Child Safety Online Front cover photo: © UNICEF/NYHQ2010-3011/Pirozzi Global challenges and strategies THE UNICEF OFFICE OF RESEARCH, INNOCENTI
The Innocenti Research Centre (IRC) was established in Florence, Italy in 1988 to strengthen the research capability of the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and to support its advocacy for children worldwide . The Centre helps to identify and research current and future areas of UNICEF’s work . Its prime objectives are to improve international understanding of issues relating to children’s rights and to help facilitate full implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child in developing, middle-income and industrialized countries .
IRC is the dedicated research hub of the UNICEF Office of Research (OOR), which provides global leadership for the organization’s strategic research agenda around children . The Office aims to set out a comprehensive framework for research and knowledge within the organization, in support of its global programmes and policies . Through strengthening research partnerships with leading academic institutions and development networks in both the North and South, the Office seeks to leverage additional resources and influence in support of efforts towards policy reform in favour of children .
IRC’s publications are contributions to a global debate on children and child rights issues and include a wide range of opinions . For that reason, the Centre may produce publications that do not necessarily reflect UNICEF policies or approaches on some topics . The views expressed are those of the authors and/or editors and are published by the Centre in order to stimulate further dialogue on child rights .
The Centre collaborates with its host institution in Florence, the Istituto degli Innocenti, in selected areas of work . Core funding for the Centre is provided by the Government of Italy, while financial support for specific projects is also provided by other governments, international institutions and private sources, including UNICEF National Committees .
Front cover photo: © UNICEF/NYHQ2010-3011/Giacomo Pirozzi
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© United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) December 2011
ISBN: 978-88-6522-004-7
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UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre Piazza SS . Annunziata, 12 50122 Florence, Italy Tel: (39) 055 20 330 Fax: (39) 055 2033 220 florence@unicef org. www .unicef-irc org. Child Safety Online: Global challenges and strategies
i Contents
Acknowledgements...... iii
Foreword...... iv
Introduction...... v
Part One: Child abuse linked to information and communication technology ...... 1
The nature and scale of child abuse online...... 1
Child access to the Internet...... 3
Social implications of the merged online/offline environment...... 4
Understanding risk, vulnerability and harm...... 5
Parents or peers: Who do children turn to for support? ...... 7
Part Two: Building a protective environment...... 9
International instruments and commitments...... 10
Challenges for law enforcement and child protection...... 12
A framework for response...... 15
Conclusions...... 21
Notes ...... 22
Acronyms...... 29
Glossary...... 30
ii Acknowledgements
This publication, Child Safety Online: Global Clara Sommarin, Child Protection Specialist, challenges and strategies, was coordinated UNICEF New York by the UNICEF Office of Research, Innocenti, assisted by an international panel of advisers and Child Exploitation and Online reviewers . The research was conducted in close Protection Centre consultation and collaboration with the Child Graham Ritchie, Missing and Trafficked Exploitation and Online Protection Centre (CEOP) Children Manager in the United Kingdom . Special thanks to the Gabrielle Shaw, Head of International Relations following UNICEF country offices that provided data, case studies and recommendations that External advisers/peers reviewers informed the report: Albania, Brazil, Croatia, the Philippines, South Africa, Thailand and Venezuela Alisdair A . Gillespie, Professor of Criminal Law (Bolivarian Republic of) . and Justice, Department of Law, De Montfort University, Leicester, United Kingdom This study was made possible through a generous contribution from the Japan David Finkelhor, Director, Crimes against Committee for UNICEF . Children Research Center, Co-Director, Family Research Laboratory, Department of Research Sociology, University of New Hampshire, United States Gerison Lansdown, lead researcher; independent consultant on child rights and child participation Ethel Quayle, COPINE Research, Clinical and Health Psychology, School of Health Margaret Akullo, criminology expert; Project in Social Science, University of Edinburgh, Coordinator for Project Childhood: Protection United Kingdom Pillar, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Bangkok Julia Davidson, Director of Research in Criminology and Sociology; Co-Director, John Carr, expert adviser on use of the Internet Centre for Abuse and Trauma Studies, and related technologies by children and Kingston University, London young people Lars Lööf, Head of Children’s Unit, Council of Mark Hecht, Legal Counsel, Children’s Aid the Baltic Sea States Society of Ottawa Lena Karlsson, Director, Child Protection Tink Palmer, Chief Executive Officer, Initiative, Save the Children; former Marie Collins Foundation Child Protection Specialist, IRC UNICEF Office of Research, Innocenti Olga Kolpakova, Head of Prevention Programs Department, Stellit, Saint Petersburg, Gordon Alexander, Director Russian Federation Jasmina Byrne, Child Protection Specialist Rodrigo Nejm, Director of Prevention Andrew Mawson, Chief of Child Protection Programmes, SaferNet Brasil Susanna Nordh, Consultant Sonia Livingstone, Coordinator EU Kids Online; Claire Akehurst, Executive Assistant Professor and Head of Department of Media and Communications, London School of Economics UNICEF technical support/advice and Political Science Karin Heissler, Child Protection Specialist, Tiago Tavares Nunes de Oliviera, Founder and Planning and Evidence-Building, UNICEF New York President of SaferNet Brasil Priscillia Hoveyda, Consultant, Young People, Pia Lang, former Policy Officer, Safer Internet UNICEF Division of Communication, New York Programme, European Commission Ravi Karkara, child participation specialist, Editorial formerly with the Division of Policy and Practice, UNICEF New York Christine Dinsmore, editing Ann Linnarsson, Protection Specialist, UNICEF Catherine Rutgers, copy-editing Port-au-Prince; former Programme Officer, IRC Baishalee Nayak, fact-checking iii fORewORd
Over the past twenty years the Internet study . The research explored children’s online has become an integral part of our lives . behaviour, risks and vulnerability to harm, We have eagerly embraced its potential for documenting existing preventive and protective communication, entertainment and information- measures to combat their online abuse and seeking . For many of today’s children, the exploitation . The study draws on lessons from Internet, mobile phones and other technologies high- and middle-income countries, viewed are a constant and familiar presence . For them, through the lens of the dynamic that, given the distinction between online and offl ine has the speed of innovation, other countries may increasingly become meaningless, and they soon experience . move seamlessly between both environments . What we have learned is that a singular An increasing number of children can scarcely approach to combating these crimes is not imagine life without a social networking effective . What is required is a collective effort profi le; videos and photographs shared online by policymakers, law enforcement agencies, – often in real time – and online gaming . social workers, teachers, parents and the private Indeed, young people are at the vanguard sector to systematically protect children . We of technological change . Their coming-of- have also discovered that many children are age in this era of exponential innovation has comfortable navigating the Internet and are widened the generational divide between them able to avoid risks . They may see themselves and their parents, their teachers and other as protectors of younger children and are caregivers . This gap, while becoming less stark themselves agents for change . Children should in industrialized countries, is wider in lower- be allowed to express their views on how to income countries where caregivers arguably mitigate risks, and they should be listened to have fewer opportunities to access information and empowered to safely exploit the benefi ts and communication technology . But the of the Internet . However, we should not situation is changing rapidly . overestimate their ability to protect themselves . Ultimately, the onus lies with adults to put in There is no doubt that the Internet yields place a framework that ensures children equal numerous opportunities and benefi ts for and equitable access to the Internet, along with children in terms of its impact on their a safer online environment . educational attainment and social inclusion . However, it has also exposed children to Access to knowledge, participation, leisure and dangers that defy age, geographic location play are fundamental rights of all children, as and other boundaries that are more clearly enshrined in the Convention on the Rights of the delineated in the real world . This has resulted Child . In today’s real and virtual worlds, it is our in risks to children and young people of collective responsibility to ensure those rights having abusive images of them shared on for all children . the Internet; of being groomed or lured into sexual conversations or exploitation by adult offenders; of being bullied or harassed online .
Bearing this in mind, the UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre has, in partnership with the Child Exploitation and Online Protection Gordon Alexander Centre in the United Kingdom, collaborated Director with a number of actors to undertake this UNICEF Offi ce of Research, Innocenti
iv INTRODUCTION
The Internet, mobile phones and other of knowledge and/or the responsiveness of electronic media provide children and young bodies with responsibilities for child protection people with levels of access to information, and law enforcement . Little research exists culture, communication and entertainment about the use of the Internet by children and impossible to imagine just twenty years ago . young people in Africa, much of Asia and With many of their extraordinary benefits, Latin America (and the bearing this might have however, come hazards . The Internet and on risk) . Furthermore, research findings from associated technologies have made abusive different parts of the industrialized world are images of children easier to create and sometimes contradictory . distribute, and provide significant new opportunities for abusers to access and make It would be a mistake to believe that child contact with children and young people abuse in which ICT plays a role is only an online . While information and communication issue for the economically better off, whether technology (ICT) has not created crimes societies or social groups . Web access is rapidly involving sexual abuse and exploitation of expanding, supported by increasing broadband children, it has enhanced the scale and potential and mobile phone penetration . Indeed, the of some old and familiar ones . emergence of broadband has been a decisive factor in facilitating online child abuse because Expanding Internet access for all children it allows the exchange of larger files, particularly and young people without discrimination and files containing photos, videos and audio . As exclusion in all parts of the world, together with broadband starts to become available in lower- promoting digital citizenship and responsibility, income countries there is a high expectation ought to be critical objectives for policymakers that, absent any contrary measures, patterns concerned with enhancing opportunities for of abusive behaviour witnessed elsewhere children 1. Building safer Internet access is will follow . integral to that project . Questions such as ‘what is the nature of risk globally?’ and ‘what are Globally, children and young people tend to the most effective strategies to address it?’ are become early users and prime innovators on therefore important . The purpose of this report, the Internet, and are often far ahead of their which was developed by the UNICEF Innocenti parents and other adults in terms of use, skills Research Centre (IRC) in partnership with and understanding . The Internet, particularly the Child Exploitation and Online Protection social networking and other interactive media, Centre (CEOP), is to review the global evidence provides new forms of social space globally that available . The study primarily addresses two did not exist when most contemporary parents issues: child sex abuse recorded in images; were themselves children . Young people in and the grooming of young people for sex . A all societies today are pioneers, occupying third issue, cyberbullying, emerging from much online spaces in ways that adults often cannot research as an issue of particular significance to imagine . These spaces can be immensely children, is also touched on in this report . creative, but can also expose children to dangers adults may in many instances only There are many knowledge gaps about the dimly perceive . protection challenges raised by the Internet, particularly in parts of the world where its The ease of interaction among and with penetration is so far more limited . There has children, the risk of sexual abuse, new and been significant work undertaken to analyse fast-changing technology, and adults’ lack of children’s online behaviour and investments awareness and understanding of the Internet or made in strategies to address and prevent children’s usage, is a recipe for societal anxiety − abuse in parts of Asia, across Europe and the as well as sensationalism, myth-making and United States of America . But there has been potentially inappropriate policy responses . less exploration of online child abuse and New technologies are commonly accompanied exploitation across many low- and middle- by fears as to their potential dangers, often income countries, or examination of the state provoked without a solid foundation in
Introduction v evidence . The popular fear that the Internet related abuse and exploitation into the broader endangers all children has not been supported child protection agenda should be a priority by the research evidence so far .2 Nevertheless, for policymakers . there are genuine risks associated with it, and calibrating appropriate protective responses Given the centrality of the private sector to the requires reliable information that helps to Internet, it has major responsibilities in relation accurately identify the nature and scale of risk to child protection online . Under contemporary and harm . understanding of corporate responsibilities for respecting human rights, recently Although much of the original research and internationally articulated in the report entitled work that led to the development of the ‘Guiding Principles on Business and Human Internet involved both public and private Rights: Implementing the United Nations sector partners, since the mid-1990s the “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework’, Internet has been recognized as being owned businesses have obligations both to respect and driven almost entirely by private sector human rights and to seek to prevent or mitigate entities . Meanwhile, it has become central to adverse human rights impacts directly linked to the global economy and, by extension, to the their operations, products and services .3 Child efficient functioning of a great many and rapidly abuse and exploitation are manifestly “adverse increasing number of national economies . It human rights impacts ”. The industry has it in underpins public infrastructure that provides its powers to develop and introduce new tools for the smooth operation of transport, power, to make the Internet safer for children . The banking and other vital systems . It is playing importance of action by the private sector in a major role in the social and political lives of support of law enforcement and Internet safety a substantial and growing number of citizens are discussed later in this report . around the world . Precisely because of this dimension, governments, inter-governmental There are genuine challenges and fears within bodies and other public agencies have the industry . Some of the measures that could generally proceeded with circumspection contribute to making the Internet safer for when discussing new laws or regulations children appear to challenge current business regarding how the Internet should operate, or models; they might appear to reduce the what is expected of the myriad large and small competitiveness of an individual company, or companies that make up the modern Internet to threaten other freedoms inherent in the way industry . The urge to legislate and regulate the Internet currently operates . However, it is in ways that might curb the Internet is clearly arguably in the longer-term interests of the there, however, as reactions by politicians Internet itself, and in particular of the larger to phenomena such as the use of social companies that dominate it, for governments to networking sites (SNS) during periods of civil feel that legitimate concerns for the welfare of disorder have shown . their citizens, perhaps especially in relation to children and young people, are taken seriously Governments have tended to tackle online- and are acted upon promptly . Otherwise there related sexual exploitation and abuse with is a risk that governments or regional bodies an emphasis on building the ‘architecture’ will step in to regulate and legislate in ways that to protect or rescue children − establishing negatively affect the Internet as a single global legislation, pursuing and prosecuting abusers, system embodying freedom of information . raising awareness, reducing access to harm and supporting children to recover from abuse or Given that most research on usage and risk exploitation . These are essential components of has taken place in the industrialized world, a protection response . Internationally, however, the extrapolation of findings to other socio- progress is patchy . Many legal jurisdictions, economic and cultural contexts must be for example, fail to enact legislation sufficient approached with caution . However, there is to combat child abuse images or laws to enough research in low- and middle-income criminalize grooming . There is also a lack of countries to be suggestive of patterns and awareness or discomfort among parents and potential problems . One important finding agencies with child protection responsibilities from industrialized and lower-income countries about the real nature of hazards or effective alike is the importance of action, innovation, protection strategies . Awareness of online- exploration and discovery by adolescents on related child abuse and exploitation appears the Internet; in other words, the significance of not yet to be organically embedded in the child agency in accessing the creative benefits great majority of child protection systems and of the Internet, in exposure to certain forms of responses . Integrating awareness of online- risk, and in managing that risk .
vi Child Safety Online The protection response needs to strike Internet and its usage . The report outlines a balance between the right to protection how children and young people across the from all forms of violence, sexual abuse and world use the Internet, including an examination exploitation, and the rights to information, of specific online activities and experiences that freedom of expression and association, privacy have the potential to place them at risk . There and non-discrimination, as defined in the is a focus on activities that involve interaction Convention on the Rights of the Child and other online and offline and an analysis of research relevant international standards . That balance findings about where children turn for support must be anchored in the best interests of when things go wrong . children as a primary consideration, the right to be heard and taken seriously, and recognition The challenge for policymakers is not to get of the evolving capacities of children and sidetracked into blaming the medium . Instead, young people . It is unlikely ever to be possible it is to coordinate action by a range of public to remove all the risks to children and young and private actors on a number of interrelated people that exist in the online environment . issues that ultimately come under the heading Moreover, beyond a certain point, attempting of ‘building a safer Internet’ . These include to do so could threaten the very essence of the integrating an understanding of the methods of Internet and its multiple benefits . child sexual abuse and exploitation into building Internet access; understanding child usage of It would be a mistake ever to think that all ICT and working with young people on effective children and young people are equally adept safety strategies; integrating awareness and or at home in the online environment, or understanding of online-related child abuse equally knowledgeable about it .4 Children’s and exploitation into child protection systems; use of the Internet and their behaviour and developing effective law enforcement against vulnerabilities online differ according to their online-related child abuse and exploitation; age . To be effective, protection strategies and integrating child protection into effective need to incorporate measures and messages law enforcement . While usage may still be less appropriate to different ages and levels of pervasive in low- and middle-income countries, understanding . It is nonetheless the case that protection is a challenge they will face in the by and large children and young people are imminent future that needs to be addressed now . often the best experts in relation to their own ICT usage . This report argues that effective The report also considers ways to build a safer protection strategies require children’s environment for children and young people participation, particularly that of adolescents, for whom the Internet is a basic social medium in both their design and implementation, as in which the online and offline worlds come well as the empowerment of parents and other together . It outlines relevant international law adults who work closely with young people, and key challenges to governments and law such as teachers, to enable them to support and enforcement agencies in achieving greater understand children’s use of ICT and the risks protection for children and young people . It and hazards that they may encounter . This is argues that a multitiered approach is necessary both a pragmatic recognition of reality and a to challenge the potential threats to children’s position based on human rights principles . well-being and safety in the online environment . Accordingly, it concludes by putting forward This report discusses the nature and scale a strategic protection framework with four of sexual abuse and exploitation of children main objectives: 1) empowering children and young people online and the types of and promoting their resilience; 2) removing crimes perpetrated against them . It considers impunity for abusers; 3) reducing availability the generational divide between parents and of harmful material from the Internet and children in their knowledge of, and engagement access to harm; and 4) promoting recovery with, the online environment and how this and rehabilitation for children who have affects experiences and approaches to the experienced harm .
Introduction vii © UNICEF/NYHQ2007-0269/Cirillo Part One
Child Abuse Linked to Information and Communication Technology
important difference between an image online The nature and scale and one offline is that, once online, an image can remain in circulation in perpetuity and of child abuse online there is almost no limit on how often or by whom it can be viewed or passed on . Some currently available images are thought to have A study conducted by Sonia Livingstone been produced more than 20 or 30 years ago, and Leslie Haddon of EU Kids Online, has derived from film photographs or videos that defined a set of categories to understand have since been digitalized 7. However, the risk and harm related to online activities . The majority of images in cyberspace have been groupings elucidate the features of behaviours produced much more recently and are linked involved and help orientate researchers to the emergence of cheap, easy-to-use digital and policymakers towards their different cameras and the development of the Internet . implications: a) online harm from content (the child as a passive recipient of pornographic or The majority of children featured in child harmful sexual content); b) harm from contact abuse images currently online are Caucasian, (the child targeted as a participant by an adult or prepubescent girls (between the ages of less another child in activities such as sexual abuse than 1 and 10) .8 This preponderance may be a that is photographed and then disseminated, reflection of the fact that most research has thus for online grooming for sexual abuse, or for far been undertaken in Western countries, and bullying); and c) harm from conduct (the child offenders demonstrate a preference for children actively initiates risky or abusive behaviour, for who share their own ethnic characteristics . example, by creating or uploading pornographic It may also reflect greater availability of ICT material, physically meeting an adult met and other technologies for image capture and online, placing images of her or himself or distribution in industrialized countries . There is another young person online, downloading an identifiable downward age trend and images abusive images of children or bullying) .5 The are becoming more graphic and violent .9 What range of adult behaviour that constitutes is not yet clear is whether child abuse images child sexual abuse online includes adults who online are a form of abuse limited to certain sexually exploit their own or other children for parts of the world, or whether they represent the production of child abuse images; those a stage in the progress of Internet uptake and who download images for their own personal usage . In other words, will child sex abuse use; those who create and distribute images; recorded in images involving children from and those who seek access to children online in Asian or African backgrounds become more order to exploit them . common as Internet access becomes ever more global? It is estimated that the number of child abuse images on the Internet runs into the millions It is difficult to estimate the number of websites and the number of individual children depicted globally that depict child abuse images . The is probably in the tens of thousands .6 An Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) has identified
Child Abuse Linked to Information and Communication Technology 1 and taken action against some 16,700 instances the initial creation and dissemination of child of child sexual abuse content on different abuse images, this is false . Those directly web pages worldwide in 2010 compared with responsible are often family members and identifying around 10,600 URLs of individual other caregivers who have easy and private web pages or websites in 2006 10. The increase physical access to children 16. Another myth may be attributed to a change in hosting is that grooming typically involves older patterns, whereby content is being posted to men lying and forcefully entrapping innocent separate locations rather than multiple images children by using false identities . This is also being stored on a single web page 11. Most largely untrue . Rather, it tends to be a process significantly, however, child abuse images of ‘seducing’ or flattering children into what are increasingly shared among networks the child may perceive as a voluntary sexual of like-minded individuals through peer-to- online friendship . Although some offenders peer distribution, which avoids the necessity lie about their age or gender when grooming of housing the images on storage systems children, the activity generally tends to fit a owned by third parties such as Internet service model of statutory rape 17. providers (ISPs) 12. The available evidence, which mainly derives Online grooming is the process by which an from studies in industrialized countries, points individual befriends a young person for online to a typology of child sex abusers online sexual contact, sometimes with the involvement as mainly Caucasian, male, commonly in of webcams that can allow ‘sharing’ of the employment, reasonably well educated, and exploitation among networks of child sex spanning a wide age range, including young abusers, and sometimes extending to a physical people themselves . Many men who engage in meeting to commit sexual abuse 13. The areas offline sexual abuse of children also engage in of cyberspace that enable abusers to groom abuse online . However, a significant proportion potential victims include chat rooms, social of men who view child abuse images online networking sites (SNS) and instant messaging 14. do not appear to seek sexual contact with Research with abusers suggests that some have children offline 18. This finding should, however, up to 200 young people on their online ‘friends’ be considered with caution . Offenders who lists who are at different stages of the grooming have accessed child abuse images online have process at any given time 15. Grooming may take demonstrated some form of sexual interest in minutes, hours, days or months, depending on children, and may therefore pose a physical the goals and needs of the abuser and reactions risk to them . At the very least, such offenders of the young person . have contributed to sustaining demand for the production of images that involve the sexual In terms of age, the evidence suggests that abuse of children . the children most at risk of being groomed are adolescents, particularly adolescent girls . ICT has also created an environment in which At this age, children are often active users of pornography has become easily accessible . One the Internet as a means of meeting people of the key differences with the ‘pre-Internet’ and making friends – all part of the process of era is that today there are many available sites developing their sense of self, including their displaying extreme forms of pornography that social, sexual and emotional identities . can be accessed by young people 19. There is, to date, limited research evidence on the There is no information concerning the implications of such exposure . Concerns number of individuals (who evidence suggests are increasingly expressed by professionals are mainly men) grooming children online . working with young people on apparently In many countries, this activity is not yet a growing levels of addiction to pornography, as criminal offence and therefore no records well as emerging pressures on girls to conform are kept relating to such behaviour . Even to both the sexual behaviours and appearances among countries where grooming has of women in pornographic videos .20 ICT has been criminalized, there are no coordinated also led to the phenomenon of exposure to databases that provide details of the offenders . unsolicited pornography . The extent to which This represents not only a huge gap in children are disturbed by such exposure knowledge, but also in child protection . appears to be influenced by age, social norms in their country and the degree of control they There are as many myths about child sexual have over viewing these sites .21 abuse online as there are about child sexual abuse offline . One is that strangers pose the Children have reported that bullying online – greatest threat to children . With respect to cyberbullying or online harassment – is an
2 Child Safety Online important issue for them . While for adults this up a high percentage of the total number of has not been as significant a concern as sexual people online .29 But in Europe, the number abuse, it is now beginning to receive more of parents who are accessing the Internet is attention .22 Bullying can be defined as a child rapidly approaching the number of children being the target of behaviour that is harmful or who use it . In 2008, an average of 84 per cent intended to cause harm, occurs repeatedly, and of parents throughout the region had used the involves an imbalance of power that prevents Internet compared with 66 per cent in 2005 .30 the victim from challenging or ending the As evidence from a European Union (EU) study behaviour .23 While more bullying takes place shows, as parents use the Internet more, they offline than online, in Europe at least, the Internet acquire additional Internet-related skills and and mobile phones now provide new and more are better equipped to manage their children’s invasive and anonymous opportunities for Internet use .31 children and young people to bully others .24 Overall, there appears to be little gender The prime instigators of cyberbullying are difference in levels of usage . Age, though, generally other children and young people . is a relevant factor, with, in general, levels Some studies have suggested that more girls of access increasing with children’s age .32 than boys bully online; other reports suggest Younger children are going online in greater the reverse .25 Research from Canada and the numbers, however, with the age of first- United Kingdom identifies children who are time Internet use decreasing . In the EU, at risk of being bullied offline (for example, based on parental perceptions, 60 per cent children who may be perceived as ‘different’, of 6- to 10-year-olds were using the Internet such as minority ethnic groups, lesbian, in 2008, compared with 86 per cent of 15- to gay, bisexual or transgender (LGBT) young 17-year-olds, but this nevertheless represents people, overweight children, or those with an increase in access by younger children perceived disabilities) to be at greater risk over previous years .33 Globally, the number of being bullied online than other children .26 of children spending more time online In contrast, research from the United States appears to be increasing, yet there remain has found that those who physically bully striking differences in the hours of usage . In others at school were themselves likely to Europe, for example, children aged 9 to 16 be victims of electronic bullying .27 Although who access the Internet do so for between cyberbullying does not yet appear to be a one and five hours each day,34 whereas in common experience, it can have a significant Bahrain, the access is between two and a impact on children and young people because half and three and a half hours each day .35 In of its anonymity, its capacity to intrude at any South Africa, many Internet users go online time of day or night into places that might as infrequently as once a week and then otherwise offer respite and sanctuary – homes for less than an hour .36 In Brazil, 69 per cent and bedrooms – and by its nature to often of children between 10 and 15 years old extend (sometimes unwittingly) to implicate access the Internet every day .37 However, and involve many people . the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) reports that, in terms of the frequency of use, children aged 5 to 14 are far less Child access to likely to use the Internet at least once a day (or almost every day) than the population the Internet as a whole or young people aged 15 to 24 .38 A survey of 9,000 adult and child Internet users in 12 countries, including China, India, The evidence points to growing online Japan, the United Kingdom and the United connectivity of children and young people . States, found that parents underestimate the To date, levels of Internet access are highest time their children are online – the children in the industrialized world, although low- and spend on average 39 hours per month on the middle-income countries are fast catching up . Internet, twice as much time as their parents Social inequalities affect access and usage . believe . This discrepancy may indicate a lack Both in richer countries in general, and among of parental engagement, supervision and better-off children within all countries, access communication with children . Exceptions to and usage of the Internet are higher than were found in Brazil, Italy and Sweden, where among poorer countries and less well-off there seems to be more agreement about children .28 In most countries for which data are levels of Internet usage by children among available, children under the age of 18 make parents and children .39
Child Abuse Linked to Information and Communication Technology 3 In industrialized countries, the majority of Social networking sites, instant messaging, children have access to the Internet at home or chat lines, micro-blogging platforms and other at school, whereas in lower-income countries forums enable users to post and exchange many children rely on Internet cafes,40 which personal information, photos and videos, build potentially bring unknown adult and child users networks of friends, and maintain high levels into the same physical space . In Brazil, for of interaction and information exchange on example, access to technology among children every aspect of their daily lives . aged 10 to 15 increased from 53 per cent to 63 per cent between 2008 and 2009 . Access SNS are enormously popular with young from Internet cafes (Lan Houses), both free and people, who increasingly view them as paid, among Internet users of the same age integral to their social lives . Studies on young group, increased from 33 per cent in 2006 to people’s usage and behaviour online from 61 per cent in 2009 .41 Australia, Bahrain, Brazil, Nepal, the Philippines, South Africa, the United States and countries The landscape of Internet usage is also in Europe, indicate that most young people changing, with mobile phones becoming a who use the Internet do so in similar ways, significant source of access . While in general particularly in respect of use of SNS . The computers remain the main mode of going studies reveal a remarkably common pattern online, Japan is leading the way with nearly of social activities – meeting people, making 60 per cent of children now using their new friends and chatting online – suggesting phones for access .42 It is likely that children’s that factors relating to child and adolescent use of Internet-enabled mobile devices will development are more significant than cultural progressively increase based on countries’ factors as the drivers of online communication . socio-economic conditions . In the United States, 73 per cent of teenagers online now use social networking sites .44 Across The global explosion of mobile phone use is the EU, 59 per cent of 9- to 16-year-olds have a highly significant . Mobile phones and mobile social networking profile, including 26 per cent devices of different kinds represent the future of 9- to 10-year-olds, and 82 per cent of 15- to of Internet connectivity, especially in low- and 16-year-olds .45 About 5 per cent of the estimated middle-income nations . It is thought unlikely 37 million Facebook users in India are between that many of these countries will invest in the 13 and 15 years old, and 7 per cent are between infrastructure necessary to install Internet- 16 and 17 years old .46 In Brazil, the number of bearing telephone cables or wires that reach Facebook users reached 29 million by October into every home . Rather, they will establish a 2011, of whom 6 per cent were between 13 and network of wireless wide area networks linked 15 years old and 7 per cent were between to or in addition to conventional mobile phone 16 and 17 years old .47 masts . The increasing use of Internet-enabled ‘smartphones’ for going online will limit the ability of parents to restrict, monitor or control Social implications of what their children access and therefore will increase potential risks to children and young the merged online/offline people . Mobile phones carry with them an immediacy that simply does not exist when environment the device being used is in a fixed location, where supervision is easier . But even phones that are not Internet-enabled provide young A key dimension of the growth of online people with enormous opportunities to activity is that children and young people are remain in contact and, for this reason, are participating in, learning from, and creating an now seen as necessary social tools for young environment that, in many parts of the world, people in many industrialized and middle- still remains unknown and unfamiliar to their income countries . parents . Growing numbers of children are now creating and exploring their own virtual social Children and young people are engaged in networks . Through online advertising, through a wide range of online activities – games, exposure to knowledge and information, and to information, education, entertainment and political, religious, cultural or sexual ideas that communication . The ITU reports generally may be profoundly at odds with those of their higher use of the Internet by children for parents, their worlds today are significantly education and games than among other age more complex . There are also concerns that groups, and greater use by youth and the greater access and exposure to electronic general population for communication .43 media can have harmful implications, including
4 Child Safety Online potentially diminishing parental capacity to proximity . The many mechanisms that have understand children’s experiences or to offer been developed to safeguard children in the effective protection and support .48 While the offline environment do not yet exist in the generational divide around Internet usage online world . is beginning to narrow in the industrialized world, the gulf between children and parents in Internet use in lower-income countries Understanding risk, remains significant . vulnerability and harm The online environment allows for a complex mix of individual anonymity, self-promotion and role-playing according to the wishes There are major differences between risk and whims of the user . Children and young and harm, and policymakers and parents people can define their own online identities, need to keep these distinctions clear . Certain can change those identities and can inhabit types of activity may involve risks that do not several different ones at any given time . It adds necessarily result in harm to children and young a new dimension to social interaction and a people . Swimming, riding a bicycle or joining an new form of social space, especially through SNS may confer benefits but also involve risks social networking, which provides additional and, under certain circumstances, might expose opportunities to meet people and have fun .49 a child to harm . Most significantly, as regards Adults may perceive the online and offline the Internet, there is no easy line that can be worlds as being quite different, but for many drawn between activities leading to benefits children and young people who are building and those leading to risks .52 social networks through making friends in both worlds, the distinction has little significance . Concern is often expressed among adults about In this sense, the online and offline worlds the risks associated with posting information are merged . and images online . Hence, much research starts from the premise that posting information is in Clear boundaries used in the physical world itself risk-taking behaviour . Young people are to keep different aspects or contexts of life indeed posting information that adults may find separate do not necessarily exist or operate disturbing . A wealth of evidence from across in the same way online .50 SNS apply the the globe shows that many young people, concept of ‘friendship’ to anyone listed on particularly in the age range of 12 to 16 years, one’s profile . On the one hand, boundaries are placing highly personal information online . may seem initially less important, as people In Brazil, for example, surveys indicate that met are not physically present . Studies 46 per cent of children and adolescents consider from several parts of the world suggest that it normal to regularly publish personal photos young people often feel safer sharing highly online, while a study in Bahrain indicates that sensitive personal information or engaging children commonly place personal information in sexualized behaviour online than they do online, with little understanding of the concept offline .51 On the other hand, online forums of privacy .53 In addition, significant numbers of – whether chatrooms, blogs, online gaming teenagers are uploading visual representations or social networking sites – deconstruct of themselves that are sexual in tone .54 This traditional boundaries of privacy . Children is sometimes in response to grooming that engaged in ‘chat’ or ‘conversation’ in the involves encouragement to place such images private space of their own bedrooms can online, which may be followed by blackmail expose themselves, wittingly or unwittingly, or threats of exposure to coerce teenagers to to an unknown worldwide audience, upload increasing numbers of explicit images . potentially increasing the risk of harm . But in other cases, the initial placement is Information posted online creates a historical unsolicited, and may encourage and attract record of the child, diminishing control potentially abusive predators . over who has access to personal data and sometimes trapping children who may find Another increasingly common behaviour by out too late that they cannot retrieve what teenagers is ‘sexting’ (sharing of sexualized they have put online . Warning signs that can images or text via mobile phones) .55 These serve to protect children in the physical world images and text are often shared between are largely absent online . In the physical partners in a relationship or with potential world, a range of filters exist, such as body partners, but sometimes end up being shared language or warning cues from a potential with much wider audiences .56 It is thought ‘friend’ as well as their degree of geographical unlikely that young teenagers have an adequate
Child Abuse Linked to Information and Communication Technology 5 understanding of the implications of these favelas, reported using the Internet mainly for behaviours and the potential risks they entail . educational purposes .63
There is, however, considerable debate about Furthermore, in the lower-income countries, the issue of placing information online . It can be children are less likely to use the Internet from argued that posting personal information online home and, even if they are at home, their is becoming normal behaviour .57 Basically, parents are likely to have far less understanding if a young person is not posting personal of the nature and risks associated with the information, their peers will not consider the online environment, thereby reducing the page lively or interesting . They may even opportunities for parental protection and regard them as being a little odd or stand- support . Children accessing the Internet offish . Putting information online is part of their through cybercafes in Brazil, India, Nepal cultural context and therefore commonplace, and the Philippines identify these places as and the majority of young people do not particularly hazardous, potentially exposing appear to be harmed by it .58 Research from them to adults who use pornography, to the United States, for example, has found pornographic material, to solicitation or to that, in general, there is little evidence that the drugs . Coupled with this is the likelihood that everyday placement of personal information in countries where children are more reliant on online, including images, leads to personal Internet access through cybercafes, there is less victimization of children . It is online interaction regulation, less opportunity for reporting and, in and engaging in many different types of many cases, little overall investment in building risky behaviours online rather than posting a protective environment .64 However, it is clear information that creates the environment that that while Internet usage in the privacy of one’s enables sex abuse and grooming to unfold .59 home may appear less hazardous, it is more Not only is it unrealistic to change normative accurate to state that while certain dangers are behaviours, but the evidence suggests that it is reduced or are not present in the home, others probably not useful or necessary to try to do so . depend on the types of activities children are engaged in online . There is insufficient evidence to provide an unambiguous indication of whether the Some of the available research disaggregates risks associated with online activities are data on the basis of gender, which provides the same or have the same implications for useful information on the differences and children across different regions of the world . similarities related to Internet risk, vulnerability In many African and Asian countries, for and harm experienced by boys and girls . example, widespread poverty and weak state But there are many groups about whom no structures undermine children’s social and evidence exists . For example, ICT may offer legal protection and therefore may contribute numerous potential benefits to many children to increased vulnerability .60 Findings about with disabilities, such as communication other particular characteristics that may for those unable to move about freely in the make children vulnerable to sexual abuse and physical world, greater access to the written exploitation online are contradictory . Research word for children with visual impairment and from South Africa and the United States capacity to communicate freely for children suggests that children with low self-esteem with hearing impairment . However, it is not or children experiencing depression, negative known whether children with disabilities life events, or offline abuse or victimization are might be drawn towards greater dependency at a particular risk of being groomed online .61 on online relationships and whether they are Findings from studies in the United Kingdom consequently more vulnerable, whether among report no obvious pattern of particular this group the desire to construct alternative vulnerability in the offline world .62 Research in identities is greater than among other children, Brazil found an important link between social or whether they are at greater risk of targeted factors and economic conditions . Girls from grooming . Similarly, LGBT young people, favelas (informal settlements) are exposed particularly those living in environments to earlier sexualization and are more likely in which they are unable to express their to socialize with older age groups who they sexuality openly, may gain hugely by being perceive as raising their social status . They able to use the Internet to build friendships identified using the Internet as an instrument with persons sharing their sexual orientation . to enable them to visit sexually oriented sites Conversely, however, greater dependence on and meet boys . Middle-class Brazilian girls, on the Internet may render them more exposed the other hand, who appear to have more adult to risk of abuse . There is some evidence that monitoring and guidance than those from the LGBT young people are particularly vulnerable
6 Child Safety Online to cyberbullying .65 Given the importance of of involvement of parents varies, however, supportive parental relationships as a protective according to several factors, including country, factor, research to gain a better understanding age and level of parental Internet use 70. about the risks migrant or other children Explanations of why children do not look to separated from their families face in the online their parents for protection from online harm environment would also be useful . include children’s beliefs that their parents do not understand the world in which the abuse In terms of young people’s own awareness of takes place, their fear of having mobile phones online risk, surveys from Brazil and countries taken away or Internet access restricted, threats in Europe suggest that many children are by the abuser, or shame and humiliation 71. aware of basic hazards, but that most do not Whatever parents may wish, some adolescents perceive themselves as vulnerable . Children do not want adults interfering . Adolescence think that ‘others’ (for example, younger and tends to be a developmental stage that involves inexperienced children) are at risk, rather than exploratory behaviour and pulling away, themselves 66. Many children and young people to a degree, from parents . They may thus who use SNS are aware of the challenges perceive parental presence and involvement concerning security of information, have felt in their social space and online interactions pressure to post personal information when as interference . they did not feel comfortable doing so, and have some anxiety that they are visible to many Nevertheless, a growing body of evidence people they do not know . However, a national from the industrialized world identifies the survey indicates that in the United Kingdom, strongest protective factor for children to be this has little impact on their behaviour unless actively engaged parents who share Internet a problem has affected them personally or has experiences with their children and are willing been thought to be serious .67 to talk about the issues involved 72. Respect for, and interest in, children’s engagement with Overall, there are widely differing perceptions the online environment are likely to be more among children and young people of the effective than restrictive or punitive controls . dangers associated with the Internet . While Furthermore, research suggests that many there is little comparative research available children and young people would like parents to to provide clear evidence on how different be more involved . For many children, exclusion perceptions arise, these seem to relate to of parents seems not to inevitably derive from availability of information, location of use and reluctance for their support, but rather from the awareness of safe reporting mechanisms . child’s perception of limited parental capacity to effectively provide support 73.
Parents or peers: Parental capacity to protect children is also increasingly limited by the fact that many of Who do children turn the activities previously done via computers based in fixed locations are now being utilized to for support? on mobile phones with Internet connectivity . When children have access to such phones, as an increasing number do, parents are less able Research from around the world indicates that to monitor their children’s activities, introduce children and young people have far greater filtering or blocking mechanisms, or control the confidence about their ability to remain safe degree of access to the Internet . This changing online than their parents .68 Broadly, however, pattern of usage presents fundamentally children appear less confident about keeping different challenges that need to be safe in countries where Internet safety acknowledged in the introduction of protective information is not widely available . European or preventive strategies . research from 2009 found that parents are less likely to worry about children’s online safety A consistent message emerging from the if they themselves go online . Once they better research is that children and young people see understand the online environment, parents themselves as ‘protectors’ of other children . gain a more informed perspective of the Children tend to first turn to each other when in risks involved .69 need of help . Young people demonstrate high levels of concern and awareness of risks for In terms of protection from harm, the evidence young siblings, friends and others they perceive consistently indicates that children often do as more vulnerable than themselves 74. This not see parents as an automatic first port of suggests a potential role for children as peer call when they experience abuse . The level educators, mentors and advisers . In the context
Child Abuse Linked to Information and Communication Technology 7 of the sociology of actual Internet use, listening Programmes designed to support children to children and supporting them to be the front and young people to make informed choices, line in taking care of themselves and each other based on a genuine awareness of the nature is likely to be one of the keys to reducing both of risks involved, need to accommodate risk and harm . an understanding of adolescent sexuality, role of the peer group, adolescent cultural Children’s use of the Internet, and their expectations, and assumptions about behaviour and vulnerabilities within the risk from the perspectives of children and online environment, differ according to their young people . Risk-reduction messages, age . Recognition is needed of the evolving for example, need to place emphasis on the capacities of children, with protection strategies problems that can arise from interacting with that are appropriate to their age and level people met online, rather than trying to impart of understanding . As yet, there is relatively prevention messages that sound sensible little known about younger children’s online to adults but do not relate to normal use experience, although there is a growing body or the nature of risk as perceived by young of evidence that shows that, in industrialized people 75. An example of such messages countries, many children under eight years old might be “don’t post personal information” . are now accessing the Internet, either through Online risks can be minimized provided there computers or mobile phones . More research is are external mechanisms to regulate the needed on usage by younger children and how environment, strong and supportive parental to respond most effectively to protect children relationships, together with knowledge, of different ages and capabilities . skills and awareness that enable the child or young person to navigate the online The challenge for those who place an emphasis environment effectively . on protection by adults is whether in reality such a model can be effective in the context of the The responsibility to protect children in the fast-changing online world, especially in cases online environment should not be borne where parents lack understanding of the Internet only by parents and children . Policymakers, and the role it plays in their children’s lives . professionals, such as teachers and social Conversely, the challenge for models that place workers, law enforcement agencies and trust in children is to ensure that this assurance the private sector all have a role in creating is well placed and that children are socially and a safe external environment that allows technically empowered and supported to be able children and young people to benefit from to look after themselves and others . The reality is the use of modern technologies without that both approaches must reinforce each other . experiencing harm .
8 Child Safety Online Part Two
Building a Protective Environment
There is much to be done in all parts of the a negative impact on the freedoms embodied in world, industrialized, middle- and low-income the Internet as it is today . countries . A comprehensive protection response entails action involving a diversity A broad response requires working directly with of governmental and non-governmental young people in the design and implementation actors across a range of spheres . This of information and protection strategies . includes putting the ‘architecture’ in place Children and young people need information − a legislative framework to define criminal about risks and how to avoid them, and the activity, the capacity to deter potential abusers mechanisms and pathways to follow if they and prosecute offenders, and proactive find themselves in situations they judge to be measures to restrict and inhibit access to dubious . They need skills to make informed child abuse images by actual and potential choices in their cyberspace activities and offenders . It also includes strengthening to provide each other with support . This is joint work and intersectoral collaboration increasingly important as Internet usage between the justice and social welfare becomes more private (i .e . takes place in sectors . It requires improving awareness of children’s private spaces, such as bedrooms, child protection services, educating other in much of the industrialized world) and more professionals who work with children, such mobile . Child protection mechanisms must as teachers, on the nature of risk and harm be transparent, accessible and enforceable . in the merged online/offline worlds, and If children are to use them, they must feel implementing measures to support children to safe and be perceived as effective . The active stay safe . It involves promoting strategies to engagement of children in online protection empower children to avoid harm . Investment strategies provides an essential source of in welfare measures is required to address experience and expertise . the needs of children who have been harmed through sexual exploitation and abuse via Building parents’ abilities to support their the Internet and to build the capacity of children is also a vital component for online professionals who work with them . safety . This is not to place the responsibility for protection on children and parents alone, Given its central role in designing and driving but to recognize reality . The nature of the the Internet, the private sector must recognize social space provided by the Internet and the that contributing to the wider social goal of fact that young people are pacemakers in its making the Internet safer for children and exploration and use mean that they must be young people is intrinsic to expanding access at the forefront in solutions to reducing risks, and innovating content . As Livingstone and and parents are in one of the best positions Haddon have pointed out, as use of the Internet to support them . Parents need to be made becomes more personalized, the role of parents aware of the nature of risks and encouraged to or teachers becomes more difficult, which improve their understanding of young people’s places even greater responsibility on industry to online activities . manage the risks that children may encounter 76. Failure to do this will expose the industry to risk In the industrialized world − country by country, of governmental or regional regulation that has to a greater or lesser degree − some of these
Building a Protective Environment 9 elements are coming together . However, greater environment, they also establish a set of legally levels of coordination are required in the work binding obligations for States Parties to take that is being undertaken . In many low- and specific measures in this respect . Together, middle-income countries, awareness of the they elaborate a comprehensive framework of nature of risk and the capacities to reduce or child rights, including definitions of offences respond to it are nascent at best . By its very and provisions that require punishment for nature, abuse on the Internet has no borders; criminalized behaviour, and allow for more coordinated international action by justice and effective prosecution of perpetrators . The welfare sectors is therefore essential . Convention on the Rights of the Child has a particular significance because it places protection alongside other rights particularly International instruments relevant to the benefits the Internet brings − freedom of expression, freedom to seek and commitments information and freedom of association . The OPSC and the Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Like a number of other child protection issues, Exploitation and Sexual Abuse also serve as online abuse and exploitation of children is comprehensive examples of legal mechanisms at the intersection of two sets of international that require governments to implement and standards . Taken together, they provide a ensure provision of services to assist child framework to address the phenomenon and victims and their families . inform the creation of a protective environment for children . On the one hand, some international Although regional instruments have specific instruments focus on abuse and exploitation as application only within the region in which a child rights violation, in the broader context of they are developed, they establish standards the promotion and protection of children’s rights or benchmarks for other countries to adopt and and their interdependence and indivisibility . On comply with, and in some instances allow for the other hand, several international instruments ratification by States from outside the region . aim to address various forms of transnational While under international law States have crime, and while taking into account the human the primary responsibility to ensure respect, rights of persons affected, tend to concentrate promotion and protection of children’s rights, on response and prosecution . the Convention on the Rights of the Child and additional instruments have recognized In this context, the five main international that other actors − such as parents, civil instruments are: society, private sector service providers and businesses − also have a critical responsibility ●● Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) in this regard .
●● Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Since the 1990s, the United Nations and Rights of the Child on the sale of children, related bodies, as well as various regional child prostitution and child pornography bodies, have made additional commitments (OPSC, 2000) and have adopted guidelines and codes of conduct designed to strengthen child protection ●● Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish mechanisms . Progress was accelerated with Trafficking against Persons, Especially the appointment in 1990 by the Commission Women and Children, supplementing on Human Rights, of the Special Rapporteur the United Nations Convention against on the sale of children, child prostitution Transnational Organized Crime (‘Palermo and child pornography; the Commission’s Protocol’, 2000) adoption in 1992 of a Programme of Action; and subsequently by the three global congresses ●● Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime against Sexual Exploitation of Children (2001) (Stockholm 1996; Yokohama 2001; Rio de Janeiro 2008), which reaffirmed the human ●● Council of Europe Convention on the rights-based goal of universal protection of Protection of Children against Sexual children from all forms of sexual exploitation 77. Exploitation and Sexual Abuse (2007) . The World Congress III in 2008 led to the ‘Rio Not only do these instruments provide guidance Declaration’, which calls on States to undertake on addressing and responding to sexual specific and targeted actions to prevent and exploitation and abuse of children in the online stop child abuse images and use of the Internet
10 Child Safety Online and new technologies for the grooming of assistance, support and protection, including children into online and offline abuse, and for claiming compensation; share data relating for the production and dissemination of child to the criminal convictions of sex offenders abuse images and other materials 78. The earlier between relevant authorities in member ‘UN Study on Violence against Children’, States; and introduce mandated removal and reported to the United Nations General optional blocking of websites containing child Assembly in 2006, also recognized the need for abuse material .82 governments to “strengthen efforts to combat the use of information technologies…in the The EU was an early champion of self-regulation sexual exploitation of children and other forms as a means of keeping young people safe online . of violence ”. 79 In February 2007, leading mobile operators and content providers across the EU signed However, despite the increased focus on the European Framework for safer mobile use sexual exploitation and abuse of children at by younger children and teenagers . As of June the international level and the development 2010, codes of conduct were in place in 25 EU of these new global and regional human member States, while under development rights instruments, there continues to be in the remaining 2 . The Framework commits a lack of systematic implementation of the signatories to principles and measures, including necessary legislation and subsequent action access control for adult content, awareness- at the national level . For example, in its raising campaigns for parents and children, ongoing review of legislation related to child and the classification of commercial content pornography, the International Centre for according to national standards of decency and Missing & Exploited Children has indicated that, appropriateness . A June 2010 implementation as of 2010, only 45 of the 196 countries reviewed report found that it had been effective, with had legislation sufficient to combat child abuse 83 mobile operators, serving 96 per cent of EU image offences, and 89 had no legislation at all mobile customers, implementing the Framework that specifically addressed child pornography . through the codes of conduct .83 Of the countries that do have legislation in place, 52 do not define child pornography in In February 2009, two years after the adoption their national legislation; 18 do not provide for of the code on the safer use of mobile phones, computer-facilitated offences; and 33 do not the European Commission facilitated the criminalize possession of child pornography, production of a document entitled Safer regardless of the intent to distribute .80 Social Networking Principles for the EU, which was launched with 21 signatories from all At regional level, the European Union has of the largest SNS operational across the 27 recognized the need for collective action in member States . Privacy settings are a major combating the sexual abuse and exploitation of focus of the principles, but there are also children, arguing that while national legislation important provisions in relation to education covers some of these issues, it does not address and awareness-raising activities and reporting sexual abuse and exploitation of children abuse . A second assessment of the social through ICT nor is strong or consistent enough networking principles was published in May to provide an effective response and protection 2011 . Here the findings were more mixed; of to child victims .81 the 14 SNS that responded to the survey, only 3 received high ratings in relation to explicit Accordingly, in November 2011, the EU adopted information regarding the characteristics the Directive of the European Parliament and (e g. . age-appropriateness, availability, user- the Council on combating the sexual abuse friendliness, etc .) of privacy settings .84 and sexual exploitation of children and child pornography, and replacing Council Framework In June 2011, the European Commission held Decision 2004/68/JHA . Among other actions, its first Digital Agenda Assembly . This included the Directive will criminalize forms of child a specific workshop entitled ‘Every European sexual abuse and exploitation not currently Child Safe Online’ where Digital Europe, covered by EU legislation, such as grooming, the trade association for a broad spectrum online pornographic performances and viewing of high-tech companies, presented a draft child pornography without downloading proposal to develop a new high-level framework files; establish lower thresholds for applying of rights and responsibilities . Work on the draft maximum penalties; ensure that offenders is expected to be completed by early 2012 . who are EU nationals face prosecution for crimes committed outside the EU; provide Although there are at present no inter-American child victims of the offences covered with protocols or instruments specific to the
Building a Protective Environment 11 protection of children in the online/offline but instead may cross local, national and environment, relevant regional materials do international boundaries . It may not be easy to exist . The ‘Memorandum of Montevideo’, assign a jurisdiction to a crime committed in developed in July 2009 by a group of regional the virtual environment . Moreover, particular experts, provides a framework for protecting crimes might also involve many victims from children’s personal information in cyberspace .85 different countries, thus complicating legal Designed to guide legislators, judges, and child protection processes even further . policymakers and law enforcement officers on Crimes of online sexual abuse and exploitation how to protect children’s personal data online, may involve offenders who perpetrate them the memorandum lists recommendations on in locations thousands of miles away from the prevention and education, legal frameworks, child victims . This poses serious challenges law enforcement and public policy .86 Although and requires greater collaboration among the the memorandum is not binding on any police forces in different countries, spanning Latin American state, it acts as an important very different jurisdictional protocols, social and framework for states seeking to protect cultural environments, political expectations, children’s personal information online . Within and levels of capacity, technical expertise Africa, Asia and the Middle East, regional and resources .88 coordination does exist, but it is largely ad hoc . Establishing that a crime of online sexual exploitation or abuse of a child has occurred is Challenges for law often not a straightforward process . A unique characteristic of the online environment is enforcement and that physical contact between a child and an offender does not need to occur for a crime to child protection have been committed . The challenges for law enforcement agencies are particularly great when the law does not provide clear definitions Legislation and political commitments, while of criminal activity . For example, to establish of fundamental importance, cannot achieve that a crime has been committed is it sufficient change without mechanisms in place to to establish ‘intent’ to lure a child even if no implement and enforce them, and services to actual physical contact has been made; what provide support to victims . Law enforcement evidence of ‘intent’ is required; what constitutes agencies are charged with the responsibility a ‘pornographic’ image of a child? In some of ensuring that laws are applied consistently jurisdictions, for example in Canada and the and effectively and offenders prosecuted and United Kingdom, both simulated and real held to account . They therefore have a vital images of children engaged in sexual behaviour role in challenging sexual exploitation and are criminalized . abuse of children in the online/offline merged environment . Social welfare agencies have a Children who are the subject of child responsibility to promote and protect the best abuse images or those groomed for sexual interests of children who have experienced exploitation may experience feelings of shame abuse . However, these two agendas may and complicity . Therefore, many victims of sometimes come into conflict . The challenge is Internet crime do not disclose their experiences to explore approaches that are both effective until the pictures or images are discovered, at bringing about successful prosecutions most typically by law enforcement agencies while also ensuring that the interests of the during an investigation . However, even here individual children concerned remain the matters can be complicated . There have paramount consideration . been recorded cases where even though law enforcement officers were in possession of The online environment of the 21st century has images of a child being abused, the child being transformed criminality in a number of ways: victimized has gone into denial and refused to as an advanced vehicle for communications, acknowledge that they were featured .89 it has created a transnational environment that provides new opportunities for harmful Most sexual abuse of children goes activities, and the virtual nature of the online undisclosed . When that abuse takes place environment means criminal activity can online, the level of disclosure is even lower .90 sometimes fall outside the jurisdiction of the Some children who have been abused perceive criminal justice process .87 Crime prevention the persons they have formed a relationship may no longer be only about surveillance and with online as their boyfriends or girlfriends, investigation within the immediate community and they are emotionally dependent upon them .
12 Child Safety Online Some children who are vulnerable to grooming as a ‘hash’, which can then be used to track, may be isolated and lacking in social support, trace and compare images, without a police and are thus less likely to report victimization officer needing to view the actual image .93 to law enforcement agencies and others . The United Nations Special Rapporteur on Furthermore, many children do not realize that the sale of children, child prostitution and they have been victims of a crime because child pornography has pointed to the need innocent images of children may be digitally for explicit ethical policies that clarify how the transformed into pornographic material and images are used, who has access to them, in distributed across the Internet without the what circumstances, and the rights of victims to victim’s knowledge .91 information about where and how the images are held .94 Police units and hotlines that handle The disclosure of abuse entails several child abuse images will typically have in place challenges that are often underestimated protocols that govern the amount of time and and misunderstood . Children need the locations for viewing and storage of images . acknowledgement of their feelings and fears The harrowing nature of the images may pose in order to cope with this experience . It is not a challenge for those who work with them . It is unusual for children to retract their allegations not uncommon to find that counselling services due to fears of repercussions on them, their are made available to police officers and staff family, others who are important in their lives who work in hotlines where viewing abuse and the perpetrator of the abuse . Children are images is an unavoidable part of the job . not only affected by the abuse itself, but may also be further traumatized by the disclosure or The Internet is commonly perceived to offer its consequences .92 users, including potential offenders, anonymity, enabling them to construct identities and The process of identifying children who appear determine when, how and to what extent in child abuse images in order to protect them personal information is communicated to others and offer appropriate psychosocial support can in the online environment .95 By so doing, their be difficult . Images on the Internet can circulate personal identity or personally identifiable for many years, so a picture of a 5-year-old information remains private . This presumed girl, for example, may still be online 20 years anonymity creates a sense of security and later . To help identify victims, INTERPOL (the secrecy for both offenders and potential International Criminal Police Organization) and victims .96 Traditionally, in an offline context, in some national law enforcement agencies have order to find their victims child sex offenders produced databases of child abuse images . needed to stalk playgrounds, social clubs and By applying sophisticated image analysis other public places where children tended to software, the police can assess whether an gather . Today, the high level of social interaction image of a child contained within, for example, by children online provides offenders with a a collection that has just been seized, is identical new environment to target children, and the to ones that have already been discovered risks that they previously faced when making by law enforcement agencies, and included face-to-face contact may appear to them, in a database of known images . Some of erroneously, to have been eliminated . the software can also help identify children who have been abused over long periods of Investigations into online criminal activity are time, whose physical appearance may have complex and time-consuming . They often changed dramatically as they grew older . involve coordination across jurisdictions and This is important both for the development concern a huge network of offenders . There of a comprehensive case against an alleged are a number of constraints to effectively perpetrator and for determining the duration carrying out such investigations . The first is and nature of the abuse a child has suffered in limited specialist expertise . Tackling online/ order to support recovery . offline child sexual abuse and exploitation requires combined expertise in policing, Databases of victim photographs are valuable computer and Internet technology and child resources . They can save a great deal of police protection . Specialist units are largely absent time and reduce the need for officers to look in many middle- and low-income countries, at the images directly . This latter aspect is meaning that staff are unlikely to have the particularly important . Until relatively recently, necessary training to investigate online crime . police work often necessitated repeated Even where staff do possess the requisite viewings of images . However, new technology skills, the technology to investigate such crimes has been developed that enables photographic may not be available . Consequently, many law images to be reduced to a digital code, known enforcement officers are at a disadvantage in
Building a Protective Environment 13 detecting, investigating and prosecuting online- lack of awareness means that professionals are related crime .97 failing to identify and investigate an increasingly important context for abuse 100. Another challenge is the lack of multi- agency collaboration and coordination . Law To gain an overview of available rehabilitation enforcement departments may not always and therapeutic services for children who view online sexual exploitation as a protection have been abused or exploited online, an ad issue . Rather, in many countries, online/ hoc survey of professionals and researchers offline sexual exploitation is categorized as with expertise in the field was conducted ‘cybercrime’ . E-crime or cybercrime police as part of this study 101. Responses were units are often primarily focused on fraud and received from 10 of the 20 countries that were organized crime and may therefore have little invited to participate − Australia, Bahrain, or no expertise, or professional interest, in Denmark, Germany, Iceland, India, Latvia, child protection . Whereas commercial child the Russian Federation, South Africa and the abuse websites may legitimately be classified United Kingdom – and they produced the as organized crime or be investigated by police following findings: officers more accustomed to dealing with fraud or terrorism, much of the exchange of sexual ●● In some countries, there is separate and abuse images and grooming does not fall under distinct guidance for the police and social this umbrella . Police need to deliver a child- workers; in others there is guidance only for centred response, which rarely happens when the police . In some countries, the existing they investigate online abuse and exploitation guidance is not adhered to and is out-of-date . of children on their own . The integration of child protection specialists into an investigation, a ●● Staff in centres that offer recovery services practice recommended by the Child Exploitation to children who have experienced trauma and Online Protection Centre (CEOP) in the report they do not feel confident in working United Kingdom, ensures that the young with such cases . person is adequately safeguarded and their welfare is taken into account at each stage of ●● Six countries were able to describe examples the investigation .98 of national/regional police and social workers working together . These included specific There is limited evidence available on how social investigations that had been carried out and welfare professionals are responding to the ongoing service delivery, such as hotlines . new challenges of child protection in the online/ offline environment . Two recent reports point to ●● Nine of the 10 countries consulted do not a lack of knowledge and awareness among social have national systems for recording the workers of the risks of Internet abuse . Although numbers and nature of Internet-mediated both are from northern Europe (Germany and crimes against children . Within some Norway), the pattern they identify is likely to be countries, there are pockets of information replicated elsewhere .99 The studies suggest that, from sources, such as helplines, CEOP in general, professionals who come into contact and ad hoc recovery services . Iceland, with children − schoolteachers, nursery and however, was the exception . It has one school nurses, health personnel, police officers, central point-of-call through which child social workers and counsellors/psychotherapists protection referrals are channelled . Known − are not sufficiently aware of the risks of abuse as Kinder House (Children’s House), it offers via new technologies . If, for example, they were a universal service to all children throughout concerned about changes in a 13-year-old’s the country who have been victimized, and behaviour, they might not consider that the runs a multidisciplinary model working in child could be the victim of abusive behaviour partnership with police, social workers, online, and therefore would not ask the child lawyers and counsellors . about his or her online life . Furthermore, these professionals are not always prepared or able to ●● Four of the respondents stated that hear what children want to tell them . The causes there were no examples of their country identified include lack of professional confidence, working collaboratively on international inadequate training, work pressure, emotional investigations; one additional respondent barriers, their own values, attitudes and beliefs, did not know of any, while the remaining five insufficient knowledge of the issues and lack described complex international operations of support . Bearing in mind how increasingly that have lasted several months and involved central ICT is to children across the world, this a number of countries, which have resulted
14 Child Safety Online in children being safeguarded and the children’s participation in online communication perpetrators of abuse being convicted . potentially engages them in risk-taking behaviour but also plays an important role in ●● Bahrain, which has little in place regarding their identity construction, self-efficacy and a strategic response to Internet-related social network production in a social space that crimes against children, reported that it had young people have made their own . conducted a State of the Nation Review of Internet Safety in 2010 . In addition to Active participation by children and young providing a comprehensive analysis of people in developing and implementing Internet safety issues among adults and protective measures will lead to strategies children, it establishes recommendations for that make sense to them and are therefore child Internet safety . more likely to be effective . Ensuring that they have the best possible information about the While this survey was limited in scope and nature of risks associated with online activities, conducted specifically for the purpose of this empowering them to take the necessary actions project, these findings reveal a mixed pattern to prevent exposure to harm, and providing of provision . Some good practice does exist, them with necessary support from key adults but there is a need for more systematic and in their lives are all important . Children and coordinated processes across government young people need to know where to go for and involving all relevant agencies, if effective help, recognizing that they, themselves, are protection of children is to be achieved . a key source of much of that help . They need opportunities and means to report unacceptable activity or behaviour, counselling when needed, A framework for response and confidence not only that action will be taken when they are harmed or abused, but that they will be respected as active agents . This Recognizing the major benefits the Internet and will involve: associated technologies can bring, the huge potential to transform lives and the way they ●● Providing information to children that have become integral to modern society and are enables them to make informed choices, now an intrinsic part of young people’s social avoid risks, and find and offer help when landscape, this report proposes a strategic needed. Many countries have developed framework for protection that addresses four innovative materials to communicate with key objectives: children that can be adapted to different country contexts . SaferNet Brasil, for 1. Empowering children and enhancing example, has created an educational kit resilience to harm on Internet safety designed for educators with the aim of improving their students’ In much of the reporting of Internet crimes online safety .102 In the Bolivarian Republic of by the media, there is a tendency to portray Venezuela, the children’s group Manos por children and young people, particularly girls, la Niñez e Adolecencia (Hands for Children as actual or potential victims with little agency . and Adolescents) promotes Internet safety With regard to online child abuse images, for children, adolescents, adults and Internet which generally involve children younger than cafe owners . 10, their consent or capabilities usually have little bearing on whether or not they have come ●● Introducing effective reporting mechanisms, into harm’s way . However, studies from across such as hotlines, report abuse functions, the globe indicate that for online grooming or and online supports to pre-empt abusive cyberbullying, child agency is critical . situations. In some social networking sites, an icon on the home page allows children Specifically in relation to grooming, young who are worried about the behaviour of people’s experimentation, exploration and someone communicating with them can, interest in defining themselves socially and with one click, share their concerns and then sexually are all risk factors . Conversely, young be linked to a law enforcement agency . people’s exploratory orientation enables them to access the many benefits of the Internet ●● Strengthening parental capacities to in terms of education, culture and creativity . protect children through programmes that Hence, preventive and protective responses inform parents about the benefits and must take into account the extent to which risks associated with ICT, strategies that
Building a Protective Environment 15 children and young people can adopt to perspective, easier to carry out and less likely keep safe, potential sources of help, and the to be detected and prosecuted . Building a importance of dialogue and engagement common approach across jurisdictions is with their children . important, as it allows for consistency in criminalization and punishment, raises public ●● Building capacity among professionals awareness of the problem, increases services who work with children to alert them to the available to assist affected children, and risks children face and teach them how to improves overall law enforcement efforts at the recognize warning signs and symptoms. national and international levels 106. In Thailand, for example, a digital literacy initiative on safe Internet usage resulted Given the huge differences in existing legal in a training module which has been used frameworks in jurisdictions across the to train some 300 teachers . Those teachers world, safeguarding children from online subsequently delivered safety messages to abuse and prosecuting abusers presents more than 70,000 children 103. a daunting challenge . Drafting legislation to protect children in the merged online/ ●● Involving children as campaigners and offline environment is complex . Establishing advocates, and utilizing their unique a coherent global approach intensifies the insights and experiences to inform the difficulty of that task significantly . Building development of more effective protection. an environment that challenges the ‘cost In Benin, the Gambia, Kenya, Mozambique, benefits’ to abusers and removes their impunity Nigeria, South Africa and Togo, with ECPAT requires a holistic approach . Such an approach support, young people have created must seek to secure the indivisible nature of public awareness campaigns on the risks children’s human rights, and must be global, associated with the online environment and implementing the relevant international the responsibilities of governments and standards and promoting collaboration and ICT providers to ensure better protection of communication among governments . children online .104 The following key approaches are proposed ●● Tackling cyberbullying through the as fundamental building blocks in establishing development of initiatives that promote a the legislation and law enforcement framework commitment to zero tolerance of violence required to remove impunity for abusers: and abuse in schools, including cyberspace, and that create educational measures based ●● Introduction of effective national legislation, on principles of acceptance, respect and including clear definitions of a child, decency among students 105. In Croatia, for sexual consent, and what constitutes child example, a national campaign to confront pornography or child abuse images; the cyberbullying led to significant changes criminalization of the sexual exploitation of in schools, including the reduction children by adults, including possessing, of violence . downloading or creating child abuse images, grooming, sexual abuse without contact 2. Removing impunity for abusers and attempt crimes; effective sanctions and penalties; and measures to address the As long as abusers are confident that they can challenges of jurisdiction and extradition . get away with exploiting or abusing children without the risk of prosecution or social ●● Adoption of a broad range of law condemnation, they will continue to do so . It is enforcement strategies, including close therefore essential to remove impunity for those collaboration with social welfare and child who continue to do so in the merged online/ protection agencies, covert operations and offline environment . victim identification . Social workers, teachers and psychologists can provide invaluable Sexual abuse and exploitation of children online guidance to ensure the use of appropriate is a global problem that can only be addressed interrogation and interview techniques, effectively through coordinated action at all and can help police maintain a clear focus levels: national, regional and global . Without on the protection of victims during the this commitment, perpetrators of child abuse prosecution of offenders . Some countries, may choose to concentrate their efforts in including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, countries that offer the least protection to the United Kingdom and the United States, children and where exploitation is, from their which work together as part of the Virtual
16 Child Safety Online Global Taskforce, have introduced specialist as victims, regardless of whether they are units that focus on the prosecution of a compliant victim or a non-cooperative online sexual exploitation and abuse of witness . Where children under 18 are children, enabling different professionals to engaged in sexual abuse or harassment collaborate on cases . online and the child’s behaviour was deemed to be illegal, the response of States should ●● Cooperation with Internet service providers be through the juvenile justice system (ISPs), the online payments industry and in collaboration with the child protection other private sector stakeholders to track system, rather than the criminal justice child sex abusers and to close down system, in line with international standards .110 channels to this type of crime . Examples include: the Financial Coalition against 3. Reducing availability and access Child Pornography, set up by the National to harm Center for Missing & Exploited Children in the United States and supported by banks While the primary goal is the elimination of and other institutions; and the European online/offline sexual exploitation and abuse Financial Coalition against Commercial of children, the reality is that many millions of Sexual Exploitation of Children Online, which child abuse images continue to be available on was initially led by CEOP and supported by the Internet and are likely to remain there for MasterCard and Visa, among others . In 2009, the foreseeable future . Strategies are needed to the Financial Coalition in the United States reduce the numbers of images being created, established an Asian initiative involving stored and circulated, as well as to limit access banks and financial institutions based in for both potential abusers and the children Singapore . Microsoft has also partnered who may encounter harmful sites while online . with law enforcement agencies and ISPs The continued presence of child abuse images in various countries to develop initiatives encourages further exploitation of children, to stop child sexual exploitation over leads to increased numbers of abusers, and the Internet . results in children being exposed to repeated and indefinite abuse . The best interests of ●● Consideration of mandatory reporting by children must be ensured by making the professionals who work with children on greatest possible efforts to ensure that their suspected abuse, bearing in mind that images are quickly removed from further effective reporting is dependent on the circulation, that access to commercial sites is quality of services available to respond blocked, and that mechanisms are introduced to to reports .107 Mandatory reporting could limit availability and access . be extended to include others who may discover evidence of child sex abuse Some children will continue to behave in risky as a consequence of their profession ways regardless of the information provided (for example, ICT professionals, photo to them, through their spirit of exploration, developers and computer servicing lack of awareness of the implications of their companies) .108 actions both socially and in terms of the nature and consequences of technology, misplaced ●● Collaboration among law enforcement confidence that they are in control, and agencies at the international level and assumptions that it is others, not themselves, the development of tools that help gather who are at risk . evidence in criminal cases and facilitate data exchange among police forces As stated earlier in this report, the ICT industry across countries . INTERPOL, for example, has an important set of responsibilities to coordinates large-scale investigations discharge in relation to reducing risk . While that involve multiple member countries leadership by committed companies is and utilize an effective law enforcement essential, so too is collective action . To stem the tool known as the ‘Green Notice’ . The tool availability of abuse images and reduce harm, alerts the international law enforcement close collaboration is required by governments community to offenders who are likely to with private sector actors, including ISPs, social repeat the same crimes in other countries 109. networking sites, Internet cafe owners and site- hosting services . Joint efforts should include: ●● Assurance that children involved in online sexual offences will not be held criminally ●● Developing codes of conduct and systems liable . Children should be acknowledged of self-regulation . These offer a mechanism
Building a Protective Environment 17 through which businesses can express and resources and the priority often given to meet human rights standards by adopting pursuit of offenders rather than preventive voluntary, non-binding best practices as measures, such as the removal of sites . a guide for management and employees . Drafting codes of conduct poses challenges, ●● Leaving aside child abuse images, there as companies may consider profits, public is also a clear need for a wider set of child relations and human rights as mutually protection measures, such as developing antagonistic . The experience of the United strong, easy-to-use and optional security Kingdom suggests that codes of conduct that measures built into interactive forums such are not linked to demonstrably independent as chat rooms or SNS, and ensuring that the and effective means of monitoring default position on safety settings is opt-out performance will fail to inspire public rather than opt-in . confidence 111. A conflict of interest may arise if multinational companies monitor themselves ●● Filters and other types of parental control or are monitored by their subcontractors . software enable parents to manage and Without independent third-party monitoring support their child’s access . Evidence shows, there may be little real incentive for a however, that despite this availability, just business entity to observe the terms outlined over half of parents actually activate the in the code . filtering software on their computers 116. Some think it is activated automatically, ●● At the local level, promoting codes of while others believe that their children conduct in Internet cafes to encourage can bypass the controls . For example, the owners to introduce measures that Hong Kong Council of Social Service is raising will prevent children who use their awareness of effective ways to use online establishments from being exposed to filtering services and software by providing inappropriate sites, materials or abusive free filtering services and educating parents behaviours (and ensuring clear liability for on their use . Even simple measures such as cafes that fail to protect children) . ensuring that a web browser is set to ‘safe search’ can provide added protections for ●● Blocking websites that contain child abuse children, yet few parents may know how images in order to deny access by potential to put that in place . The challenge for the abusers . Blocking is controversial as it search engine community is to determine raises fears about wider censorship . If used, whether to install safe search on all browsers it should remain in place only until the by default, or to make much clearer how to illegal material is removed at the source .112 launch it on all computers, particularly those Although blocking tools are not always used by children . considered effective (images are historic, use of small secure areas of the Internet has 4. Promoting the recovery of children increased, illegal content may be hosted in exposed to harm different countries), blocking measures may still be needed to target child abuse material . Despite legislative, policy and protective mechanisms introduced to prevent sexual ●● Taking down sites in order to remove abuse and exploitation, the fact is that some abusive images from the Internet altogether, children have already experienced harm and commonly known as ‘notice and take- others will be harmed in the constantly evolving down’ .113 When a child abuse image site or world of cyberspace and its interface with the content is identified and reported, the ISP offline environment . The available research that hosts the site is notified and is required on effective strategies for minimizing the to remove the illegal material . Moderating impact and supporting children’s recovery and abusive activity on these sites represents rehabilitation in this context is still in its infancy . a challenge, given the volume of material What exists has almost exclusively been involved . Notice and take-down has proved undertaken in the industrialized world . However, effective in some countries, including across there is sufficient knowledge of the implications the EU .114 However, despite the fact that of online abuse and its links with children’s child abuse images are illegal across many offline experiences to begin to identify the key jurisdictions − which might be thought to strategies required to provide the necessary facilitate effective take-down − their removal psychosocial support for children . While the tends to be dealt with less speedily than path to abuse may be particular, good practice other kinds of illegal Internet activity 115. Part would entail integrating the Internet dimension of the challenge lies with inadequate police into recovery systems that deal with abuse
18 Child Safety Online more generally, rather than setting up specialist that has been denied during the experience services . This will require: of abuse . In response to the need to protect abused children from further trauma during ●● Treatment interventions for abused children the investigative process, some countries that address building trust and that support such as Canada, Iceland, the United Kingdom and help children to make sense of their and the United States have adopted experience . Some children victimized by one-stop centres . In those centres, trained online grooming experience feelings of professionals from law enforcement, mental shame because they were ‘fooled’ into an health, victim advocacy and health-care work online relationship with an abusive adult . together to gather forensic information and Others see themselves as having autonomy prevent retraumatization of victims .119 and control and therefore do not recognize themselves as victims who are in need of ●● Preparation for court to ensure that assistance 117. Most children abused through children understand the process, their role online grooming are conflicted; they perceive in the proceedings, what support will be themselves as acting like an adult online, available to them, and how to protect their yet they continue their role as a child/young confidentiality, as well as offering debriefing person offline .118 Assistance to parents is and counselling when court experiences also needed so they can understand their have been difficult 120. children’s online experiences and offer them support . ●● Treatment for young people who display sexually abusive behaviours online . Such ●● Child-sensitive approaches to discovery treatment should be rooted in the same during criminal investigations that take approaches used for those who commit into account the profound difficulties often sexually harmful acts offline . This should experienced by children and young people in include a comprehensive assessment of disclosing online abuse . Consideration needs the child and how to effectively intervene to be given, for example, to ensure the proper through rehabilitation and counselling; timing and pace of interviews, recording them assessment of the child’s development to avoid repeated testimony, and helping and motivation; and active involvement of the child gain a sense of agency and control parents in the process .
Building a Protective Environment 19 © Penny Tweedie / Panos Pictures COnClUSIOnS
The powerful impact of the Internet on the lives Globally, the evolution of ICT usage is at a of children throughout the world will continue challenging juncture . Only a small proportion to grow and evolve . While Internet access of contemporary adults had access to ICT and child usage are highest in industrialized when they were children, particularly the countries, the global pace of web access and tools that have facilitated the revolution in broadband penetration, and the exponential interaction and communication . This has uptake of mobile phone technologies, coupled probably affected the ability of adults to with increasing capacities and decreasing costs, understand and empathize with the ways means that the rest of the world is beginning to children and young people use the Internet, catch up . In the next few years, it is anticipated mobile phones and other new technologies . that the most dramatic changes will occur in This may be especially true in societies low- and middle-income countries . where children’s social activity, particularly that of adolescents, has been under fairly At the moment, most of the evidence related direct parental observation or control . to certain kinds of abuse comes from the Over time that situation may change, as industrialized world . Likewise, most of the today’s computer-literate, social-networking evidence of the ways young people use the young people become parents themselves . Internet and associated technologies, and the They may have less anxiety about the risk risks they face therein, comes from the same of exploitation and abuse because they regions . Yet even there, major knowledge gaps will have been part of the generation that exist . There is little information, for example, developed ways of handling it . On the other about online use by children with disabilities, hand, the nature of the creativity unleashed cyberbullying and the challenges faced by by ICT means there will always be new lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender young elements that pose new avenues for risk that people . The gaps in knowledge about risk and require innovative strategies for response . Internet usage in Africa, as well as in most parts of Asia and the Middle East, are signifi cant and Where access is widespread, ICT has in a require urgent research . very short period of time revolutionized the way people live their lives and interact with The limited research available from low- and each other . In those places where access middle-income countries, however, indicates is expanding, these changes are currently that the issues raised in this report are unfolding . We know that considerable globally relevant, or will soon be . For example, changes are still to come, but we do not researchers are already learning that children yet know what those changes will be . from virtually all countries use SNS in largely Cyberspace throws into sharp relief the similar ways, creating easy opportunities for social roles and responsibilities of actors potential groomers to interact with them . beyond the State, namely the private Children from low- and middle-income countries sector and individuals themselves . It has are less likely to use the Internet from home, and the potential to enrich individuals and are more likely to go online from cybercafes, society alike, helping to remove barriers where they are at greater risk of encountering between people, paving the way for inappropriate images and online and offl ine interaction, education and development, solicitation . Lack of parental awareness and but also presenting opportunities for knowledge, diffi cult economic conditions wrongdoing . Children are at the forefront and underdeveloped regulatory frameworks of this dilemma . While children and young can further exacerbate potential risks and the people are intrinsic to building a safer likelihood of harm . Hence, it seems that the gaps Internet, the onus is on governments and in protection for children and young people in the private sector to ensure that protection the online environment may be greater in low- is integrated into promoting expansion and middle-income countries, where gaps in of access and the positive benefi ts the overall child protection already exist . Internet brings .
concluSIonS 21 Notes
1 European NGO Alliance for Child Safety Online, Related Crimes: Findings from the National Juvenile ‘The Right Click: An agenda for creating a safer Online Victimization Study, National Center for and fairer online environment for every child’, Missing and Exploited Children, Alexandria, VA, European NGO Alliance for Child Safety Online, 2005, pp . vii, 5, 6 . eNACSO, Copenhagen, June 2010, pp . 2, 5, 8, 17, 10 Internet Watch Foundation, Annual and Charity available at: www .enacso .eu/images/stories/ Report 2010, IWF, London, 2010, p . 8, available Documents/manifesto/afafinal6may .pdf, accessed at: www .iwf .org .uk/accountability/annual- 22 August 2011 . reports/2010-annual-report; Internet Watch 2 Lobe, B ., et al . (with members of the EU Kids Online Foundation, Annual and Charity Report 2006, network), Cross-National Comparison of Risks and IWF, London, 2006, p . 8, www .enough .org/ Safety on the Internet: Initial analysis from the EU objects/20070412_iwf_annual_report_2006_web . Kids Online survey of European children, EU Kids pdf . Online, London School of Economics and Political 11 Internet Watch Foundation, Annual and Charity Science, London, August 2011, p . 13 . Report 2010, p . 8 . 3 United Nations General Assembly, Report of the 12 Baines, Victoria, ‘Online Child Sexual Abuse: Special Representative of the Secretary-General The law enforcement response – A contribution on the issue of human rights and transnational of ECPAT International to the World Congress corporations and other business enterprises, John III against Sexual Exploitation of Children and Ruggie, Guiding Principles on Business and Human Adolescents’, ECPAT International, Bangkok, Rights: Implementing the United Nations “Protect, November 2008, p . 2 . Respect and Remedy” Framework, A/HRC/17/31, 13 Webster, S ., et al ., Scoping Report: European Online United Nations, New York, 21 March 2011, Guiding Grooming Project, European Online Grooming Principles 11 and 13 (b) . Project for the European Commission Safer 4 Livingstone, S ., et al ., ‘Risks and Safety on the Internet Plus Programme, London, April 2010, p . 7 . Internet: The perspective of European children, Full The report defines young persons as those aged Findings and policy implications from the EU Kids 16 or younger . Online survey of 9–16 year olds and their parents 14 Mitchell, Kimberly J ., et al ., ‘Use of Social in 25 countries’, EU Kids Online, London School of Networking Sites in Online Sex Crimes Against Economics and Political Science, London, 2011 . Minors: An examination of national incidence and 5 Livingstone, S . and L . Haddon, EU Kids Online: means of utilization’, Journal of Adolescent Health, Final report, EU Kids Online, London School of vol . 47, no . 2, August 2010, pp . 183–190 . Economics and Political Science, London (EC 15 Webster, S ., et al ., Scoping Report: European Online Safer Internet Plus Programme Deliverable Grooming Project, p . 13 . D6 .5), June 2009, p . 10 . The study covered 21 16 Ethel Quayle, ‘Sexualized Images of Children on the European countries: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Internet’, Sexual Abuse, vol . 23, no . 1, March 2011, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, pp . 7–21 . France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, 17 Wolak, J ., et al ., ‘Online “Predators” and their Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia, Victims: Myths, realities and implications for Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom . prevention and treatment’, American Psychologist, 6 Carr, J . and Z . Hilton, Digital Manifesto, Children’s vol . 63, no . 2, February–March 2008, pp . 111–128, Charities Coalition on Internet Safety, London, available at: www .apa .org/pubs/journals/releases/ 2009, p . 29 . amp-632111 .pdf . 7 Carr, J ., ‘Briefing Note on Child Abuse Images 18 See, for example: Wolak, J ., D . Finkelhor and and the Internet’, Children’s Charities Coalition on K . J . Mitchell, Child Pornography Possessors Internet Safety, London, July 2010, p . 2 . Arrested in Internet-Related Crimes: Findings 8 Internet Watch Foundation, Annual and Charity from the National Juvenile Online Victimization Report 2010, IWF, London, 2010, p . 1; Quayle, E . Study, National Center for Missing & Exploited and T . Jones, ‘Sexualised images of children on the Children, Alexandria, VA, 2005, available at: www . internet’, Sexual Abuse, vol . 23, no . 1, March 2011, missingkids .com/en_US/publications/NC144 .pdf; pp . 7–21 . Sullivan, C ., ‘Internet Traders of Child Pornography: 9 See, for example: Office of the Federal Profiling research’, New Zealand Department of Ombudsman for Victims of Crime [Canada], Internal Affairs, Wellington, 2005; Webb, L ., J . Every Image, Every Child: Internet-facilitated child Craissati and S . Keen, ‘Characteristics of Internet sexual abuse in Canada, Department of Justice, Child Pornography Offenders: A comparison with Government of Canada, 2009, p . 8, available at: child molesters’, Sex Abuse, vol . 19, 16 November www victimsfirst. gc. .ca/pdf/childp-pjuvenile .pdf; 2007, pp . 449–465; Bates A ., and C .A . Metcalf, Wolok, J ., D . Finkelhor and K . J . Mitchell, Child ‘A Psychometric Comparison of Internet and Pornography Possessors Arrested in Internet- Non-Internet Sex Offenders from a Community
22 Child Safety Online Treatment Sample’, Journal of Sexual Aggression, and the home, Routledge, London and New vol . 13, no . 1, March 2007, pp . 11–20; Baartz, York, 2008; National Children’s Home and Tesco D ., ‘Australians, the Internet and Technology- Mobile, ‘Putting U in the Picture: Mobile bullying Enabled Child Sex Abuse: A statistical profile’, survey 2005’, NCH, n .d . Australian Federal Police, Canberra, Australia, 23 See, for example: Shariff, S ., Cyber-Bullying: 2008; Quayle, E ., L . Loof and T . Palmer, ‘Child Issues and solutions for the school, the classroom Pornography and Sexual Exploitation of Children and the home, Routledge, London and New York, Online: A contribution of ECPAT International to 2008 . the World Congress III against Sexual Exploitation 24 Livingstone, S ., et al ., Risks and safety on the of Children and Adolescents’, ECPAT International, internet, Full findings 2011 . Bangkok, November 2008 . 25 See: Sharif, Shaheen, Cyber-Bullying . 19 See, for example: Wolak, J ., K . Mitchell and D . 26 See, for example: Keith, Susan, and Michelle E . Finkelhor, ‘Unwanted and Wanted Exposure to Martin, ‘Cyber-Bullying; Creating a culture of Online Pornography in a National Sample of respect in a cyber world’, Reclaiming Children and Youth Internet Users’, Pediatrics, vol . 119, no . 2, Youth, vol . 13, no . 4, Winter 2005, pp . 224–228; and February 2007, pp . 247–257, available at: http:// Sharif, Shaheen, Cyber-Bullying . pediatrics .aappublications .org/content/119/2/247 . 27 Raskauskas, Juliana, and Ann D . Stoltz, full .pdf+html; Mossige, S ., M . Ainsaar and C . ‘Involvement in Traditional and Electronic Bullying Göran Svedin, eds ., The Baltic Sea Regional Study among Adolescents’, Developmental Psychology, on Adolescents’ Sexuality, NOVA, Norwegian vol . 43, no . 3, May 2007, pp . 564–575 . Ministry of Education and Research, Oslo, 2007, 28 See, for example: Hasebrink, U ., et al ., Patterns p . 37; Soldatova, G ., ‘Russian School-children as of risk and safety online: In-depth analyses from Internet Users: Types and risk groups’, Foundation the EU Kids Online survey of 9-16-year olds and for Internet Development, 1999; Muhammad T ., their parents in 25 countries, London School of ‘Danger for children at Pakistan’s cafes’, ECPAT Economics and Political Science, London: EU Kids newsletter No 48, July 2004, p .5, citing Pakistan Online, August 2011, pp . 7, 22, 31 . Paediatric Association and Save the Children 29 International Telecommunication Union, ‘Use Sweden, Exposure of children to pornography at of Information and Communication Technology Internet cafes of Pakistan, 2001 . by the World’s Children and Youth: A statistical 20 See, for example: Liao, Lih Mei, and S . M . compilation’, ITU, Geneva, June 2008; Lenhart, A ., Creighton, ‘Requests for Cosmetic Genitoplasty: et al ., ‘Social Media & Mobile Internet Use Among How should healthcare providers respond?’, BMJ, Teens and Young Adults’, Pew Internet & American vol . 334, no . 7603, 24 May 2007, pp . 1090–1092; Life Project, Washington, D C. ., 2010 . and Braun, V . and L . Tiefer, ‘The “Designer 30 Livingstone, S . and L . Haddon, EU Kids Online: Vagina” and the Pathologisation of Female Genital Final report 2009, p . 5 . Diversity: Interventions for change’, Radical 31 Livingstone, S ., et al, Risks and Safety on the Psychology, vol . 8, no . 1, 2010, n .d . Internet, Full findings, p . 31 . 21 See, for example: Lo, Ven-Hwei, and Ran 32 International Telecommunication Union, ‘Use of Wei, ‘Exposure to Internet Pornography and Information and Communication Technology by Taiwanese Adolescents’ Sexual Attitudes the World’s Children and Youth ; Livingstone, S . and Behaviour’, Journal of Broadcasting & and L . Haddon, EU Kids Online: Final report 2009 . Electronic Media, vol . 49, no . 2, June 2005, 33 Safer Internet Programme, Eurobarometer, pp . 221–237; Livingstone, S ., et al ., Risks and Towards a safer use of the Internet for children in safety on the internet, Full findings, 2011; CWIN the EU – A parents’ perspective, Eurobarometer, Nepal, ‘Protecting Children in Cyberspace’, European Commission, Brussels, December 2008, Kathmandu, 2009, available at: www .nta .gov .np/ p . 13 . articleimages/file/Protecting%20Children%20 34 Livingstone, S ., et al ., Risks and Safety on the in%20Cyberspace%20WTIS .pdf, accessed 21 Internet, Full findings, p . 26 . August 2011; Rauniar, Deepak, ‘Cyber Cafes of 35 Davidson, J . and E . Martellozzo, State of Nepal: Passage to cyber crime?’, South Asia the Nation Review of Internet Safety 2010, Partnership International and Bellanet Asia, Telecommunications Regulatory Authority, Lalitpur, Nepal, March 2007; Chetty, Iyavar, and Kingdom of Bahrain, Manama, 2010, available at: Antoinette Basson, ‘Report on Internet Usage www .tra .org .bh/en/pdf/SafeSurf_TRA_Report .pdf, and the Exposure of Pornography to Learners accessed 7 September 2011 . in South African Schools’, Film and Publication 36 Chetty, Iyavar, and Antoinette Basson, ‘Report on Board, Houghton, South Africa, November 2008 . Internet Usage and the Exposure of Pornography 22 See, for example: Cross, D ., et al ., Australian to Learners in South African Schools’, Film and Covert Bullying Prevalence Study (ACBPS), Child Publication Board, Houghton, South Africa, Health Promotion Research Centre, Edith Cowan November 2006, p . 23 . University, Perth, Australia; Livingstone, S ., et 37 Center of Studies on Information and al ., Risks and safety on the internet, Full findings Communication Technologies, ‘Survey on the Use 2011 ; SaferNet Brasil Surveys 2009, available at: of Information and Communication Technologies www .safernet org. .br/site/prevencao/pesquisas; in Brazil 2009’, CETIC .br, Brazil Internet Steering Davidson, Julia, State of the Nation Review Committee, São Paolo, 2010, p . 227, available at: of Internet Safety 2010, Telecommunications www .cetic .br/english/ . This percentage includes Regulatory Authority, Kingdom of Bahrain, individuals who declared having accessed Manama, 2010; Shariff, Shaheen, Cyber-Bullying: the Internet at least once in their lives from Issues and solutions for the school, the classroom any location .
Notes 23 38 ITU, ‘Use of Information and Communication in%20a%20digital%20world%20the%202008%20 Technology by the World’s Children and Youth’, byron%20review .pdf . pp . 29, 41 . 49 See, for example: Davidson, J ., E . Martellozzo 39 Symantec, ‘Norton Online Living Report 09’, and M . Lorenz, ‘Evaluation of CEOP ThinkUKnow Mountain View, CA, 2009, pp . intro, 4, 13, 14 . Internet Safety Programme and Exploration of The countries surveyed were Australia, Brazil, Young People’s Internet Safety Knowledge’, Centre Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Italy, for Abuse & Trauma Studies, Kingston University, Japan, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the London, July 2009, available at:http://cats-rp .org . United States; the survey is available at: www . uk/pdf%20files/Internet%20safety%20report%20 protegiendoles .org/documentacion/estante4/ 4-2010 .pdf, accessed 21 August 2011; Davidson, NOLR_Report_09 .pdf, accessed 19 August 2011 . J . C . and E . Martellozzo, ‘Educating children about 40 International Telecommunication Union, ‘The sexual abuse and evaluating the Metropolitan World in 2010: ICT facts and figures’, ITU, Geneva, police safer surfing programme’, Project Report, 2010, pp . 4–5; available at:www .itu .int/ITU-D/ Metropolitan Police, London, 2004; Donath, J ., ict/material/FactsFigures2010 .pdf,accessed and d . boyd, ‘Public displays of connection’, BT 26 August 2011 . Technology Journal, vol . 22, no . 4, October 2004, 41 Center of Studies on Information and pp . 71–82, available at: www .danah .org/papers/ Communication Technologies, ‘Survey on PublicDisplays .pdf; and Child Exploitation and the Use of Information and Communication Online Protection Centre, ‘Understanding Online Technologies in Brazil 2009’, CETIC .br, 2009; pp . Social Network Services and Risks to Youth: 54, 133, 239 .; Center of Studies on Information and Stakeholder perspectives – A preliminary report on Communication Technologies, ‘Survey on the Use the findings of the CEOP Centre’s social network of Information and Communication Technologies seminar series’, Child Exploitation and Online in Brazil 2008’, CETIC .br, 2008; p . 228; Center Protection Centre, London, 2006 . of Studies on Information and Communication 50 Donath, J ., and d . boyd, ‘Public displays of Technologies, ‘Survey on the Use of Information connection’ . and Communication Technologies in Brazil 2006’, 51 See, for example: Davidson, J ., E . Martellozzo CETIC .br, 2006, p . 113 . and M . Lorenz, ‘Evaluation of CEOP ThinkUKnow 42 Data provided by the Japanese Delegation to the Internet Safety Programme; International Youth OECD , Organisation for Economic Co-operation Advisory Congress (A CEOP led VGT initiative), and Development, The Protection of Children ‘IYAC Children and Young Persons’ Global Online: Risks faced by children online and policies Online Charter Supplementary Document’, Child to protect them, OECD Digital Economy Papers, Exploitation and Online Protection (CEOP) Centre, No . 179, OECD Publishing, Paris, May 2011, p . 10; London, 2008 . and Eurobarometer 2008, annex tables and 52 Lobe, B ., et al . (with members of the EU Kids Online survey details, Towards a safer use of the Internet network), Cross-National Comparison of Risks and for children in the EU – A parents’ perspective, Safety on the internet: Initial analysis from the EU analytical report, table 21b, p . 112 . Kids Online survey . 43 ITU, Use of Information and Communication 53 See, for example: SaferNet Brasil Surveys, 2009; Technology by the World’s Children and Youth, and Davidson, J ., State of the Nation Review of 2008, p . 33 . Chapter 5, p . 19 of the report includes Internet Safety 2010, p . 4 . the following classifications: Children refers to 54 See, for example: van der Gaag, Nikki, Because individuals in the age group 5–14 or younger; and I Am a Girl: The State of the World’s Girls 2010 – Youth refers to individuals in the age group 15–24 . Digital and urban frontiers: Girls in a changing 44 Lenhart, A ., et al ., ‘Social Media & Mobile Internet landscape, Plan International, Brussels, 2010, Use Among Teens and Young Adults’, Pew Internet available at:
24 Child Safety Online full, accessed 26 August 2011; Ybarra, M . L ., et 67 Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre, al ., ‘Internet Prevention Messages: Targeting the ‘Understanding Social Networking Services and right online behaviors’, Archives of Pediatric and Risks to Youth: Stakeholder perspectives – A Adolescent Medicine, vol . 161, no . 2, February preliminary report on the findings of the CEOP 2007, pp . 138–145, available at: http://archpedi . Centre’s Social Network Seminar Series’, CEOP, ama-assn .org/cgi/content/full/161/2/138 . London, 2006, available at: www .ceop .police .uk/ 58 Optem, ‘Safer Internet for Children: Qualitative Documents/socialnetwork_serv_report_221206 pdf. . study in 29 European countries – Summary 68 ‘Staying Safe Survey 2009: Young people and report’, Eurobarometer, Brussels, May 2007, parents’ attitudes around Internet safety’, available at: http://ec .europa .eu/public_opinion/ Department for Children, Schools and Families, archives/quali/ql_safer_internet_summary .pdf . Government of the United Kingdom, Runcorn, UK, 59 Ybarra, M . L ., et al ., ‘Internet Prevention December 2009; Livingstone, S . and L . Haddon, Messages’, pp . 138–145 . EU Kids Online: Final report . 60 See, for example: UNICEF Regional Office for 69 Livingstone, S . and L . Haddon, EU Kids Online: Final West and Central Africa, ‘Promoting Synergies report . between Child Protection and Social Protection: 70 See, for example: Davidson, J ., State of the Nation West and Central Africa’, Overseas Development Review of Internet Safety 2010; Staksrud, E . and S . Institute and United Nations Children’s Fund, Livingstone, ‘Children and Online Risk: Powerless London and Dakar, 2009, available at: www .odi . victims or resourceful participants?’, Information, org .uk/resources/details .asp?id=3477&title=child- Communication & Society, vol . 12, no . 3, 2009, protection-social-protection-west-central-africa . pp . 364–387; Gallup Organisation, ‘Towards a 61 Mitchell K . J ., D . Finkelhor and J . Wolak, ‘Risk Safer Use of the Internet for Children in the EU’ factors for and impact of online sexual solicitation (Eurobarometer), http://ec .europa .eu/public_ of youth’, The Journal of the American Medical opinion/flash/fl_248_en .pdf . Association, vol . 285, no . 23, 20 June 2001, 71 ‘Staying Safe Survey 2009: Young people and pp . 3011–3014; Dawes, A . and A . Govender, ‘The parents’ attitudes around Internet safety’; and Use of Children in Pornography in South Africa’, Livingstone, S . and L . Haddon, EU Kids Online: Human Sciences Research Council, Pretoria, Final report . 2007, available at: www .hsrc .ac .za/Research_ 72 Cho, Chang-Hoan and Hongsik John Cheon, Project-796 .phtml . ‘Children’s Exposure to Negative Internet Content: 62 Livingstone, S ., ‘e-Youth: (Future) policy Effects of family context’, Journal of Broadcasting implications – Reflections on online risk, harm and & Electronic Media, 1 December 2005, pp . 488–509 . vulnerability’, Presentation at ‘e-Youth: balancing 73 See: Staksrud, E . and S . Livingstone, ‘Children and between opportunities and risks’ (26–28 May 2010, Online Risk’ . Antwerp, Belgium), London School of Economics 74 See, for example: Voices of Youth, ‘Survey on Research Online, London, June 2010, available at: Internet Use, 2010’ (internal document), United http://eprints .lse .ac .uk/27849/ . Nations Children’s Fund, New York; van der Gaag, 63 van der Gaag, Nikki, Because I Am a Girl: The State Nikki, Because I Am a Girl: The State of the World’s of the World’s Girls 2010 . Girls 2010 . 64 van der Gaag, Nikki, Because I Am a Girl: The 75 See: Davidson, J ., E . Martellozzo and M . Lorenz, State of the World’s Girls 2010; Bawagan, Aleli, ‘Evaluation of CEOP ThinkUKnow Internet Safety and Anjanette Saguisag, ‘The Role of the Private Programme and Exploration of Young People’s Sector, particularly ISPs and Internet Cafe Owners, Internet Safety Knowledge’ . as Active Partners in Protecting Children from 76 Livingstone, S ., et al ., Risks and safety on the Sexual Abuse and Exploitation in the Philippines: internet, Full findings 2011 . An on-going case study by UNICEF Philippines’, 77 For a comprehensive overview of legal frameworks, UNICEF, Makati City, Philippines, n .d ., available see: Newell, P ., ‘Legal Frameworks for Combating at:
Notes 25 81 European Commission, ‘Proposal for a Directive eds ., Viewing Child Pornography on the Internet: on Combating Sexual Abuse, Sexual Exploitation Understanding the offence, managing the offender, of Children and Child Pornography, repealing helping the victims, Russell House Publishing, Framework Decision 2004/68/JHA’, European Lyme Regis, UK, 2005; Palmer, T . and L . Stacey, Commission, Brussels, 29 March 2010, available Just One Click: Sexual abuse of children and young at: http://europa .eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction . people through the Internet and mobile phone do?reference=MEMO/10/107 . technology, Barnardo’s, Ilford, UK, 2004; Von 82 European Union, Legislative Acts and Other Weiler, Julia, Annette Haardt-Becker and Simone Instruments – Directive of the Parliament and of the Schulte, ‘Care and Treatment of Child Victims of Council on combating the sexual abuse and sexual Child Pornographic Exploitation (CPE) in Germany’, exploitation of children and child pornography, and Journal of Sexual Aggression, vol . 16, no . 2, July replacing Council Framework Decision 2004/68/ 2010, pp . 211–222 . JHA, European Union, Brussels, 4 November 2011 . 91 Palmer, T ., ‘Sexual Abuse and Exploitation in the Also see: Council of the European Union, ‘EU takes Converged Online/Offline Environments: Referral action to combat sexual abuse of children and services and rehabilitation’, 2010 (unpublished child pornography’, press release, Council of the paper prepared for the UNICEF Innocenti Research European Union, Brussels, 15 November 2011 . Centre) . 83 GSMA, Mobilising Europe’s Digital Agenda, GSMA, 92 Quayle, E, L . Loof and T . Palmer, ‘Child pornography London, 2010, www .gsmworld .com/our-work/ and exploitation of children online . A contribution public-policy/gsma_europe/mobilising/downloads/ of ECPAT International to the World Congress GSMA_UmbrellaStory_A5Brochure .pdf; GSM III against Sexual Exploitation of Children and World, European Framework (webpage), see: www . Adolescents’, ECPAT International, Bangkok, 2008 . gsmworld .com/our-work/public-policy/framework_ 93 Microsoft Corporation, Microsoft 2010 Corporate mobile_use_younger_teenagers_children .htm . Citizenship Report, Microsoft Corporation, 84 Donoso, V ., Results of the Assessment of the Redmond, VA, 2010, p . 47 ; Cornell University Implementation of the Safer Social Networking Law School, Legal Information Institute, Use to Principles for the EU. Individual Reports of combat child pornography of technical elements Testing of 14 Social Networking Sites, European relating to images reported to the CyberTipline, Commission, Safer Internet Programme, U .S . Code, Title 18, Part 1, Chapter 110, No . 2258C, Luxembourg, May 2011, available at: http:// available at: www .law .cornell .edu/uscode/usc_ ec .europa .eu/information_society/activities/ sec_18_00002258---C000- .html . social_networking/eu_action/implementation_ 94 Maalla, N . M . ‘Report of the Special Rapporteur princip_2011/index_en .htm . Also see: Donoso, on the sale of children, child prostitution and child V ., Assessment of the implementation of the pornography’, A/HRC/12/23, United Nations, New Safer Social Networking Principles for the EU York, 13 July 2009, p . 12; available at
26 Child Safety Online 101 Survey conducted in September 2010 by Tink the Home Secretary’s Task Force on Child Internet Palmer, United Kingdom for the purposes of Safety had any monitoring provisions attached this paper . to them . This approach was expressly rejected 102 SaferNet Brasil, ‘Nética: Ethics and education for in a review conducted in 2008 by Professor developing cyber-citizenship in Brazil’, 2010, http:// Tanya Byron, available at: www .education .gov . files .eun .org/insafe/blog/Netica .doc, accessed uk/ukccis/about/a0076277/the-byron-reviews, 31 August 2011 . and further endorsed by the Bailey Review, www . 103 Child Protection Partnership (CPP) Digital Literacy education .gov .uk/inthenews/inthenews/a0077662/ Initiative, in collaboration with IICRDTrend bailey-review-of-the-commercialisation-and- Microsystems and Certiport Implementation sexualisation-of-childhood-final-report-published . by The Aspire Group Company (TAGC), 2010 112 Internet Watch Foundation, 2009 Annual and (unpublished document) . Charity Report, IWF, Cambridge, UK, 2009, available 104 Odhiambo, Victoria, ‘Youth Mobilization to Promote at: www .iwf .org .uk/assets/media/annual-reports/ Codes of Conduct in Internet Cafes in Africa’, IWF%202009%20Annual%20and%20Charity%20 Presentation for Corporate Engagement in IT Report .pdf . Companies Seminar, ECPAT World Congress III, 113 Moore, T . and R . Clayton, ‘The Impact of Rio de Janeiro, 27 November 2008; available at: Incentives on Notice and Take-Down’, in Managing www ecpat. net/WorldCongressIII/PDF/. Information Risk and the Economics of Security, Publications/T4_WS3c .pdf, accessed Springer, New York, 2009, pp . 199–223 . 31 August 2011 . 114 See, for example: Using blocking to combat online 105 Sharif, S ., Cyber-Bullying, p . 256 . child abuse images: Questions & Answers, Q3 . 106 International Centre for Missing & Exploited Can’t sites known to contain child abuse images Children, ‘Child Pornography: Model legislation & just be taken down, as they are illegal?, European global review’ . NGO Alliance for Child Safety Online . 107 Human Rights Council, ‘Joint Report of the 115 Moore, T . and R . Clayton, ‘The Impact of Incentives Special Rapporteur on the Sale of Children, Child on Notice and Take-Down’ . Prostitution and Child Pornography, and the 116 Ofcom’s Submission to Safer Children in A Digital Special Representative of the Secretary-General World, p . 95 . on Violence against Children’, A/HRC/16/56, 117 Nyman, Anders, Abused Online, BUP Elefanten United Nations, New York, 7 March 2011, available (Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Unit) and the at http://srsg violenceagainstchildren. .org/ County Council of Östergötland, n .d . ; Palmer T ., document/a-hrc-16-56_204 . ‘Sexual abuse and exploitation in the converged 108 International Centre for Missing & Exploited online/offline environments’ (unpublished paper Children, ‘Child Pornography: Model legislation & prepared for the UNICEF Innocenti Research global review’ . Centre) . 109 International Criminal Police Organization, 118 Palmer T ., ‘Sexual abuse and exploitation in ‘Notices & Diffusions’, INTERPOL, Lyon, France, the converged online/offline environments’ 22 June 2011, available at: www .interpol . (unpublished paper prepared for the UNICEF int/Public/Notices/default .asp, accessed Innocenti Research Centre) . 2 September 2011 . 119 See, for example: Office of the Federal 110 United Nations Economic and Social Council, Ombudsman for Victims of Crime [Canada], Every ‘Guidelines on Justice Matters involving Child Image, Every Child, p . 30 . Victims and Witnesses of Crime’, Resolution 120 Lansdown, G ., Article 12: The Right of the Child 2005/20, United Nations, New York, 22 July 2005 . to be Heard: A resource book for governments, 111 Few of the codes of good practice developed UNICEF/Save the Children/OHCHR, London, within the United Kingdom under the auspices of forthcoming .
Notes 27 28
© Bjoern Steinz / Panos Pictures Acronyms
CEOP Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre (United Kingdom)
ECPAT End Child Prostitution, Child Pornography and Trafficking of Children for Sexual Purposes
EU European Union
ICT information and communication technology
INTERPOL International Criminal Police Organization
IRC Innocenti Research Centre (UNICEF)
ISP Internet service provider
ITU International Telecommunication Union
IWF Internet Watch Foundation
LGBT lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (people)
OPSC Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography
SNS social networking site
Acronyms 29 Glossary
Terms relating to sexual abuse and • use is made of coercion, force or threats; exploitation of children • abuse is made of a recognized position of trust, authority or influence over the child, child – Every human being below the age of including within the family; eighteen years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier (article • abuse is made of a particularly vulnerable 1, Convention on the Rights of the Child) . situation of the child, notably because of a mental or physical disability or a situation child abuse images – Representation, by of dependence . whatever means, of a child engaged in real or simulated explicit sexual activities or any The provisions of paragraph (a) are not intended representation of the sexual parts of a child to govern consensual sexual activities between for primarily sexual purposes (see ‘child minors [children under 18 years old] (article 18 .3) . pornography’ below) . Although there is no internationally agreed definition of ‘child abuse child sexual exploitation – Child prostitution, images’, this report uses the term as defined child pornography and the participation of a above and is preferred over child pornography child in pornographic performances, including because it leaves no doubt that abuse and recruiting, coercing or causing a child to exploitation are involved . participate in pornographic performances, or profiting from or otherwise exploiting a child child pornography – Any representation, for such purposes and knowingly attending by whatever means, of a child engaged in performances involving the participation of real or simulated explicit sexual activities or children; intentionally causing a child who has any representation of the sexual parts of a not reached the legal age for sexual activities child for primarily sexual purposes (article 2, to witness sexual abuse or sexual activities, Optional Protocol to the Convention on the even without having to participate; and the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, solicitation of children for sexual purposes child prostitution and child pornography) . (Council of Europe Convention on the Protection In this report, the term ‘child abuse images’ of Children against Sexual Exploitation and is preferred . Sexual Abuse, articles 18–23) . child prostitution – Use of a child in sexual online child sexual abuse – Production, activities for remuneration or any other form distribution, downloading or viewing of child of consideration (article 2, Optional Protocol abuse material (both still and video images), to the Convention on the Rights of the Child also known as child pornography; online on the sale of children, child prostitution and solicitation of children and young people to child pornography) . produce self-generated child abuse material, to engage them in sexual chat or other online child sexual abuse – As defined in article sexual activity, or to arrange an offline meeting 18 of the Council of Europe Convention on for the purposes of sexual activity, also known the Protection of Children against Sexual as grooming or luring; and facilitation of any Exploitation and Sexual Abuse (CETS No . 201, of the above . There is no agreed definition of also known as ‘the Lanzarote Convention’): online child sexual abuse in international law; for the purposes of this report, the term is (a) Engaging in sexual activities with a child defined as noted above . who, according to the relevant provisions of national law, has not reached the legal age for online grooming – Defined by various sexual activities; authors and used in this report to describe a process intended to lure children into sexual (b) Engaging in sexual activities with a behaviour or conversations with or without child where: their knowledge, or a process that involves
30 Child Safety Online communication and socialization between the broadband – A high-capacity digital connection offender and the child in order to make him or that facilitates a faster Internet connection her more vulnerable to sexual abuse . The term and enables a more rapid exchange of ‘grooming’ has not been defined in international larger files such as videos, games and law; some jurisdictions, including Canada, use software applications . the term ‘luring’ . browser – A software program that is selected online/offline environment – The interface by the consumer and used to locate and between computer-mediated communication display pages on the World Wide Web (web and face-to-face communication . ‘Online’ entails pages) . Popular browsers include Microsoft’s non-physical communication and ‘offline’ Windows Internet Explorer, Firefox, Google involves physical interaction . Chrome, Safari and Opera . paedophile – A diagnostic category referring chat room – Virtual ‘meeting rooms’ where to an exclusive sexual orientation towards people can communicate by typing in prepubescent children . It does not accurately messages to each other, or chat, in real time . portray those who sexually abuse children Most chat rooms focus on a particular topic, via the Internet and mobile technology, many but some are more general and are created of whom are married or in long-term sexual to provide a forum for individuals to meet relationships with adults . Therefore, in this other people . report, the terms ‘child abuser’ or ‘sexual abuser’ are used . cyberspace – The virtual shared universe of the world’s computer networks . The term was sale of children – Any act or transaction created by William Gibson in his 1984 novel whereby a child is sold by any person or group Neuromancer . It is often used interchangeably of persons to another for remuneration or any with ‘the Internet’ . other consideration (Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the download – The process in which data are sale of children, child prostitution and child copied to a computer from the Internet or pornography, article 2(a)) . another source such as an external drive, a disk, a phone or other devices . Data that are sexual abuser – Anyone who sexually offends typically downloaded on to a computer for against children or engages in any sexual viewing, storage and future access include text activity with a child, commonly called a files, photographs, videos and music . ‘paedophile’, but as noted above, the terms ‘child abuser’ or ‘sexual abuser’ are more email – Short for ‘electronic mail’, a tool that appropriate . There is no internationally agreed allows someone to send a message, or ‘email’, definition of this term . to another person’s electronic mailbox over a communications network such as the Internet . solicitation of children for sexual purposes – The intentional proposal, through information filter – A mechanism to sift out and block and communication technologies, of an adult to access to certain material . Most child-safety meet a child who has not reached the legal age software packages use a filtering component; for sexual activities, for the purpose of engaging the program may be designed to operate on in sexual activities or the production of child an individual personal computer or it may pornography (adapted from Council of Europe be applied to a network of computers . Often Convention on the Protection of Children a filtering component is provided ‘free’ as against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse, an integral part of a computer’s operating article 23) . system, or it will come as part of a connectivity package from a user’s Internet service provider . Customized filters have also been Terms relating to the online environment developed for mobile phones and consoles .
information and communication technology blog – Websites that have entries, or (ICT) – Any communication device or ‘posts’, including text and images, typically application, encompassing radio, television, displayed in chronological order . Entire cellular phones, satellite systems, and blogs or particular posts can be public and computer and network hardware and available to everyone online, or private and software, as well as associated services and available only to users who are authorized by applications such as videoconferencing and the blog owner/author . distance learning .
Glossary 31 instant messaging (IM) – Text-based smartphones – Mobile phones that communications service similar to a chat incorporate a complete operating system room . The key difference is that chat rooms and are able to access the Internet . In many are usually public spaces where anyone can ways, they are like tiny computers, with participate, while IM systems generally rely more memory and bigger screens than on a ‘buddy list’ or some other list of people ordinary phones . predetermined by the user . Only people on the list can communicate with the user, hence each social media – Primarily Internet- and user has control over whom he or she includes mobile-based tools for sharing and in instant messaging . Google Chat, MSN and discussing information . ‘Social media’ Twitter are examples of IM services; most social most often refers to activities that integrate networking sites (see definition below) have an technology, telecommunications and social IM function . interaction, and are used to share words, pictures, videos and audio . (the) Internet – Worldwide network of hundreds of thousands of interconnected social networking sites (SNS) – Online computer networks, using a common set utilities that enable users to create profiles, of communication protocols and sharing a public or private, and form a network of common addressing scheme . The Internet friends . SNS allow users to interact with facilitates the transmission of email messages, friends via private and public means, text files, images and many other types of such as messages and instant messaging, information between computers . and to post user-generated content, such as photos and videos . Examples of Internet service provider (ISP) – A commercial SNS include Facebook, MXit, Myspace enterprise that provides users with direct access and Orkut . to the Internet, usually for a fee, or a business that provides Internet services such as website text messaging/texting – Short text hosting or development . messages sent using mobile phones, wireless handheld devices (such as Sidekick) online – Controlled by or connected to a and personal digital assistants (basic computer network or the Internet, and any handheld computers known as ‘PDAs’) . activity or service that is available on or carried out via the Internet . A person is ‘online’ when she upload – The process of transmitting data or he has logged into a network of computers, or from a user’s machine to a server . has connected a computer or other device to the Internet . The term ‘offline’ describes activity that video sharing – Like photo sharing (see is not carried out online as well as the condition above) but for videos . These videos are of being disconnected from the Internet . often user-generated; the largest video sharing website is YouTube . peer-to-peer (P2P) – Software that allows transmission of data directly from one virtual worlds – Online simulated three- computer to another over the Internet, usually dimensional environments inhabited by without needing to involve a third-party server . players who interact with each other via avatars (movable icons representing a penetration – How widely a technology gets person in cyberspace) . Second Life, or adopted among people to whom the technology more popularly with young people, Teen is available . Second Life, are examples of virtual worlds . photo sharing – An application that enables webcam – A video camera that is built users to upload, view and share photos; users into or connected to a computer that is can allow either public or private access . connected to the Internet . sexting – A form of text messaging/texting (see World Wide Web (WWW) – A hypertext- definition below) in which people send pictures based system for finding and accessing of a sexual nature or sexually explicit text . This data on the Internet . The Web hosts is especially common among teenagers . documents, called web pages, which may be linked with other documents or short message service (SMS) – The common information systems . The Web is a portion text messaging service available on mobile of the Internet and not all servers on the phones, other handheld devices and computers . Internet are part of the Web .
32 Child Safety Online Front cover photo: © UNICEF/NYHQ2010-3011/Pirozzi
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© United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) December 2011