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Contents

List of illustrations vii Acknowledgements ix

Introduction xi

1 Auteur Theory 1 Case study: Alfred Hitchcock Case study: Guillermo del Toro

2 Adaptations 23 Case study: The Hunger Games (Gary Ross, 2012)

3 Genre Theory 45 Case study: The British Gangster Film Case study: The Musical

4 Formalism 66 Case study: Lola Rennt/Run Lola Run (Tom Tykwer, 1998)

5 Structuralism and Post-Structuralism 86 Case study: Once Upon a Time in the West (Sergio Leone, 1968)

6 Marxism 104 Case study: The Lego Movie (Phil Lord & Christopher Miller, 2014)

7 Realism 121 Case study: Dogme 95 Case study: The Act of Killing (Joshua Oppenheimer, 2012)

8 Postmodernism 141 Case study: Moulin Rouge! (Baz Luhrmann, 2001)

9 Psychoanalysis 156 Case study: Oldboy (Chan-Wook Park, 2003)

10 Feminism 173 Case study: Frozen (Chris Buck and Jennifer Lee, 2013)

11 Masculinity 195 Case study: Ryan Gosling

12 Queer Theory 210 Case study: Blue is the Warmest Colour (Abdellatif Kechiche, 2013)

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13 Race and Ethnicity 229 Case study: Django Unchained (Quentin Tarantino, 2012)

14 Postcolonial and Transnational Cinemas 247 Case study: Avatar (James Cameron, 2009)

15 Stars 265 Case study: Amitabh Bachchan Case study: Dame Judi Dench

16 Audience Research and Reception 283 Case study: Tartan Video

Conclusion 300

Filmography 302

Index 313

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Chapter

Auteur Theory 1

Auteur 1. A film director whose personal influence and artistic control over his or her films are so great that he or she may be regarded as their author, and whose films may be regarded collectively as a body of work sharing common themes or techniques and expressing an individual style or vision.

Setting the scene

Historically the notion of authorship conjured up the image of an isolated individual passionately working to create bodies of art. Characters such as those in Baz Luhrmann’s Moulin Rouge! (2001) help perpetuate this romantic stereotype of the tortured Bohemian artist. When applying ideas of authorship to the field of Film Studies it is typically the director that is acknowledged as the creative force. The term auteur is French for author and the word derives from the prefix ‘auto’, meaning one. The idea of a single controlling figure was acknowledged as early as the 1910s in the British fan magazine Bioscope where certain directors were identified as special. Similarly, in Germany the term Autoren film was used, which also promoted the idea of the director as author. However, screenwrit- ers campaigned for their right to be recognized as the creative force and accordingly, the notion of authorship became increasingly complex. This debate from the 1910s continues to resonate a century later and is one of the founding ideas of film theory. The idea that film is the sole work of a single contributor is problematic. Film is a collaborative process and therefore to attribute control to the director above all others is contentious. The number of people involved in producing a film is extensive: actors, writers, set designers, camera operators, musicians, financial backers, technical advisors, costume and make-up artists, editors, marketing and distribution staff, and so on. To understand this debate fully, it is necessary to trace the emergence and development of Auteur Theory and explore its complexity. These debates about the auteur were initiated by an influential text from filmmaker and novelist Alexandre Astruc. Astruc coined the term caméra-stylo, which literally translates as ‘camera pen’. He wanted to bring film into line with other kinds of art, namely raising its status from a working-class form of enter- tainment to match that of opera, ballet, poetry, literature and fine art. His article ‘The Birth of a New Avant-Garde: La Caméra-Stylo’ (1948) called for a new language in filmmaking. He posited that the camera should be used in the same way that a writer would use a pen. He rallied filmmakers to move beyond institutionalized forms of cinema in favour of more personal ways of storytelling. The emphasis that Astruc placed on the ‘personal’ has fuelled debate. The most vigorous participants in this debate came from France.

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The Cahiers group

The Cinémathèque Française in Paris was much more than a typical cinema, as it was home to a group of enthusiasts who collectively sought to revolutionize cinema. Led by Henri Langlois, the group showed films throughout the day and night, attracting the attention of likeminded individ- uals. Their fascination in cinema instigated a forum for debate and experimentation. For example, they would watch films without any sound so that they could focus solely on the importance of the image. This fanaticism and attempt to comprehend the very essence of cinema resulted in two major developments in film history: the journal Cahiers du cinéma and the Nouvelle Vague/French New Wave school of filmmaking. These ‘filmoholics’ were often referred to as cinéphiles as they were obsessed with filmmaking. Among the key members of the group were:

• André Bazin (theorist) • Claude Chabrol (New Wave director and writer) • Jean-Luc Godard (New Wave director, writer and theorist) • Henri Langlois (archivist) • Alain Resnais (New Wave director) • Jacques Rivette (New Wave director and writer) • Francois Truffaut (New Wave director, writer and theorist) • Roger Vadim (New Wave director and writer).

From within this influential group of filmmakers and thinkers, Francois Truffaut energized the debate with his article ‘Une Certaine Tendance du Cinéma Français’.

François Truffaut

‘Une Certaine Tendance du Cinéma Français’ (1954)

Truffaut’s seminal text ‘Une Certaine Tendance du Cinéma Français’ signalled a radical shift in the auteur debate. He and his fellow cinéphiles found traditional French filmmaking conservative and unexciting. ‘Tradition de la qualité’ was the term used to describe films that were typically based on adaptations of literary classics. The Cahiers group mocked this mode of production, calling it ‘Cinéma du Papa’ (Dad’s cinema) as they felt it was stuffy and outdated. More importantly, this form of filmmaking privileged the role of the writer rather than acknowledging the director. In contrast to ‘tradition de la qualité’ they aspired to create films that spoke to their generation. Their intention was to attack the ideology of bourgeois culture. During World War II foreign imported films were limited due to the Nazi occupation of France. Post-war the influx of films, particularly from Hollywood, strongly inspired the Cahiers group. In spite of studio stipulations, they recognized that certain directors’ films exhibited identifiable stylistic traits. As a result of these observations Truffaut developed ‘la politique des auteurs’ (auteur policy). It is important to establish that Truffaut never intended for his work to form the basis of a theory;

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Auteur Theory 3

it represented a policy, an attitude and a critical approach to reading film. The two overriding prin- ciples he put forward were:

1 Mise-en-scéne is crucial to the reading of cinema and is essential in film analysis and criticism. 2 the director’s personal expression is key in distinguishing whether they should be afforded the title of auteur.

Truffaut was concerned with the focus on film style (mise-en-scene and thematics) rather than film plot (content).

Reflect and respond 1 How did the Cahiers group change the previous sense of the auteur? 2 Why do you think Truffaut favours mise-en-scéne over other aspects of filmmaking? 3 Can you identify any directors who are instantly recognizable due to the consistency in mise- en-scéne throughout their films?

Mise-en-scéne The term mise-en-scéne literally translates as ‘put into the scene’. Originating from the theatre, it describes everything that appears in the frame. This can be divided into four specific components:

1 set design (props and décor) 2 lighting (and shadow) 3 acting (movement and gesture, not dialogue) 4 costume and make-up

In order to understand the importance of mise-en-scène in relation to Auteur Theory, it is necessary to identify consistent stylistic traits across films to decide whether or not a director can be classed as an auteur. Tim Burton provides an interesting study, as his films have a distinctive aesthetic style. Consider the films Sleepy Hollow (1999) and Big Fish (2003). The narratives in both films are located in the woods, a typical trope found across Burton’s oeuvre, with the gnarled, eerie trees serving to create a foreboding atmosphere. The viewer is drawn into an uncomfortable world, as generically Burton falls between the two camps of Horror and Fantasy. This is enhanced by the artistic use of light and shadow to anticipate the arrival of nightfall and unspoken horrors. Burton owes a great debt to German Expressionism; this can be seen through the use of curves, the angular objects within the frame and the surreal nature of his storytelling. The lead protagonist, though central to the composition, is intimidated by the pervading forest. These elements of the mise-en-scène combine to induce a sense of menace where man is pitted against nature, a recurring dynamic in Burton’s work.

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Figure 1.1 Sleepy Hollow (Tim Burton, 1999)

In addition to the importance of set design and lighting, the aesthetic consistency can also be applied to Burton’s use of costume and make-up. A typical feature of an auteur is a director who uses the same actors time and time again. Throughout Burton’s career, Johnny Depp has been cast in numerous leading roles. Despite the disparate characters Depp has played, Burton recycles and develops roles rather than abandoning characters. Sweeney Todd can be seen as an extension, and in many respects an inversion, of Edward Scissorhands. The naive, fearful and introverted character from the 1990s is transformed into the cynical, murderous and predatory demon barber of Fleet Street; a ghost of his former self. To examine this in more detail it is appropriate to focus on costume and make-up. In both films Depp sports a dishevelled look with unkempt hair. Similarly, his black and white clothing is remi- niscent of a Gothic, Romantic artist, a familiar motif woven throughout Burton’s repertoire. The costume is flamboyantly adorned with frills typical of swashbuckling heroes of old. Yet unlike with the conventional heroes, the garments are crumpled and suggestive of neglect. The razor-sharp

Figure 1.2 The Nightmare Before Christmas (Tim Burton, 1993)

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Auteur Theory 5 fingers that were imposed on the earlier character of Scissorhands become a fundamental part of Todd’s character and once more integral to the narrative. Similarly, in 2012, Dark Shadows has Depp white-faced, hollow-eyed, disheveled-hair and with long finger nails portraying a more comedic version in a gothic setting of these characters. The consistency in design across Burton’s work is exemplified by the highly stylized look explicit in the mise-en-scène of his films. Figures 1.1 and 1.2 exemplify tropes discussed earlier; extreme use of light and shadow, curves and angles, influence of both German Expressionism and the Gothic. Furthermore, the compositions of the images are incredibly similar. In 2010, Alice in Wonderland exhibited Burton’s distinctive mise-en-scène bringing a darker twist to the original book. These images reflect Burton’s consistent preoccupation with the macabre. His use of dark tones, spooky landscapes and scary objects provide an appropriate backdrop for his Gothic tales. These have become synon- ymous with his oeuvre.

Personal filmmaking

Another facet of the auteur argument is the notion of directors pursuing projects that hold personal significance. These personal aspects can manifest in many forms, such as political, social and cultural. For example, Spike Lee is typically drawn to narratives about race and Martin Scorsese is interested in Catholicism. To continue with Burton as an illustration, it can be seen that the theme of childhood isolation is pertinent within his films. As a child Burton was estranged from his parents, living with his grandmother from the ages of 12 to 16. During this period he sought solace by escaping into his imagination, which was fuelled by fairytales and classic monster movies. Burton identified with the monster rather than the hero as he was himself a loner. He states:

Every kid responds to some image, some fairy-tale image, and I felt most monsters were basically misperceived, they usually had much more heartfelt souls than the human characters around them. My fairy-tales were probably those monster movies, to me they’re fairly similar. (Salisbury, 2006, p.3)

The film Edward Scissorhands (1990) is probably his most autobiographical to date and Miss Peregrine’s Home for Peculiar Children (2016) shows Burton returning to the theme of the outsider child. Whilst Depp is no longer the young hero, the similarity with Asa Butterfield (Jake) as the lead protagonist is hard to miss. The unlikely hero of the narrative can be seen as Burton’s alter ego. The resemblance to these main characters is also evident in Burton’s physical appearance. He is often photographed looking awkward in crumpled suits and with long, tousled hair. The link between personal expe- rience and filmic storytelling in Edward Scissorhands and many of his other films exemplifies the recurring sentiment in Burton’s work. In addition to thematic consistency, directors can also include personal signatures within their oeuvre. This can consist of a visual motif that is repeated across a body of texts. Earlier we discussed Burton’s Gothic mise-en-scène as an illustration of a personal signature. Another example can be found in the films of Spike Lee, in which he places an actor on a dolly with the camera. The effect is that the character appears to float rather than walk and this technique is instantly recognizable as Lee’s signature. The importance of mise-en-scène and a director’s personal signature are fundamental to the auteur debate. The ideas of the Cahiers group and Truffaut in the 1950s were taken up and complicated by Andrew Sarris, an American critic writing in the 1960s.

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Andrew Sarris

‘Notes on the Auteur Theory’ (1962)

Sarris is most famous for mistranslating Truffaut’s ‘La Politique des Auteurs’ as Auteur Theory. Although it is predominantly referred to as a theory, it should be considered as a device for reading film. Sarris starts his essay by pointing out the flaws in Truffaut’s thesis. He questions whether a director can be the author of a film and therefore solely responsible for its distinctive quality. He continues by stating that Auteur Theory ‘makes it difficult to think of a bad director making a good film and almost impossible to think of a good director making a bad one’ (Sarris, 1962, p.561). Sarris discussed his interpretation of Auteur Theory in terms of concentric circles (see diagram): ‘The outer circle as technique; the middle circle, personal style; and the inner circle, interior mean- ing’ (p.563). He believed that for a director to reach the status of auteur, they would have to be accomplished in all areas. Most important, for Sarris, is the inner circle. Many directors are able to achieve the outer circles but if a filmmaker’s work consistently attains ‘interior meaning’, this would suggest it is the work of an auteur. Here Sarris raises the important debate concerning the ­metteur-en-scène.

technique personal style interior meaning

Metteur-en-scène The term metteur-en-scène was first coined by André Bazin, another Cahiers writer. A metteur is differ- ent from an auteur in that the former is a competent, and often very good, technician. Whereas an auteur can make a good movie out of a poor script, a metteur-en-scène would struggle; they merely adapt material given to them rather than making it their own. In other words, they may exhibit some of the attributes associated with an auteur but lack the extra depth involved.

Production

Another area for consideration is the budget that a director is able to secure. It does not necessarily follow that a large budget is an indication of auteur status; in fact the reverse can often be true. A director could be successful working in a specific genre and therefore accrue monetary backing as

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Auteur Theory 7 future projects are likely to be commercially successful. In contrast, many auteurs work outside the mainstream studio system and accordingly struggle to attract financial support. Often in the case of the latter, big-name actors appear in films at a reduced fee as they are more interested in the critical acclaim that can be gained from working with such a director. For example, Tom Cruise worked with Paul Thomas Anderson on the film Magnolia (1999) and, more recently, Duncan Jones, son of David Bowie, managed to acquire the vocal talent of Kevin Spacey for his film Moon (2009) as the voice of the robot companion, GERTY. Interestingly, this leads to another aspect of the auteur debate. Moon was Duncan Jones’s debut film. Although it has been critically praised, we cannot deduce whether Jones qualifies as an auteur because he has yet to make a large body of films. It begs the question: Does a director have to produce a certain number of films before they can be ascribed the status of auteur? Or should artistic ability be measured by quality rather than quantity? This is one of many obstacles that problematize the issue of authorship.

Problematizing the auteur

Pauline Kael was one of the most outspoken critics to debunk the ideas of Auteur Theory. In response to Andrew Sarris’s idea of ‘concentric circles’, she published a vitriolic attack entitled ‘Circles and Squares’ (1963). Here she methodically critiqued the notion of the ‘Outer, Middle and Inner Circles’. Kael’s assault was loaded with saracasm and suspicion, for example, she states:

It is an insult to an artist to praise his bad work along with his good; it indicates that you are incapable of judging either. […] It’s like buying clothes by the label: This is Dior, so it’s good. (This is not so far from the way the Auteur critics work, either). (p.16)

Putting Kael’s concerns aside, one of the main criticisms of the director as author is that film is a collaborative process involving an eclectic team of artisans, whose input is ignored when applying the theory. Peter Wollen refers to the additional layers of film production as ‘noise’ (Caughie, 1981, p.143). He stated that viewers have to separate the ‘voice’ of the director from superfluous ‘noise’. Wollen was referring to other forms of interference such as input from actors, producers and camera operators. Once more this emphasizes the personal, distinctive vision of the director and asks the audience to be active in locating and hearing a continued narrative. Conversely, what he dismisses as superfluous ‘noise’ can be privileged as an alternative to the vision of the director. Here we will consider four possible candidates for the role of auteur in order to further the debate on authorship:

1 Actor The actor has a unique presence within a film, not only on screen but also as a marketing tool to attract an audience. Films are more frequently advertised using the name of the star rather than that of the director. For example, the Alien franchise has seen a whole host of directors (Ridley Scott, James Cameron, David Fincher and Jean-Pierre Jeunet), yet it may be more pertinent to consider Sigourney Weaver in terms of consistency regarding authorship. Furthermore, certain stars have the respect to ensure a film is realized. For example, Alejandro Amenábar’s Abre los Ojos/Open Your Eyes (1997) was remade as Vanilla Sky (Cameron Crowe, 2001) due to Tom Cruise’s enthusiasm for the Spanish film. Similarly, Tom Hanks was highly influential in bringing the film My Big Fat Greek Wedding (Joel Zwick, 2002) to the screen. Additionally, some actors have made the transition into directing, for example, Clint Eastwood, Mel Gibson and Kevin Costner.

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2 Cinematographer One of the main preoccupations in discussions of the director as auteur is the focus on visual style. The responsibility for style often lies behind the camera. The selection of specific angles and depth of field influences the spectator’s understanding of an entire scene. Furthermore, they are responsible for whether the film has a realistic, gritty aesthetic or a more vibrant and saturated tone. Therefore, the cinematographer is key to the overall look of the film and could be considered an auteur. For example, Gordon Willis is often accredited for capturing the brooding atmosphere of the Godfather films. Interestingly, in America they are known as the ‘director of photography’ (DP). There are certain directors who have also undertaken this role, for example, David Lean and Lars von Trier; however, these are exceptions.

3 Writer This is possibly the most problematic category. If we consider The Lord of the Rings: J. R. R. Tolkien penned the original books; Peter Jackson directed the franchise (2001–3); yet it was Fran Walsh and Philippa Boyens, with Peter Jackson, who wrote the screenplay. This clearly calls the idea of author- ship into question. The British director Richard Curtis believes that it is paramount that a writer is part of the filmmaking process because:

A film is made at least four times. Once in the writing. Then in the shooting, which is the second film. Then in the editing, which is the third film. Then there might be a fourth film … losing bits that you love. … The screenplay is only the beginning. (Owen, 2003, p.96)

However, Curtis’s belief is not necessarily the norm. Some writers have been barred from any input once the book has been purchased. This will be examined more closely in the Adaptations chapter.

4 Composer Many directors work repeatedly with the same composers: Steven Spielberg with John Williams, Sergio Leone with Ennio Morricone, Tim Burton with Danny Elfman. Therefore much of the distinctive style associated with these directors is reliant on this collaborative process. The score and soundtrack are once again integral to audience interpretation. These four ways of discussing authorship signal a move away from Truffaut’s Politique; this idea was further complicated by the work of Roland Barthes.

Roland Barthes

‘Death of the Author’ (1968)

Roland Barthes was a theorist, critic and writer on cultural and social meaning. His seminal text ‘Death of the Author’ was written for literary criticism. However, a look at his ideas will show how they are easily applied to questions of authorship in film. According to Barthes, Western culture places too much emphasis on the creative force; assigning meaning of the text to the author. He challenged this tradition by giving preference to the reader. He maintained that it was the reader

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Auteur Theory 9

who gave a text meaning. The reader is the interpreter and there can never be one definitive read- ing of a text, be it film or literature. We all interpret information in different ways. In order to fully appreciate messages contained in a work, it would be necessary to have knowl- edge of an author’s intended purpose. But this author-centred approach closes down the full range of possible meanings. The traditional notion of the author needs to be reviewed. The onus instead is placed firmly on the reader/viewer, as they need to engage with the material and become an active reader. Whereas the passive reader allows information to be absorbed without any conscious effort, the active reader will question and challenge the text. This allows an endless play of meaning; the text is no longer closed but instead remains open. However, interpretation may be endlessly ‘open,’ but at the same time there are certain culturally normative ways of reading and interpreting texts (see Chapter 5: Structuralism and Post-Structuralism, Mythologies, p.95). Yet, in terms of the auteur debate, the ‘death of the author’ leads to the ‘birth’ of the reader.

Reflect and respond 1 to what extent do you agree or disagree with the ideas of Barthes? 2 It is now common to speak of a Scorsese or a Tarantino film. What characteristics would you expect to see in a film by either of these two directors? 3 Can a film’s meanings be attributed to a single creative source? 4 Why do we place so much emphasis on ‘authorship’? Why do audiences and critics continue to want a cinematic author? 5 Can you name any famous cinematographers, composers, editors or other technical crew members? If not why is this? 6 Is Auteur Theory now an outdated mode of analysis for Film Studies? If yes, what are the alter- natives?

Michel Foucault was an eminent French philosopher, historian and literary critic. He wrote exten- sively on post-structuralist and postmodernist theories. ‘What is an Author?’ was originally given as a lecture in 1969, and although not explicitly stated, appears as a response and criticism of Roland Barthes ‘Death of an Author’. Both agreed that the ‘author’ was a contrived historical phenomenon which had gained heroic status. But Foucault’s approach is very different from that of Barthes.

Michel Foucault

What is an Author? (1977)

As would be expected, the notion of an author originally started with literature and much writing on this has and continues to concentrate on literary texts. However, the idea of authorship has rele- vance to Film Studies and in order to make this summarizing of Michel Foucault’s essay both clear and useful, this section focuses on the areas that can have meaning for film in order to streamline all the many diversions and varied texts he offers from scientific treatise, law, medicine, biography.

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His essay evolves through asking a series of questions about the writers’ texts in an historical and discursive framework. Foucault’s essay developed from a lecture he gave in 1969 which in part appears to question Roland Barthes’ essay, ‘Death of an Author’ (1967). Foucault looks at issues that surround the function of an author’s name and what that name signifies. He questions in this essay the need to trace ideas back to specific authors and why the need to insist that ideas and concepts, and literary works are attributed to the creation of a single individual? Rather than the ‘death of the author’, Foucault suggests that it is or should be a voluntary disappearance into the created work, thereby avoiding theories of authorship that place the author as the ‘sole creator of meaning’. Similar to Samuel Beckett he is asking, does it matter who is speaking? (Begam, 1996, p.121). However, he appears to suggest that by writing about the privileged position of the author and by challenging this position, Barthes et al. may be preserving the authorial position. If theories on the ‘death of the author’ are used, Foucault suggests that there is a need to ques- tion the importance of the space that arises from not having a recognized author, and to just ’repeat empty slogans’ (p.121) is not enough. One possibility he considers is that it allows for the ‘birth’ of the reader/audience and their part in finding significance in the work. In doing this, we should understand a work through analyzing its form and content. Although, before this, a decision must be made as to what constitutes a ‘work’, taking the context of the author into consideration. He sites by way of example, should jottings or shopping lists, found in an author’s papers, be excluded or taken as part of the author’s work? (pp.118–19). In filmmaking we could liken this to scenes that do not make the final cut; is this part of the director’s oeuvre? This becomes more complex when DVDs containing the ‘Director’s cut’ have become a main item of the DVD. Where Foucault agrees with Barthes is that the ‘Author’ is a historical creation that has gained mythological and heroic status, but then they differ. In this point, Foucault does not think there is a need to ‘kill’ the author, as he believes that it is inevitable that the notion of author will cease. In connection with this, he explains the historical ideas of ownership of a work as these have signif- icantly changed over time. In this connection, Foucault discusses what he calls the ‘author-function’ (p.123) that is not constant in all discourses. Ancient literary texts such as myths and folk tales for example, did not and do not need to have an author to be thought of as worthy. Their age alone is guarantee of authenticity. Into the Middle Ages medical and historical texts were only consid- ered worthy if they had an author, namely work from ancient Greek and Roman writers such as Hippocrates and Pliny (p.125). Then, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, written works became a property that could be appropriated when strict copyright laws were introduced and required an assigned author. At a similar time, ideas changed as a guide to the truthfulness of the work and authorless scientific texts were accepted on merit, whereas a literary text was accepted only if it had an author’s name, as readers clambered to know the author of a text (p.126), some- thing that occurs till this day. In his aims to challenge authorships’ role in literature, Foucault believes that more than the author’s name on multiple texts is required in order to distinguish that these may all be the work of the same writer. He draws on Saint Jerome’s four criteria as a possible test in order to substantiate the authenticity of texts that bear the name of the same author (p.128).

1 ‘[T]he author is defined as a standard level of quality’ requires that work that appears to be inferior is eliminated from the selection.

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2 ‘[T]he author is defined as a certain field of conceptual or theoretical coherence’ removes ideas and theoretical positions that fails to chime with the author’s oeuvre as a whole. 3 ‘[T]he author is seen as a stylistic uniformity’ this would eliminate work written in a different manner using words and phrases not found in other works by the author. 4 ‘[T]he […] referring to events or historical figures subsequent to the death of the author’ requires an awareness of anachronism where the author refers to objects or events that were not invented or had not occurred before the death of the author (p.128).

The first three of these points may usefully be applied to film directors, screenwriters, art direc- tion and cinematography. For example, Spike Lee’s Oldboy is regarded as inferior as it does not address African American issues. Stylistically there is no dialogue between the film and the original and there was no need for a remake. Because of these negative attributes Lee’s film is ignored. Whilst Foucault has discussed reducing the privileged position of the author he still recognized writers might affect an influence greater than any one book they may have written. He uses the example of Ann Radcliffe, The Mysteries of Udolpho, that is generally acclaimed as the first Gothic Romance (1794), engendering and creating a space for all that has followed since in that genre (p.132), the influence of which can be seen in films such as Interview with the Vampire (Neil Jordan, 1994) and the Twilight franchise (2008–12). Similarly, Freud and Marx, ‘made possible certain number of analogies that could be adopted by future texts, but they also made possible … [and] cleared a space for the introduction of elements other than their own’ (p.132), thereby setting out a whole new area of psychological investigation from Freud’s writing and with Marx an ideological platform. By the end of ‘What is an Author’ it is clear Foucault set out to complicate the notion of what it means to be an author rather than provide answers. He does not offer solutions, but indicates some of the difficulties that it presents. This produces a list of problems associated with the use of the author’s proper name. Today criticism of literary works has widened its focus to include many other forms of analysis no longer dependent on authorship alone (p.126). Yet he believes that other concepts such as genre, as a means of studying a work, are less useful and finds that authorship theory allows for a more closely defined understanding of the work(s) when attributed to a single author. Foucault asserts that in order to understand a text, the relationship between the text and author (or lack of relationship) needs to be established. But at the same time he opposes this concept and calls for a culture without the necessity of authorship. With this in mind he suggests that, ‘We should reexamine the empty space left by the author’s disappearance [… and] consider the problems that arise in the use of the author’s name’ (p.121). Later, in a contradictory manner, he does however acknowledge that if we accept the author as the sole producer of meaning within a work, we may be able to understand the text more completely (p.136). Foucault longs for the day when a work’s importance is governed by its content, not by who is speaking, and although he contemplates the moment that he believes will one day come, where the author function will disappear, his piece does not negate the need for one (p.138). Film as a collaborative art has less clearly delineated authorship lines and for this reason the ‘New’ questions that Foucault hoped would be discussed rather than those of authorship have a stronger resonance (p.138). In a resigned manner, he reiterates ‘What matter who’s speaking?’ This is a question audiences and academics need to address.

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More recently, auteur studies has developed in response to directors that manage to gain ‘star’ status. Here, Timothy Corrigan’s article ‘The Commerce of Authorship’ helps shed light on the director as celebrity or ‘brand’.

Timothy Corrigan

The Commerce of Auterism: A Voice Without Authority (1990)

Whereas debates regarding authorship have traditionally been tied up with notions of artistry, Timothy Corrigan was one of the first academics to introduce the question of economics. When attributing auteur status to a director, we typically consider certain elements such as recurring formal traits, thematic consistency and ‘interior meaning’ across a body of films. Corrigan suggests that we need to re-think this approach in light of how the industry has changed; instead we should see the auteur as a ‘commercial strategy’ (p.46). Corrigan complicates the field of auteur studies in introducing the concept of the ‘auteur as star’ (p.48). Here, he posits that a director can be considered ‘as a kind of brand-name vision whose contextual meanings are already determined’ (p.45). By this, he is suggesting that we have precon- ceived ideas of what a ‘Tarantino film’ looks like. Similarly, we will have an inkling about the kind of movie we are paying for when we go to watch a ‘David Fincher’ production. This is because these directors have earned a reputation based on the consistency of their films. More importantly, these directors have gained celebrity status as a result of their filmmaking oeuvre and this informs the way in which their new outputs are consumed. The director as celebrity is not a new phenomenon. Corrigan attributes this level of prominence to both Orson Welles and Robert Bresson. He explains that this recognition of celebrity linked to authorship creates a ‘certain textual distinction’ to any films produced (p.48). In modern times, this equates more specifically to the marketing and reception of such films. Accordingly, Corrigan states that ‘the auteur [should be considered] as a commercial strategy for organizing audience reception, as a critical concept bound to distribution and marketing aims’ (p.46). This suggests that the way a film is received both critically and by the general public, is ultimately tied to our knowledge and branding of the ‘star as auteur’. Even when a director falls short in terms of quality or overarching vision, the ‘star auteur’ can typically be forgiven due to his or her celebrity. Corrigan claims ‘the auteur-star can poten- tially carry and redeem any sort of textual material through the marvel of its agency’ (p.49). Whereas in the past the spectator and critic would consider the camera as a pen (camera stylo) in relation to aesthetic traits, nowadays, the personality of the auteur can override such fixations on artistry. Therefore, it can be argued that it is no longer artistic vision that signifies a great film text; instead once a director has gained celebrity status as an auteur, film production can become a matter of commerce. For example, Ang Lee best known for his period dramas such as Sense and Sensibility (1995) and Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000), went on to make The Hulk (2003). The film was poorly received but Lee soon returned with the award-winning Brokeback Mountain.

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Respond and reflect 1 do you agree that genre theory ‘is a relatively weak and secondary position in relation to the solid and fundamental role of the author and [their] works’ (p.115)? 2 Make a list of directors you would consider to be star auteurs. 3 Can you think of any examples where a metteur-en-scène director has gained celebrity status? 4 do you agree that the directorial debate has seen a shift where the idea of artistry has been replaced with commercial concerns?

Making a case for an auteur

Irrespective of the arguments against the director being considered as the sole visionary force behind a film, it is still a very important feature of film theory. Therefore, you need to know how best to construct your claims in favour of a director gaining this badge of esteem. The diagram on p.14 should help you focus your thoughts when trying to make an argument for a director as auteur or not. It is important to note that there are arrows leading to and from the ‘Biographical details’ box. This is to indicate that a director’s life can, and typically does, influence aesthetic and thematic choices. Using this template as a starting point, the following case studies may help you ascertain whether a director deserves the title of auteur.

Case study: Alfred Hitchcock

Alfred Hitchcock was involved with every aspect of filmmaking both before and during a shoot and exercised a great deal of control over his work. On most projects he developed the screenplay; produced detailed storyboards; was active in casting; and influenced the choice of soundtrack and visual style. In exercising such control to produce a highly personal artistic vision he was able to override the constraints of the studio system; this entailed him having authority over the final cut (a privilege afforded most auteurs). It was Hitchcock’s complete control over all elements that led to Truffaut citing the director as an example in early auteur debates (see Hitchcock interview, 1967, in Truffaut, 1986). The most commonly examined areas attest to his title as ‘master of suspense’. He is recognized as revolutionizing the thriller genre, playing with an audience’s nerves and fears and often tack- ling subjects of a taboo nature. For example, Strangers on a Train (1951) touches on issues of homo- sexuality; Psycho (1960) deals with the Oedipus Complex; and Marnie (1964) looks at repressed memory. Devices such as recurring themes, camera technique, editing, particular use of sound and silences, chiaroscuro lighting, the MacGuffin (an object that serves as the impetus for the plot) and cameo appearances all combine to present Hitchcock’s personal vision of the world in his thrillers. Due to the array of innovative stylistic features that were employed by Hitchcock only a few examples can be selected here. This study will look first at those characteristics that are concerned with filmmaking (aesthetics and production) and second at those characteristics rooted in Hitchcock and his personal vision (biographical details and themes), which together combine to suggest his auteur status.

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Biographical details Themes Consider your director’s Identify recurring themes in upbringing. Are there any your selected director’s body events of importance? Are of films. Are the themes these events evident in their historical, political, social work? Do they choose and/or symbolic? What do subject matter that reflects these themes tell us? Are their life? Are their films they relevant to the personal projects? understanding of the films?

Auteur

Aesthetics Production Consider your chosen What budget is your director director’s mise-en-scène. able to secure? Does your Is there a similarity in style chosen director use the across films? Think about same actors and technical colours and atmosphere. Is a crew? How much of their stylistic trait evident in the style is dependent on cinematography? Also others? Can you identify analyse the use of music. another member of the team who could qualify as an auteur? Figure 1.3 Making a case for an auteur

Aesthetics Hitchcock is considered an expert of cinematic technique. Having trained as a draftsman, he was known for meticulously creating extensive storyboards which mapped out intricate details of each shot. His dialogue, sound, plot and character were always secondary to the image. However, he used all these components in imaginative ways. In Blackmail (1929), his first sound film, he utilized silence and dialogue to dramatic effect. Repetition of the word ‘knife’ is ampli- fied within a conversation; this device aurally represents the violent stabbing action of the knife and psychologically gnaws away at the guilty character. Similarly, Bernard Herrmann’s score for Psycho was composed with the distinct intention of emphasizing the violence of the famous shower sequence after many images had to be cut due to censors. Here the staccato strings accentuate the physical assault. It is probably for his innovative camera techniques and editing that Hitchcock is considered a master. The placement and movement of the camera was carefully controlled. Dolly zooms, which

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Auteur Theory 15 became known as the ‘Hitchcock Zoom’, are seen in Vertigo (1958). They were combined with strange camera angles to heighten dramatic meaning in many films, especially when psychological elements were involved. Returning to the shower scene, Hitchcock builds suspense by using cuts that get progressively shorter until the victim lies dead, with her blood trickling down the plug hole.

Themes The act of murder in his films points to another of Hitchcock’s motifs, a fascination with eyes. Hitchcock understood how the eyes reveal what a character thinks or needs. Extreme close-up shots and point-of-view editing force spectators to experience the perspective of both the victim and the killer. In a voyeuristic way the audience enters the violent, frightening scene. The film Frenzy (1972) engages shot/reverse-shot to mirror the eyes of both the murderer and his prey. Hitchcock’s preoccupation with eyes continues throughout his oeuvre. In Rear Window (1954), Jimmy Stewart’s character repeatedly watches his neighbours through a pair of binoculars. In Psycho Norman Bates (Anthony Perkins) spies on Janet Leigh through a peephole cleverly hidden behind a painting. The director takes his obsession with eyes to an extreme level. Consider the images below (Figures 1.4 and 1.5). Here horrific blindness is enforced on elderly victims. The vivid desecration of the skull shocks the audience and highlights the fragility of the human body.

Production A typical trait of an auteur is to employ the same actors and technical crew time and time again. A look across fifty years of Hitchcock films shows that he tended to choose the same screenwriters, art directors, composers and actors, usually working with them over a short period of time. Bernard Herrmann, the composer, was the exception to this, working on eight films over a period of nine years from 1955. Herrmann was responsible for some of the most successful scores in Hitchcock’s films, notably Vertigo, Psycho and North by Northwest (1959). Additionally, Jimmy Stewart and Cary Grant each appeared in four Hitchcock films while Ingrid Bergman and Grace Kelly each starred in three films.

Biographical details Command of the mise-en-scène and familiar cast and crew are only part of the vision of an auteur. Integral to the auteurist position are aspects of the director’s own life which are deemed to have

Figure 1.4 Psycho (Alfred Hitchcock, 1960) Figure 1.5 The Birds (Alfred Hitchcock, 1963)

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16 UNDERSTANDING FILM THEORY influenced his work. Critical writing on Hitchcock often focuses on his childhood, Catholic upbring- ing and fascination with aspects of guilt, punishment, fear and morality. Critics and journalists soon began to recognize these familiar tropes and discuss them at length, speculating on their origins. Hitchcock fostered this speculation by alluding to childhood experiences when interviewed. In particular he spoke of an incident when he was punished by his father (Spoto, 1983, p.4). This is often read as the motivation for Hitchcock’s fears and distrust of authority and also for his recurring theme of the innocent man wrongly accused. In this anecdotal tale, Hitchcock was sent to a police station by his father as punishment for a minor offence. There he was locked, terrified, in a cell for a short time. The experience engendered a fascination with the plight of the ordinary man when the victim of mistaken identity, wrongfully accused or imprisoned. His early film The Lodger (1926) and many later films, among them, The Thirty-nine Steps (1935), The Wrong Man (1957), Vertigo and North by Northwest, all share and develop this theme and all include a character trying to prove his innocence. The recurring themes in his films of loneliness and depressive illness can be traced back to his childhood. He felt that he was an outsider: ‘I don’t ever recall having a playmate […] I looked and observed a great deal’ (Spoto, 1983, p.20). Outsiders who feature in his films include an amnesiac accused of murder in Spellbound (1945), a woman with a fear of sexual contact in Marnie and a serial killer made psychotic due to his sexual impotence in Frenzy. However, it is not only villains who are outsiders; alienated heroes appear in Rear Window and Vertigo. Alongside this alienation there is evidence of Hitchcock’s misogyny and episodes of sadism are to be found in biographical accounts. These similarly became dominant themes in many of his films. Tormented blonde heroines are foregrounded as vehicles for male voyeurism and as objects of sadistic male fantasies. It appears that Hitchcock saw female sexual vulnerability as a powerful dramatic device to be exploited, as can be witnessed in Psycho, Marnie and Frenzy. Furthermore, these heroines suffered violent deaths, further demonstrating the director’s fasci- nation with sadism. Violent death and murder, in particular strangulation, made an appearance from his earliest films. Hitchcock was an accomplished self-publicist and carefully manufactured his public image. Unusually for the time, Hitchcock’s name featured prominently in the marketing and promotion of his films. His cameo roles formed part of this promotion, while his narration of prologues and epilogues in his TV shows increased his visibility to another audience. His striking way of signing his name was made up of a series of eight strokes of his pen to create a silhouette likeness of himself. This, alongside his highly visible, rotund figure, combined to market his image as a director. Another aspect of this self-promotion was his decision to restrict his work to the narrow focus of a single genre, thus establishing his brand-name as the master of suspense.

Conclusion However, whether Hitchcock can be considered an auteur remains a contentious issue. While Hitchcock’s worldview and stylistic tone are very apparent across some fifty years of filmmaking, of his forty-four films from Blackmail to Family Plot (1976), thirty-seven were literary adaptations. Unfortunately, in Hollywood the screenwriter is often seen as a technician rather than as a crea- tive person. That is, to make a novel into a screenplay is a mechanical process that can be learned by hacks. David O. Selznick, a ‘hands-on’ producer who worked with Hitchcock until Notorious (1946), was keen that film adaptations should be faithful to the original book. This did not suit Hitchcock. Therefore to establish and maintain his status as auteur, Hitchcock needed to move authorship away from the original author. Rather than be recognized for literary adaptations

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Auteur Theory 17 which he believed would dissipate his auteur status, Hitchcock chose to make films from rela- tively unknown books and authors. This enabled him to buy, for example, Psycho (novel by Robert Bloch) and Strangers on a Train (novel by Patricia Highsmith) cheaply. After banning the novelists from any further intervention, Hitchcock remodelled the plots to allow for his personal interpretation. In his interview with Truffaut, Hitchcock noted that, ‘What I do is to read a story once, and if I like the basic idea, I just forget all about the book and start to create cinema’ (Truf- faut, 1986, p.71). Hitchcock’s strategies worked, as very few of the novelists are connected with their adapted texts even if they later gained fame. For instance, Patricia Highsmith is known for the Ripley character but not as the writer of Strangers on a Train. Despite the involvement of screenwriters, novelists, playwrights, composers, art directors and cinematographers, Hitch- cock’s personal worldview shines through and coheres fifty years of filmmaking.

Case study: Guillermo del Toro

At what point a director can be accepted as an auteur is a question that has been asked since debates concerning directorial authority first began. The contemporary Mexican director Guillermo del Toro is being discussed in both academic and popular publications as a potential auteur. He is an inter- esting candidate as he has directed only nine films to date:

• Cronos (1993) • Mimic (1997) • El Espinazo del Diablo/The Devil’s Backbone (2001) • Blade II (2002) • Hellboy (2004) • El Laberinto del Fauno/Pan’s Labyrinth (2006) • Hellboy II: The Golden Army (2008) • Pacific Rim (2013) • Crimson Peak (2015)

Biographical details Del Toro is one of three Mexican directors who have received critical attention over the last ten years. Affectionately referred to as the Three Amigos, del Toro along with Alejandro González Iñárritu and Alfonso Cuarón all share the same ideology and strive to promote Mexican filmmak- ing on a global scale. A similar political agenda is woven throughout their films and a case could be made for any one of the group to be labelled as an auteur, but here we will turn our attention specifically to del Toro. Following the success of his debut vampire picture Cronos, del Toro was invited to direct his first Hollywood film. The experience was less than ideal, as he felt his authority was constantly being undermined by the studio. Once Mimic was completed he fled back to his native Mexico where he made The Devil’s Backbone. He was motivated to return to the US in 1998 when his father was kidnapped. Although del Toro has made films in Mexico, America and Spain and is able to attract funding for blockbusters and independent art-house productions, a stylistic and thematic consist- ency still runs throughout the body of his work.

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Themes

Del Toro can be considered a genre filmmaker. As early as 2002, Kimberley Chun referred to del Toro as ‘one of the most original and ambitious horror auteurs since David Cronenberg’ (2002, p.28). His films are primarily a hybrid of the Horror and Fantasy genres. He is more specifically influenced by the world of fairytales and fables as his films continue to explore boundaries between reality and the world of imagination and the supernatural. Accordingly, del Toro often manages to go against the grain of generic conventions, for example, the character of Hellboy is not your usual comic- book adaptation. Rather than a moral, altruistic superhero, Hellboy is a jealous, jaded and flawed character. At the heart of the majority of the director’s work is the theme of childhood. Del Toro is akin to Ingmar Bergman in his innate ability to capture childhood innocence and depth on screen. His two art-house successes The Devil’s Backbone and Pan’s Labyrinth both enquire into the workings of the child’s mind. Del Toro often relates the importance of his own childhood and convincingly describes encounters with monsters and ghosts, which he claims fuelled his filmmaking in later life. Yet his films do not cater for a younger audience as children in his movies often experience extreme violence, which once more is not typical of traditional filmmaking. Another key theme inherent in his works is a political agenda. Occasionally films will take place at a specific moment in history, making the political subtext apparent (the Spanish Civil War is integral to both The Devil’s Backbone and Pan’s Labyrinth); even when not explicitly expressed an anti-authoritarian message underlies most of his films.

Aesthetics

In numerous interviews del Toro cites the Spanish artist Francisco de Goya as an influence. Stylistic similarities can be seen between the colour palette adopted by Goya and the tones and atmosphere captured in a del Toro production. In particular he often discusses the impact that Saturno devorando a su hijo/Saturn Devouring His Son had on him as a child. This painting is part of a collection known as the ‘Black Paintings’; also in this group is The Great He Goat/The Witches’ Sabbath. Here the silhouetted horned figure, which appears in many of Goya’s paintings, bears a striking resemblance to the iconic Faun featured in Pan’s Labyrinth. Del Toro’s love of chia- roscuro lighting can similarly be recognized in the dark shadows that are eerily cast in Goya’s brush strokes. The imaginary, surreal worlds typically inhabited by the lead protagonists in the films of del Toro are frequently located underground. This adventure into a world of darkness and the unknown is also evident in the literary writings of Lewis Carroll. Ofelia’s journey into the labyrinthine world of Pan draws parallels with that of Alice’s into Wonderland. In the press notes that accompany the film, del Toro talks of the symbolism apparent in the journey:

I tried to reconnect with the perversity and very sexual content of his work. In fairy tales, all stories are either about the return to the womb (heaven, home) or wandering out into the world and facing your own dragon. We are all children wandering through our own fable. (2006)

The symbolism throughout del Toro’s oeuvre demands closer attention. The iconography is often reflective of his fascination with insects and clockwork mechanisms but many images hold greater spiritual and religious connotations.

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Production

Del Toro’s films manage to traverse big-budget commercial Hollywood filmmaking and low- budget art cinema. The director is fortunate to be in a position to secure large budgets. Conversely he funds his art-house ventures from his own production company, ‘Tequila Gang’. Del Toro founded his company following his experience of being produced by El Deseo (a production company established by the Spanish director Pedro Almodovar). Both the Tequila Gang and El Deseo were set up to nurture up-and-coming filmmakers from Mexico, Spain and Latin America. Whereas many directors see working for Hollywood studios as a betrayal of artistic integrity, del Toro does not distinguish between his films in this way. Del Toro typically works with the same cast and crew. After casting Ron Perlman in his 1993 film Cronos and Blade II in 2002, he petitioned for Perlman to take the lead in the comic-book adaptation Hellboy. Perlman was predominantly known for his television role in Beauty and the Beast (1987–90) but producers felt they needed a star to sell the film and had Vin Diesel in mind. Del Toro refused to compromise and as a result Perlman was hired. Since this Perlman has also appeared in the 2013 Pacific Rim. Another actor who has featured in a number of his films is Doug Jones. Jones first appeared in the director’s American debut Mimic as an extra. He was then cast as one of the lead characters in the Hellboy franchise. His role as the psychic amphibian ‘Abe Sapien’ (Figure 1.6), and more importantly his physicality, must have inspired del Toro as the director went on to cast Jones as the two most memorable characters in Pan’s Labyrinth – that of the Pale Man (Figure 1.7) and the Faun. Jones has since collaborated with del Torro playing the ghostly creatures in Crimson Peak (2015). Del Toro also tends to use the same Mexican cinematographer, Guillermo Navarro. Navarro has been instrumental in shooting his films with the exceptions of Mimic, Blade II and Crimson Peak. More recently the director has returned to the same editor. Bernat Vilaplana first worked with him on Pan’s Labyrinth. He has since worked on Hellboy II: The Golden Army and Crimson Peak which suggests that the collaborative relationship may continue.

Conclusion Del Toro is a director, producer and writer. There is a distinct magical darkness to his films. Themat- ically he is concerned with childhood, memory, death and the politics of oppression. He can be classed as a generic filmmaker as his films adhere to the Fantasy/Horror blueprint, yet they are not

Figure 1.6 Hellboy (Guillermo del Toro, 2004) Figure 1.7 Pan’s Labyrinth (Guillermo del Toro, 2006)

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20 UNDERSTANDING FILM THEORY contrived. Instead they provoke the audience to question wider political and social questions. Del Toro is becoming a household name and therefore attracting audiences on the strength of his previ- ous work. The best illustration of this can be seen in the marketing of the Spanish film El Orfanato/ The Orphanage (2007). The Orphanage was directed by Juan Antonio Bayona but was sold as a del Toro production. He produced the film and Bayona owes his mentor a great debt, and not just finan- cially. The Orphanage covers the same ground as del Toro’s The Devil’s Backbone, with both films set in orphanages that are haunted by the ghosts of children and featuring a historical Spanish political subtext. Here del Toro proves himself an inspiration to younger directors. However, this influence goes far beyond style and content because he is also helping to support new talent. His name is increasingly recognized as an endorsement of quality, but whether he should be granted the status of auteur is yet to be seen.

Reflect and respond 1 Can you think of any reason why Hitchcock should not be considered an auteur? 2 to what extent do you think that Hitchcock’s aesthetic is influenced by the composer Bernard Herrmann? 3 Make a case for whether you think del Toro is or is not an auteur. 4 What are your thoughts concerning the auteur status of Alejandro Gonzalez Iñárritu and Alfonso Cuarón? 5 Can you think of any other potential auteurs typically famous for making movies in one particu- lar genre? 6 Comment on the tensions between art and industry in debates on auteurism. 7 Identify up-and-coming directors whom you believe may be accepted into the canon of great auteurs.

Conclusion

The question remains, why has Auteur Theory survived as a critical approach when filmmaking is clearly collaborative? Here are some possible answers:

• The director as auteur allows cinema to claim artistic and academic legitimacy; you have film artists just as you have literary or visual artists. Film should be scrutinized in a similar manner to traditional art forms. • Academics and critics tend to champion the director as it is easier when writing to attribute responsibility to a sole individual. This practice of using the director as ‘shorthand’ has become accepted as the norm and in turn promotes Auteur Theory. • Auteur Theory is key to the cultural capital of fan communities, cinema buffs, journalists and academics, all of whom publish using a variety of formats. The internet has given fans a plat- form to voice their opinions. Similarly newspapers, magazines, journals, radio and television all produce items promoting directors to their respective audiences.

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• DVD, Blu-ray marketing and streamed content providers include extra features to promote the role of the director: commentaries, ‘making-of’ documentaries, interviews and ‘special edition’ directors’ cuts. • Similarly a vast amount of journalism in print and on television features interviews with direc- tors, not just stars, in order to promote the latest film offerings. Therefore Roland Barthes’s idea that the author is theoretically dead appears, now more than ever, to be out of step with our contemporary media.

More recently academics have introduced the term ‘post-auteur’. This can be seen as an extension of earlier criticisms where authorial intent has been questioned due to the dedicated involvement of actors, producers, screenwriters, etc. Despite such recent trends, the director is still very much ‘of the moment’, as directors continue to garner respect, which can in turn draw people back into the auditorium. This is the case with a number of contemporary American indie auteurs such as Paul Thomas Anderson, Wes Anderson, Alenjandro González Iñárritu and Richard Linklater. Even with the emergence of online streamed content providers, such as Netflix and Amazon Prime, there are still substan- tial waiting periods before films are officially available to view. Therefore, where a directors has gained a specific following, there is a greater chance that people will physically attend the cinema to watch their lastest feature. More recently, a number of directors have started creating series for streamed content providers, such as Netflix and Amazon Prime. These services are enabling directors to develop characters over a series of episodes rather than the traditional hour and a half limitations of the feature film. David Fincher was involved in directing and produc- ing House of Cards (2013) and Baz Luhrmann took a similar role in The Get Down (2016). As the demarcations between film and television (streamed content) become blurred, the auteur debate looks to enter a new phase. For these reasons, academic enquiries into the role of the director will continue to be pertinent.

Bibliography

Astruc, A. (1948) ‘The Birth of a New Avant-Garde: La Caméra-Stylo’, in P. Graham (ed.) The New Wave. London: Secker & Warburg, pp.17–23. Barthes, R. (1977) ‘Death of the Author’, in Stephen Heath ((ed.) and translator), Image, Music, Text. London: Fontana (first published 1968). Begam, R. (1996) Samuel Beckett and the End of Modernity. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press. Caughie, J. (ed.) (1981) Theories of Authorship: A Reader. London and New York, NY: Routledge. Chun, K. (2002) ‘What Is a Ghost?: An Interview with Guillermo del Toro’, Cineaste, vol. 27, no. 2, pp.28–31. Corrigan, T. (1990) The Commerce of Auterism: A Voice Without Authority’, New German Critique, vol. 17, no. 49, pp.43–57. Del Toro, G. (2006) ‘Press Notes for Pan’s Labyrinth’, Tequila Gang. Foucault, M. (1977) What is an Author? Language, Counter-Memory, Practice Selected Essays and Interviews (trans. Donald Bouchard and Sherry Simon, ed. Donald Bouchard). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, pp.113–38. Kael, P. (1963) ‘Circles and Squares’, Film Quarterly, vol. 16, no. 3, pp.12–26. Owen, A. (ed.) (2003) Story and Character: Interviews with British Screenwriters. London: Bloomsbury. Rohmer, E. and Chabrol, C. (1979) Hitchcock: The First Forty-four Films. Oxford: Roundhouse. Salisbury, M. (ed.) (2006) Burton on Burton: Revised Edition. London: Faber and Faber Ltd.

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Sarris, A. (1962) ‘Notes on the Auteur Theory’, in L. Braudy and M. Cohen (eds) (2004) Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings, 6th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Spoto, D. (1983) Dark Side of Genius: The Life of Alfred Hitchcock. London: Collins. Truffaut, F. (1954) ‘Une Certaine Tendance du Cinema Frangais’, in J. Hollows, P. Hutchings and M. Jancovich (eds) (2000) The Film Studies Reader. London: Arnold. Truffaut, T. (1986) Hitchcock: The Definitive Study of Alfred Hitchcock. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Inc. (first published 1967).

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Index

3 Hommes et un Couffin/Three Men Adorno, Theodor 107; see also Annie Get Your Gun (1950) 53, and a Cradle (1985) 198 Culture Industry 62 3D 133–5, 151, 260, 285, Adulthood (2008) 59 ‘Anti-Anti-fidelity: Truffaut, Roché, 286 The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of Shakespeare’ 43 10 Things I Hate about You the Desert (1994) 221 Antichrist ( 2009) 297 (1999) 33 Affirmative Culture 108–9; see Apocalypse Now (1979) 81–2 12 Years a Slave (2014) 81, 144, also Marcuse Apted, Michael 145 208, 242 African Americans 49, 54, 91, Archetypes/Spheres of Action 75, 30 Rock (2006–13) 205 109, 110, 187–8, 210, 214, 80, 81, 82, 85, 163–5, 170, 42nd Street (1933) 61–2 233, 234, 235, 236, 238–9, 171; see also Propp, Vladimir 50 Shades of Grey (2015) 242, 244, 245 Aronofsky, Darren 81, 164 184 AIDS 211, 215, 215, 216, 217 L’Arrivèe d’un Train a la Ciotat/ The 100 (2014– ) 227 Aladdin (1992) 251 Arrival of à Train at a Station 300 (2006) 208 Alexander (2004) 203 (1897) 122 400 Blows/Les Quatre Cents Coup Alice in Wonderland (2010) 5 Astaire, Fred 60–2 (1959) 76, 126 Alien (1979) 185 Astruc, Alexandre 1; ‘Camera- 2001: A Space Odyssey All About Eve (1950) 187, 283 Stylo’ 1 109 Allen, Robert C. 283 Athale, Rowan 59: Audience 50–1 Almodóvar, Pedro 19, 215, 221–2 Atonement (2007) 39 A Altma, Robert 58 Audience Research and À Bout de Souffle/Breathless Althusser, Louis 107, 110, 111–3, Reception 107, 274, 283–99 (1960) 67 117, 180; see also Interpellation; Audition (1999) 297 Aboriginal 254, 255 Symptomatic Reading Auteur 1–22, 27, 110, 115, 265 Abrams, J. J 200 Altman, Rick 47–9, 50, 53, 56, ‘Authorship in Film Adaptation’ Abrahamson, Lenny 60–2; A Semantic/Syntactic 39–40 190 Approach to Film Genre 47–8 Avant-garde 123, 135, 150, 213, Abject 184–6; see also Kristeva, Altman, Robert 53 214 Julia Amenábar, Alejandro 7, 17, 20, Avatar (2009) 81, 134, 260–3 Abre los Ojos/Open Your Eyes 54, 190 Avatar 2 (2018) 262 (1997) 21 American Graffiti (1973) 144 Avengers Assemble (2012) 133 Acting 69, 201–45; see also American Hustle (2013) 189 Method Acting American Splendor (2003) 204 B The Act of Killing (2012) Amistad (1997) 242 Baartman, Saartje 234 137–8, 9 Asante, Amma 242 Babuscio, Jack 218–220; ‘Camp Adamson, Andrew 53 Anderson, Hans Christian 191 and the Gay Sensibility’ Adaptation, xiii, 2, 8, 16, 18, 19, Anderson, Lindsay 128 218–20 23–44, 60, 108, 113, 255, 263, Anderson, Paul Thomas 7, 21 Bachchan, Abhishek 277 279, 284, 300 Andrews, Julie 62 Bachchan, Amitabh 259, 276–81 Adaptation & Appropriation Anger, Kenneth 213, 215 Bachchan, Jaya 277 34–6 Angry Young Men films 128; see Back to the Future III (1990) 54 Adele 272 also Realism Bacon, Lloyd 61 Adler, Zachary 281 Annie (1982) 60 Badham, John 51, 197

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314 Index

Bakhtin, Mikhail 32, 113–14; Bhosle, Asha 64 Boys Don’t Cry (1999) 221 Carnivalesque 113–14 The Big Bang Theory (2007– ) 204 Boyz ‘n the Hood (1991) 49 Barker, Martin 269, 294–6 Big Fish (2003) 3 Bradshaw, Peter 64 ‘Researching world audiences: Big Five, (Major) 268 Brand, Russell 211 The experience of complex The Big Short (2015) 190 Brando, Marlon 130, 197, 207 methodology’(2012) Bill and Ted’s Excellent Adventure Brazil (1985) 41 Barthes, Roland 8, 9, 10, 21, 40, (1989) 109 Breathless/À Bout de Souffle 78, 95–6, 102–3; ‘Death of the Biograph Girl, (Florence (1960) 67 Author’ 9–10; Jouissance 95– Lawrence) 266 Brecht, Bertolt 80, 81; 6, 102–3; Mythologies 9, The Birds (1963) 15, 15, 100, 162, Verfremdung 82 95–6; Plaisir 95–6, 102–3, 165, 220 Bresson, Robert 12 Bashir, Martin 123 The Birth of a Nation (1915) 15, Breton, André 162 The Basketball Diaries (1995) 293, 21, 147, 235 Brick (2005) 145 297 Bisexual 162, 165, 190, 212, Bride & Prejudice (2004) 145 Battle Royale (2000) 42, 297 213, 214, 225, 226; see also Bridesmaids (2011) 175 Battleship Potemkin (1925) 69, 70 Homosexual Bridge of Spies (2015) 190 Baudrillard, Jean 43, 147, Black Swan (2010) 164 Bridget Jones’s Diary (2001) 175, 148–50, 151; ‘The Gulf War Blackmail (1929) 14, 16 176 Did Not Take Place’ 154; Blade Runner (1982) 41, 161 Brighton Rock (1947) 57 ‘The Precession of Blade II (2002) 17, 19 British New Wave 128–9 Simulacra’ 148–50 Blair, Selma 109 British Realist traditions 127–8; Baudry, Jean-Louis 166, 183 Blanchett, Cate 89, 165, 275 see also Free Cinema Bayona, Juan Antonio 20 Blandick, Clara 76 Brokeback Mountain (2005) 12, 54, Bazin, André 2, 6, 26–8, 45, 71, Blaxploitation 243–4 128, 224, 226–7 125, 127; see also ‘Adaptation, Blazing Saddles (1974) 46, 54 Broken Arrow (1950) 53 or the Cinema as Digest’ 26–8 Bleibtreu, Moritz 82 Bronson, Charles 102 Beasts of the Southern Wild Blue (1993) 215 Brooks, Mel 46, 54, 238 (2012) 110 Blue is the Warmest Colour Brooklyn (2015) 190 Beauty and the Beast (1991) 19, (2013) 225–8, 300 Bruzzi, Stella 138 61, 62 Bluestone, George 24–26, 31; Buck, Chris 191 Bechdel, Alison 189, 190 ‘Limits of the Novel and the Buck and the Preacher (1972) 54 The Bechdel Test 190, 191 Film’ 24–6 Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997– Beckham, David 203 The Blues Brothers (1980) 61 2003) 228 Being John Malkovich (1999) 99 Blue Valentine (2010) 204 Bugsy Malone (1976) 61, 63 Beja, Morris 24 Blue Velvet (1986) 162 Bulger, Jamie 293; see also The Believer 206 BoBo, Jacqueline 284 violence Belle ( 2013) 242 Bogart, Humphrey 98, 197, 203 Bullet Boy (2004) 59 Bellissima/Beautiful (1951) 127 Bolger, Ray 77 Buñuel, Luis 162 Benjamin, Walter 107, Bollywood 223, 258, 259, 276–8, Burke, Billie 77 131–2; ‘The Work of Art 285, 286 Burton, Tim 3–4, 8, 55 in the Age of Mechanical Bond, James 75, 204, 280 Bury Your Gays 228 Reproduction’ 131–2 Booker, Chris 78 Buscombe, Edward 50; ‘The Idea The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel Boozer, Jack 37, 39–40; of Genre in the American (2012) 279 ‘Authorship in Film Cinema’ 50 Bergman, Ingmar 18, 109 Adaptation’ 39–40 The Business (2005) 59 Bergman, Ingrid 15, 98 Bowie, David 145, 153, 221, 280 Butler, David 53 Bergman, Robert Pulcini) 204 Bowling for Columbine (2002) 123 Butler, Judith 213 Berkeley, Busby 62, 218 Boyhood (2014) 131 Berry, Mary 280 Boyle, Danny 81, 258–9 C Besson, Luc 35, 198 The Boy Blue (Thomas Caché/Hidden (2005) 131, 263 La Bête Humaine/The Human Beast Gainsborough, 1770) La Cage aux Folles (1978) 221 (1938) 71, 126 243, 243 Cahiers du cinema 2, 52

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Cahiers Group 2–3, 5 Un Chien Andalou/An Andalusian Costner, Kevin 7, 54 Cahir, Linda 23, 33, 34, 36, Dog (1928) 162, 170 Cox, Alex 106 39; see also Literature into Child’s Play 3 (1991) 293 Craig, Daniel 75, 204 Film: Theory and Practical Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (1968) 61 Crash (1996) 162 Approaches 33 A Christmas Carol (1843) 109, 220 Craven, Wes 53 Calamity Jane (1953) 53, 62 Cimino, Michael 54 Creed, Barbara 185–6; ‘Horror Callow, Simon 224 Cianfrance, Derek 206 and the Monstrous Cameron, James 7, 48, 81, 134, Cinémathèque Frangaise 2 Feminine; An Imaginary; 145, 260–2 Cisgender 221 Abjection’ 185–6 Camp 54, 143, 151, 153, 211, Citizen Kane (1941) 75, 121, 126 Creed (2015) 200 215, 217–9, 222 Clayton, Jack 128 Crichton, Charles 58 Campbell, Joseph 78–9, 165, Clift, Montgomery 206 Crimson Peak (2015) 17, 19 185; The Hero with a Thousand A Clockwork Orange (1971) 98, Croft, Lara 93 Faces 79 183, 293 Cronenberg, David 17, 162 Campbell, Martin 280 Cloverfield (2008) 100, 133 Cronos (1993) 17–19 Campus, Michael 243 Clubbed (2008) 59 Crosland, Alan 60 Canon 20, 49, 50–2, 54, Coen brothers 39, 54, 55, 162 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon 269 Collins, Suzanne 40–2 (2000) 12, 200 Capra, Frank 123 Colonial 200, 247, 248, 249, 250, Crowe, Cameron 7 Caravaggio (1986) 215 251–6, 259, 260, 261, 262; see Crowe, Russell 281 Cardinale, Claudia 199 also Neocolonialism Crowley, John 190 Carnivalesque 113–14 Colonization 247, 248, 249, 260 Cruel Intentions (1999) Carol (2015) 227 The Color Purple (1985) 284 109 Carpenter, John 35, 106, 118 Coltrane, Ella 131 Cruise, Tom 7, 99 Carrie (1976) 185 Columbia Studios 268 The Crying Game (1992) 81, Carry On films 114, 151 Columbine High School 221 Carter, David 214–5; Stonewall: Massacre 293, 298; see also Cuarón, Alfonso 17, 20, 38 The Riots That Sparked the Gay violence Cukor, George 64 Revolution Columbus, Chris 221 Culture Industry 107–8 Casablanca (1942) 98 ComicCon 287 Cumming, Alan 224 Cashmore, Ellis E. 229 Communism 104, 105 Curly Sue (1991) 198 Cathy Come Home (1966) 129; see Computer-Generated Imagery (CGI) Curtis, Richard 8 also Loach, Ken 33, 133, 151, 153, 200, 208 Curtis, Tony 221, 238 Cavalcanti, Alberto 57, 128 Conan the Barbarian (1982) Curtiz, Michael 98 Celebrity 12–3, 58, 174, 265, 269, 198, 198 Cyberbully (2015) 131 272, 273, 274–5, 276, 278, Congo, Anwar 137–9 Cyrus, Miley 179 280, 281; see also stars Connery, Sean 158 Censorship 26, 57, 59, 158, 188, Conscious 156, 157–60, 163, 166 D 289, 290, 291, 293 see also Pre-conscious, sub- Dalí, Salvador 141, 162, 170 CGI 33, 133, 151, 153, 200, 208 conscious, unconscious Dances with Wolves (1990) 54, Chabrol, Claude 2 Continuity Editing 67–8, 71, 72, 260 Chadha, Gurinder 38, 63, 278 123 Dangerous Liaisons/Liaisions Chalk, Penny 40–2 Coogler, Ryan 200 Dangereuses (1988) 109 Chatman, Seymour 31 Coolie (1983) 277 Danish Girl (2015) 221 Chaudhuri, Shohini – Cinema of Copjec, Joan 172 Dargis, Manhola 226 the Dark Side: Atrocity and the Coppola, Francis Ford 49, 81 Dark Shadows (2012) 5 Ethics of Film Spectatorship Coppola, Sofia Dassin, Jules 57 (2014) 285 Copyright 10, 27, 35, 93 Davis, Geena 189 Chazelle, Damien 60 Corbucci, Sergio 243 Davis, Sharen 243 Chicago (2002) 60, 63 Cordon, James 272 The Day After Tomorrow Chicken-and-Egg Dilemma 45–6, Corrigan, Timothy 12–13, 21; ‘The (2004) 96, 97, 99 106; see also Tudor, Andrew Commerce of Auteruism’ 12–3 Day, Doris 273

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De Cordova, Richard 266–7, 272, Documentary 84, 115, 122–4, Elf (2003) 159 279; The Emergence of the Star 125, 126, 127, 129, 135, 137– Elfman, Danny 8 System 266–7 9, 231, 276; see also Nichols, Emmerich, Roland 96, 97 De Lauretis, Teresa 186–7; Alice Bill 123–4 Empire State (1987) 58 Doesn’t. Feminism. Semiotics. Dogme 95, 135–7 The Empire Strikes Back Cinema 186–7 Dogville (2003) 82 (1980) 247 De Sica, Vittorio 126 see also Dolezal, Rachel 239 Endelman, Lee 219–20; No Future: Italian Neo-realism Dominik, Andrew 49 Queer Theory and the Death Dead Man (1995) 54 Donen, Stanley 51, 61 Drive (2004) 220 Deadpool (2016) xii, xiii, 159 Donnie Brasco (1997) 49 Endorsement 274, 275–5; see also Dean, James 130, 206, 207 Doppelgänger/double 161 Stars Deconstruction 96, 98–9 Dorian Gray (2009) 161 Les Enfants du Paradis/Children of Deep-focus composition/ Do the Right Thing (1989) 234 Paradise (1945) 126 photography 71, 90, 125, Double Consciousness 236, 237; Engels, Friedrich 104, 106–7, 111, 131, 201 see also Race and Ethnicity 119 ‘Defamiliarization’ 81, 82, 100; Douglas, Mary 231 The English Patient (1997) 39 see also Shklovsky, Viktor Downey Jr, Robert 266 Enigma (2001) 145 DeGeneres, Ellen 89, 224 Dreams 107, 157–9, 161, 162, Ephron, Nora 145 Del Toro, Guillermo 17–20, 19 163, 164, 170, 172: see also Escape from New York (1981) 35 DeMille, Cecil B. 147, 284 Sigmund Freud and El Espinazo del Diablo/The Devil’s Dench, Dame Judi 278–81 Carl Jung Backbone (2001) 17–18, 20 Depp, Johnny 4, 5 Drive (2011) 206–7 Espinosa, Julio Garda 17 Derrida, Jacques 40, 97–9; Du Bois, W. E. B. 232, 236–7; The El Topo/ The Mole (1970) 54 Deconstruction 98–9; Souls of Black Folk 236–7 Ethnicity 210, 229–46; see also Différance 97–8; Trace and Dudley, Andrew 29, 32 see also Jews/Jewish; Race Graft 99; Of Grammatology; Concepts in Film Theory 29 Evans, Owen 83 97–9 Duel in the Sun (1946) 53, 182 Event Cinema 285 Desperately Seeking Susan Duvivier, Julien 124 Everett, Rupert 224 (1985) 187 Dworkin, Andrea 188 Evita (1996) 55 Diaz, Cameron 99 Dyer, Richard 60, 200, 216, Exarchopoulos, Adéle 225 Dibb, Saul 59 239–41, 269–70, 279, 282; Ex Machina (2014) 161 DiCaprio, Leonardo 89, 153, 203, ‘Entertainment and Utopia’ The Exorcist (1973) 185, 293 266, 278, 293 60; Heavenly Bodies 269–70; Eyes Wide Shut (1999) 99, 183 Dicecco, Nico 43 Stars 269; White 239–41; Dickens, Charles 38, 109, 220 ‘The White Man’s Muscles’ F Diesel, Vin 18 200 Fabula 72–4; see also Syuzhet Dietrich, Marlene 225 The Fall of the Krays (2016) Digital Realism 132 E Fame (1980) 63 Dinklage, Peter 272 Earth (1998) 223 Family Plot (1976) 16 Disney 53, 62, 88, 110, 191–3, Eastwood, Clint 7, 54, 102, 199, Fandom 42, 204, 273–5, see also 206, 251, 252 277 Stars Dixon, Wheeler Winston 287 Easy Rider (1969) 56 Fan Fiction 38 Streaming: Movies, Media and Edward Scissorhands (1990) 4–5 Fanon, Frantz 248–9; Black Skin, Instant Access (2013) Edward II (1991) 216 White Masks 248; ‘The Django (Sergio Corbucci, 1966) Efron, Zac 62, 197 Wretched of the Earth’ 243 Ego 159, 163–5, 166, 184, 196, 248–9 Django Unchained (Quentin 201; see also Freud, Sigmund Farrell, Will 116 Tarantino, 2012) 242–4 Eichenbaum, Boris 66 Favreau, John 110, 159 Doane, Mary Ann 183–4, Eisenstein, Sergei 66, 69–71, 83,84, Feig, Paul 175 186, 187; ‘Film and the 114; ‘Film Form’ 69–71 Feminism 112, 156, 172, Masquerade: Theorising the Electra complex 160; see also 173–94, 195, 210, 273 Female Spectator’ 183–4 Freud, Sigmund; Jung, Carl Femme Fatales 179

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Ferngully: The Last Rainforest Free Cinema 128; see also Realism Genre Hybridity 34, 55, 62, 64, (1992) 260 French New Wave 2, 72, 98, 143, 145 Festen (1998) 136 125–6, 135 Genre Revisionism 53, 55; see also Fetishism 172, 180, 184, 185, Frenzy (1972) 15–16 Subgenres 188 see also Freud, Sigmund; Freud, Sigmund 107, 110, 156, German Expressionism 3, 5, 47, Mulvey, Laura 157–62, 163, 164, 165, 166, 72, 98, 124 Fiddler on the Roof (1971) 81 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, Germania Anno Zero/Germany Year Fidelity 23–27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 180, 181, 182, 184, 185; The Zero (1948) 127 34, 35, 42, 43, 121 see also Interpretation of Dreams 157 Get Carter (1971) 58 Bluestone, George; see also Freudian slip 157, 158 The Get Down (2016–) 21 ‘Anti-Anti-fidelity: Truffaut, Fricke, Ron 123 Getino, Octavio 114–15; see also Roché, Shakespeare’ 43 Friedberg, Jason 46 Third Cinema Figgis, Mike 58, 131 Friedkin, William 185 Gibson, Mel 7 Fight Club (1999) 81, 159, 201, Frozen ( 2013) 191–3, 286 Giese, Maria 189 202 Fry, Stephen 224, 280, 281 Gilbey, Julian 59 The Fighting Temeraire (1839) 204 Functions 76–8, 80; see also Gill, Rosalind 176–9; Film Noir 47, 52, 108, 201 Propp, Vladimir Postfeminist Media Culture: Fincher, David 7, 12, 21, 81, 159, Fukaska, Kinji, 42, 297 Elements of a Sensibility 201, 204 (2006) 176–8 A Fine Romance (1981–4) 279 G Gilliam, Terry 41, 162 Fire (1996) 223 Gable, Clark 197 Gilliat, Frank 127 Fireworks (1945) 213 Gabriadze, Levan/Leo The Girl Can’t Help It (1957) First Cinema 50, 115 131 219 Fisher, Carrie 79 Gangsta 49, 91 Glazer, jonathan 59 A Fistful of Dollars (1964) 54 Gangster 48–51, 56–64, 202, Gless, Sharon 224 Fleischer, Richard 242 285 Godard, Jean-Luc 2, 67, 125, 144 Fleming, Victor 76, 81, 290 Gangster No.1 (2000) 59 The Godfather (1972) 8, 49 The Fly (1986) 162 Garber, Marjorie 221 Gold Diggers of 1933 (1933) 62 Fonda, Henry 101–3 Garbo, Greta 218, 225 GoldenEye (1995) 280 Fonda, Jane 174 Garland, Alex 161 Gone with the Wind (1939) 235, Fonda, Peter 56 Garland, Judy 62, 76, 219 290 For a Few Dollars More (1965) Gaspar, Noé 297 The Good, the Bad and the Ugly 54 Gay 54, 123, 153, 157, 187, (1966) 54 Forbes, Bryan 161 188, 190, 192, 210–28; Good-Time Girl (1949) 57 Ford, Harrison 80, 199, 200, Stonewall 214–15; Goodfellas (1990) 49 251 Camp 217–20; see also Gosling, Ryan 206–8 Ford, John 46, 51, 53, 101, 103 Homosexual Goya, Francisco de 16; Saturn Ford, Tom 227 Gavron, Sarah 145, 173 Devouring His Children 18, 19 Formalism 66–85, 86, 100, 114 Geeks 203–5 The Graduate (1967) 160 Fort Apache (1948) 53 Gellar, Sarah Michelle 109 Graft 99 see also Trace Foster, Jodie 225 Gender 56, 59, 117, 173–94, 195, Gramsci, Antonio 112–13, 116; Foucault, Michel 9–11, 40, 196, 199, 205, 210–28, 254, see also hegemony 180, 211–2; The History of 271 La Grande Illusion/The Grand Sexuality:Volume 1 211–2; Gender Fluidity/Genderqueer Illusion (1937) 71, 126 What is an Author? 9–11 221 Granger, Hermione 205 Four in the Morning (1965) 278 Genette, Gérard 29, 30; see also Grant, Cary 15, 220 Fox, Michael J. 54 Transtextualities The Grapes of Wrath (1940) 101 Foxx, Jamie 243 Genre 17, 24, 30, 45–65, 101, Grease (1978) 60–1, 63 Fracture (2007) 206 123, 136, 137, 151, 153, 167, The Great Train Robbery (1903) 53 Frankfurt School 107–8, 117, 292 175, 182–3, 186, 199, 201, Great Expectations (1946) 33, 38 Frears, Stephen 58, 109, 279 215, 218, 237, 239, 263, 265, The Great Gatsby (2013) 278 Free Association 157, 158 292 Greenaway, Peter 162

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Greene, Peter 73 Henson, Brian 109 Hughes, Ken 61 Grey Owl (1998) 239 Hepburn, Audrey 64 The Hulk (2003) 12 Grierson, John 122, 127 Herek, Stephen 109 The Human Stain (2003) 238 Griffith, D. W. 57, 147 Herrmann, Bernard 14–15, 20 Humm, Maggie 188 Groundhog Day (1993) 74, 161 Hermansson, Casie 43 The Hunger Games (2012) 40–2, Guest, Val 58 He Who Rides the Tiger (1965) 80, 300 Guinness, Alec 79 278 Hunter, I.Q. 42 Gunga Din (1939) 252, 252 Higbee, Will 256, 263 Huston, John 60 The Guru (2002) 63 High Definition (HD) 134 Hutcheon, Linda 36–8, 41, 145 Guys and Dolls (1955) 62 High Noon (1952) 53 see also A Theory of Adaptation Gyllenhaal, Jake 225 High Plains Drifter (1973) 54 and Transculturating High School Musical franchise Hyde-Pierce, David 224 H (2006–8) 60, 63, 197 Hyper-masculinity 198, 208 Habermas, Jürgen 150; Highsmith, Patricia 17, 227 Hypodermic Needle Model 107, ‘Modernity versus The Hit (1984) 58 292–3 Postmodernity’ 150 Hitchcock, Alfred 13–17, 20, 33, Hairspray (1988) 63 35, 39, 158, 162, 181, 185, I Hairspray (2007) 175 186, 214, 220 The Iceman (2013) 49 Hall, Stuart 231, 292, 296; The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug Ichi the Killer (2001) 297 ‘Encoding/Decoding’ 292; (2013) 134 Id 157, 158–9, 166, 167, 170; see ‘Race, the Floating Signifier’ Hobbs, Simon 296–8 also Freud, Sigmund 231 Hoblit, Gregory 206 The Idiots (1998) 136 Hamill, Mark 79, 241 Hodges, Mike 58 Imaginary 18, 93, 95, 166, 167, Hamilton, Linda 48 Hoffman, Dustin 130, 160 168, see also Lacan, Jacques A Handful of Dust (1988) 279 Homoerotic 98, 151, 193, 196, and Metz, Christian Haneke, Michael 131 197, 202, 205, 207, 213 Imitation of Life (1934 and Hanks, Tom 7, 281 Homophobic 56 178, 196, 210, 1959) 238 Harper, Sue 284 222 Imperfect Cinema 115 Harris, Neil Patrick 224 Homosexual 13, 128, 187, 188, Iñárritu, Alejandro Gonzalez 17, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire 195, 202, 210–40; see also 20, 21, 190 (2005) 33 Bisexual; Gay; Lesbian Inception (2010) 74, 133 Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone hooks, bell 175, 187–8; ‘The Indiana Jones and the Temple of (2001) 33, 41, 81, 93, 205 Oppositional Gaze: Black Doom (1984) 251, 251, 252 Harry Potter franchise 81, 205 Female Spectators’ 187–8 Indick, William 165, 172 Haskell, Molly 179; ‘From Hooper, Tom 35, 221 Interpellation 111–12; see also Reverence to Rape’ 179 Hopper, Dennis 56, 73, 74 Althusser, Louis Hassler-Forest, Dan 43; see also La Hora de los Hornos/The Hour of Interview with a Vampire (1994) The Politics of Adaptation: the Furnaces (1968) 114 11 Media Convergence and Ideology Horkheimer, Max 108–9, 119, Into the Woods (2014) 61 The Hateful Eight (2015) 178 292 Invasion of the Body Snatchers Hawks, Howard 49, 57 Horror 17–20, 46, 47, 49, 52, 53, (1956) 51, 81 Hazarika, Bhupen 64 63, 91, 151, 162, 167, 184, Iris (2001) 279 Haynes, Todd 227 185–6, 188, 218, 263; see also Iron Man (2008) 110 Heaven’s Gate (1980) 54 Creed, Barbara ‘Horror and Irreversible (2002) 297 Hegemony 112–13, 116; see also the Monstrous Feminine; An Italian Neo-realism 72, 98, Gramsci, Antonio Imaginary; Abjection’ 185–6 130 Helgeland, Brian 59, 281 Hottentot Venus 234 Hellboy (2004) 17, 18, 19, 19 House of Cards (2013– ) 21 J Hellboy II: The Golden Army Howitt, Peter 74 Jackie Brown (1997) 244 (2008) 17, 18 Huda, Menhaj 59 Jackson, Peter 8, 80, 134, 165, Hell is a City (1959) 58 Hudgens, Vanessa 62 294 Hemsworth, Chris 197 Hughes, Albert and Allen 49 Jackson, Samuel L. 73, 244

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Jameson, Fredric 143–5, 150; Khan, Mehboob 63 Lang, Fritz 41, 51 ‘Postmodernism and Khan, Salman 63 Lang, Walter 64 Consumer Society’ 144–5 Kahn, Shah Rukh 63 Langlois, Henri 2 Jarman, Derek 215, 216 Kendrick, Anna 62 Lara Croft: Tomb Raider (2001) 93 Jarmusch, Jim 54 Kerr, Deborah 64 Lars and the Real Girl (Craig The Jazz Singer (1927) 60, 261 Kidulthood (2006) 59 Gillespie, 2007) 206 Jenkins, Barry 241 Kidman, Nicole 99, 152, 276, The Last King of Scotland Jenkins, Henry 42, 286 281 (2006) 81 Jenson, Vicky 53 Kill Bill Vol. 1 and Kill Bill Vol. 2 The Last Waltz (1978) 123 Jews/Jewish 97, 157, 206, 229, (2003–4) 144, 175 Launder, Sidney 127 233, 234, 235, 237, 238, 240; Killing them Softly (2012) 49 The Lavender Hill Mob (1951) 58 see also ethnicity A Kind of Loving (1962) 128 Lawrence, Florence (The Biograph Jodorowsky, Alejandro 54 Kindergarten Cop (1990) 198 Girl) 266 Johnny Guitar (1954) 53 The King and I (1956) 64 Lawrence, Jennifer 89, 189, Johnson, Rian 145 The King of Kings (1927) 284 266 Johnston, Claire 179; ‘Women’s King, Stephen 35 Laxton, James 241 Cinema as Counter-Cinema’ kitchen-sink drama 128 see also Layer Cake (2004) 59 179 Realism Laying bare the device 67, 75 Jones, Doug 19 Kitses, Jim 47, 61 Lean, David 8, 33 Jones, Duncan 7 Kleiser, Randal 60, 61 Ledger, Heath 225 Jonze, Spike 99 Knightley, Keira 89 Lee, Ang 12, 54, 200, 225–7 Jordan, Neil 11, 58, 81 Koyaanisqatsi: Life out of Balance Lee, Jennifer 191 Journey from Berlin (1971) 188 (1982) 123 Lee, Spike 5, 11, 234, 244, Jubilee (1978) 215 Kracauer, Siegfried 31 276 Julien, Isaac 215 Kristeva, Julia 184, 185 Legend (2015) 59, 281 Julien, Max 243 Kubrick, Stanley 98, 99, 109, 161, The Lego Movie (Phil Lord Jung, Carl 156, 160, 162, 183, 293 & Christopher Miller, 163–5, 169, 170, 171; ‘The Kuhn, Annette 186, 187, 283 2014) 116–20, 118 Archetypes and the Collective Kuleshov, Lev 66, 71; Kuleshov Leigh, Janet 15 Unconscious’ 163–5 Effect 71 Leigh, Mike 129 Junger, Gil 33 Kumble, Roger 109 Leitch, Thomas 30–3, 36; Kurosawa, Akira 38, 54, 277 see also ‘Twelve Fallacies in K Contemporary Adaptation Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehma L Theory’ (2006) 278 The L Word (2004–2009) 228 Lemmon, Jack 221 Kabhi Khushi Kabhi Gham LaBeouf, Shia 272 Léon (1991) 198 (2001) 278 Lacan, Jacques 40, 93, 156, Leone, Sergio 8, 100–3, 244 Kajol 63 165, 166–7, 168, 169, 172, LeRoy, Mervyn 49, 62 Kalvert, Scott 293, 297 180, 181, 183, 196, 220; Lesbian 109, 123, 187, 189, 190, Kahn, Shah Rukh 203 Imaginary 167; ‘The Mirror 192, 193, 211–6, 223–8, 279; Kanew, Jeff 204 Stage’ 166–7, 168, 196; see also Homosexual Kaplan, E. A. 182 Real 167; Symbolic 167 Les Miserables (2012) 35 Kapoor, Kareena 64 Ladies in Lavender (2004) 279 Levitt Jnr, Gordon 203 Kardashian, Kim 272 Ladri di Biciclette/Bicycle Thieves Lincoln ( 2012) 242 Kazan, Elia 197, 219, 238 (1948) 127 Lim, Song Hwee 256 Kechiche, Abdellatif 225–7 The Ladykillers (1955) 58 ‘Limits of the Novel and the Film’ Keeler, Ruby 62 Laemmle, Carl 266 24–26 Keitel, Harvey 73 La La Land (2016) 60, 62, 206, Linklater, Richard 21, 131 Kelly, Gene 51, 98, 153 207 Little Big Man (1970) 54 Kelly, Grace 15 Landau, Martin 220 Little Caesar (1931) 49 Kershner, Irvin 247 Lan yu (2001) 223, 228 The Little Shop of Horrors Kes (1969) 129 Landis, John 61 (1986) 63

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Little Three (Minors) 268 Maguire, Sharon 175, 176 Media Effects 291–2, 298 Living with Michael Jackson Maguire, Tobey 278 Meet the Spartans (2008) 46 (2003) 123 Male Gaze 177, 181–4, 187, 195 Mehta, Deepa 223–4 Livingstone, Jennie 123 Maltby, Richard 272, 283, 284, Méliès, Georges 122, 136, Lloyd, Phyllida 64 295 153 Loach, Ken 106, 129 Mamma Mia! (2008) 64, 286 Melodrama 45, 52, 127, 182, 186, Lockout (2012) 35 ‘Man and Baby’ 198 188, 222 Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels The Man Who Fell to Earth Memento (2000) 74 (1998) 59 (1976) 145 Menace II Society (1993) The Lodger (1926) 16 Man with a Movie Camera 49 Logan, Joshua 62 (1929) 123 Mendes, Sam 75, 204, 205, 276, Lohan, Lindsay 225 Manderlay (2005) 263 279, 280 Lola Rennt/Run Lola Run Mandingo (1975) 242 Metanarratives/Grand (1998) 70, 82–5 Mangeshkar, Lata 64 Narratives 146–7; see also The Loneliness of the Long Distance Mankiewicz, Joseph L. 62, 187 Lyotard, Jean-François Runner (1962) 128 Marathon Man (1976) 130 Method Acting 130, 291 The Long Good Friday (1979) 58 Marcuse, H. 107, 108–9, 110; see Metropolis (1927) 41, 51 Long take 71, 91, 124–5 also affirmative culture Metrosexual male 203 Look Back in Anger (1959) 128 Marley, Keith 137–9 Metteur-en-Scène 6 The Lord of the Rings franchise Marnie (1964) 13, 16, 158, 181 Metz, Christian 24, 93–5, 99, (2001–3) 133, 296 Maroh, Julie 225–6 166, 168–9, 184; Imaginary The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship Marshall, Robert 60, 61 Signifier: Psychoanalysis and the of the Rings (2001) 165, Marshall, Rob 61 Cinema 93–5 180 The Martian (2015) 190 MGM 88, 268, 93–5 Loren, Sophia 89 Marx, Karl 104, 105–6; ‘A Micronarratives 146–7; see also Lost in Translation (2003) 81 Contribution to the Critique Lyotard, Jean-François Love, Nick 59 of Political Economy’ 105 A Midsummer Night’s Dream Lowenthal, Leo 107 Marxism/Marxist 104–120 (1968) 278 Lucas, George 79, 144 Masculinity 58, 59, 182, 183, Midler, Bette 62 Luhrmann, Baz 1, 21, 151–4, 184, 195–209 Miller, George 190 278 ‘Masculinity as Spectacle’ 196–7; Miller, Wentworth 239 Lumière brothers 122, 136 see also Steve Neale Millions Like Us (1943) Lumley, Joanna 280 M*A*S*H (1970) 53 127 Lynch, David 162 Masochism 184, 223 A Million Ways to Die in the West Lyotard, Jean-François 143, 146, Masquerade 183–4 (2014) 55 147 Mass Observation project 289 Mimic (1997) 17, 19 The Matrix (1999) 80, 148, 200, Minghella, Anthony 39 M 222 Ministry of Information Macdonald, David 57 Mathjis, Ernest - ‘Researching (MOI) 127 Macdonald, Kevin 81 world audiences: The Mintz, Christopher 204 MacFarlane, Seth 55 experience of complex Miss Peregrine’s Home for Peculiar MacGuffin 13 methodology’ (2012) 294–6 Children (2016) 5 The Mack (1973) 243 McDonald, Paul 270–1 Modernism 141–2 MacKenzie, John 58 McDowell, Malcolm 98 Modes of Documentary MacKendrick, Alexander 58 McGregor, Ewan 89, 152, 276 122–3 Macherey, Pierre 110 McGowan, Todd 183 The Mole (1970) see also El Madden, John 279 McGuigan, Paul 59 Topo 54 Mad Max: Fury Road (2015) McKay, Adam 190 Mona Lisa (1986) 58 190 McKellen, Sir Ian 224 Monroe, Marilyn 130 Madonna 151, 153, 276 McQueen, Steve 81, 144, 242 Montage 66, 69–71, 83, 84, 91, The Magnificent Seven (1960) 54 McTeigue, James 145 117, 124, 125 Magnolia (1999) 7 Meadows, Shane 129 Moon (2009) 7

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The Moon Is the Sun’s Dream Neeson, Liam 117 Only God Forgives (2013) 160, (1992) 169 Nelson, Ralph 54 206, 207 Moonlight (2016) 241 Neocolonialism 249 Oppenheimer, Joshua 137–8, Moore, Michael 123 Neo-feminism 175 see also Post- 39 Morality/Moral Concern 57, feminism The Oprah Winfrey Show 107 Neo-realism, Italian 72, 98, 130; (1986– ) 224 Morricone, Ennio 8, 54, 100, 102 see also Realism Orient 249 Mostow, Jonathan 48 Nerds 203–6 Orientalism 249–53 Mother India (1957) 63 Netflix The Orphanage/El Orfanato Moulin Rouge! (2001) 1, 60, 61, New Jack City (1991) 49 (2007) 20 151–5 New Queer Cinema 215–7 Ortega, Kenny 60 Mrs Brown (1997) 279 Newell, Mike 33, 49 Oz, Frank 53, 159, 161 Mrs Doubtfire (1993) 221 Newman, Paul 130 Mrs Henderson Presents (2005) Newton-John, Olivia 62, P 279 281 Pacific Rim (2013) 17, 19 MTV 153 Nichols, Bill 122–4, 138 Pacino, Al 130 Mulholland Drive (2001) 162 Nichols, Mike 160 Page, Ellen 225 Mulligan, Carey 207 Nicklas, Pacals 43 Paint Your Wagon (1969) Mulvey, Laura 112, 172, 177, Night and the City (1950) 57 62 179, 180, 181–2, 191, 195, The Nightmare Before Christmas Paisà/Paisan (1946) 126 233, 273; ‘Visual Pleasure and (1993) 4 Pan’s Labyrinth/El Laberinto del Narrative Cinema’ 181–2; see Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949) Fauno (2006) 17–19, 19 also male gaze 149 Paramount 268 Murray, Simone 42 Nixon, Marni 64 Paris Is Burning (1990) 123 Musicals 31, 37, 50, 51, 52, 55, No Country for Old Men (2007) 54 Park, Chan-Wook 169–71; see 60–4, 108, 136, 197 Nolan, Christopher 74, 133 also Oldboy The Musketeers of Pig Alley North by Northwest (1959) 15, 16, Parker, Alan 55, 61, 62 (1912) 57 220 Parker, Oliver 161 Muybridge, Eadweard 122 The Notebook (2004) 206 Parks Jr, Gordon 243 My Big Fat Greek Wedding (2002) 7 Notes on a Scandal (2006) 279, Partie de Campagne (1936) My Darling Clementine (1946) 53, 280 125, 125 101 Notorious (1946) 16 Parton, Dolly 153, 211 My Fair Lady (1964) 64 ‘The Novel and the Cinema’ 28–9; Passing 235, 237–9; see also My Own Private Idaho (1990) 216 see also George Wagner Aborigines; Jews/Jewish; Mythologies 9, 95–6 Barthes, Noyce, Philip 254 Narrative of Passing; Race Roland Payne Fund studies (1929–32) O 291–2 N Objectification 180, 181, 188, Pearl, Monica B. 216 Napoleon Dynamite (Jared Hess, 197, 233 Peck, Ron 58 2004) 204 O Brother, Where Art Thou? Peckinpah, Sam 46, 54, 293 Narcissism 180, 196, 197, 203; see (2000) 39 Peirce, Charles Sanders 86, 92, also Freud, Sigmund; Mulvey, O’Donnell, Rosie 224 133; ‘Logic, Regarded as Laura Oedipus complex/oedipal 13, Semeiotic’ 92 Narrative of Passing 235, 238–9; 160, 167, 170, 183; see also Peirce, Kimberley 221 see also passing; Race Freud, Sigmund Penn, Arthur 54 Narrative Structure 47, 51, 61, 66, O’Flynn, Siobhan 36, 38 Pépé le Moko (1937) 126 78, 146, 186, 265 Oklahoma (1954) 53, 62 Perkins, Anthony 15, 160 National Treasure 278–82 Oldboy (2003) 169–171 Perlman, Ron 19 Naturalism 121 Olivier, Laurence 130 Performance (1970) 218 Neale, Steve 52, 195–97; Once Upon a Time in the West Performative Mode of ‘Masculinity as Spectacle’ (1968) 54, 100–3 Documentary See also Nichols, 196–7; ‘Questions of Genre’ 52 O’Neal, Ron 243 Bill 138

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Personalities 270, 272, 274; see Prowse, David 71, 241 Rebel Without a Cause also Stars Psycho (1960) 13, 14, 15, 16, 32, (1955) 206 The Phantom of the Opera 35, 160, 181, 185 Reeves, Matt 100, 100, 133 (2004) 63 Psycho (1998); see also Van Sant, Reggio, Godfrey 123 Phone Booth (2002) 131 Gus 32, 35 Reisz, Karel 128 Phongam, Yayaying Rhatha Psychoanalysis 93, 95, 107, 110, Renoir, Jean 71, 124, 125 207 156–172, 179, 180, 181, 188, Repression 157, 159–60, 167, Pine, Chris 275 193, 196 196; see also Psychoanalysis Pinky (1956) 238 The Public Enemy (1931) 49 Requiem for a Dream (2000) 81, Pinocchio (1940) 159 Pulp Fiction (1994) 53, 72, 73–4, 276 Pitch Perfect Franchise 60, 61 147 Resnais, Alain 2 Pitt, Brad 159, 197, 203, The Revenant (2015) 190 275 Q The Revenge of the Nerds The Place Beyond the Pines Les Quatre Cents coup/400 Blows (1984) 204 (2012) 206 (1959) 76, 126 Rhames, Ving 73 Planet of the Apes (1968) Queen Christina (1933) 218 Richardson, Tony 128 101, 101 Queer Theory 210–228 Ride with the Devil (1999) 54 The Player (1992) 87 Questionaires 283, 291, 295 Riff-Raff (1991) 129 Plummer, Amanda 73 ‘Questions of Genre’ 52; see also Riggs, Marlon 123 Pocahontas (1995) 260 Steve Neale Rio Grande (1950) 53 Poetic Realism 124–6, 130; see The Rise (2012) 59 also Realism R Rise of the Foot Soldier (2007) Poitier, Sidney 54 Rabbit-Proof Fence (2002) 254–5 59 Polley, Sarah, 123 Race 48, 49, 50, 54, 174, 175, The Rise of the Krays (2015) Pope, Andrew 206–8 182, 188, 192, 200, 215, 281 Porter, Edwin S. 53 229–45, 248, 260, 263, 271, Ritchie, Guy 59 Postcolonial and Transnational 284 Rivette, Jacques 2 Cinemas 247–64 Race and Ethnicity 229–45; Rivière, Joan 183, 184 Postcolonial/Postcolonialism 175, see also Aborigines; Double RKO 268 247, 253, 247–55, 257, 262; Consciousness; Ethnicity; Road Movie 56 see also Orientalism; and Jews/Jewish; Otherness; Robards, Jason 102 Subaltern Passing; Rabbit-Proof Fence; Robbins, Jerome 35, 61, 64 Post-feminism 174–5, 179 Slavery Rocky (1976) 198 Postmodernism34, 103, 141–53, Racial identity 45, 231 The Rocky Horror Picture Show 216, 300 Racism 49, 121, 129, 230, 232, (1975) 63, 286 Post-structuralism 96–103, 238, 240, 242, 250 Roeg, Nicolas 58, 145, 218 168, 175, 193; see also Racist 53, 101, 230, 232, 234, Rogers, Ginger 60–2 Structuralism Potente, 248, 250, 251, 252 Rojek, Chris 274–5; ‘Celebrity Franka 82 Raengo, Alessandra 29 and Religion’ 274–5 Powaqqatsi: Life in Transformation Rai, Aishwarya 275, 278 Romantic Comedy 49, 51, 99 (1988) 123 Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981) Romeo and Juliet (1996) Potente, Franka 82 145 35 Powell, Dick 62 Rainer, Yvonne 188 Rome Open City/Roma Citta Aperta Pretty Little Liars (2010– ) Rains, Claude 98 (1945) 127 228 Ramis, Harold 161 Room (2015) 190 Pride (2014) 221 Ray, Billy 41 Room at the Top (1959) Prince, Stephen 133–34 Ray, Nicholas 53, 206 128 The Princess and the Frog The Real 167 A Room with a View (1985) 40, (2009) 110 Realism 121–140 279 Propp, Vladimir 66, 74–8, 80, Rear Window (1954) 15–6, Rooney, Mickey 62 163, 182, 196; ‘Morphology of 181 Roots (1977) 242 the Folktale’ 74–6 Rebecca (1940) 186, 187 Rope (1948) 214

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Rose, Ruby 221 Scorsese, Martin 5, 49, 110, 123 Siegel, Don 51 Ross, Gary 40–1, 81 Scott, Ridley 185, 190 Singleton, John 49, 244 Rossellini, Roberto 126–7; see also Scott-Thomas, Kristin 206 Silverman, Kaja 188; The Italian Neo-Realism Scream Franchise (1996–2011) Acoustic Mirror: The Female Roth, Tim 73 Screenwriter 1, 11, 15, 16, 17, Voice in Psychoanalysis and Rowell, Spencer 198 21, 24, 27, 32, 33, 37, 38, Cinema 188; ‘Dis-Embodying Rowling, J.K. 33 39, 41, 111, 172, 181, 266, the Female Voice’ 188 Ruby Rich, B: ‘New Queer Cinema’ 292, 300 Simpson, Mark 203 215–6, 226 The Searchers (1956) 51, 53, 101 The Simpsons (1989– ) 206 The Rules of the Game/La Regle du Sebastiane (1976) 215 Simulacra/Simulacrum 148–9 see Jeu (1939) 126 Second Cinema 115 also Baudrillard, Jean Rushdie, Salman 247 Saltzer, Aaron 46 Sinatra, Frank 62 Russian Ark (2002) 131 Selznick, David O. 16 A Single Man (Tom Ford, Russell, David O 189 Semiotics/Semiology 49, 86, 2009) 227 The Russo Test 190 87–92, 93–5, 98, 100–3, 266, Singer, Bryan 72 Russo, Vito 190, 213 267, 231–3 Singin’ in the Rain (1952) 51, 61, Sense and Sensibility (1995) 12 96, 153 S Serenity (2005) 55, 55 Singleton, John 49, 244 Said, Edward 249–50, 251–3, Seuss, Dr 35 Sinthomosexual 220 257, 29 Seven Brides for Seven Brothers The Sixth Sense (1999) 81, 160 Samsara (Ron Fricke, 2011) (1954) 61, 62 Skyfall (Sam Mendes, 2012) 204, 123 Seven Samurai (1954) 54, 277 279, 280 Sanders, Julie 34–6, 37, 39, The Seventh Seal (1957) 109 Sleepless in Seattle (1993) 145 41 see also ‘Adaptation & Sexy Beast (2001) 59 Sleepy Hollow (1999) 3–4, 4 Appropriation’ Seydoux, Léa 225, 227 Sliding Doors (1998) 74 Santaniello, Enzo 100 Shaffner, Franklin J. 101, 101 Slumdog Millionaire (2008) Santaniello, Simonetta 100 Shaheen, Jack G. 252, 253 258–9 Sapphire (1959) 238 Shakespeare in Love (1998) 279 Smart Technology 31, 38, Sarris, Andrew 5–6 Shakespeare, William 33, 35, 37, 287 Sasanatieng, Wisit 54 38, 278, 279, 280 Smith, Jada 221 Saturday Night and Sunday Morning Shane (1953) 53, 129, 197 Smith, Jaden 221 (1960) 128 Shanan, Ben 131 Smith, Will 54, 221 Saturday Night Fever (1977) 51, Shankman, Adam 63, 175 Snatch (2000) 59 197 Sharman, Jim 63 The Snow Queen (191) Saussure, Ferdinand de 86, Shaw, Deborah 256, 258, 263 The Social Network (2010) 87–8, 92, 96, 97, 98, 99; Shaw, Julie 123 204 Semiotics - Course in General Sheen, Erica 43 see also ‘Anti- Sokurov, Aleksandr 131 Linguistics 87–8, 166, 231, Anti-fidelity: Truffaut, Roché, Solanas, Fernando 114–5; see also 233 Shakespeare’ Third Cinema Scarface (1932) 49 She Wore a Yellow Ribbon Soldier Blue (1970) 54 Scary Movie (2000) 46 (1949) 53 Some Like It Hot (1959) 221 Schindler’s List (1993) 144 The Shining (1980) 161, 183 Song of the South (1946) 234 Schlesinger, John 128, 130 The Shipping News (2001) Sonnenfeld, Barry 54 Schumacher, Joel 63, 131 279 Sontag, Susan 217–8, 219; ‘Notes Schwarzenegger, Arnold 48, 197, Shklovsky, Viktor 66, 80–1 on Camp’ 217–8 198, 198, 199, 207, 271 Sholay (1975) 277 La Sortie des Usines Lumière/ Science Fiction 40–2, 49, 51, 148, Showboat (1930) 238 Workers Leaving the Factory 288 Shrek (2001) 53 (1985) 122 Scoobie Doo (1969–1971) 206 Shyamalan, M. Night 81, The Sound of Music (1965) 60, 286 Scopophilia 172, 180, 181; see 160 Soviet Montage 66, 71, 124; see also Freud, Sigmund; Mulvey, Skyfall (2012) 204, 279, 280 also Montage Laura Sidney, George 53, 238 Spacey, Kevin 7

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Spaghetti Westerns 54, 101–3, Straw Dogs (1971) 293 Tartan Asia Extreme 297 243; see also Westerns Streamed Content 21, 31 Tartan Video 296–8 Spectre (2015) 75, 205, 276, 280 Streep, Meryl 271, 281 Tasker, Yvonne 175, 176, 199–200, Spellbound (1945) 16 A Streetcar Named Desire 271; Spectacular Bodies: Spielberg, Steven 8, 144, 190, (1951) 197, 219, 264 Gender, Genre and the Action 242, 251–2, 284 Streisand, Barbra 62 Cinema 199–200 Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty 175, Structuralism 40, 85, 86–96, 97, A Taste of Honey (1961) 128 253–5, 257, 259, 261; ‘Can 103, 168, 231; see also Tatum, Channing 197 the Subaltern Speak?’ 253–4 Post-structuralism Taxi Driver (1976) 110 Stacey, Jackie 178, 187, 221, 271, Studio Era 198, 203, 268, 271 Taylor-Johnson, Sam 184 273–4; ‘Desperately Seeking Studio System 13, 115, 267–8, Tears of the Black Tiger (2000) 54 Difference’ 178; ‘Star 275; see also Stars Temporal Realism 131 Gazing: Hollywood Film and Sturges, John 54 The Ten Commandments Female Spectatorship’ 273–4 Subaltern 253–5, 261; see also (1956) 147 Stagecoach (1939) 51, 53 Postcolonialism The Terminator (1984) 48 Staiger, Janet 55, 283 Subgenres 55, 60, 64; see also La Terra Trema/The Earth Trembles Stallone, Sylvester 197, 198, 198, Genre (1948) 127 199, 200, 207 Suffragette (2015) 145, 173 A Theory of Adaptation 36–8 Stam, Robert 23, 29, 45, 52, 107 Sunset Boulevard (1950) 218 They Live! (1988) 106 Star Contracts 268; see also studio Superbad (2007) 204 They Made Me a Fugitive (1947) 57 system Superego 157, 158–9, 160; see also Third Cinema 106, 114–15; Stardom 208, 266, 269, 270–1, Psychoanalysis see also Getino, Octavio; 275, 280 Superfly (1972) 243 Solanas, Fernando Stars (Acting Studies) 265–82 Surrealism 141, 161–2, 169 The Third Secret (1964) 278 Star System 266–7, 270, 272; see Surrealist 150, 161, 162, The Thirty-nine Steps (1935) 16 also De Cordova, Richard; 169, 170 This is England films/TV series Studio System Swanson, Gloria 218 (2006, 2010, 2011) 129 Star Wars (1977) 79, 85, 111, 159, Swashbuckling 4, 46 This Sporting Life (1963) 128 200, 241, 287 The Sweeney (1975–8) 58 Thompson, J. Lee 58 Star Wars: The Force Awakens Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber Thompson, Neil 59 (2015) 200 of Fleet Street (2007) 4, 55, Three Men and a Baby (1987) 198, The Stepford Wives (1975) 161 58, 63 199 Stereotyping 117, 189, 203, 211, Swinton, Tilda 221 Thrillers 13, 45 233–6, 242, 244, 245, 252 Symbolic 167, 168 see also Lacan, Throne of Blood (1957) 38 253, 254–6 Jacques Thurman, Uma 73 Stevens, George 53, 197, 252 Sympathy for Lady Vengeance Timecode (2000) 131 Stewart, Jimmy 15–17, 197 (2005) 169 Titanic (1997) 145, 153 Stewart, Kirsten 275 Sympathy for Mr Vengeance Todorov, Tzvetan 65, 78 Stolen Generations 232, 255 (2002) 169 Todo Sobre Mi Madre/All about My Stone, Emma 207 Symptomatic Reading 89; see also Mother (1999) 221 Stone Roses: Made in Stone, Althusser, Louis Toland, Gregg 71, 125 (2013) 129 Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic Tolkien, J. R. R. 8, 262, 296 Stonewall Riots 214–15 Axes 88–90, 99, 101, 102 Tongues Untied (1990) 123 Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot see also Syuzhet; Fabula Top Gun (1986) 40, 276 (1992) 199; see also race and Trace 99; see also Graft ethnicity T The Tracey Ullman Show (BBC Stories We Tell (2012) 123 Takashi, Miike 297 2016) 281 Stormy Monday (1987) 58 Takei, George 224 Trainspotting (1996) 81 Strangers on a Train (1951) 13, Tarantino, Quentin 9, 12, 72, Transamerica (2005) 224 16, 17 73, 144, 147, 175, 178, 242, Transculturating 38; see also Strasberg, Lee 130; see also 243–5, 243 Linda Hutcheon Method Acting Target for Tonight (1941) 128 Transnational Cinemas 255–63

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Transgender 190, 192, 212, Vertigo (1958) 15–16, 81, 162, West, Kanye 272 221–2, 228 181, 186 West Side Story (1961) 35, 61, 64 Transsexuals 221–2, 228 Vertov, Dziga 66, 123 Westerns 45, 46, 53, 54, Transtextualities 29; see also Videogame 38 62, 100, 103, 136, 165, 196, Genette, Gérard Vidor, King 53, 182 202, 243 Transvestites/Cross-Dressers 190, Villain (1971) 58 Whedon, Joss 55, 133 221–2, 228 Vinterberg, Thomas 135, 136 When the Levees Broke: A Requiem in Travolta, John 62, 73, 197 Violence 41–2, 57, 59, 201, 202, Four Acts (2006) 276 Truffaut, Francois 2–3, 5, 6, 8, 206–8, 243, 293–4, 297 Whishaw, Ben 204 13, 17, 39, 43, 76, 135; ‘Une Visconti, Luchino 126, 127; see Why We Fight (1943–4) 123 Certain Tendance de Cinema also Italian Neo-realism The Wild Bunch (1969) 54 Francais’ Volger, Christopher 78 Wild Wild West (1999) 54 The Truman Show (1998) 148 Von Scherler Mayer, Daisy 63 Wilder, Billy 218, 221 Tuchner, Michael 58 Von Trier, Lars 8, 82, 135–6, 263, Willemen, Paul 196, 202, 207 Tudor, Andrew 45–6, 51 297 Williams, John 8 ‘Twelve Fallacies in Contemporary Vow of Chastity 135, 136; see also Williams, Linda – ‘Film Bodies: Adaptation Theory’ 30–3 Dogme 95 Gender, Genre and Twentieth Century-Fox 268 Le Voyage dans la Lune/A Trip to the Excess’ 188 Twilight Franchise 11, 41 Moon (1902) 153 Williams, Venus 272 Twins (1988) 199 voyeurism/voyeuristic 15, 16, 172, Willis, Bruce 73, 160, 199 Twitter 274, 275, 288, 290 180, 181, 184, 195, 196, 197, Willis, Gordon 8 Tykwer, Tom 70, 82–5 198, 227, 261; see also Freud, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Tynanov, Yuri 66 Sigmund; Mulvey, Laura Factory (1971) 61 Typage 69, 266 Vromen, Ariel 49 Wilson, Rebel 62, 89 Winding Refn, Nicolas 160, 206, U W 207 Umberto D (1952) 127 Wachowski, Andy and Larry see Wise, Robert 35, 60, 61, 64 Uncanny/Das Unheimliche 161–2, also Wachowski, Lana and The Wizard of Oz (1939) 51, 61, 167, 169, 170 Lilly 80, 148, 222 76–8, 81 Unconscious 89, 132, 133, 135, Wachowski, Lana and Lilly see also Wolff, Frank 100 137, 140, 144, 146, 149, 153, Andy and Larry 80, 148, 222 Wollen, Peter 7 154 Wagner, George 28–9, 39 see also Wood, Victoria 280 Unforgiven (1992) 31 ‘The Novel and the Cinema’ Woolf, Virginia 173, 190 Unfriended (2014) 131 Walker (1987) 106 The World’s End ( 2013) 81 Unheimliche/Uncanny 161–2, 167, The Walking Dead (2010– ) 227 Worthington, Sam 260–1 169, 170 Walters, Julie 280 The Wrong Man (1957) 16 United Artists Studios 268 Warchus, Matthew 221 Universal Studios 268 War films 53, 58, 202 Y The Usual Suspects (1995) 72 Warners 268 Yield to the Night (1956) 58 Washington, Denzel 89 Young Guns ll (1990) 197 V Water (2005) 223 Young Mr Lincoln (1939) 101 V for Vendetta (2005) 145 Waters, John 63, 215 YouTube 36, 119, 263, 289 Vadim, Roger 2 Watson, Emma 205, 276 Valentino, Rudolph 197, 219 Watt, Harry 128 Z Van Cleef, Lee 101–2 Wayans, Keenen Ivory 46 Zanjeer (1973) 277, 278 Van Damme, Jean-Claude 198 Wayne, John 47, 53, 55, 101, 102 Zavattini, Cesare, 126; see also Van Loon, Robert 126 Weaver, Sigourney 7, 261 Italian Neo-realism Vanilla Sky (2001) 7 Week End (1967) 125 Zemeckis, Robert 54, 109 Van Sant, Gus 32, 35, 216 Weir, Peter 149 Zinnemann, Fred 53 Vaughn, Matthew 59 Welles, Orson 71, 125, 126 Žižek, Slavoj 149, 172 verisimilitude 52, 121, 122, 125, Wellman, William A. 49 Zola, Emile 121, 124 126 Went the Day Well (1942) 128 Zwick, Joel 7

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