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A New Climatic Periodisation of the Gold and Guinea Coasts in West

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A New Climatic Periodisation of the Gold and Guinea Coasts in West Stefan Norrgård | A New Climatic Periodisation of the Gold and Guinea Coasts in West Africa, 1750-1798 | 2013 West in of the Gold and Guinea Coasts | A New Climatic Periodisation Norrgård Stefan Stefan Norrgård A New Climatic Periodisation of the Gold and Guinea Coasts in West Africa, 1750-1798 A Reconstruction of the Climate During the Slave Trade Era, Including an Analysis of the Climatically Facilitated Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade 9 789517 656924 Åbo Akademi University Press | ISBN 978-951-765-692-4 Cover image: Herman Moll: Negroland and Guinea, 1729. Åbo Akademi University Press Tavastgatan 13, FI-20500 Åbo, Finland Tel. +358 (0)2 215 3478 E-mail: [email protected] Sales and distribution: Åbo Akademi University Library Domkyrkogatan 2–4, FI-20500 Åbo, Finland Tel. +358 (0)2 -215 4190 E-mail: [email protected] A NEW CLIMATIC PERIODISATION OF THE GOLD AND GUINEA COASTS IN WEST AFRICA, 1750-1798 A New Climatic Periodisation of the Gold and Guinea Coasts in West Africa, 1750-1798 A Reconstruction of the Climate During the Slave Trade Era, Including an Analysis of the Climatically Facilitated Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Stefan Norrgård Åbo Akademis förlag | Åbo Akademi University Press Åbo, Finland, 2013 CIP Cataloguing in Publication Norrgård, Stefan. A new climatic periodisation of the Gold and Guinea Coasts in West Africa, 1750- 1798 : a reconstruction of the climate during the slave trade era, including an analysis of the climatically facilitated trans- Atlantic slave trade / Stefan Norrgård. - Åbo : Åbo Akademi University Press, 2013. Diss.: Åbo Akademi University. ISBN 978-951-765-692-4 ISBN 978-951-765-692-4 ISBN 978-951-765-693-1 (digital) Painosalama Oy Åbo 2013 Table of Contents Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………….VII 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Sources and resources .............................................................................................. 8 1.2 Spatial and temporal demarcations...................................................................... 14 1.3 Theory and method ................................................................................................ 18 1.4 Previous research topics: the West African climate and logbooks .................. 35 1.5 Outlining the chapters ............................................................................................ 41 2 The West African climate and its past ...................................................................... 42 2.1 West Africa and Ghana .......................................................................................... 42 2.2 West African rainfall .............................................................................................. 44 2.3 Ghanaian rainfall and rainfall variability ............................................................ 55 2.4 Rainfall and rainfall variability at Cape Coast/Cape Coast Castle .................. 59 2.5 The historical climate of West Africa ................................................................... 62 3 A climatic chronology of the Guinea coast, 1750 to 1798 ...................................... 80 3.1 The 1750s .................................................................................................................. 80 3.2 The 1760s .................................................................................................................. 87 3.3 The 1770s .................................................................................................................. 95 3.4 The 1780s ................................................................................................................ 113 3.5 The 1790s ................................................................................................................ 119 3.6 A new climatic chronology .................................................................................. 124 3.7 Concluding remarks ............................................................................................. 140 4 The Royal Navy at Cape Coast Castle ..................................................................... 142 4.1 Logbook reliability ................................................................................................ 142 4.2 The log‐board ........................................................................................................ 145 4.3 Logbooks from the 1750s ..................................................................................... 150 4.4 Logbooks from the 1760s ..................................................................................... 164 4.5 Logbooks from the 1770s ..................................................................................... 168 4.6 Logbooks from the 1780s ..................................................................................... 171 4.7 Logbooks from the 1790s ..................................................................................... 173 4.8 Outlining the monthly weather and the validity of the logbooks ................. 174 4.9 Concluding remarks ............................................................................................. 179 5 A climatically facilitated slave trade ....................................................................... 181 5.1 Assessing climatic influence ................................................................................ 182 5.2 From drought to slave trade ................................................................................ 188 5.3 Annamboe vs. Cape Coast Castle ....................................................................... 190 5.4 El Niño and the slave trade ................................................................................. 192 5.5 Concluding remarks ............................................................................................. 193 6 Conclusions .................................................................................................................. 196 The climate ............................................................................................................... 196 The climatic periodisation...................................................................................... 197 The climatic impact ................................................................................................. 198 Appendix: Figures .......................................................................................................... 199 Swedish Summary – Sammanfattning ...................................................................... 202 References ........................................................................................................................ 206 VII Acknowledgements I am greatly indebted to my advisor, Professor Holger Weiss, for all his support and inspiration. He initiated my conducting an investigation into West Africa and its climate. His library, vision, and wisdom have been of great value to me. Thank you for believing in me and giving me this opportunity. I was extremely fortunate to have Professor Sharon E. Nicholson as my preliminary previewer, as she was extremely generous in offering advice and suggestions. I am very grateful for her critical remarks. Needless to say, any remaining errors are entirely my responsibility. Some of my chapters were discussed at the research seminar of the History Department at Åbo Akademi, and I would like to collectively thank all who commented and discussed my papers. I would also like to mention my friends and colleagues at the department for the most inspiring working environment: Nils‐ Erik Villstrand, Laura Hollsten, Ann‐Cathrine Östman, Kalle Kananoja, Johanna Wassholm, Anders Ahlbäck, Anna Sundelin, Hanna Lindberg, Kasper Brasken, Mathias Kaihovirta, Maren Jonasson, Victor Wilson, Miriam Rönnqvist, and Sarah Hankalahti. Thank you for your comments, suggestions, and feedback throughout the years. You are the best “coffee table gang” in recorded history. Our discussions are, to say the least, always the most creative there are. The world is a much better place, thank to our extraordinary discussions, limitless humour and baffling interpretations of everyday life. I also want to thank Mats “Ninjan” Engblom for helping me with the maps, and making all corrections, time and time again, all remaining mistakes are, again, my responsibility. My special thanks go to my colleague and friend Mats Wickström. Your feedback and comments, and our many and long discussions on everything related to the concept and idea of “climate change” were indispensible and inspiring. I would like to thank the various funding agencies that made this work possible. I was employed by the Finnish Doctoral Programme of History between 2007 and 2009, after which I received research and travel grants from the following foundations: The Research Institute of Åbo Akademi Foundation; Oscar Öflunds Foundation; Waldemar von Frenckells Foundation; The Society of Swedish Literature in Finland (Ingrid, Margit och Henrik Höijers Donationsfond II; Ragnar, Ester, Rolf och Margareta Bergboms Fond); Ledningsgruppen för Åbo Akademis profilering kring miljö‐ och hållbarhetsfrågor. I have also received funding for archival research, conferences, and books from Åbo Akademis Jubileumsfond 1968, Förvaltningsämbetet vid Åbo Akademi, and the Nordenskiöld Foundation. In my final year, I was funded by Entangled Spaces − Global
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