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Explosive Volcanism As a Key Driver of the Late Paleozoic Ice Age Gerilyn S

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Explosive Volcanism As a Key Driver of the Late Paleozoic Ice Age Gerilyn S https://doi.org/10.1130/G46349.1 Manuscript received 19 January 2019 Revised manuscript received 5 April 2019 Manuscript accepted 9 April 2019 © 2019 The Authors. Gold Open Access: This paper is published under the terms of the CC-BY license. Published online 2 May 2019 Explosive volcanism as a key driver of the late Paleozoic ice age Gerilyn S. Soreghan1, Michael J. Soreghan1, and Nicholas G. Heavens2 1School of Geology and Geophysics, University of Oklahoma, 100 E. Boyd Street, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, USA 2Department of Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Hampton University, 154 William R. Harvey Way, Hampton, Virginia 23668, USA ABSTRACT whereas pCO2 reached a nadir at ca. 338–334 Ma, Atmospheric CO2 exerts a robust and well-documented control on Earth’s climate, but the peak glaciation occurred ca. 298–295 Ma (Fig. 1). timing of glaciation during the late Paleozoic Ice Age (LPIA; ca. 360–260 Ma) is inconsistent The highest-resolution reconstructions (Montañez with pCO2 reconstructions, hinting at another factor. Stratospheric volcanic aerosols produce et al., 2016) cover a brief interval of the LPIA (ca. a large but temporary negative radiative forcing under modern conditions. Here we examine 311–298 Ma) and show pCO2 lows ca. 305 Ma explosive volcanism over 200 m.y. of Earth history to show that the LPIA corresponded with and 298 Ma, closer to peak ice conditions, but a sustained increase in volcanism in both tropical and extratropical latitudes. A major peak depict pCO2 rising at the apex of the LPIA (ca. in explosive volcanism at ca. 300 Ma likely corresponded to stratospheric sulfur-injecting 298–295 Ma; Fig. 1). Moreover, climate and cli- eruptions at least three to eight times more frequent than at present. This level of volcanism mate–ice sheet models indicate a CO2 glaciation created a steady, negative radiative forcing potentially sufficient to initiate and, most criti- threshold at ~560 ppmv (Lowry et al., 2014), but cally, sustain icehouse conditions, even under increasing levels of pCO2, and helps resolve high-resolution pCO2 reconstructions for the in- discrepancies between glacial timing and CO2 records. Accounting for the radiative forcing terval near peak icehouse (Montañez et al., 2016) effects of CO2 and sulfate indicates that both are required to explain the LPIA, with sulfate show a high-frequency oscillation both above and producing an especially strong effect at peak icehouse ca. 298–295 Ma. Frequent explosive below this threshold. Finally, climate models can- volcanism would have increased atmospheric acidity, enhancing the reactivity of iron in abun- not account for hypothesized equatorial glaciation dant volcanic ash and glacially generated mineral dust, thus strengthening the climate impact (Soreghan et al., 2014) in moderate-elevation up- of volcanism through a marine biological pump further primed by feedback with glaciation. lands without invoking pCO2 levels (<200 ppmv) that would stress modern vegetation (Pagani et al., INTRODUCTION et al., 2016), although causes for CO2 drawdown 2009), calling into question either the data or the Earth’s climate has fluctuated between ice- are disputed. Long-standing research (Berner, modeling. house and greenhouse states, characterized by 2004; Royer et al., 2004) posits the primacy of Decoupling between glaciation and pCO2 the presence or absence of continental ice and the terrestrial carbon cycle, wherein evolution could reflect a hysteresis effect in which higher strongly correlated with variations in pCO2 of plants sequestered CO2 (e.g., Feulner, 2017) positive radiative forcing from insolation and/or (Berner, 2004; Royer et al., 2004; Jagoutz et al., and accelerated silicate weathering. Plant ex- greenhouse gases is required to ablate an ice 2016; McKenzie et al., 2016). The late Paleozoic pansion and CO2 drawdown, however, are asyn- sheet than the negative radiative forcing nec- Ice Age (LPIA; ca. 360–260 Ma) archives the chronous, leading others to propose weathering- essary to form it (Zhuang et al., 2014). How- longest Phanerozoic icehouse, and its sedimen- induced drawdown related to Pangean orogeny ever, such a hysteresis creates a “paradox of late tary record preserves evidence for atmospheric ( Goddéris et al., 2017). Paleo zoic glacioeustasy” (Horton and Poulsen, CO2 intermittently as low as that of Quaternary Although pCO2 was relatively low during 2009, p. 715), in which order-of-magnitude glaciations (Montañez et al., 2007, 2016). Gla- the LPIA, it is difficult to ascribe the LPIA to variations in pCO2 in addition to orbital forc- ciation began in the Late Devonian (Isaacson pCO2 alone. Both enhanced silicate weathering ing are required to generate the glacioeustasy et al., 2008; Lakin et al., 2016); after an Early– and organic carbon burial are negative feedbacks of the LPIA. But an analogous paradox for the Middle Mississippian minimum, glaciation (Walker et al., 1981; Berner, 2004; Krissansen- Miocene Antarctic ice sheet is now ascribed to peaked in the earliest Permian (Fig. 1A; Table Totten and Catling, 2017). Lower pCO2 can oversimplification of ice-sheet geophysics (Gas- DR1 in the GSA Data Repository1). At times, weaken the first effect by reducing precipitation son et al., 2016). Indeed, the ice-sheet hysteresis continental ice reached latitudes as low as 32° and temperature, and the second by reducing net effect was reduced for late Paleozoic simulations (Evans, 2003), and alpine glaciation is hypoth- primary productivity through increased plant res- by introduction of dynamic vegetation (Horton esized for equatorial uplands (Soreghan et al., piration (Pagani et al., 2009; Gerhart and Ward, and Poulsen, 2009). In short, such hysteresis ap- 2014). The LPIA ultimately collapsed—Earth’s 2010), particularly at the higher pO2 levels in- pears to be an emergent property of some mod- only example of icehouse termination on a fully ferred for the late Paleozoic (Royer, 2014). Also, els, and thus fails to explain the shortcomings in vegetated planet (Gastaldo et al., 1996). mismatches persist between reconstructed pCO2 correlation of the glaciation and pCO2 records. Diminishing pCO2 along with lower solar and the glacial record. For example, pCO2 (Foster Here we integrate geologic data and radiative luminosity (Crowley and Baum, 1992) is the et al., 2017) exhibits an ambiguous relationship to calculations to explore the hypothesis that the preferred explanation for the LPIA (Montañez the timing of onset, demise, and peak of the LPIA: onset, acme, and, especially, prolonged extent 1GSA Data Repository item 2019219, detailed methods, supplementary figures and data tables, and associated references, is available online at http://www .geosociety .org /datarepository /2019/, or on request from editing@ geosociety .org. CITATION: Soreghan, G.S., Soreghan, M.J., and Heavens, N.G., 2019, Explosive volcanism as a key driver of the late Paleozoic ice age: Geology, v. 47, p. 600–604, https:// doi .org /10 .1130 /G46349.1 600 www.gsapubs.org | Volume 47 | Number 7 | GEOLOGY | Geological Society of America Downloaded from https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-pdf/47/7/600/4775200/600.pdf by guest on 06 July 2019 Devonian Mississippian Pennsylvanian Permian Triassic Early Mid. Late Early Mid. Late Early Mid. Late Cisuralian Guad.Lopin. r. Fra. Fam. Tou. Visean Ser. Bas. Mos. Gzh. Sak. Art. Kun. Wu. Ch. Ass Kas. Roa. Wo Cap. s A y eposit 10 s ld 20 glacia 30 40 50 of volcanic deposit Documented 60 Radiometric age probabilit 400 380 360 340 320 300 280 260 240 220 200 2 2000 1600 B 1200 800 Montañez et al. (2016) 400 (ppmv) 200 Foster et al. (2017) 100 Atmospheric CO 400 380 360 340 320 300 280 260 240 220 200 150 s C Other volcanics 100 Pyroclastics Ignimbrites 50 Number of deposit 0 400 380 360 340 320 300 280 260 240 220 200 y 10 D 5 0 vs. last 2.5 m.y. Relative activit 400 380 360 340 320 300 280 260 240 220 200 Age (Ma) Figure 1. Glacial deposits (n = 125), pCO2 (Montañez et al., 2016; Foster et al., 2017), and explosive volcanism (n = 1145) for 400–200 Ma (Cohen et al., 2013; see methods and Tables DR1 and DR2 in the Data Repository [see footnote 1]). A: (Top) Frequency of glacial deposits by stage (sub- stage for stages >10 m.y.). (Base) Relative probability of radioisotopic ages of volcanics. B: Reconstructions of pCO2 (Montañez et al., 2016; Foster et al., 2017). C: Histogram of volcanics by type, binned at 10 m.y. intervals; in key, “Other volcanics” refers to volcanic products other than those coded as pyroclastic or ignimbritic in the original sources. D: Estimated explosive volcanism relative to that of 0–2.5 Ma, inferred from relative number of ignimbrites. Effects of uncertainties indicated with crosses. Empirical (EMP) and saturated (SAT) relate to assumptions about the spreading of ignimbritic material as a function of magnitude (see more details in the Data Repository). Maximum (MAX) and event (EVE) combine the SAT model by counting events by individual eruptions (EVE) versus counting only the largest eruption of a volcano during the Quaternary (MAX). Lower crosses use EVE and EMP models; orange bars use MAX and EMP models; upper crosses use MAX and SAT models. Red line represents value of 1 (average activity of past 2.5 m.y.). Mid.—Middle; Fra.—Frasnian; Fam.—Famennian; Tou.—Tournaisian; Ser.—Serpukhovian; Bas.—Bashkirian; Mos.—Moscovian; Kas.—Kasimovian; Gzh.—Gzhelian; Ass.—Asselian; Sak.—Sakmarian; Art.—Artinskian; Kun.—Kungurian; Guad.—Guadalupian; Rod.—Roadian; Wor.—Wordian; Cap.—Capitanian; Lopin.—Lopingian; Wu.—Wuchiapingian; Ch.—Changhsingian. of the LPIA were driven in part by unusually level binning to reflect the dating resolution of integrates the sub-decadal radiative perturba- intense explosive volcanism prevalent during most deposits. Glacial deposits are reported for tions of multiple, individual eruptions into a sus- Pangean assembly, operating in concert with every stage of the time scale from the Famennian tained forcing on centennial to millennial time pCO2 and indirect forcings related to volcanism.
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