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A Chronology of Key 17 Events, Texts and Thinkers 1807 Hegel, The Phenomenology of Spirit. 1819 Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Representation. 1827–1854 The later philosophy of F. W. J. von Schelling, which critiqued Hegelian idealism and developed the special concept of ‘existence’ infl uential on Kierkegaard and later existentialists. 1843–1855 In various texts, the Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) challenged the religious orthodoxy of his time, as well as the enlightenment emphasis on rationality and Hegel’s systematizing ambitions that he felt left no place for the indi- vidual. He instead called for a lived commitment and ‘a leap of faith’ that he insisted involved facing up to the prospect of ‘dread’. 1843 Kierkegaard, Either/Or (2 vols). Kierkegaard, Fear and Trembling. 1844 Kierkegaard, The Concept of Dread. Kierkegaard, Philosophical Fragments. 1845 Kierkegaard, Stages on Life’s Way. 1846 Kierkegaard, Concluding Unscientifi c Postscript. Marx and Engels, The German Ideology. 1848 Marx and Engels, The Communist Manifesto. 1849 Kierkegaard, The Sickness unto Death. 1872 Nietzsche, The Birth of Tragedy. German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) argued for a more Dionysian and excessive relation to the world, in op- position to the Apollonian rationality that he thought unduly dominant. In his later books, he diagnosed the ressentiment and slave morality affl icting his times, and tried to encourage a more life-affi rmative relation to the world through provocative ideas such as the will to power, the eternal return of the same, and the Übermensch. 373 99780826438454_CH17_Finals_txt_Prf.indd780826438454_CH17_Finals_txt_Prf.indd 337373 55/11/2011/11/2011 55:23:02:23:02 PPMM The Continuum Companion to Existentialism 1874 Dostoevsky, Crime and Punishment and The Idiot. Tolstoy, War and Peace. 1878 Nietzsche, Human All Too Human. 1880 Dostoevsky, The Brothers Karamazov. 1881 Nietzsche, Daybreak. 1882 Nietzsche, The Gay Science. 1883 Dilthey, The Introduction to the Human Sciences. 1883–1885 Nietzsche, Thus Spoke Zarathustra. 1885 Marx, Capital vol. 2. 1886 Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil. 1887 Nietzsche, On the Genealogy of Morals. Tolstoy, The Death of Ivan Ilych. 1888 Nietzsche, The Case of Wagner, Twilight of the Idols, Ecce Homo and The Anti-Christ. 1896 Bergson, Matter and Memory. 1900–1901 Husserl, Logical Investigations. Edmund Husserl (1859–1938) was the founder of phenom- enology, a way of thinking that focuses on our experiences and tries to discern the essences of such experiences. Hus- serl’s work, and particularly his Logical Investigations and Ideas (1913), were taken up in very different ways by Heide- gger (who was his student and assistant for a time), Sartre, Merleau-Ponty, and many other philosophers associated with existential phenomenology. 1913 Freud, Totem and Taboo. Husserl, Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a Phenom- enological Philosophy book 1. Basque philosopher Unamuno published his The Tragic Sense of Life in Men and Nations. Jaspers, General Psychopathology. Writing his early works around the time of the First World War, German philosopher Karl Jaspers (1883–1969) developed the notion of Existenz, arguing that we have no fi xed or essential self; the self is instead only its possibilities and what it might become. The revelation of the lack of any essential self is best revealed in ‘limit situations’, which include death, suffering and guilt. 1925 Kafka, The Trial. 374 99780826438454_CH17_Finals_txt_Prf.indd780826438454_CH17_Finals_txt_Prf.indd 337474 55/11/2011/11/2011 55:23:03:23:03 PPMM A Chronology of Key Events, Texts and Thinker 1927 Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) published his famous existential work, Being and Time, which immediately attracted great interest in Germany, concerned as it was with moods, facing up to the pros- pect of one’s own death, and with how these phenomena shed light on a question that he thought Western philosophy had forgotten – the question of Being. Gabriel Marcel’s Metaphysical Journal was published, arguably the fi rst work of French existentialism. 1929 Mexican philosopher Jose Gaos’s translation of Scheler’s The Place of Man in the Cosmos into Spanish – it became one of the most widely read books in Latin America. Fritz Heinemann’s New Paths in Philosophy, in which (he later claimed) he was the fi rst to use the term ‘philosophy of existence’ (Existenzphilosophie). 1930 Jean Wahl, The Unhappiness of Consciousness in the Philosophy of Hegel. This book began to popularize Hegel in France and infl u- enced the view of human being as unhappy consciousness found in Sartre and other existentialists. Emmanuel Levinas’s translation of Husserl’s Cartesian Medita- tions into French, which made the methods of phenomenology available to philosophers like Sartre and Merleau-Ponty. 1932 Jaspers, Philosophy (3 vols). 1933 Heidegger was made Rector of the University of Freiburg. At the time he was a supporter of Nazism and made several controversial comments (and introduced policies) that seem to many to have been anti-Semitic. 1935 Jaspers, Reason and Existenz. Marcel, Being and Having. 1932–1939 Alexandre Kojève lectured on Hegel in France, bringing the notion of the ‘master–slave’ dialectic to prominence in this country, along with a more ‘existential’ understanding of Hegel that emphasized, in a Heideggerian manner, the importance for human freedom of confronting the prospect of one’s own death. His seminars were attended by almost all of the major French intellectual fi gures of the time, although possibly not Sartre. 1936 Jaspers, Nietzsche: An Introduction to the Understanding of His Philosophical Activity. This book is an important source for the ‘existentialist’ interpretation of Nietzsche. 375 99780826438454_CH17_Finals_txt_Prf.indd780826438454_CH17_Finals_txt_Prf.indd 337575 55/11/2011/11/2011 55:23:03:23:03 PPMM The Continuum Companion to Existentialism 1937 Sartre, The Transcendence of the Ego. Here Sartre (1905–1980) dis- tances himself from aspects of Husserlian phenomenology and begins to develop his own original account of phenomenology. 1938 Sartre’s remarkably evocative novel Nausea was published to widespread acclaim. Publication of Jean Wahl’s Kierkegaardian Studies helped to popu- larize the little-known Danish philosopher in France. 1939 Borge’s essay ‘Pierre Menard, Author of Quixote’ – a major infl u- 1939–1944 ence on Latin America’s existentialist philosophers and writers. The Second World War and the German occupation of France. Both Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908–1961) and Sartre did military service, and in 1940 Sartre was captured and imprisoned and there he continued to study Heidegger’s Being and Time. 1940s Jose Ortega y Gasset’s student, Julian Marius, coined the term ‘exist entialist or personal novel’. 1941–1949 Sartre quickly attained a greater fame on the basis of his novels, as well as plays like Flies (1943) and No Exit (1944) but also be- cause of his political engagement. He, de Beauvoir and Merleau- Ponty were the founders and co-editors of the infl uential pol- itical, literary and philosophical magazine, Les Temps Modernes. 1942 Albert Camus (1913–1960) published his philosophical treatise on the absurd, The Myth of Sisyphus, which argued, among other things, that the only truly serious philosophical question is whether or not to commit suicide. Published in the same year, his compelling novella, The Outsider, was, however, more signifi - cant in bringing the mood of existentialism to a wider audience. 1943 Sartre’s philosophical magnus opus, Being and Nothingness, was completed, and it quickly became the core text of French exist- entialism, preoccupied as it is with freedom, responsibility and authenticity. Gabriel Marcel coined the term existentialiste to describe Sartre in his review of Being and Nothingness in Les Tempes Modernes. Heidegger’s Being and Time translated into Spanish by Mexican philosopher Jose Gaos, thus making it available to Latin America 19 years before the English translation. De Beauvoir’s ‘metaphysical novel’ She Came to Stay (contains a version of the phenomenological proof of other minds). 1944 Sartre’s play No Exit (contains the famous line ‘Hell is other people’). 376 99780826438454_CH17_Finals_txt_Prf.indd780826438454_CH17_Finals_txt_Prf.indd 337676 55/11/2011/11/2011 55:23:03:23:03 PPMM A Chronology of Key Events, Texts and Thinker 1945 Merleau-Ponty published his very important book, Phenom- enology of Perception, which both endorsed and subtly refi ned Sartrean existentialism by focusing upon the signifi cance of our embodiment. De Beauvoir’s novel, The Blood of Others. Sartre’s public lecture ‘Existentialism is a Humanism’ at the Club Maintenant helped to popularize existentialism when it was later published in an inexpensive volume. It also gave exist entialism a more optimistic tenor – one which Heidegger later rebuffed. 1946 De Beauvoir’s novel, All Men are Mortal. Jean Wahl’s lecture ‘A Short History of Existentialism’ at the Club Maintenant, with responses by Nikolai Berdyaev, Georges Gurvitch and Emmanuel Levinas. 1947 Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986) published The Ethics of Ambigu- ity, which developed the ethical signifi cance of existentialism. Heidegger’s essay, Letter on Humanism (reply to Sartre). Buber, Between Man and Man. Levinas, Existence and Existents. Merleau-Ponty, Humanism and Terror. Camus, The Plague. 1948 Sartre, Dirty Hands. 1949 De Beauvoir published her enormously infl uential treatise on the situation of women, The Second
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  • 1.9 Andreas Vrahimis

    1.9 Andreas Vrahimis

    Journal for the History of “Was There a Sun Before Men Existed?” Analytical Philosophy A.J. Ayer and French Philosophy in the Fifties Volume 1, Number 9 Andreas Vrahimis In contrast to many of his contemporaries, A. J. Ayer was an ana- Editor in Chief lytic philosopher who had sustained throughout his career some Mark Textor, King’s College London interest in developments in the work of his “continental” peers. Ayer, who spoke French, held friendships with some important Parisian intellectuals, such as Camus, Bataille, Wahl and Merleau- Editorial Board Ponty. This paper examines the circumstances of a meeting be- Juliet Floyd, Boston University tween Ayer, Merleau-Ponty, Wahl, Ambrosino and Bataille, which Greg Frost-Arnold, Hobart and William Smith Colleges took place in 1951 at some Parisian bar. The question under dis- Ryan Hickerson, University of Western Oregon cussion during this meeting was whether the sun existed before Henry Jackman, York University humans did, over which the various philosophers disagreed. This Sandra Lapointe, McMaster University disagreement is tangled with a variety of issues, such as Ayer’s Chris Pincock, Ohio State University critique of Heidegger and Sartre (inherited from Carnap), Ayer’s Richard Zach, University of Calgary response to Merleau-Ponty’s critique of empiricism, and Bataille’s response to Sartre’s critique of his notion of ‘unknowing’, which Production Editor uncannily resembles Ayer’s critique of Sartre. Amidst this tangle Ryan Hickerson one finds Bataille’s statement that an “abyss” separates English from French and German philosophy, the first recorded an- Editorial Assistant nouncement of the analytic-continental divide in the twentieth century.