloststatic gear impacts causedbyall otherrisks ghostnets. hazards for recreational and/orprofessional divers are navigation andpossibledamagesto thevessels, and environment anditshabitat obstaclesto functions, once captured by nets. Alterations ofthemarine the water column ormoving ontheseabedmay die seabirds, crabs, andotheranimalsswimmingfree in oftime.long periods Fish, dolphins, seaturtles, can, therefore, theoretically continue to catch fish for synthetic fibres andcanpersist for longperiods. They gearismostlymadeofnon-biodegradableModern nets lostperboat. bream)boat between 0.2%(hake)and3.2%(Sea of and peryear, withpercentages oftotal netslostper Bream, (Sea Hake)perboat(red mullet)and1.2km different species, losses were estimated between 0.7 perboat andperyear.at 6.25km With boats fishing collected during an experiment started in October 2014 in Corfu and February project inUNEP/MAP, (Source: Defishgear 2015inItaly 2014inCorfu inOctober collected started duringanexperiment inpress). Figure 2.2.4a:Typology Fishing ofDerelict intheAdriatic. etal., Gear Island(Kaberi (Ronchietal., of13tons analysisinItaly HCMR) ofDFG Preliminary andCorfu ISPRA) deals withtheimplementationof theproject and context litter ofthemarine issueintheAdriatic. Part main-lines DeFishGear (http://www.defishgear.net/project/ for ALDFGmanagement incoastal areas. coastal habitats andto develop operative protocols in order to demonstrate insimilar itsapplicability ofthemethods tomapand removeefficacy ALDFG, components. The willthenhelpto project test the in order to identify thepotential recyclable ALDFGs, whichwillbesubsequently analyzed by type Fishing (ALDFG). Gears to recoverThe started project the outcrops are spoiltby Abandoned orLost Derelict ghost nets. Photo each outcrop conformation withpossibleentangled providing Sonar), Scanning Resolution imagesof mapped through theacoustic instrument (High completed. area A20square hasbeen kilometers been previously affected by ghostnets, hasbeen The outcrops, mappingofthese20rocky whichhad off the coast of Veneto,known as commonly Tegnùe. benthic communities outcrops oftherocky located ofghostnetsonfishand to assesstheimpact started GHOST (http://www.life including thesocalled “ghost nets”. The EUproject fishinggear, andrecycling ofderelict collection are underway,activities setting outasystem for key players litter inmarine causeandsolution.Pilot will bereduced by involving asoneofthe fishermen projects, litter marine intheAdriatic coastal waters the region. Through theimplementation ofvarious of pollution by ghost nets,country evident inevery appropriate mitigation measures aimedat reducing to litter marine analysis, resulting inalackof The Adriatic region isfacingabiggapwhenitcomes ‘GHOST’and ‘DEFISHGEAR’ activities) isaddressing thewider of-activities) surveys have-surveys showed that mostof - ghost.eu/index.php/en/) was better act asreefsbetter act rather catching thanactively fish. inthesea.Forleft example, fouled ghostnetsmay is thenaquestionwhetherlostgearsmight bebetter cases, oflostgearsislow, especiallywhendensity there when gearsremain at sea,and(v) The some cost. In (iii) of recovery,The poorefficiency (iv) Thetime thatThe canbecovered reduced surface incampaigns, precise information neededon location ofgears, (ii) number ofproblems were identified, including(i) The feature gearretrieval programmes. However, a management responses to dealwithghostfishing (Macfayden etal., 2009).Many ofthecurrent to prevention, information andgoodpractices lost gearcanbehowever different with considerations Logistically, themanagement optionsfor addressing of disposalfor thecareless and irresponsible fisher. value, andleaving itintheseaisaconvenient means fishing gear, ontheotherhand, hasnofinancial onfishing. Abandoned ordiscarded of carrying the probability ofrecovery, cost andtheopportunity spent gearis and effort retrieving related to its value, gear, respectively. For lostgears, theamount oftime for reducing lostfishinggearanddiscarded fishing lost gearinto two groups dedicated to methodsused 2) classifiedthemanagement options for addressing More generally, theEuropean FANTARED projects (1& the Adriatic region. recycle lostorabandonedfishingandothergearin fishing gearmanagement and schemes to collect anddivers,fishermen and(iii)Establishment of ‘ghost nets’ through involvement adirect of within thefishingsector, (ii) Targeted of recovery to theremoval litter ofmarine aswell asawareness leading theirdailyfishingactivities, while performing such as(i)Fishing for litter, by fishermen undertaken management ofpreventive andmitigation actions 39 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 40 an incentive to for dumpbackat seaany skippers implication oftherequirements isthat itmay create (microchip) to identify nets. However, anunfortunate miniature, codified passive The finally project recommended theuseofa when opticalmethodshowever had limited success. most appropriate methodsfor detection underwater acoustic instruments were demonstrated to bethe (Hareide etal.,DEEPNET 2005), geophysical and the vessel registration numbers. theproject In gillnets) to with trammel be marked netsanddrifting requiring passive gear(longlines, entangling nets, Regulation (Commission Regulation356/2005) As anexample, theEuropean Commission adopted a netgearretrieving systemslosses, carrying Better and(iv) conflict, communicate and report (Transponders), (iii)Attention to weather of andrisks gearproperly onlength,(ii)Marking restrictions These include(i)Aright amount ofgearwith recommendations to beproposed to fishingindustry. Within FANTARED, specialistsagreed on andchangingestablish goodpractices behaviour. A broader management strategic approach impliesto recreational, tourism anddivingbenefits and associated employment, and(v)Improved reduced littering ofbeaches, (iv)increasing catches (ii) areduced alteration ofseabedfeatures, (iii) target species, mammals, marine birds, reptiles, etc., of commercial/ include (i)aReduced fishmortality of lostnetsthat canbesuccessfully retrieved. Benefits of netslost;value ofthegearlost;andpercentage costs ofthe retrieval programme; number the fishery; retrieval programmes are thenumberofvessels in determinants ofgear oftheeconomic viability are likelyto bepreferable to curative ones. Key fishing are high;and(b) that preventative measures effectiveactual where costsofghost infisheries the that (a)gearretrieval programmes may onlybecost related to prevention orcurative measures. Henoted possible costs andbenefitsof reducing ghostfishing, Macfayden etal. (2009)summarized someofthe retrieval programmes could beconsiderably greater programme. addition,indeeperwater In thecosts of therefore theresulting benefitsofa retrieval percentage oftotal lostnetsthat are retrieved, and strongly onthe willimpact and patterns ofactivity however basedontheareas where vessel numbers of thecosts andbenefits. Data, and costs, are Strategies mustthento bebasedonaquantification -sonar transponder sediments (Hidalgo and/orwater column andintertidal surface ofthese studiesfocusMost onsamplingthe sea the world, suchasregional seas, gyres or thepoles. localized andconcentrated onspecificareas around plastic distribution. is ofexisting surveys The majority intheaimofquantifying micro been performed To date, have onlyalimited numberofglobalsurveys biological, mechanicalandchemicaldegradation. a combination ofmechanisms, includingphoto, into increasingly smallfragments. This istheresult of resulting from thebreakdown oflarger plasticmaterials and abrasives and(ii) ‘secondary’ micro plastics, products, orfor use, direct suchasincosmetics, scrubs resin pellets)for ofpolymerconsumer theproduction either for useasprecursors indirect (nurdles or virgin and source as(i) ‘primary’ micro plastics, produced other characteristics. They canbesubdividedby use size, shape, color, and chemicalcomposition, density heterogeneouscomprise avery group, in varying consist ofmicromicro plastics. particles plastics Micro et al., 1974; Thompson etal., butnotall 2004).Most, already beenidentified (Carpenter etal., 1972; Colton aslittle1μmhave measuring mm andparticles with regards lessthan5 measuring to micro particles additionto largeIn debris, there isgrowing concern 2.2.5 Microplastics may leadto fishingofghostgears. more impacting example however, thebenefitsofasustainablefishing threatened speciesat thesametime. suchan In pursue commercial whilepreserving fishingactivities underscored by thefeeling that itispossibleto Areas (MAPs) over hasrisen thepastten years, management concepts basedonProtected Marine systems). Interestmarking indeveloping new (for example, ofregulations ongear observance above fishing all, forregulations respect elementary theproblemMitigating ofghostfishingalsoimplies, of tangling(Sacchi, 2012). reduce theloosenessofwebbing, amajorcause more easily, higherhanging ratios (over 50%)to long submersion,ortheuseoflead-linesthat break float linesothat itwillbe released intheevent of biodegradable thread for fixingthenetting to the possibilities oflostnets, suchastheuseof been alsorecommended to reduce thecapturing the course offishing.Some technicalmeasures have abandoned gearthat theymay themselves retrieve in Ruz et al. 2012). Mean sea surface -Ruz etal. seasurface 2012). Mean accumulation regions ocean intheopen Note scale (n=4,184plasticItems). the logarithmic oftheaxis(After Cozar etal., 2015). Figure 2.2.5a:Size distributionoffloatingplasticdebris intheMediterraneancollected Sea (n=3,901plasticitems) compared to those measured forplastic with offshore areas less contaminated. Finally, onKea per100ggenerallyfound between 3and87particles SloveniaIn (Bajtetal., 2015),concentrations were reaching 1,000pellets/m2alongthehigh-tidemark. Cole etal. 2011),withthehighestconcentrations andHolmes,all ofthestudiedbeaches(Turner in revealedisland ofMalta anabundance ofpelletson Similarly, ontheMediterranean abeachsurvey sediment.of upto 391micro plastics/kgofdry butBelgium, withconcentrationsMediterranean Sea sediments,beach andharbour notinthe sediment (Claessens etal., 2011)were found in areas. The highestmicro plastic concentrations in disabling theformation ofpermanent accumulation circulation intheMediterranean surface variability with apatchy pattern that may berelated to the ofplasticconcentrationsdistribution isirregular, tons for thebasin.At thisscale, thespatial -2), thenbetween 756to 2,969(243,853 items km -2 200µm meshinthewholebasinat 423gkm estimation witha basedonsamplescollected (Cozar etal., 2015),anevaluation provided an weight over 1000tons for thewholebasin.Recently al., etal., 2015,Suaria 2015),giving anestimated (Collignon etal., 2012,DaLucia etal., 2014,Faure et perkm2) (maximum4860000particles Sea intheNWMediterranean1050000 /km² particles plastic was found inconcentrations upto 115,000- gyre over a20- Atlantic oftheNorth onthesurface been observed (Goldstein etal. 2013),whereas nochangeshave Gyre have increased inthelastfour decades plastic concentrations Pacific intheNorth Subtropical Ocean. More recent evidence indicates that micro abundance over timeinAtlanticin plasticparticle ago, Thompson (2004)revealed asignificant increase patterns inmicro plasticconcentrations. Adecade available long-term trend data suggests various information However, intheMediterranean Sea. abundance ofmicro plasticsare scarce andlacking Time trends relating to thecomposition and wrappings) (Cozar etal., 2015). caps) andthinfilms(5.9%; e.g. pieces ofbagsor fragments (87.7%, e.g. oflarger rigid objects bottles, fragments), ofitems being withthemajority (pellets/granules, films, fishingthreads, foam, five different typesofplastic items were identified After alarge scalestudyintheMediterranean Sea, Cauwenberghe(Van etal., 2013). into sediment andeven deepMediterranean Sea also spread throughout theworld’s seasandoceans, etal., plasticpollutionhas 2013).Micro m2) (Kaberi variable abundance ofvirgin pellets(7-560pellets/ abundance reached the977items/m2 withahighly AegeanIsland intheSouth microplastics Sea, year (Law period etal., 2010). 41 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 42 2.2.6 Mediterranean Mediterranean Mediterranean Mediterranean Greece, Ionian - North (15 countries) Adriatic coast (Mjet island) (Mjet Location Marseille Slovenia Slovenia Slovenia France / (Murcia) Balearic Croatia Croatia Greece Turkey Spain- Spain Spain Spain Italy, Sea Sea sea sea western western Summary oflitter data intheMediterraneanSummary Sea Environmental Macro/Beaches Macro/Beaches compartment Micro plastics Micro Macro Litter Macro litter Macro litter Macro litter Macro litter Macro litter Macro litter Macro litter Macro litter Macro litter Macro litter Beaches, Beaches, Beaches, Beaches, Beaches, Beaches, Beaches, Beaches, Beaches, Beaches, Beaches, Beaches, Beach 2014-2015 2007-2013 2008-2009 2011-2012 2013-2014 2014-2015 2013-2014 2006-2007 2002-2006 Date 2005 2007 2015 2012 2007 beaches with 100mX10m transects; beaches with100mX10mtransects; collected on3x150mperlocationcollected 2 samplings, 3beaches, 1beach 3 beaches, 150m-2pertransect with 2X100mX10mtransects, 2 6 beaches, alllitter items >2cm all litter items >2cmcollected 12 beaches, 100mtransects, 10 beaches(30inwinter) 4 surveys/year 32 beaches 10 beaches 27 beaches 80 Beaches Sampling 6 beaches 2 beaches Beaches 1 Beach NA Depth NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 0 0 0 0 0 0 27-1955 items/100 m(2014) 11-2263 items/100 m(2013) 36000/ km (highseason) 36000/ km 0.085 to 5.058items m² 2245 microplastics /m² Mean: 0.715 items / m² 0.715 itemsMean: /m² Mean: 1.139 itemsMean: /m² 11-2137 items /100m 0,076 m-3/day/100m (range: 0.771–1.507) 3.95litter items /m 1.9litter items /m (range: 0.03–6.38) (stranding rates) (min-max) 12158/km Density Density NA NA NA NA cigarette cigarette plastics 75 (46% 75 (46% 84.6 % (2013) (2013) (2007) (2006) 48.6% butts) 94 80-94 66% 66% 66% 51% 51% 43% 95% >60 100 % 70 64 91 74 80 MSFD Article 8, 9 and 10, 8,9and10, MSFD Article DeFishGear/ for Institute Water of oftheRepublic Cukrov &Kwokal, 2010 Alimentación y Medio Alimentación yMedio -and http://surf com/Marnoba_AVC/ (www.mer com/microplasticos/ www.magrama.gob. DeFishGear / /ISPRA - marino/actividades Martinez Martinez MIO (http://vertidoscero. es/es/costas/temas/ Kordella National Report for for National Report Peterlin proteccion-medio humanas/basuras- MARNOBA Project ICC, inUNEP, 2011 Topçu etal., 2013 Ambiente (http:// Slovenia/in press MerTerre, 2013- Palatinus, 2009 Ministerio de de Ministerio References DeFishGear/ Agricultura, Agricultura, -ECSDE/in press result.htm) marinas/) in press et al., 2013 et al., 2013 et al., 2009 -terre.org) clean.

- North western North North western North Ligurian coastLigurian Greek waters NW Mediter Kerch Strait/ Adriatic sea Ionian Sea Levantine Location Black Sea Adriatic/ Aegean/ Slovenia Slovenia Slovenia Slovenia Greece ranean Greece France - Floating Macro/ Environmental compartment Micro plastics Micro Micro plastics Micro plastics Micro Micro plastics Micro plastics Micro Macro Litter Macro Litter Sea surface surface Sea Sea surface Sea Sea surface surface Sea Macro/Sea Macro/Sea Macro/Sea Macro/Sea Macro/Sea Macro/Sea Macro/Sea Macro/Sea Macro/Sea Macro/Sea Sediments Macro/Sea Macro/Sea Macro/Sea Macro/Sea (high sea) (high sea) (>20cm), (>20cm), Floating surface surface surface surface surface surface surface surface surface Beach Beach Beach Since 2008 Since 2008 2011-2012 2006-2008 2014-2015 1997-2000 2014-2015 Before Before Winter winter Date 2015 2015 2011 2013 2012 2011 2008 2014 Fixed Line Transect (FLT), repeated, Fixed Line Transect (FLT), repeated, 5mm) 2 samplings, 1beach,large (1-5mm) observation of floating litter >2.5cm, of floating litter >2.5cm, observation samples (n=7). 1.200 km surveyed surveyed samples (n=7).1.200km samples (n=7). 1.600 km surveyed surveyed samples (n=7).1.600km constant speed 3knots forconstant 60mins speed3knots 41 samples/Manta/330µm mesh 41 samples/Manta/330µm on 3 x 0,25 m² and small (<1mm) on 3x0,25m²andsmall(<1mm) microplastic particles (3x250ml) microplastic particles 2 samplings, 5 transects, visual 2 samplings, 5transects, visual Visual (172.8 km²) 12 beaches 15 beaches Waveglider 27 stations Sampling in total in total Visual Visual Visual Visual Visual Visual Maximum Surface Surface Surface Surface Surface Surface Surface Surface 0-4,5 m Vidual/ Depth 3-5 cm Aerial 50 m 50m NA NA 0 0 10-977 items /m²(2-4mm) 20-1218 items /m²(1-2mm) Large: 516±224 items/ kg Large: 516±224items/ kg Small: 616±325items/ kg 2920 microplastics / m² 2920 microplastics /m² 2.53± 1.01items /km² 3.79± 0.71items /km² (10cm layer, 0-8000) 0.0013 items /m² 2.1 items /km² 2.1 items /km² 130000 /km² 1.5-25 /km² (min-max) 5.66 /km² 3,13 /km² 3-80/100g 1.98 /km² 40,5 /km² 2.1 /km² Density Density 66 /km² plastics 89,2% > 90% 87,6% 100 100 100 100 nd nd % 83 83 85 90 DeFishGear/ for Institute DeFishGear/ for Institute Water of oftheRepublic Water of oftheRepublic and Unpublisheddata Accademia Leviatano/ Accademia Leviatano/ Klosterman Klosterman HELMEPA (Greece) in Gerigny etal., 2012 Galgani Galgani Kalampokis, 2014 Kalampokis, Kalampokis, 2014 Kalampokis, Faure etal., 2015 Slovenia/in press Slovenia/in press Aliani Vlachogianni & (Ecoocean.org) Vlachogianni & Vlachogianni & Bajt Kaberi Kaberi MIO MIO DeFishGear/ DeFishGear/ References preparation UNEP, 2011 UNEP, 2011 BSC, 2007 in press in press , 2015 et al., 2015 -ECSDE & -ECSDE & et al., 2003 , 2013 et al., 2013 , in et al., in et al., 2012 43 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 44 Mediter central Adriatic Mediterranean Mediterranean Mediterranean Sicily/ Tunisian Thyrenian sea West Sardinia NW Mediter Montenegro Adriatic Sea Northern & Northern Italy/ North North Italy/ Italy/South Italy/South Location Slovenia Slovenia Slovenia Slovenia channel Adriatic Adriatic France ranean Spain- Malta sea sea -ranean - - Macro/Sea floor Macro/Sea Seabed, Fishing Seabed, Fishing Bathyal/abyssal Environmental Shallow waters Seabed, slopes compartment Micro plastics Micro Micro plastics Micro Micro plastics Micro Microplastics Microplastics Microplastics Shelf/ slopes Micro/Sea Micro/Sea grounds grounds Floating Floating Floating Floating Floating Floating Seabed, surface Shelf Shelf Shelf Shelf 2014-2015 2007-2010 2005-2010 2014-2015 2012-2014 Date 2009 2009 2009 2013 1995 1997 2009 2013 2005 2015 2014 2010 2012 location has transects of100mx8m location hastransects 12 hauls(trawling, 20mmmesh) 39 samples/Manta/200µm mesh 39 samples/Manta/200µm 40 samples/Manta/330µm mesh 40 samples/Manta/330µm 30 samples/Manta/500µm mesh 30 samples/Manta/500µm 292 tows, trawl, Otter/agasiz 12 2 samplings, 5locations, each Trawl (44hauls, 20mmmesh) 17 samples/Manta /300µm 17 samples/Manta 17 canyons, dives, 101ROV 6 x1.5hasamples, trawl, 2 samplesriver outflow/ 4 samplesseasurface/ Trawling(fishermen) Manta/308µm mesh Manta/308µm mesh Manta/308µm Trawl (fishermen) 10mm mesh mm mesh Sampling trawling trawling diving 29 11 48 -746m 80-700m 0-200 m 0-200 m 40-80m 40-80m 0-200m Surface Surface Surface Surface Surface Surface 3000m 50-700 Depth 2-17m 0-25m 900- 471900 items / km² (13900- 471900 items /km² 63175 items / km² (27.3g/ 63175 items /km² 228046±30060 items /km² 287924±52979,5 items /km² (100000-4860000), 442g 3.01 /km survey (0-12) survey 3.01 /km 6-59% oftotal catches 3264.6 kg/ ∙km² 0.02- 3264.6kg/∙km² 0 –7500items /km² 1050000 items / km² 1050000 items /km² km², max at 128800) km², 150 000 items/ km² 150 000items/ km² (including clinkers) 243,853 items/ km² 243,853 items/ km² 378 +/-251/km² 4424±3743/ km² km² 4424±3743/ River outflow: River outflow: Av. 5960±3023/ km² 5960±3023/ km² Sea surface: Av. surface: Sea 115000 /km² 5-34 kg/km² -2) (423 gkm (min-max) 3098000) 401/km² Density Density / km² 102 Na plastics thylene thylene polye polye > 90% > 90% 12 (0- 100) 67% 41% 80% 69,5 NA NA NA nd % 76 75 55 47 - - Cannizarro etal., 1995 - Llodra,Ramirez 2013 DeFishGear/ Institute DeFishGear/ Institute Republic ofSlovenia/Republic Republic ofSlovenia/Republic Collignon etal. , 2012 From& Vlachogianni From& Vlachogianni Mazziotti etal.Mazziotti , 2015 Petrovic &marcovic, Palatinus etal., 2015 Da Lucia etal. , 2014 Sanchez etal.Sanchez , 2013 Sanchez etal.Sanchez , 2013 Galgani etal.Galgani , 2000 Misfud etal.Misfud , 2013 Kalampokis, 2014 Kalampokis, Kalampokis, 2014 Kalampokis, Suaria etal.Suaria , 2015 Cozar etal. , 2015 Fabri etal., 2013 for Water ofthe for Water ofthe References in press in press 2013 Mediterranean, basin (Cyprus) Turkey/ North eastern basin, (Tyrrhenian) Adriatic Sea Adriatic Sea - Italy, North - Italy, North Thyrrenian) Italy (North (North Italy (Constanta Levantine Levantine Southern Southern Location Black sea western western Turkey/ Greece Greece Greece France basin, bay) Italy Italy Seabed (fishing Seabed Seabed(fishing Seabed(fishing Environmental compartment (Rocky banks) (Rocky Shelves & Grounds Bottom/ canyons ground) ground) ground) Seabed, Seabed Seabed Seabed Seabed (fishing Bathyal Fishing Shelf Shelf Shelf Shelf 1994-2009 2000-2003 2010-2012 2011-2012 2010-2011 2010-2011 (16 years Before study) 2004 2013 2012 2013 2013 2014 Date 16 x5.7hasamples, trawl, 24mm 90sites (trawls, 0.045km²/tow) 54 hauls(trawl, 1,5mmmesh) 32 hauls(trawl, 24mmmesh) 69 dives (26areas, 6.03km²) 69 hauls(50mmmesh) 16 hauls(20mmmesh) 9 hauls(50mmmesh) ROV observations ROV 132 hauls(2.5kts) mesh opening Sampling 67 hauls, 59sites 70-280 m 0-800 m 20-30 m 1–260 30-200 30-200 20-180 60-420 50-350 30-300 Depth 800m 30-60 200- M 2762/ / km² (max 1150 -2762//km² 146/ km² (0 -2540) 76-146/ km² Mean: 721items/km² Mean: 1211±594 items/km² 1211±594 items/km² 90 debris items/ km² items/90 debris km² 291±237 items/km² 72(1-585 kg)/hour (range: 99–3,036) 24±28 items/km² (Saronikos Gulf) 85 721kg/km² 72–437 /km² 0.0029 /km² (min-max) 4900 /km² at 2,186) Density Density (0- 160) 95,0±11,9 95,0±11,9 o uf) kos Gulf 67,4±7,7 45,2±4,8 29.5 -74 (Saroni- fishing) plastics (89% from 34% 92% 92% 55.5 81.1 55,9 73 % - Ioakeimidis etal., 2014 Ioakeimidis etal., 2014 Ioakeimidis etal., 2014 Galgani etal.Galgani , 2000& Angiolillo etal., 2015 DeFishGear / /ISPRA Koutsodendris etal.Koutsodendris , Strafella etal., 2015 Eryasar etal. , 2014 Eryasar unpublished data Güven etal., 2013 Katsanevakis & Katsanevakis Katsarou, 2004 Bo etal.Bo , 2014 References in press 2008 45 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 46

© Thomais Vlachogianni/MIO-ECSDE IN THE MEDITERRANEAN IN THE IMPACT OF MARINELITTER to biodiversity, itisessential to focus research on spatial scaleisofincreasing importance. With regard biota ofalltrophic levels onthesametemporal and onmarine thestudyofitsimpact compartments, As litter marine affectsdifferent ecological 3.1. (release ofchemicals). environmental pollution pollutionwithsecondary therefore italsocontributes to marine intheenvironmentquickly (metal, plastic)and high percentage litter ofmarine doesnotdegrade The problem iscompoundedthat avery by thefact human healthandsafety. litterMarine may and fishingactivities. alsoendanger affect chemicallyandsocio ecologically ecosystem themarine butalsomay a majorsource ofaestheticpollutionandmay affect environment andcoastal communities. constitutes It affected litter,by marine onthe with impacts various oftheMediterranean is the mostremote part acceptable unitsofmeasure have beendefined. Even The concept itselfisnotobvious, ofharm asno the considered region orcountry. species orpopulation, environmental conditions, and variesaccordinglevels anditsimpact to thetarget Litter life affectsmarine at organizationalvarious Figure in representation ofimpacts relation with sizetypes ofmarinelitter 3:Schematic ofdifferent andbiological organization level. Impactso n wildlife - economicly, thetourism colonization andrafting. were classifiedinto entanglement, ingestion,and and reptiles to cetaceans. Effectsfrom thestudies (polychaetes, ascidians, bryozoans, sponges…),fish, are affected by litter, ranging from invertebrates (1986 to 2014),unveiling avast array ofspeciesthat depths (0mto 850m)andalarge temporal scale CIESM, 2014). These studiescover awiderange of the Mediterranean basin(Deudero &Alomar, in litter biotawithmarine (mainlyplastics)in of marine far,So 79studieshave investigated theinteractions many affected speciesare urgently needed. rates andtheeffectsonpopulation dynamicsof methods for theunbiasedestimation ofmortality eliminating themfrom potential New detection. sinkorbeconsumed byand may predators, quickly animalsdieat numberofmarine sea as anunknown of litter populations onmarine isdifficult toquantify, interactions whichcanbeexpected. actual The effect or bycatches onlyasmallsnapshotof reflecting by stomach contents analyses, stranded individuals, and cetaceansmost data are onfish,turtles, provided methods.depends ondata collection For example, interactions between litter andfaunastrongly in CIESM,2014).Moreover, theidentification of on keyspeciesandhabitats (Deudero &Alomar, be developed inorder to warningeffects assessearly may beingestmicro plastics. Protocols alsohave to seabirds, andfilter feeders, invertebrates orfishthat mammals, marine sensitive speciessuchasturtles, 47 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 48 Table 3.1.1a:Factors complicating theanalysisofmarineentanglementtrends of organisms inthenetsortheirproximity, (2)the 2002)include(1)thepresencein ghostgears(Bearzi, that may contribute to theentrapment oforganisms wildlife intheMediterranean. For cetaceans, factors There isageneral lackofavailable data onmarine FANTAREDwithin theproject (table3.1.1a). the analysis ofentanglement were demonstrated introduced to thefood chain.Factors complicating environment withdegradation being products the ultimate fate oflostgearinthemarine ofgearsonthe benthic environment,impact and(vi) gear birds, andfishinlostnetsdebris, (iv)ingestionof mammals, marine entanglement sea ofseaturtles, capture ofnon-target fishandshellfish,(iii) including (i)continued catching oftarget species, (ii) environment inalarge numberofdifferent ways, entanglements. Lost the fishinggearmay impact lobster/fish traps, represented 72%ofall fishing line, nets, rope, lures, light sticks, andcrab/ fishinggear, derelict fact, 2007. In whichincludes of entanglements found theICC during campaign in single mostdangerous litter item, accounting for 65% Discarded monofilamentthe fishinglineisperhaps mammals (almost13%),andreptiles (almost5%). wildlife followed by fish(27%),invertebrates (20%), 2015). Birds represented 35%ofentangled nearly consequence (Gall and most important Thompson, specieswithentanglementand 693reported asthe encounters between organisms debris, andmarine 2015,340original publications reported In 3.1.1 of sinking orpredation. of sinking because quickly disappear may animals entangled Dead andmay beconcealed masses withindebris the surface animalsareDead difficult toseebecausetheyfloat justbeneath visibleat greatanimals may onlybepartially distances Entangling isnoteasilyseenonlive debris animalsat seabecause Entanglement occur as isolated events scattered over widerange Detection -related litter by fauna,(v)physical marine fishing gears ofderelict Entanglement /impact Recent data only Many unpublished oranecdotal results fishinggear derelict entanglements interactionsSome withactive reflect rather than at sea Entangled animalsspendlesstimeashore andmore timeforaging smalldebris carrying entanglement ofsurvivors Shore counts oflive entangled animalsare biasedtoward oftotalStranding entanglements represent portion anunknown methodologiesSampling are inconsistent there are few long-term surveys. nodirect,systematicVirtually at biases andreporting Sampling the rarity ofstranding,the rarity meanthisapproach canonly associated withlarge entangled beachedanimalsandtheproblems together numbersof withthelow reported gear. The current difficultiesin interpreting data, between entanglement inlitter fishing andactive ingested litter, dueto difficultiesindistinguishing consequence, mainlyrecord monitoring ofimpacts fishinggearintoactive debris. marine As a entangled inropes, netandlines, hence transforming travel over considerable distances becoming after asorganismsmonitoring purposes may continue to More generally, proven may harm notbeusefulfor fishinggear.with active pose safety for risks fishersiftheybecome entangled also damagebenthic habitats andcanpotentially coastal waters.especially invery Ghostgearsmay probable even for impact, notdescribed now, settings. Entanglement inghostnetsisthena overall damagerate of4.96%out1632net fishersendured Zakynthos an IonianSea, Northern with static fishinggear In the (Cedrian, 2008). monkseals alsointeract theMediterranean Sea, In lost pieces ofnet(Alon etal.,2009). gillnets. Types vary, ofimpacts includingingestionof make themmore vulnerable to entrapment in experience by juvenile orimmature individualsmay produced by fishinggear.Moreover, lackof environment that may maskorconfuse theechoes ambient noise, for cetaceans, inthemarine filaments by meansofecholocation, and(4)the ofcetaceans(3) thecapability thenet to detect water turbidity, thefishinggearlessvisible; making scale harm assessment-scale harm dueto -sea samplinghasbeendoneand Ichthyaetus melanocephalus; yellow-legged gull, Larus michahellis;black-legged kittiwake, andgreat skua, Catharacta tridactyla Rissa skua) were below 33%. shearwaters (Puffinus yelkouan, 70%),andBalearicshearwaters species Other (Puffinus (Audouin’smauretanicus, 70%). gull, Ichthyaetus audouini;Mediterranean gull, shearwaters (Calonectris diomedea)showed bird, thehighestoccurrence affected per followed (94%) andlarge numbers ofsmallplasticparticles by Yelkouan birds from accidentally 9species caught by longlines inthewestern Mediterranean from 2003 to 2010.Without differences in Plastic characteristics andsex, Cory’s Figure 3.1.2a:InafirstassessmentofplasticingestioninMediterranean seabirds (Codina etal. 2013),plastics were quantified andmeasured inthe stomach of171 etal.Rochman , 2013and2014). (Teutenthe fitnessofindividuals etal., 2009; disruptorsendocrine andtherefore cancompromise from 2009). theplastic(Gregory They as may act toxic substances onorreleased adsorbed directly amount nutrients, ofabsorbed ortheingestionof organisms’ stomachs, andtherefore achangeinthe example, to thedecrease ofnatural food insidethe ingestion causessub floor. debris onsurvival, Beyond impact thedirect on bottom may alsoingestlitter from directly thesea ingestion. Moreover, somespeciesthat are feeding through healtheffectssuchasafter indirect 2014), andthesemay organisms affectmarine Mediterraneanbe floating and inthe Aliani, (Suaria More items than62millionofdebris are estimated to 3.1.2. Ingestion countries, aswell coast. asontheBlackSea coastal areas African inmostEuropean andNorth common throughout thewholebasinandnestson aristotelis) ispromising. speciesisvery This particular suchasshags(PhalacrocoraxMediterranean Sea seabird nests, themonitoring ofspeciesinthe breeding seasons, oflitter brought andthetypes into some research neededto definebehaviours, cannot originate from fishinggear. active Even with source ofentanglement asthelitter found there developed for litter inseabird asa neststructures 2011). For example, guidelinesare currently being (Votiermore specificentanglement etal. indicators, Research may contribute to thedevelopment ofnew, of national decisions(Galgani etal., 2013and2014). usefully beappliedto specificareas andonthebasis -lethal effects related, for function of their ecological compartments. Highly oftheirecological Highly compartments. function onfishhave been greatlyImpacts found asa to vary investigated.to befurther onthepopulation levellitter andtheirimpacts need Bjorndal, 1999).Suchsub (McCauley and output, anddecreased survivorship vulnerable to predation, reduced reproductive longer developmental at periods sizes most level becauseofpossiblereduced growth rates, This may have implications serious onthepopulation gains from dietsdiluted by consumption ofdebris. stimulus andnutrientdilution,i.e. reduced nutrient potential sublethaleffectisdiminished feeding may greatly affectpopulations inthelong One term. Sub 2008). (Katsanevakis, cause ofmortality internal by whichmay objects, injuries sharp bea ofthedigestive (occlusion) and tract the blockage litter have effectsare themostserious beenreported; effectsofingested anumberofharmful Nevertheless, common oforganisms. foris very allkinds excretion withfeces ofingested indigestibleparticles or storage by somespecies(Procellariforms), mammals, etc.)in thecaseofocclusionsturtles, (Sea 2013) andhave beenfound to ingestdebris. Except listed asgloballyvulnerable orendangered (IUCN, are livingintheMediterranean Sea species ofturtles including plankton species(Cole etal.2013).All mammals(de Stefanisand marine etal.2013), Franeker(Van etal., 2011),fish(Boergeret al. , 2010), among thesevariousdifferent speciesofseabirds documented ashaving plasticdebris, absorbed More specieshave than180marine been -lethal effectscaused litterby marine ingestion lethal effects of marine -lethal effectsofmarine 49 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 50 and deadindividuals. abundance, weight, andcomposition amongalive inrelationshowing homogeneity ofthetotal hospitalized ones(Cameda etal., 2014),withanalyses whencompared withthoseexcretedturtles by There isnodifference inlitter found instranded sea most frequently ingested anthropogenic debris. seas andoceans, demonstrated that plasticisthe et al., 2013,Camedda etal. , 2014),aswell asfor other (Lazar andGracan,Mediterranean 2011;Campani Sea litter. ofmarine other kinds Different studiesinthe waste, plasticitems seemto bemore significant than that isableto of theloggerhead ingestany kind litter andoneofthe most studied. Despite thefact habitats. sensitiveThis speciesto isavery marine et al., 2009)whentheyfeed andoffshore inneritic ingest plastic bagsmistakenfor jellyfishes(Mrosovsky et al., 2014;Casale andMargaritoulis, 2010)andmay abundant chelonianintheMediterranean (Camedda (Caretta carettaThe seaturtle loggerhead ) isthemost (Fossi etal., 2012). tissues from biopsies stranded animalsandfrom skin ofplasticadditivesthe detection (e.g. phthalates) in degradation ofmicroplastics assuggested through could face causedby risks theingestionand 70,000 Lofwater for Balaenoptera physalis ), they water filtrated at eachmouthful(approximately and,the Mediterranean Sea dueto large amounts of ingest microplastics by filter feeding, are present in organisms, suchasbaleenwhalesandsharks, which the seafloor. large filtratingAs a counterpart, marine accidental ingestionmay berelated onfeeding on the percent range, except insomecaseswhen of incidences ofingested litter are generally low, in are to ingestlitter. alsoknown rates Although known Cauwenberghe(Van etal., andwhales 2014).Dolphins highingestionrates ofmicroplasticsmussels support filter feeders. Typically, high rates offiltration in duetoharm theirfeeding habitsasdetritivorous or Arenicola marina,holothurids) are abetter indicator of sp.) andcoastal shores galloprovincialis, (Mytilus bottomMediterranean Sea (Mullusbarbatus, Solea samples. Spot meso, andlarger plasticsinmore than18%ofthe identified astargets specieswithoccurrence ofmicro, swordfish fromMediterraneanSea the were Recently etal. (Romeo , 2015,inpress), tunasand ovali, andNaucrates (Deudero ductor &Alomar, 2014). hippurus,dumerilii,Schedophilus Seriola Coryphaena , myctophids,affected boops speciesincludeBoops -scale bioindicators ofmicro -plastics in days by C.caretta, thelitter defecated the during that, considering themeandistance covered in10 days etal. (Valente , 2008). Therefore, theyconclude (as polyethylene spheres) are expelled inabout 10 demonstrated that materials seaturtles loggerhead transit timeofsubstances ingastro litter expelled withinthefirst2 weeks. Studies about than amonth ofhospitalization, withmostofthe released anthropogenic materials infeces for longer 2009). Camedda etal.that seaturtles , 2014observed excrete theseitems (Casale etal., 2008;Frick et al., ingestion,andthespeciesisgenerallydebris ableto demonstrates great tolerance ofanthropogenic CarettaThe seaturtle, caretta loggerhead , andinthewater column. on theseasurface adults andjuveniles ingestplasticmaterials “preyed” are ableto discriminate colors to find food, but both specimens (Campani etal. , 2013).Adult individuals values litter ofmarine ascompared withthejuvenile showed withhigher adultspecimensofloggerhead mostresults intheMediterranean Sea turtles, are more likelyto thanlargerturtles ingestdebris thatWhile smalleroceanic somestudiesreported carapace lengthisaround 40cm(Casale etal., 2007). one occurs at different range sizes, whenthecurved The transition from thepelagic stageto theneritic theirlives. during types they are likelyto ingestwaste indifferent habitat to asjuveniles (Casale etal., 2012).For thesereasons, grounds, whichmay bethesameonestheytraveled been found to show to theirneritic fidelity feeding et al. 2008,Lazaretal. 2010).Adult have loggerheads the water column (Casale asafeeding compartment water. to usetheseabottom and Then adultsstart begin to swimagainstthetidereaching shallow lives, individualsare andgradually mainlyinactive oceanic zones. andneritic At stageoftheir theearly areas, feeding onepipelagic orbenthic prey in stages oftheirlives; theycanfrequent disparate specieshave different turtle Sea lifestyles at various (Teutenthe fitnessofindividuals etal., 2009). disruptorsendocrine andtherefore cancompromise chemicals (e.g. phthalates, as PCBs)that may act the intestine may causethereleasing oftoxic Furthermore, longretention in timesofplasticdebris 2006) andeven deathetal. (Bjorndal , 1994). digestive (Bugonietal. tracts etal., 2001;DiBello , may responsible bedirectly forof theobstruction Plastic fragments andotheranthropogenic materials -intestinal of tracts Table 3.1.2a:Ingestionrates Size ofLitter isgiven inMediterranean incarapace turtles. Sea length. frequently seen,aswell asmany speciesofalgaethat 2003), coccolithophorids, radiolarians, andciliates are dinoflagellates, etal, species(Maso includingharmful on floating debris. Foraminifera, diatoms, Unicellularand barnacles). organisms are alsopresent suspension feeders (polychaetes, bryozoans, hydroids biofilmmadeofmicroorganoismsafter are at sea the firstanimals colonizing plasticsurfaces etal. (inCIESM,2014), As by described Katsanevakis and so all alsopotential for carriers species alien,harmful (Collignonin theMediterranean Sea etal., 2012)are which are plastic. The 250billionmicroplastics floating recent proliferation mostof offloating particles, however, hasbecome areal problem becauseofthe colonization by seafor millionsofyears. This, floating fruitsare that debris have promoted really newasdeadwoods, ash,coconuts, orother 2002; Gregory, 2009). ofdispersionisnot This type to, settleon,andmove into newterritories (Barnes, itemsdebris inoceans ashabitats to hidein,adhere mostcases,In organisms are shown to utilize the 3.1.3 Transport ofspecies/New habitats (Camedda etal., 2014). presentof debris at adistance oflessthan120km hospitalization into thetanksislikelyto beasample Area (Murcia) Italy/Spain Linosa islands Balearic France France Malta Lampedusa Spain Adriatic Tuscany (E&W) Sardinia - called «invasive» etal. species(Maso , 2003). 2001-2011 2006-2007 2002-2004 2003-2008 2011-2012 2001-2005 2011-2004 2010-2011 2008-2012 1988 Date nd 26,7-69 36-57 20-69 25-80 34-69 25-79 29-73 21-73 size nc nc nc Individuals/ Individuals/ dead 19 20 47 54 54 31 30 2 ingested litter (%) With 37,5 51,5 79,6 35,2 36 71 20 0 individuals 155 live 54 99 33 91 temperature isabove 18°C. ofthetimewhen that isonlypossiblepart surface reproduction anddispersionofgametes at the colonization offloatingsexual plasticsduring planktonic (Tretomphalus) stage, enablingthe 2014). rareThis isvery foraminiferal taxawitha globularis, were et al. found, inCIESM, (Jorissen of asinglespeciesbenthic foraminifer, Rosalina western substantial specimens Mediterranean Sea, fauna found onfloating plasticssampledinthenorth spread andestablish.As anexample, amongtherich directions, spread, andchance ofsuccess for aliensto other nearby plastic). This candrastically changethe becomes (egwhichmay asource colonise oflarvae under proper conditions, canreproduce –sotheraft not all, ofthecolonisers grow to become adultsand, may beentirely covered injustafew months. if Most, ofotheranimals.can beawidevariety The plastic gradually jointheseorganisms, andultimately there predators, suchasPeracarid crustaceans andcrabs, or thepresence offood. scavengers Mobile and they may benefitfrom local conditions suchaslight size offragments, especiallyonpolystyrenes, and some speciesmay increase withtheroughness and concentration (Carson etal., 2013). The abundance of salinity, plankton abundance, andplastic affected suchaslocation, by factors temperature, al. are (Carson widelydescribed etal., 2013,Collignon et , 2014)ashaving adistribution “in patches” that is ingested litter (%) With 20,2 44,7 50 24 12 Total 155 121 19 32 20 56 99 79 54 54 31 With litter 14,04 37,5 93,5 19,6 20,2 48,1 79,6 35,2 (%) 36 50 71 References Revelles etal., 2007 Botteon etal., 2012 Claro & Hubert, 2011 Claro &Hubert, Gambaiani, 2012 Gambaiani, Dell'Amico & Casini etal., 2012 Grammentz, 1988 Casale etal.,2008 Tomas etal., 2012 Lazar &Gracan, 2011 Campani etal.,2013 Camedda etal., 2013 51 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 52 (Katsavenakis etal.(Katsavenakis , 2007). compositioncommunity were demonstrated clear successional pattern ofchangeinthis anda surface oftheimpacted structure community reproduction sites. changeinthe Amarked becausethelitter providedsurfaces, refuge or abundance andthenumber ofontheimpacted There was anincreasing trend inbothtotal etal. , 2007;Pham etal.(Katsanevakis , 2014). ofbenthicdistribution specieseven inremote areas solid substrates andnew habitats, the may impact to significantsubject intensity. Litter, then, by providing with dumpedwaste anddeepcurrents sometimes deep seaenvironment. These areas may be affected may debris sinking, alsohaveBy onthe animpact organisms Sea (GalilRed etal., 1995). Suez Canal withanon-negligible potential to raft litter may arrive intheMediterranean through the colonized more easilythanvessel hauls(metal),and invasion). many In (secondary cases, plasticcanbe expandpotentially theirrange uselitter to further introduced by colonizing litter marine orcould alien speciesintheMediterranean might have been world. Furthermore, more than80%oftheknown to colonizeknown floating litter elsewhere inthe speciesaliento theMediterranean arethirteen pathways. However, asstated by CIESM(2014), have beenidentified asthemostimportant aquaculture,inland corridors), trade andaquarium al. pathways et primary for introduction (Katsanevakis alien speciesinany oftherecent assessments on included asapotential vector ofintroduction of at apointSea where litter marine hasnotbeen not well understood, especiallyintheMediterranean assisting inthedispersalofalienspecies. This role is for biota, opportunities than doublestherafting (2005)estimated thatand Milner humanlitter more they were previously absent (CIESM, 2014).Barnes and intheirintroduction to environments inwhich ofspeciesbeyond theirnaturaltransport boundaries The large availability offloating litter canassistinthe weather conditions, sunlight, direct etc.). panels (interaction withtheatmosphere, effectsof different when compared to fixed submersedplastic research,succession asitisinherently needsfurther floating litter marine andthe relevant ecological of fixed plasticpanels, the colonization process of Although there are many studiesonthecolonization , 2013),where shipping, (SuezCanal corridors and on beaches(Anonymous, 2012).However, evaluating beaches, upto by 4%ofinjuries needlesare observed present to possibleharms beachusers. someUK In glass, discarded syringes, andmedicalwaste all from molecular(toxicity) to individual levels. Pieces of 2007). Typically, large sized may debris affecthumans considered apublichealthissue(Sheavily &Register, litter,Marine bothstranded andfloating, is 3.2 Marinelitter aquaculture, tourism, water treatment, etc. increasing onfisheries, ofsignificantly risks impact containing orremoving any alienspecies, thereby dispersion to multiple locations decreases optionsfor Gibraltar andtheSuezCanal. As aconsequence, that isthenfavourable isapath mainlythrough invasion port. primary dispersionafter The secondary and alarger to dispersionthanshipstravelling port characteristics, lower speedsthat favour settlement, area, better surface in numberandsurface 2014). Plastic litter provides both more opportunities, an original source ofspecies(Katsavenakis, inCIESM, Overall, isareceiver theMediterranean Sea rather than new predator competition for hard substratum andshelter, and establishment ofnewintraspecific andinterspecific composition,the mega-faunacommunity the litter, withaclearsuccessional pattern ofchangein dueto structure change inthecommunity marine etal., 2007)found gradual(Katsanevakis amarked substrataA field experiment onshallow soft habitat heterogeneity. litterof marine may alter biodiversity asitincreases suspension feeders. As aconsequence, thepresence etal.2013, Sanchez , 2013),mostofwhichare areas lodra, (Ramirez 2011,2012and2013,Fabri etal., rockfishs were all found fixed onlitter from ultradeep Molluscs,Bryozoa, Echinoderms, Tunicates and hydroids corals, andScleractinian Polychaetes, inthedeep,described butsponges, seaanemones, or benthic organisms litter onmarine hasnotbeen To date, incrustation ofnano etal.(Sanchez , 2013). effectsonbenthicsuggesting indirect communities plastics were totally covered by larger organisms, of micro from theMediterranean were colonized by biofilms More than40%oftheplasticsontrawling grounds - organisms, and, insomeareas, upto 12%of -prey interactions. and humanhealth - andmicro -planktonic pathogens has now become crucial and may may pathogens hasnow become crucialand of 2013), even whenthe questionofthetransport whose consequences are notcontrolled (Zettler etal., 2013; Carson etal.,2013),a “plastisphere” ecosystem biofilms, (Zettler are etal., alsotransported primary role inthe formationwhich play animportant of pathogens to fish,invitro (Pham etal.,2012).Bacteria, bottles, andmetalcans, were shown to deliver substrates, including fishinglines, hooks, plastic microbial communities.distinct Different types of from naturaldistinct substrates, andcould support microbial colonization, physically andchemically Plastic isnow debris anabundant substrate for dispersal ofmany organisms. andvariousmarine for consequently the increased theopportunity increased material theamount ofraft and environment over thepasthalf- plastic debris, bothmicro andmacro, into theocean theintroduction ofvastAs quantities acounterpart, of decrease potential oflitter risks biomagnification. anintestinal2013), andonemay expect transit to planktonic speciesiswell documented (Cole etal., excretion offeces containing styrofoam litter invarious etal. Moos , 2012),the litterafter ingestionin(Von have ofdigestive demonstrated glandcells theinjury not beendemonstrated asharmful. While recent studies the food chainandtheconsumption ofseafood has magnification ofingested litter ormicrolitter trough discussion. From anindividualto apopulation level, Microplastic presence oftoxic compounds debris. orharmful debris, from containers for example, withamassive whenconsidering accidental inputsof important contamination. The to risk humansis, however, 2012) andmay notberelevant interms ofchronic concentrations low at searemain (Flint very etal., considered aspotential biohazards. To date, et al., 2009;Andrady, 2011),plasticsmay be possible leachingofpoisonouschemicals(Thompson etal.al., 2012;Oellman 2009),andbecauseofthe humans, especiallyplasticizers andadditives (Flint et ofthetoxicityBecause oftheircomponents to forreported monofilamentet al.,2010). nets(Mouat ropes. Although thisisuncommon, itisregularly submerged orfloatingsuchasfishingnetsand debris and divers, whocanbecome entangled in Entanglement canalsoposeathreat to swimmers information may prevent from litter associated risks. and measures suchascleaning, ruling, andpublic isdifficult, asmostincidentsharm are unrecorded, -related to harm humansisstillunder century hasmassively century synthetic polymers inbeachedsampleswere found toterm risk theenvironment. The mostcommon etal ., 2013),posingalong tissues(Rochman fatty bioaccumulation of thesehighlytoxic pollutants in plastics, whichthen become vectors for the hydrocarbons (PAH) onto and pesticidesadsorbed chemicalssuchaspolycyclic aromatic (PBT) regarding persistent, bioaccumulative, andtoxic ingestion. There isalsoanincreased concern plastic derivatives by water filtering andplankton chemicalsmayharmful belinked to theintake of FossiSea, etal., (2014),showed that thepresence of Mediterranean and finwhale)ofthe shark (basking In large filter offish. function indicated that theymight alter system theendocrine recent etal. experiments (Rochman laboratory , 2014) have beenmeasured insmallplanktivorous fish, and plastic (Barron etal. concentrations, 1989).High ofthese ofexposurewhich canbeusedasmarker to DEHP metabolite, MEHP(mono environment, butismetabolized initsprimary (DEHP) isthemostabundant phthalate inthe steadyon afairly basis. Di-(2 environment, buttheymay leachfrom plasticdebris Phthalates generally donotpersistinthe lipophilic compounds etal. (Rochman , 2013). ofmany capacity the highsorption plasticsfor pollutants (POPs) may alsooccur asaconsequence of or enhanced bioaccumulation ofpersistent organic are ingested (Oehlmann etal., 2009),andthetransfer disruptive organisms effectsonmarine whenplastics matrix over toxic timeandexert andendocrine pollutants. Plastic additives (PAs) canleachoutofthe source of asasecondary littermarine indeedacts to decompose. The results ofthestudiesshowed that over oftimethat thelongperiods ittakes particularly sources ofpollutants, assecondary debris, acts understand iflitter, beyond itsunfavorable effects as etal.,2013)andto 2005,Rochman (Chalkiadaki, pollution oftheseaby metallicororganic chemicals estimate thecontribution by litter marine inthe studied, to includingintheMediterranean Sea, leaching ofpollutants from litter hasbeenextensively recentIn years, pollution from the secondary 3.3. potentially support impact onhumanhealth. impact potentially support fr Sec -associated contaminants andnonylphenol om marinelitter ondar y pollution -(2 ethylhexyl) phthalate), -feeding organisms ethylhexyl) phthalate 53 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 54 levels oftoxicity for persistent organic pollutants facilities. sites andport Though there are nodefined highest total DDT levels are found nearindustrial concentrations intheproximity areas. ofurban The chlorinated congeners recorded higher than inany oftheothertype, andthemore sources. PCBcontamination ishigher inagedpellets exhibiting congener patterns from petrogenic Samples consistedSamples of1,170plasticbagsand14083cigarette tipscollected thatwere onthe16,200mbeaches cleanedby HELMEPA in2002 Table 3.3b:Metalcontent measured onplasticbagsandcigarette (mg/km) usingseawater) butts(3monthsextraction collected onaGreek (UNEP, beach 2011). Table metalsinmixed 3.3a:Heavy waste collected from onbeaches Greater are Metropolitan expresses ofAthens Area (2007-2008).Data asmg/kg (After UNEP, 2011) may reach PAH concentrations ashighµgg facilities etal.(Karapanagioti , 2011),pelletsnearport on data from beachesontheGreek coast (Teuten affect population viability etal. , 2009).Based organisms and having disruptors endocrine potency ofthesechemicalscanpotentially2012). Most affect 13,000-foldplastic debris over seawater (Engler, seawater. Similarly, phenanthrene, aPAH, affixes to Kd ofapproximately 100,000-1,000,000over coefficient, and DDEattach to withapartition debris concentrations ofPOPs (PAH, PCBs PCBandDDT). andmicroplasticsdebris aswell ashigher facilitiesshowed ofplastic higherquantity port locatedBeaches downstream from and/or industries polystyrene (PS)andpolyurethane (PU). to bepolyethylene (PE),polypropylene (PP), Other categories of Other Plastic packaging Paper packaging Other plastics Other Printed paper Composite Cigarettes butts Organic Textiles paper Plastic bags 97.9±49.5 68.0±28.4 34.9±21.2 637± 816 412± 562 102±37.9 150±88.1 191± 99 mg/kg Zn 0.027-0.54 2.50-10.3 Cd 52.5± 39.3 11.6±5.75 12.7±6.22 39.8±92.7 6.18±1.41 13.87±14 11.6± 7.9 32.4± 78 mg/kg Cr 1

0.068-.220 625±1428 156-234 25.2±8.38 10.9±5.95 35.7±26.6 35.4±29.1 13.3±7.01 237± 757 32.4± 22 mg/kg Cu Cu and cigarette buttswas evaluated, measuring anotherexperiment, leachingfromIn plasticbags metal found ondebris. was examined, withZnasthemostimportant in different percentages onthevariousbeaches categories oflitter containing metalcontamination 2005, (Chalkiadaki, Table 3.3a),thevarious anexample oflitter around collected In Athens Moos, inCIESM,2014). – 100nminsize dueto apossibleuptake(Von determined, below 30 especiallyfor nanoparticles size are stilltoendpoint) be andparticle relationships (at between harm aspecific contaminants gutpassage. during Finally, prevents complete ofco desorption is thelimited retention timeofthematerial which bioaccumulation inorganisms. Oneofthereasons plastics doesnotnecessarily leadto increased (2013) showed that ingestionofcontaminated modellingstudiesbyNevertheless, Koelmansetal. conditions (Endoetal. incertain , 2013). desorb effects may exist,known asthesepollutants areto itisprobable to thatadsorbed plasticparticles, 3.67± 0.85 6.43±9.73 4.33±2.58 3.61±1.34 2.73±2.44 3.35±1.95 12.4±9.61 1.96±1.88 mg/kg Ni 0.300-1.390 49-87 Pb 33.7± 49.0 13.4±0.44 15.5±22.6 1.05±0.74 193± 332 68.3±106 mg/kg Pb -transported 6.70-9.70 451-838 Zn 1.52±3.79 1.43±4.39 0.22±0.19 0.08±0.06 0.08±0.12 7.51±15.4 0.92±1.53 0.06±0.01 mg/kg Cd Cd

through aquestionnaire, andresults are assignificant expressed ofimpact as%ortowns/cities citingatype (data from Cedre,Galgani et al., 2000,in 2011). Figure ofmarinelitter asperceived 3.4a:Impacts by 40different towns/cities managersalongthe coasts of FranceData (37),MonacoItaly (2). (1)and was collected tourism andrelated revenues dueto litter marine costson whatare. theexact Furthermore, thelossof theMediterranean, thereIn islittleornoreliable data use value (Cheshire etal., 2009). lossofaestheticvalue,opportunities, andlossofnon- oflifequality andincludereduced recreational in theways litter inwhichmarine affectspeople’s tourism. litter ofmarine areThe rooted socialimpacts the population intheregion, traffic, maritime and likelyevenduetoMediterranean Sea more important euros (Arcadis, 2014),withavalue for theclosed total costs litter ofmarine isestimated at 263million economic effects. For the European commission, the for remains limited, socio these impacts particularly fishing (Macfayden etal., understandingof 2009).Our fisheries, and for reducedrecreational opportunities toharm theenvironment, economic lossesto al., 2009).Ghostfishing, for example, can result in frequently dependent upononeanother(Ten et Brink environmental effectsare alsointerrelated often and andnegativerange ofeconomic andsocialimpacts Litter environment inthemarine gives to rise awide the region. better bothfor theeconomy andtheenvironment of costs. Generating lesswaste would therefore be involve considerable economic andenvironmental The treatment, collection, anddisposalofsolidwaste 3.4. ofbeach(Table 3.3b).Zn perkm months. Data indicated apossiblerelease of0.8kg usingseawater ofmetalsextracted fordesorption 3 Socio-ec onmic impacts - (i) Main costsMain are related to: relatively limited (Ten etal., Brink 2009). significance litter ofmarine therefore remains as ghostfishing. Any understandingoftheeconomic litter ofthemarine problem such aspects particular small-scale, rely onanecdotal evidence, andfocus on litterThe ofmarine are economic mostoften impacts detrimental anthropogenic impacts. approaches for valuing theenvironment and reduced oflife quality of dueto thewidevariety economic implications ofecosystem degradation or cleansing costs are easierto clearly assessthanthe suchasincreased economicDirect litter impacts littermarine extremelycomplex etal. (Mouat , 2010). thefulleconomicmeasuring cost resulting from makes practice,In thewidediversity ofimpacts monitoring andclean-ups. burden andotherbodiesfor localauthorities and fishinggears(cleaning),as well asthe costs that onfishing,unreported, andimpacts fishingboats, littermarine candamage, etc.) that are often gear, burntoutwater pumps, collisions withlarge hazards (fouling andentanglement fishing inderelict ofincidents), navigational(extent andfrequency etal.(Mouat , 2010),publichealthandsafety impacts (Ballance etal.,2000), thelossofnon-usevalue amenity, discouraging usersinpolluted areas as includingthelossofaestheticvalue andvisual in detail. are Economic described mostoften impacts recognized andconsidered, hasnotbeenquantified both onthebeachesandinsea,although Litter cleansingcosts: litter Removing marine 55 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 56 low ; ++=moderate ; +++=high ;?=unknown) Table intheMediterranean ofmarinelitter from ontheeconomic (Derived ofimpacts Mouat withestimated etal., sector Sea. importance 3.4a:Asummary 2010)(+= ECOSYSTEM SERVICES MUNICIPALITIES AQUACULTURE INDUSTRY SHIPPING TOURISM FISHING SCTOR NGOs Reduced and/orcontaminated catch Reduced recreational opportunities Vessel damageandstaffdowntime Repairing damageto fishinggear Repairing Harbors cleaninganddredgingHarbors Loss ofaestheticamenity Replacement oflostgear Manual removalManual oflitter Increased maintenance Damage to equipment Plant/ staffdowntime Reduced fishingtime Financial assistance Negative publicity Degradation costs negative publicity negative publicity Reduced revenue Operational costs Removal oflitter Volunteer’s time Area promotion Harbors awardsHarbors Beach cleaning Beach Costs ofrescue Vessel damage Statutory duty Statutory Gear cleaning Gear Beach awardsBeach Beach awardsBeach Hidden costs Hidden Net cleaning Legal action Health risks Disposal IMPACT IMPORTANCE IN THE MEDITERRANEAN +++ +++ +++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ? (iii) (ii) fouled propellers, replacing lostgear, lost to thevessel andequipment, disentangling 2.2.4). The costs direct includerepairing damage revenue through ghostfishing(seeparagraph vessels aswell asreducing potential catches and onfisheries by increasingimpact costs to fishing Losses totwofold litter fisheries.Marine hasa also leadto theclosure ofbeaches. cases, beaches, suchasurban litter marine can more large items debris permeter. extreme In beach userswould notvisitabeachwith2or (Ballance was etal., found 2000). It that 85%of could reduce revenue by upto more than50% that adrop inbeachcleanlinessstandards been shown outsidetheMediterranean Sea to deter tourists butithas litter starts density coastal economies. remains unclearat what It tourism revenue andconsequently weaken Losses litter to canreduce tourism: Marine annually to remove litter from harbours. attractive. Spain,more In than60,000€are spent 2011) to ensure that beachesremain aesthetically than 2millioneuros eachyear (Galgani etal., adjacent waters, withassociated costs ofmore plane to locate andcollet litter from beachesand (France) have 40personsayear, 5boats and1 For task. example,is anecessary thetown Nice disposal, management costs,(and further etc.) (vii) (vi) (v) (iv) difficult to translate in of terms costs. the environment highlycomplex issimilarly and litterthe long-term effectsofmarine willbeon been addressed by research. Establishing what extremely complex to evaluate andhasnot concern.is acritical However, damageis litter to contribute to ecosystem deterioration maintenance costs etal. (Mouat , 2010). removal from ofdebris screens, andadditional of cooling water intake screens, anincreased litter onpower stations canincludetheblockage Costs to power stations: The effectsofmarine ofincidents arethe vast majority unreported. littermarine (Macfayden etal., 2009).However, to vessels (pleasure orcommercial) by stricken (UNEP, rescue 2009),andemergency operations and management andmarinas inharbours etal.,Brink 2009),litter removal (manualornot) a result ofvessel damageanddowntime (Ten Costs to shipping:Costs from litter marine are 1500€ perincident (Hall, 2000). hour permonth for cleaning, withacost ofupto aquaculture organisations, ranging around 1 clean netscanrepresent asignificant cost to floatingdebris inoraround stock cagesand to addition,thetimerequired2009). In to remove result incostly repairs andlosttime(UNEP, problems for aquaculture operators andcan blocked intake pipespresent themostcommon Losses to aquaculture: Entangled propellers and vessel/year etal. (Mouat , 2010). experienced lossesreaching 25-40000€per Europenets. demonstrated Studies inNorthern and/or contaminated catch, andcleaningof fromearnings reduced fishingtime, restricted Ecosystem degradation: The potential for marine 57 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 58

© Thomais Vlachogianni/MIO-ECSDE IN THE MEDITERRANEAN IN THE MARINE LITTERMONIT ORING PR OGRAMS Entanglement data doessuffer from notalways being to directly. monitoring isto lookat impacts Another approach intheMediterranean Sea. particles There noregular monitoring ofmicro isactually compartment. marine obtain bothaccumulation andstock data inthis remote are withdivers, alsoconducted submersibles, and automated monitoring inthefuture. surveys Seabed large(Galgani scale etal. , 2013)willsupport litter, buttherecent development offloating drones most accepted methods, dependingonthesize of trawl are surveys the surveys, andaerial observation, only assessstock and notaccumulation, From- abundancedebris best(CMS, canalso 2014).Surveys spatial scale, at Despite more intensive sampling required to assess respectively). pollution shipandurban beachestracking urban than othersdueto theirlocation (remote beachesor beaches willbetter indicate specificsources ofdebris ofbeachlitter.a considerable proportion Some litterBuried isusuallynotsampled, though itmay be changes inoverall abundance. may notnecessarily provide agoodindicator of they may beaffected by weather, thestranded debris may notrelate to pollutionand, truemarine because the simplestandmostcost effective, butthey are surveys widelyviewed Beach sea andimpacts. as surveys, andestimates oftheamounts entering the various approaches, suchasbeachsurveys, at monitoring generally debris consists of Marine andfeatures. impacts transboundary comparison ofresults andtakeinto account relevant consistent across theregion. This willfacilitate the manner by monitoring methodsare ensuring draw uptheirmonitoring programmes inacoherent countriesimpossible. theMediterranean Sea, must In approach to litter monitoring andmeasures is amounts across arisk allcompartments, Without somedegree ofinformation ontrends and for thesettingoftargets.also necessary alsocannotbedetermined, andmonitoringtactics is monitoring data. The relative success ofdifferent strategy, as no strategy canbeevaluated without ofany management part isanimportant Monitoring 4.1 Monit - operated vehicles. isthuspossibleto It oring sea surveys probably -sea surveys reflect overall -based -sea deck countries, andthestatistic sheetsgive of anoverview on beacheshasbeenavailable inmostofthe andcomposition litterthe quantity ofmarine found Mediterranean region. Valuable information about over anumberofyears, by variousNGOs inthe on beacheshave beenmadeinmany areas, often Comprehensive litter andregular ofmarine surveys implementation ofmeasures. by litter. This willalsoenableatargeted littermarine pollutionandthepotential caused harm facilitating identification ofthemainsources of etc., oragiven form ofinteraction (ingestion),thus attributed to agiven source e.g. fisheries, shipping enable thecomparison ofresults. may be Items standard listofcategories oflitter items inorder to 2013, UNEP/MAP, 2014)that takeinto consideration a Protocols doexist (UNEP, etal. 2009,MSFD/Galgani , for microplastics, etc.) teams. to assistsurvey (training, inter be shouldered control/quality by quality assurance will bebasedonmeasures, should monitoring efforts As majorfuture decisions withintheMediterranean the onefor whichmostdata isavailable. and stranded debris, themostmature indicator and otherthanbeach of any compartment othermarine littlecoverage there theMediterranean Sea, isvery In indicative ofchangesrelated to measures. reduction from rivers), and bothare considered to bethemost logbooks)orlandbasedsourcesand garbage (inputs inputs (records waste reception from port facilities source inputmonitoring. This may concern ship The lastapproach for isat debris monitoring marine environment). themarine should onlyreflect stomachs), and(iii)feeding habits(stomach contents andamounts ofplasticoverfrequency timein species), (ii)regular plasticconsumption (high beached animals, by like (i)sampleavailability (adequate numbersof mustmeetanumber ofbasicrequirements,purposes species that canbeconsidered for monitoring sample from thepopulation at large. Moreover, deceased andstranded individualsasopposedto a sampling provides consistent data to butisrestricted enable regular andconsistent monitoring. Ingestion sampling stranded organisms istoo difficult to gearsandlitter between active when the distinction conflated withwithin-speciesprevalence. Moreover, lack ofpopulation estimates, andcanwrongly be ofthepopulation,expressed dueto a asaproportion - comparisons, useofreference material - catch victims or harvested orharvested catch victims - 59 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 60 Items/km2 (black), Plastic items/ km2 (Grey) and percentage of plastic (White). (http://www.sibm.it/SITO%20MEDITS/principaleprogramme.htm) (black), Plastic (Grey) items/Items/km2 km2 andpercentage ofplastic(White). Figure 4.1a:Evolution litter of seabed densities intheGulfofLion(France) was 1994and2011.Data between collected cruisesandexpressed from asTotal MEDITS (International Coastal Cleanup) Ocean Conservancy Vertidoscero inSpain,CleanCoast inIsrael, and Academia Leviatano inItaly, EcoOcean inFrance, ECSDE, inGreece, andMEDASSET Legambiante and stakeholders, andthewiderpublic. HELMEPA, MIO local/regional/national authorities, industry suchascleaningoreducatingvarious objectives Mediterranean countries involve(d) NGOswith programmesMost that exist orhave existed inmost Mediterranean. address theproblemLitter inthe ofMarine indicators ofapproaches that could beusedto monitoring. theexisting Nevertheless, programs are Plan committed to coordinate andharmonize Litterimplementation Regional Action oftheMarine problem willbesolved intheyears to come withthe situation for theentire Mediterranean region. This overall assessmentlitter ofthemarine pollution compare data from different regions and to makean obtained intheseprojects. This makesitdifficult to compatibility between methodsusedandresults but rather are dueto thelackofstandardization and awareness orthelackofdata from various regions dealing withthisproblem are notdueto lackof the Mediterranean countries. The challengesin However, there isalack ofofficialstatistics formostof founddebris intheMediterranean countries. - it/SITO%20MEDITS/principaleprogramme.htm) Trawl in the Mediterranean, http://www.sibm. Survey programmeThe MEDITS survey (International Bottom POL regional plan. Action implementation isinprogress withintheUNEP/MED is notorganized at thebasinscalebut, its coastal litter. Science beginning ofaturnover inreducing and marine may bethe ofsuchkind international action for countries neighboring aswell. Acombined success, notonlyfor theresidents ofacountry, but a self-perpetuatingmechanismthat willgenerate A strategy pursuedfor alongenoughtimewillcreate shows that “Action First” by countries may bethekey. analyzed andidentified. However, theprogramme problem until thesources ofthelitter have been towardembark asolutionto litter themarine shouldnot arguelong-term. Some that acountry backed upby a measurement index andapplied solved by theintroduction ofaholisticmechanism, UNEP, 2011)shows that thelitter problem canonlybe The “Clean Coast” programme (Alkalay etal., 2007,in together andare interrelated. ofthemarein theMediterranean. Some cooperating Litter monitoring programmes that have takenplace are someindicative examples ofsuccessful Marine -based coordinated monitoring indicator using fulmar(Fulmarus glacialis)to assess an Sea, theNorth species asindicator In ofharm. There isapotential for usinglitter ingested by other assurance, andharmonization. reinforced coordination, building, capacity quality remains yet to beimplemented andwillneed monitoring tool for litter marine inbiota.Monitoring for usingthisspeciesasanassessment and Camedda etal. 2013and2014)are interesting criteria 2013; TravagliniBentivegna etal., Lazar andGracan Lucia 2011;De etal. , 2012; stomach (Tomas contents etal. oftheturtles , 2002; regular occurrence ofanthropogenic waste inthe 2010, Oliver, etal. 2014;Darmon , 2014),andthe (Casalethe Mediterranean Sea andMargaritoulis, turtle’sloggerhead spatialin extended distribution to monitoring.2013) providing support The then implemented etal. (Matiddi et al. , 2011;Galgani , al., many 2010)after years ofresearch. Protocols were suggested in2010by aMSFDtaskgroup (Galgani et ingested litter was first intheMediterranean Sea contamination. for monitoring The useofseaturtles environmental pollution conditions, particularly adopted worldwide asabio classified asworldwide “endangered” (IUCN,2013),is it. technical basisto start The turtle, loggerhead butthereMediterranean Sea, isagoodscientific and There inthe isnomonitoring ofimpacts change for quantitiestheperiod. ofplasticduring analysis ofresults demonstrated theabsence of enable theconsistent evaluation oftrends. The Lions, in1994to where monitoring was started example, figure 4.1a gives results from theGulfof potential to to extend thewiderbasin.As an covering mainlytheEuropean coasts withastrong considered, someonlyonanirregular basis, scale. To date 1280samplingstations are being basis andwillprovide assessments at thebasin organization ofdata onaregular ofthecollection the requirements oftheMSFD. willenablethe It ofdatalitter onmarine inagreementcollection with incorporating acommon procedure for thevoluntary protocols. The lastversion (7)oftheprotocol is common standardized samplingmethodologyand through systematic bottom trawl andwitha surveys 800m), at aglobalscaleintheMediterranean Sea, continental shelves andalongtheupperslopes(80- as well asdemographic structure, bothonthe demersal speciesinterms ofpopulation distribution intends to produce basicinformation onbenthic and -indicator of et al., 2013; including themore frequent items, inorder to Region shouldthen adoptacommon master list, Conventions (e.g. OSPAR) as muchaspossible. Each monitoring programs withotherRegional Seas to harmonize the isquite important data. It monitoring programmes could provide additional but set, definitive baselinesmay beadjusted after The amount ofexisting information may belimited, rather thanat thesub at thelevel oftheentire basin(Mediterranean Sea) floor, microplastics, ingested litter) mustbe considered various litter indicators sea (beaches, seasurface, MAP/CORMON, 2015)that common baselinesfor the (Italy, Greece), itwas recommended recently (UNEP/ countries belonging to two ormore sub the unequalspread ofavailable data-sets, andsome Mediterranean sub toDue thepoordifferences between the regional baseline againstwhichto measure progress. There iscurrently noaccepted Mediterranean orsub 4.2 not asamonitoring tool. also from but ofharm, theviewpoint ofknowledge recommended, mammalsaremarine thencertainly system. Studies oflitter instomach contents of Jacobsen etal., 2010) to beusedinamonitoring beaked whales, MacLeod, 2009;Sperm Whales, sea orthat are ttoo difficult to collect (Cuvier´s occur intoo low frequencies intheMediterranean ingestion monitoring, orelseitconcerns speciesthat the percentage range mammalsto usethisgroup for incidenceThe ofingested known plasticistoo low in fragmented andincidence isgenerally low. recommendation at thispoint, asinformation is research to justifyastandard for monitoring target speciesfor microplastics butneedmore echinoderms, ormollusks, may alsobeconsidered as (Nephrops nephrops, Murray andCowie, 2011), sp. for example, Deudero etal., 2014),Crustacea fish withhigherincidence ofingested (Boops debris indicating localinterest only. species, suchas Other suchasshearwaters, haveSea, limited distribution However, alternative speciesfor theMediterranean established (OSPAR EcoQO, Van Franeker etal., 2011). temporal trends ofingested litter hasalready been Baselines Litter in c ontext of Monit the Mediterranean Sea -regions interms oflitter densities, and tar -regional level (Table 4.2a). oring Marine gets in the -regions 61 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 62 Table 4.2a:Proposed baselinesformonitoring marinelitter intheMediterranean (UNEP/MAP, Sea 2015) targets are difficult toset; regards to to metrics beusedissuchthat absolute common goal. current with Our lackofknowledge intheof extent towardssome flexibility reductions a cooperation. Another approach would beto provide and political commitment, coordinated actions, as acommon concern enablingharmonized actions, Typically, broad targets willhave many advantages such visible litter items onbeaches)are possibleoptions. bylitter rivers, transported decrease thenumberof «trend-based» targets (e.g. reduce theamount of litter, reduce theamount oflitter at sea,etc.) and Broad basedtargets (maintain thelevel ofMarine etal.stakeholder awareness, 2013). (Interwies management and entering theseasandto support measures to prevent enacted litter marine from indicator(s), and(iii)assessthesuccess orfailure of byachieving theobjective meansofassociated needed, (ii)measureand effort progress towards Environmentalas Good Status (GES) to themeasures regions to such (i)linktheaimofachievingobjectives forare management astheywillenable important components Mediterranean waters. ofmarine They statements onthedesired condition ofthedifferent Environmental targets are qualitative orquantitative more for usefulandpractical field work. produce lists, which would harmonized shorter be 17. Floating litter(items/km2) 16. beaches(items/100 m) 17. seafloor(items/km2) Affected turtles (%) Affected turtles Ingested litter(g)Ingested 17 Microplastics 18 (Sea Turtles)(Sea 18 (items/km2) Indicator minimum value 14% 11 0 0 0 0 maximum value 4860000 92.5% 7700 3600 195 14 by usingtrend targets and ‘operational’ measures. In may bepossibleto circumventIt someoftheseissues or by sector. litteron marine at any level, whetherglobal, regional, they leadto difficultiesinsettingquantitative targets management strategies Subsequently, andtactics. regionally, for whichare devising important different sources andpathways globallyand to determine therelative of importance trying gapsleadto problems ofknowledge when kinds littering, andimprove at sea,etc.). inspections These improve waste water treatment, reduce consumer ship land-based sources/sectors, improve of collection wasteurban improve production, waste of collection pellets,industrial etc.), and(v)Measures (reduce landfills, etc.), (fisheries,Sectors (iv) recreation, Sources andpathways (rivers, ship wastes,bugs, etc.), sanitary microparticles, (iii) etc.), (ii)Composition (Plastic bags, ortype cigarette Location (Beaches, floating, estuaries, life, marine targets litter. onmarine They may consider (i) provided to ofpotential set anoverview aspects measures etal. implemented. (2013) Interwies and enableaproper assessment ofthevarious are therefore changesinlitter likelyto types detect adaptation andthediscriminationoflitter items; they The design ofmostprotocols enablesregional based waste in the port reception-based waste facilities, intheport mean value 340 000 45.9% 1.37 179 920 3.9 Proposed baseline 200000-500000 -based litter, 450-1400 130-230 40-60% 1-3 3-5 by Arcadis (2014) some contracting parties haveby Arcadis (2014)somecontracting parties context ofvariousmanagement schemes, reviewed seafloor, or water column) orbiota. Within the environment (coast, orinany ofitscompartments in theoverall amount oflitter present inthemarine planshavereduction definedtargets asa reduction countries.neighboring countries Most involved in nature, ambition, andmeasurability, even between defined Mediterraneanby countries in of terms There isquite awidediversity oftargets that may be and shouldnotbepursued(CMS 2014). evidence that more ambitioustargets are notfeasible achieve amodesttarget may becited by someas “background noise”. Moreover, anapparent failure to slight (few %)changethat could a justreflect possible, oronlypossibleat highercost, to measure a maytargets notbetechnically hadbeenset. It easier to determine through monitoring thanifweak be considered. thisrespect,highertargets willbe In seabed litter andmicroplastics shouldnevertheless Quantitative targets reduction for beach/floating/ stranded onbeaches. thresholds related litter to ofmarine thereduction watersMediterranean marine to setquantitative there isnotsomuchinformation available in than for inthewater debris column, even though isclearthat there ismoreIt data onbeach debris specific operational objectives. theeffectiveness of better andsupport reflect and “pressure” targets canthen complementary “state” both the concerned actors. The establishment of measures that shouldbeconsidered andimplemented by ofprevention andlistsaseries objectives andremediation The MLRPalsoprovides for strategic andoperational programmes andmeasures appliedinotherseas. and approaches andwhichisinharmony with accordance withaccepted international standards litter,marine and(iv)Amanagement system that isin methods,respectful (iii)Improved on knowledge already litter existing marine usingenvironmentally and safety, (ii) The removal to theextent possibleof theendangered species, publichealth, particularly onecosystem habitats,impact services, species, littermarine pollutionintheMediterranean andits areobjectives (i) The prevention of andreduction and timetablesfor theirimplementation. The general defined general andtargeted objectives measures Barcelona Convention adopted theMLRPthat December 2013,theContracting Parties ofthe factors affectingthequantities of and distribution factors regional differences). However, due to alarge setof improving information onpathway, source, and operational targets monitoring for suchasestuarine improving thestate ofinformation aboutabundance, ofinformationtypes gaps(at differenttypes oftargets are relevant to different the implementation ofmonitoring programmes, and targetsThe debris settingofmarine willencourage common indicator to beadopted. should beencouraged to consider beachlitter asa comparability, and, for thisreason, othercountries comparable reference periods. This may enable determined (timescalesfor example) andhave terms ofhow trends are andreductions to be specification andharmonizationare now neededin monitoring approach across theregion. Further step towards aharmonized andcomparable constitute acost done inlinewithacommon protocol, itwill monitoring programs widelyin theMediterranean. If theintentionreflects to implement beach litter litter to atarget formulated. This isquite positive, asit litter relate ofmarine ordirectly the reduction beach mayactors usebeachlitter asanindicator to assess elements.Most quantifiable and complementary downbreaking suchacomplex issueinto more found onreference beaches) shouldfacilitate average occurrence ofthetop identifiable items ofitems (e.g. types even particular reduce the litterof marine (e.g. litter generated by or fisheries) Formulating asub which areactivities, easierto monitor andinfluence. efforts, asthey refer to humanprocesses and operational- establishing quantitative state targets, pressure/ Where Contracting Parties are hesitant about in behaviour (littering, etc.). Targets dedicated to education, asrelated to changes Reduced inflow fromrivers andsewers, and(ix) better waste incoastal regions, collection (viii) in theirstomachs, (vii) Various targets regarding having more thanXgofplastic than X%ofseaturtles strangulation reduced towards aminimum,(vi)Less litter,term ofharmful (v)Entanglement and towardsseabed, (iv)Reduction zero over thelong water inlitter onseasurface, column and Reduction average, (ii)Negative annualtrend inbeachlitter, (iii) litter from beachesbasedonafive year moving proposed of varioustargets suchas(i)Reduction oriented targets cancomplement their - effective methodologyandacritical -set oftargets for specificsources -sea targets for 63 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 64 Table 4.2b:Operational targets fortheMediterranean asproposed withintheUNEP/MAPMarineLitter RegionalAction Sea Plan (2015) regional ofthe seas, (iv)themodelledimpact 343 recent beachscreenings inthefour European litter types, loopholesandpathways retrieved from policy, (iii)theanalyzed occurrence ofkeymarine stakeholders concerning aneffective litter marine ofthegeneral publicandthe (ii) theexpectations Europe, Contracting Parties, orUNEP/regional seas, based on(i)thetargets already inuseat thelevel of litter onbeacheswas proposed by Arcadis (2014), A proposal target ofaheadlinereduction for marine area. measures inaparticular sea that canbeassociated to theimplementation of challenging trends clearreduction to detect inthe area, itcanbevery littermarine inacertain Amount of ingested litter (g) SEA FLOOR (EI17) LITTER INGESTED LITTER (EI18) INGESTED LITTER Number of turtles with Number ofturtles ECAP INDICATORSECAP ingested litter (%) FLOATING LITTER MICROPLASTICS MICROPLASTICS BEACHES (EI16) (EI17) (EI17) % decrease inquantity % decrease inthe rate of affected animals of ingested weight TYPE OF TARGET TYPE % decrease % decrease % decrease % decrease MINIMUM significant stable - - - - MAXIMUM 10% in5 years 30 - - - - to 13%,bottlecapsupto 7%,cotton budsupto 2% bagsofup of upto in plasticcarrier 18%,reductions ofthetotalreductions numberofbeachlitter items measures targeting cigarette buttshave resulted in by Arcadis (2014),for European regional seas, EU regions (EUcommunication 2014/398).As stated established, withthelistadapted to eachofthefour beaches, aswell asfor fishinggear found at sea, was the ten oflitter mostcommon found types on littermarine by 30%by 2020compared to 2015for September 2014,anaspirational targetIn ofreducing measures forpolicy specificlitter items could have. litter onmarine that dedicatedassessed impact different litter, optionsonmarine policy and(v)the 20% by 2024or[2030] RECOMMENDATION Statistically Statistically Statistically Statistically Statistically Significant Significant Significant Significant Significant sources are difficult to control (trans sources are difficult to control (trans Not 100% marine pollution Not 100%marine 15% in15years ispossible Animals to beconsidered Movements oflitter and border movements) border movements) REMARK technical orscientific considerations, accessible monitoring strategy and intheMediterranean Sea targets withmeasures. regards In to thecoordinated other characteristics, anditwillbedifficult to relate microplastics cannotbedistinguishedby usesor with low degradation rates. Moreover, sources of and seabedlitter isaccumulating for longperiods, basinto from another, onecountry/sub transported may notfit for indicator EI17. Floating litter may be litter management policiesfrom Contracting Parties proposed target remains high,asdependingonthe regional seaconcerned. The level ofambitionthe up to 12%,dependingonthespecificitiesof and depositrefund systems for beverage packaging ingested by debris numberorweight. number ofaffected animalsandtheamount of willthenfocusingested onthe litter inseaturtles accumulation processes ontheseafloor. Targets on movements, influence ofcurrents) andpermanent diffuses anduncontrolled sources (tranboundary amount requires overcoming theconstraints of floating andseafloorlitter, asignificant decrease in measures ofreduction canbeevaluated.impacts For with somespecifictargets onindividualitems after may focus onthetotal amount litter ofmarine first, the2015first after results from monitoring. Targets 4.2b) considering baselinesthat may beoptimized targets were proposed (UNEP/MAP, 2015and Table 65 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 66

© Thomais Vlachogianni/MIO-ECSDE MANAGEMENT AND REDUCTIONMEASURES real challenge, asmost sources are diffuseandcannot measuresImplementing to reduce litter marine isa • • • • • • of thefollowing litter marine measures: asaguidingframework thatforstructure serves any following aswell guidingprinciples asanumbrella marine Litter,on Marine Germany (http://www. 2013,Berlin, The Conference Mediterranean MLRPandtheBerlin sources that cannotbeaddressed by asinglemeasure. inclusion ofavast amount sectors, ofactivities, and Attempts to prevent litter marine require the Mediterranean. Integrated Coastal Zone inthe Management constitutes akeyelement oftheProtocol on in economic development. This principle environmental considerations shouldbeincluded The ofintegration principle meansthat problem litter. ofmarine ofcreating aspect awarenessimportant for the isan The ofpublicparticipation principle are considered.human activities that ensures that thecollective pressures of The ecosystem-based approach isanapproach consequences litter. ofmarine onthespecific sourcesknowledge and despite anincompleteparticles, scientific targets andaddressing theissueofmicro roleThis plays principle insetting animportant postponed inthelight ofscientific uncertainties. understanding that measures mustnotbe isbasedonthe principle The precautionary (environmental) damage. determining thepolluter andalsotheextent of islimitedof thisprinciple in by thedifficulty to avoid polluting. However, theapplication potential polluters to makebetter attempts causing it, whichputsmore pressure on by shouldbeborne thepolluter activities from inthat externalities polluting function The polluter prevention measures. and labourintensive, especiallycompared with removal ofalready introduced costly waste isvery at addressing theprevention at thesource, as pollutionmeasure aim marine shouldprimarily The ofprevention principle establishesthat any -litter - conference -pays hasapreventive principle -berlin.info/) provided the - the quayside, harbours where theparticipating gear.contacting Filled bagsoflitter are deposited on areMost from theseafloor, withbottom - collected litter are targeted, used. dependingonthegeartype asawhole. ofmarine All types inside theindustry from theseabutalsoraises awareness oftheproblem initiative notonlyinvolves removal thedirect oflitter the keystakeholders, thefishingindustry. The of themostsuccessful concepts by involving oneof removal litter hasbecome ofmarine fromone sea.It measures that would lead to and thereduction Fishing for Litter isoneofthemostimportant effective. prevention mustbe addressed before removal canbe available abundance ondebris alsosuggestthat plastic, andmicroplastic fragments. The numbers species, onmarine suchasfishing gear,impact soft strategies to have thatknown dealwithdebris ahigh Focus shouldalsobedirected toward management tax for plasticproducers. ofwaste(vii) thereduction at itssource, and(viii)a (vi) theoptimization ofthewaste system, collection the development inrain ofalitter sewers, collection processing Litter at ofMarine seaby (v) fishermen, awareness at thenational level, and (iv)collection plan, (ii)adepositsystem for bottles, (iii)public litter were (i)agreat national causewithanaction promising measures ofmarine interms ofreduction (Poitou andPoulain, 2015)concluded that themost Mediterranean withintheEuropean Marlisco project comparison, ameetingofstakeholdersheldinthe In (Table5.3a) . theproblemseen to bemosteffective intackling thefollowingMediterranean Sea, measures were considered majorsources litter. ofmarine the In The are fishingand shippingindustries also input pathways. or inland(river banks, dumpsites, etc.) asthemain disposal, intentionally ornegligently, onthebeaches based tourism andrecreation. This indicates direct items andbottles,packaging allrelated to coastal- sticks), cigarette butts, andcigartips, aswell as items (mostlycottonMediterranean are bud sanitary groups ofitems found onbeachesinthe of thispollutionintheMediterranean Sea. The main take into consideration feasibility andthespecificity sources andinputpathways, buttheyshouldalso takenshouldrespond toand actions themajor be easilycontrolled andmanagedt. Then, measures 67 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 68 (2013, http://www.marine-litter-conference-berlin.info/) Table 5.3a:Mainmeasures Conference meetingheldduringtheBerlin forthereduction ofLitter intheMediterranean theMediterranean (after Sea expert maysuch interventions alsohave negative avery should beusedfor thispurpose, that dueto thefact The bestenvironmental andtechniques practices logistics are free. compensated for theirengagement, butthedisposal public. Fishermen are usuallynotfinancially the fishingindustry, othersectors, andthegeneral from theseaandseabed, andraise awareness among sector, provide amechanismto remove litter marine to changing andculture practices withinthefishing and localauthorities. Furthermore, itcancontribute authorities, ofthefishingindustry, port the support nets. The andaimsoftheschemecangain objectives the amount spenduntangling oftimefishermen their washingof debris uponbeachesandalsoreduces fordedicated disposal. skip This reduces thevolume monitor thewaste before moving thebagto a Knowledge anddataKnowledge Production Clean-up measures Land-basedlitter basedlitterSea TYPES Information sharing aroundInformation sharing theMediterranean. Standard monitoring programme(s) that consistently thelitter, describe their sources, andquantities; integrated management systems. producerExtended for responsibilityagreements measures return andvoluntary andrestoration withplasticindustry madecottonUse swabs; ofpaper/carton (microbeads); products Elimination ofcertain (Banonsingle production Smart Incentives for beachcleaning(e.g. awards, likethe “Blue flag award”). private companies (i.e. ofthetourism sector); cleaningofinlandpathwaysCompulsory (rivers, nearlandfillsetc.), beachcleaning by local communities and/or onbeachesandtheintroduction of dissuasive taxesBans onsmoking (taxonplasticbags, a tax",“tourist etc.). Incentives/disincentives for littering; Education andoutreach litter onmarine impacts; toThe Mediterranean countries andEast; transfer intheSouth ofskills/knowledge The establishment of"Guidelines for ofCoastal Management Litter"); The upgrade, redesign andimproved maintenance ofsewage system, includingthestorage ofwastewater; An improved waste management system, includingthebanonillegaldumping, especiallyintourism hotspots; The litter inclusionofmarine asanintegrated ofmunicipalsolidwaste management; part Removal ofAbandoned &Lost &Discarded Fishing Gear. Fishing for Litter; No Port reception facilities; MEASURES -specialfee system (alsofor marinas); use plastic bags, packaging guidelines; -use plasticbags, packaging including (i)Contrats in2008(3French Bleus, started being developed currently (Zorzo Gallego, 2015), whereMediterranean Sea, four are mainprojects Fishing for Litter are projects recent to the oftheseprojects. litterof marine aspart collected related storage, to thecollection, ortransfer to shore been noinstances ofaccidents directly orinjuries since Sea 2000indicates that therein theNorth have Moreover, theexperience ofFishing for Litter projects caught intrawls onboard andcollected vessels. to hazardous andothersubstances that might be likely notbeany additionalimplications withregard (operations) and,activities therefore, there would initiatives would fishing bethesameasnormal of ofimplementing thesetypes safety aspects etal.Mouat (2010)suggested that thehealthand environment onmarine impact andecosystems. and inadequate interventions from industry and and inadequate from interventions industry waste management, limited awareness ofthepublic, economic instruments to reduce litter. marine Poor etal.Oosterhuis (2014)analysed thepossible marinelitter/other/economics/default.asp). benefits (http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/ on aneconomic instrument may outweigh the polluters, asthecosts ofsettingupaschemebased appropriate where there are alimited numberof agreementsRegulation orvoluntary may alsobe alone usuallyisnottheonlyoridealsolution. persuasive instruments. Using economic instruments control instruments, economic instruments, and “policy mix,” consisting ofvariouscommand and problems are usuallyaddressed by employing a and economic specificenvironmental activities, ofenvironmentaland theimpact policiesonsocial Given thecomplexities ofenvironmental problems materials.of collected for thesustainablevalorization andskills knowledge Adriatic) andprovideNorthern background Mediterranean regions (Turkey, Spain,andthe products. Operations were inthree conducted them into materials andtextiles highquality forindustries regeneration andrecycling, turning netsfromcollecting fishingandaquaculture clean-upsandare also underwater conducting www.aquafil.com/en/). These organizations are companies suchasNofir(Nofir.no org/en/), ECNC(ecncgroup.eu), andprivate healthyseas.org (http://www.medasset.), Medasset various NGOssuchasHealthy (http:// Seas Additional recently work was started involving context ofthebasin(Zorzo Gallego, 2015). Plan,Action developing adapted bestpractices to the being considered withintheMediterranean Regional not covered by fishermen. implementation is Further coordination anddata recording works needto be atandlitter harbour disposal,collection and costs suchaswaste management, mainlylitter is intheprojects offishermen voluntary,participation gear (http://www.defishgear.net)). Since the oneyearduring targeting seabedlitter andfishing DeFishGear Adriatic (seven countries participating Spain, 5trawlers seabedlitter), and(iv) collecting (Andalusianseabed litter), (iii)Ecopuertos Coast, vessel SpanishEastCoast floating and collecting (ii)Ecologicaland bestpractices), bagsonboard (38 Mediterranean harbors, withfinancial compensation ) orAquafil (http:// 2011, cited by etal. Oosterhuis , 2014). that reduce oractivities products litter (Lanoieetal., costs orbenefits to beinternalised into theprices of in thebehaviour ofusersby allowing environmental economic instruments can stimulate gradual changes means to reduce andprevent litter. marine Moreover, that economic instruments are more cost efficient as when there isanurgent need, buteconomists argue Command-and pollution management. individuals greater intheirapproach flexibility to provide (dis)incentives that allow and firms plastics bags, etc.) oreconomic instruments that (increase facilities, ofstandards forbanof port that contribute to litter marine by legislation litter regulation marine includedirect ofactivities individuals andfirms. instruments to limit Policy consuming procedures involving large numberof them prohibitively expensive asaresult oftime litter,marine andany costs would transaction render There to isnomarket determine thedesired level of through taxes, charges, orsubsidies. nature, influence theamountlitter ofmarine residues. instruments, more Other economic in facilities for ship receptionthe EUDirective 2000/59/EConport legislation to litter, help minimisemarine suchas instruments that focus onadoptingrelevant ofthemaresectors. policy Some regulatory have beenproposed to dealwithitacross multiple litter,origin ofmarine awiderange ofinstruments result ofthecomplexities causedby thediverse few percentage decrease oftotal revenue. As a by causing a negatively thefishingindustry impacts on removing beachlitter. litter also Marine municipalities spendingmillionsofeuros eachyear cost litter ofcleaningmarine canbesignificant, with (seeparagraph 2.1.1). comprising aminorpart The withsewage relatedanother large part, debris contributes beach, whiletheshippingindustry account for ofalllittera found large onthe part recreational andbeach-related tourism activities theMediterranean, economic In activities. and sectors to attribute litter marine to particular There are, though,afew studiesthat have attempted this becomes litter marine (e.g. plasticinthesea). material (e.g. plasticbags)andtheextentto which the linksbetween theamount ofoverall polluting litter at sea. There sparseinformation about isvery policy -makers are themaincausesofpresence of control measures may bepreferred - generated waste andcargo - 69 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 70 Table ofeconomic 5.3b:Effectiveness instruments to reduce marinelitter asevaluated fromOosterhuis real experiments/situations etal., worldwide (after 2014). incentives litter themarine inorder to tackle can makeuseofeitherpositive ornegative financial There isawiderange ofeconomic instruments that the cost ofghostgears. environmentalcertain objective. This isthecasein allocate scarce resources (e.g. publicfunds)to meeta instrument to optfor, anditfocuses onhow to that influences factor which another important economic instruments. The cost ofimplementation is Effectiveness isakeydetermining factor for Price differentiation paymentDirect awards paymentDirect awards paymentDirect awards Subsides refundDeposit schemes refundDeposit schemes refundDeposit schemes Taxes Taxes on tourists Penalties INSTRUMENT ECONOMIC Plastic bags fishermen) bottles (to Fishing gears, Plastic bags General General Plastic bottles Bottles General Plastic bags General General LITTER OF TYPE Low withincreasedHigh rate ofparticipation Low corruption insomecountries mayConditional belimited by to politicalsupport, local Conditional to politicalsupport Limited by consumer demand Limited by consumer preferences corruption insomecountries More effective thanenvironmental butmay belimited by recycling since 2002),effective for limitingthedemandbutless for inplasticbaguseby (reduction 90%inIreland High inadequate infrastructures be Limited by and oppositionwiththetourism sector inareasHigh where butmay tourism isprominent activity to identify thepolluter Limited, conditional ontheability weak political support, EFFECTIVENESS marine litter tomarine reduction bemet. appropriate level targets inorder of to enablecertain isthento settaxespolicymakers andpenaltiesat an recognise a “pollute andpay”. The challengefor to litter. marine Financial penaltieshowever donot consumptive that contributes orproductive activity andmayeconomic on becollected activities Charges andtaxes canbeseenasprice tagson may contribute to theproblem litter. ofmarine charges) are appliedto discourage behaviour that problem. Financial disincentives (penalties, taxes, and litter removal compared to low when high high containers when using high except high low high high COSTS fishermen additional income for job creation cleaner publicareas, refillable containers, higher demandfor non- in plasticindustry possible lossesofjobs less tourist arrivals loss ofcompetitiveness, REMARKS unique economic instrument, andthechoice ofan forUnfortunately there theMediterranean Sea, isno (Table littermarine are more orlesseffectives 5.3b). identified intheliterature asameans to reduce friendly. Economic instruments that have been favour ofcompanies that are more environmentally schemethat positively discriminatessupported in Preferential treatment agovernment isoften that leadto lessenvironmentalservices damage. encourage consumers to and chooseproducts material. Price differentiation canbeused to reward thoseconsumers whoreturn packaging (Engel etal., 2008),anddeposit Subsidies andfiscalincentives are remunerations reuse ofmaterials andproper waste disposal. behaviour intheform ofencouraging recycling and preferential treatments) are appliedto stimulate subsidies, payments, direct price differentiation, and Financial incentives (deposit -refund schemes, -refund schemes - fishermen’s income. shown to bothreduce litter marine andcomplement fishing vessels that return waste to shore have been the cost ofimplementation, and(iv)Rewards for especially for bottlesandcans, buttheydependon achieve highreturn rates insomecountries, coastal areas, (iii)Deposit waste andtreatment collection in support further thesemightrisk beusedfor otherpurposes, can oftourist taxes,collection althoughthere isahigh reducing theiruseat arelatively low cost, (ii) The (i) Taxes successful andcharges in canbevery From non-Mediterranean experiences, itappearsthat composition.sectorial and habitualbehavior, andtheeconomy’s overall infrastructure, consumer preferences, perception the country’s and institutionalcharacteristics depending onthesource andnature ofpollution, appropriate iscasespecific, intervention largely -andrefund schemescan 71 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 72

© Thomais Vlachogianni/MIO-ECSDE FOR SETTINGPRIORITIES AND PR RESEARCH G OP SALS AS B APS, KNOWLEDGES NEEDS, ASIS areas/types andhabitat where thismaterial ismost We alsoneedabetter understandingofthepotential develop appropriate methodology to quantify these. may exist, howeverlitter (nanoparticles) we need to of seemslikelythat even smaller particles 1μm. It isaroundlower for limitofdetection plasticparticles ofpollutants isneeded.leachability At present, the degradable materials, bioplastics, etc.) andrelated degradation ofdifferenttypes oflitter (plastics, stated that abetter understandingofrates of The STAGES project (http://www.stagesproject.eu) where monitoring data are collected. simulations shouldbeinitiated at thoselocations of interest andaccumulation zones, andbacktrack Comprehensive modelsshoulddefine source regions sources andfate oflitter environment. in themarine for theevaluation andidentification ofboththe improvement ofmodellingtools mustbeconsidered accumulation zones. Further development and dynamicsand understanding oftransport hydrodynamic factors. This willgive abetter established istheevaluation oflinksbetween oflitter research aspect toAn be important of GISandmappingsystems to locate hotspots. steps that wouldnecessary enablethedevelopment of litter sources (rivers, diffuseinputs),are the canyons, andspecific deepsea zones), anddetection evaluation ofaccumulation areas (closedbays, gyres, quantities, identification (size, type, possibleimpact), our approaches. and terms ofdistribution In comparable data could beobtainedby standardizing can beprovided. For this, more valuable and required before anaccurate assessment globaldebris accumulation areas. Additional basicinformation isstill shoreactivities, andcoastal uses, winds, currents, and suchasadjacent to andare factors Sea urban subject Accumulation widelyintheMediterranean rates vary complexity ofissues. involved to measures prior reduction dueto requires scientific cooperation amongtheparties monitoring, andmanagementlitter. ofmarine This reviewed thegapsandresearch needsofknowledge, www.stagesproject.eu), andCIESM(2014)recently et al., 2011),theEuropean STAGES project (http:// available. UNEP/MAP whereMediterranean Sea, notsomuchinformation is monitoring have become for critical the littermarine are long-term processes. Research and schemes andtheimprovement on ofknowledge theimplementationBoth ofthemanagement -MED POL(2013),MSFD(Galgani reference values. categorization Actual probably sampling procedures, analytical methods, and towith respect different size class categories, available data remains highlyrestricted, especially recommended. Moreover, thecomparability of sampling protocols for ishighly thewater surface stageofdevelopment,early aharmonization of microplastics isstillinan intheMediterranean Sea optimal samplingscheme. Since thestudyof aboutthe which there isadditionaluncertainty This isaneven biggerproblem for microplastics, for and required numberofreplicates intimeandspace. needed to determine theoptimumsamplingstrategy For monitoring, there alackofinformation isoften consider for abetter understandingofharm. Mediterranean viafloating litter are key questions to Sea speciesthatidentification enterRed of the native speciescolonize floating litter, and(iv)the of floating plastic,Mediterranean which alienor litter, (iii)thenature ofconstraints for thecolonization human) intheMediterranean that settleonmarine (including pathogens for organisms bothmarine and floating litter, (ii) theidentification ofspecies in theprobability oftranslocation ofspeciesdue to studied (Katsavenakis, CIESM,2014). The (i)increase questions remain openandneedto befurther With regards ofspecies, many to thetransport inthecontextopen newperspectives ofmonitoring. entanglement in,oringestionof, Litter may Marine and thedevelopment to ofnewmetrics assess for microplastics. Finally, theuseofnewapproaches themeasurement especially ofimpacts, supporting asitmay provideimportant, additionalprotocols “sentinel” species(fishes and invertebrates) isalso researchstatus are thepriority needs. Work onother considered whendefiningthegoodenvironmental constraints andpossiblebiassources to be (GES) andtheidentification of Parameters/biological litter theprecise by definitionoftarget seaturtles, ingested by organisms marine iskey. For ingestionof environmental conditions andofhow litter is entanglement (lethalorsublethal)underdifferent to localareas. Abetter understandingof determining baselinesand/oradaptingthestrategy towards monitoring litter interms of harm scale monitoring istherefore step animportant Biota indicators provide possiblesigns Pilot ofharm. isrelativelymicroplastic/nanoplastics particles limited. accumulation andenvironmental consequence of likely to accumulate, ofthe astheknowledge - 73 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 74 implementation ofmeasures intended to reduce the assess theeffectiveness of monitoring, the terms ofmeasures,In thedevelopment oftools to management schemesdedicated to litter. marine withconventionsstructures), to support measures andinstitutional systems (jurisdictional laws withaharmonizationofnational Mediterranean critical. Aprerequisite to theseistheconsideration of (tourists, general fishermen, public)hasnow become health), andfinally(iv)theeducation ofthepublic andhuman sector on fishingindustry/maritime indicators effects economic (aestheticimpact, impact and industry, (iii)thedevelopment ofsocialand socially acceptable levels litter ofmarine to thepublic social andeconomic data, (ii)anassessment of development ofcommon methodologies to collect ofabetter management through (i)the support development ofnational andlocalstrategies, the MLRP andrequiring integration withinthe Aside theimplementation oftheMediterranean are keyelements that study. require further removal and eliminationlitter) ofmarine (collection common methodologies to evaluate thecosts of related to litter, marine andthedevelopment of systems, theeffectiveness basedinstruments ofmarket cooling systems, and/orwastewater purification costs dueto clogging ofrivers, coastal power plant protected/endangered species),anevaluation of (incomes andstock losses, including tourism andfishery An evaluation costs ofdirect andlossofincome to educational campaigns). need for transparency, isolated awareness and information onsocialandeconomic consequences, (inconsistent information, lackoftools, little the application ofeconomic instruments laws) and(iv)theproblems that are encountered in lackofpenaltiesandapplicationof production, of practices, poorclassification of waste, nomonitoring for organizing themanagement ofcoastal waste (bad between framework actors, (iii)thepoorregulatory Global Programmes, (ii)thelackofcoordination instruments (except for or IMO/MARPOL Annex V) because of(i)thelackinternational legal been successfully addressed intheMediterranean (UNEP, 2011),theproblem litter ofmarine hasnot From theeconomic/management point ofview Moos, CIESM,2014). nanoplastics (Van smallest size class ofmicroplastics to include subdivisionofthe needs to beamendedby afurther lost netscontinue of to catch fish,theimportance messages andquestions, suchastheextent to which fromOutputs European alsoprovided projects key new materials). to different ofgear, management measures (marking fisheries, andsome technical issues relatedparticular of Codes ofPractice for minimisinggearlossin ofmanagement responses,impacts thespecification theenvironmentalloss andghostfishingimpacts, fisheries, theeconomic valuation ofnet particular different management measures tailored to matter), feasibility, theimpact, andcosts/benefits of ultimate oflostgear(particulate fate andimpact ghost fishingnetsasasource litter, ofmarine the population level, of incidence andaestheticimpact entanglement occurs oraffectsspecies at the rates, measuresmortality oftheextent to which gaps. They includerates ofgearlosses, ghostfishing Macfayden (UNEP, 2009)identified more specific implemented. before effective measures canbe reduction management responses, step willalsobeanecessary fishing, orthe relative costs andbenefitsofdifferent such asthecostsimpacts, ofgearlossandghost retrieval programmes. Research oneconomic ofmanagement responses,impacts notably gear environmental ofghostgear, impacts includingthe “cleaning”. Finally, there are alsoresearch gapson the pointregion before on isalsoan important taking Evaluating theinterest ofretrieval for eacharea/sub Mediterranean Sea). (Eastern andsouthern especially inareas where there isnoinformation fishing grounds, includingdeep assess thepresence ofDFGinfishingareas andon Mediterranean asawhole. Research willhave to first estimates oftheextent oftheproblem for the about fishstocks losses. There no areoverall actually knowledge work andpartial survey of underwater limited dueto difficulties thecostsvery andpractical abouttheextent ofghostfishingisstill Knowledge reduce inputs. that have to complement management measures to inthemanagementwaters ofmarine main priorities situationin caseofcritical (ex. Concordia), are the of transborder litter, marine includingtheintervention traffic),maritime andthe consideration/elimination into considerationfacilities (taking theMediterranean programmes, reception thedevelopment ofport amount litter ofmarine and/oreffectiveness - water fisheries, - 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. monitoring andmanagement: both improve andto support basicknowledge andresearchactions to beinitiated inorder to points are relevant for thenearfuture, withalistof and science measures. basedreduction The following consistent monitoring, abetter management system, to provide ascientific and technical background for a number ofkeyissueswillhave beconsidered inorder addressed inorder to better understandtheissue. A coordinated. However, anumberofpoints needto be still needto bedeveloped, implemented and become issue. acritical andreduction Management conclusion, litter marine intheMediterranean has In retrieval programmes. better than passive gearusersisalmostcertainly improved communication and between active prevention methodsbasedonCodes ofPractices and for different fisheries, as are the research gaps, but Appropriate management responses are likelyto vary on ghostfishingandmanagement responses. management responses, ofdata andthecollection ofenvironmentaltypes ofghostfishingand impacts catches inthebasin,assessment ofthedifferent no information, theestimation oftotal ghostfishing studies inthosefisheries for whichthere isvirtually with consideration to thedevelopment of settled onlitter Sea, intheMeditrranean List (inventory) species(alsobiofilms) transfer). this indicator building, (capacity technology implementation ofthemonitoring of support and suitable for monitoring (seaturtles) for theingestionoflitter inindicator species Develop anEcological (ECOQ) Objective Quality and theanalysis ofallmonitoring data. theintegration aGISplatformDefine to support fluxes, etc.) andbetter understand degradation. thesinks forDetermine litter marine (budgets, oflitter) at thebasinscale.impact litter ofmarine (beaches,risk) floating, seabed, thehotspots(accumulationMap areas, areas at litter.follow ofmarine thetransport tourism, fishing, etc.) andpathways inorder to to sources (rivers, cities, routes, maritime Develop abasinscalemodelwithconsideration 15. 14. 13. 12. 11. 10. 9. 8. 7. and regional/national scales. administrative stakeholdersat different levels Ensure theinvolvement andcooperation of ofrelevantcollection scientific information. science Harmonize cleanupsto favor acommon etc.). activities industry, port administration (fisheries, environment,tourism, branches ofthe among thevarious sectorial Focus onintegration andcooperation ofabandoned/lostfishinggears.the maintypes Evaluate thepotential lossoffishstocks due to fishing gears. Evaluate andlocalization oflost thequantity evaluation, anddefinethresholds for harm. rafted species)through andfield laboratory (entanglement, ingestion,microplastics, and Identify newindicator speciesfor impact (cigarette butts, plasticbags, cotton buds, etc.). measures by theMediterranean countries individually targeted by plansor reduction litter categoriesfor that may important the definitionofspecificbaselinesandtargets insurance).analysis/quality This mustinclude calibration, data management system and approaches (standards/baselines, inter (i.e. common andcomparable monitoring therationalisation ofmonitoring Support epipelagic to demersalspecies. microplastics inkeyspecies, from coastal deep seafloorandquantify ingested microplastics from beachesto theseafloor/ Evaluate andchangesof thedistribution to approach thisissue. developing strategies, methodsandstandards assemblages incoastal waters, andfinally of speciesinvolved andpopulations/ the degradation ofmicroplastics, identification microorganisms livingon/with litter, theirrole in on abetter understandingoftheecology of possible colonisation ofnewareas, focusing better ofdispersionandthe explain therisk Develop a database onrafted speciesto species at (pathogens, risk toxic species, etc.). standardised protocols andtheassessment of -based protocol that enablesthe 75 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 76

© Thomais Vlachogianni/MIO-ECSDE ABBREVIATIONS ANDACR ONYMS UNGA: UNEP: ROV: POP: PCB: PAH: NGO: MSW: MSFD: MLRP: MIO MEPC: MEDITS: IGO: IOC: IMO: ICC: HELMEPA: GIS: GES: GPA: FRMIP: FAO: DDT: ALDFG: -ECSDE:

Global Programme ofAction United Nations Assembly General United Nations Environment Programme Operated VehicleRemotely Persistant Organic Pollutant Poly Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbon Non Governmental Organization WasteSolid Municipal StrategyMarine Framework Directive Litter Regional PlanMarine Mediterranean Information Office for Environment, Culture Development andSustainable EnvironmentMarine Protection Committee (from IMO) Mediterranean International Trawl Survey intergovernmental organization International Oceanographic Commission (UNESCO) OrganizationInternational Maritime International Coastal Cleanup EnvironmentHellenic Marine Protection Association Geographic Information System EnvironmentalGood Status Facility for theEuro Food anAgriculture Organisation Dihloro Abandoned orLost Fishing Derelict Gears - Chloro -Diethyl- -Biphenyls Trichoroethan -Mediterranean Investment andPartnership 77 MARINE LITTER ASSESSMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 2015 78

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