Introduction

Home , Eleonora Duse, Fay Compton, Gordon Heath, Hallie Flanagan, Irwin Unger, Joey Adams

Notes

Introduction

1. Hallie Flanagan, application to John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, received 3 December 1926. John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation Archives. 2. Joseph C. Kiger, Philanthropic Foundations in the Twentieth Century (Westport: Greenwood Press, 2000) 42–44. 3. Irwin Unger and Debi Unger, The Guggenheims: Family History (New York: HarperCollins, 2005) 210. 4. Barry D. Karl and Alice W. Karl, “Foundations and the Government: A Tale of Conflict and Consensus,” Philanthropy and the Nonproﬁ t Sector in a Changing America, ed. Charles T. Clotfelter and Thomas Ehrlich (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999) 52. 5. Robert F. Arnove, “Introduction,” Philanthropy and Cultural Imperialism: The Foundations as Home and Abroad, ed. Robert F. Arnove (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982) 5. 6. Arnove, “Introduction,” 17. 7. G. Thomas Tanselle, The John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation 1925–2000: Seventy-Fifth Anniversary Record (New York: The John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, 2000) 28. 8. Unger and Unger, The Guggenheims, 208. 9. This fact also influenced the Guggenheims. Tanselle, The John Simon Guggenheim, 28. 10. Tanselle, The John Simon Guggenheim, 30. 11. Tanselle, The John Simon Guggenheim, 91. Also see Unger and Unger, The Guggenheims, 209. The awarded amount is about $30,000 in 2013 US dollars. 12. Walter Prichard Eaton, “The Real Revolt in Our Theatres,” Scribner’s 72 (November 1922): 598. 13. Joanne Bentley, Hallie Flanagan: Life in the American Theatre (New York: Knopf, 1988) 45. 14. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk in W. E. B. Du Bois: Writings: The Suppression of the African Slave-Trade / The Souls of Black Folk / Dusk of Dawn / Essays and Articles (New York: Library of America, 1987 [1903]) 359. 15. John Houseman was chosen by McClendon as her co-director. Stephanie Batiste notes that “leadership by white man was understood to be fiscally practical given discrimination and segregation in federal administration.” Darkening Mirrors: Imperial Representation in Depression-Era African American Performance (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2012) 265, n. 57. 16. “The NEA has nurtured the growth of cultural institutions that serve both the nation and the needs of local communities. Since 1966, the number of ... non-profit theatres proliferated from 56 to 425.... Though the NEA was not directly responsible for the exponential growth in the number of these arts organizations there can be little doubt that it was a catalyst.” Nina

244 Notes to Introduction 245

Kressner Cobb, Looking Ahead: Private Sector Giving to the Arts and Humanities (Washington DC: President’s Council on the Arts and the Humanities, 1997) 17. One member of the Lila Wallace-Readers Digest Fund, the largest private arts funder in the US at the time, emphasized, “The NEA changed the arts environment completely. It was the major catalyst in decentralizing the arts.” Cobb, Looking Ahead, 18. 17. Christina Klein, Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945–1961 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003) 6. 18. Geoffrey S. Proehl, Toward a Dramaturgical Sensibility: Landscape and Journey (Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2008) 19. 19. Diana Taylor, The Archive and the Repertoire: Performance and Cultural Memory in the Americas (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003) 2–3. 20. Nicholas Thompson, The Hawk and the Dove: Paul Nitze, George Kennan, and the History of the Cold War (New York: Henry Holt, 2009) 58. 21. Wilva Breen offers no name for the ambassador, but it was likely Joseph E. Jacobs of South Carolina, a career US foreign service officer, and ambassador to Poland from 1955 to 1957. 22. Wilva Breen, interview with Loraine Browskig, 5 September 1987. TRI/OSU. 23. Wilva Breen, interview. 24. Liz Safly, personal interview, 15 June 2007. 25. Joey Adams, On the Road for Uncle Sam: The Bittersweet Adventures of an American Vaudeville Troupe in Southeast Asia (New York: Bernard Geis, 1963) 230. 26. Proehl, Toward a Dramaturgical Sensibility, 161. 27. Michel de Certeau, The Writing of History, trans. Tom Conley (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992) 95. 28. Proehl, Toward a Dramaturgical Sensibility, 67. 29. Marxists Internet Archive: History Archive http://www.marxists.org/history/ index.htm. Accessed 30 June 2010. 30. Waqar Zaidi, “Liberal Internationalist Approaches to Science and Technology in Interwar Britain and the United States,” Internationalism Reconﬁ gured: Transnational Ideas and Movements Between the World Wars, ed. Daniel Laqua (New York: Tauris Academic Studies, 2011) 19. 31. Margaret MacMillan, Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World (New York: Random House, 2003) 84. 32. Helen McCarthy, The British People and the League of Nations (Manchester University Press, 2011) 17. 33. Susan Pederson, “Back to the League of Nations,” American Historical Review 112.4 (October 2007): 1092. 34. McCarthy, The British People, 2–3. 35. Robert Boyce, The Great Interwar Crisis and the Collapse of Globalization (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009) 11. 36. David W. Ellwood, The Shock of America: Europe and the Challenge of the Century (Oxford University Press, 2012) 196. 37. Katharina Rietzler, “Before the Cultural Cold Wars: American Philanthropy and Cultural Diplomacy in the Inter-war Years,” Historical Research 84.223 (February 2011) 154. 38. Rietzler, “Before the Cultural Cold Wars,” 156. 39. Rietzler, “Before the Cultural Cold Wars,” 164. 246 Notes to Introduction

40. W. Scott Lucas, “Beyond Freedom, Beyond Control: Approaches to Culture and the State-Private Network in the Cold War,” The Cultural Cold War in Western Europe 1945–1960, ed. Giles Scott-Smith and Hans Krabbendam (London: Frank Cass, 2003) 53. 41. Lucas, “Beyond Freedom, Beyond Control,” 60. 42. David Ekbladh, The Great American Mission: Modernization and the Construction of an American World Order (Princeton University Press, 2011) 108. 43. Winston Churchill, “The Sinews of Peace,” 5 March 1946. http://history 1900s.about.com/od/churchillwinston/a/Iron-Curtain.htm. Accessed 15 November 2013. 44. George Coleman the Younger, “Epilogue,” as reported in Sholto and Reuben Percy, The Percy Anecdotes, Vol. 17: The Stage and Music (London: T. Boys, 1823) 161. 45. For a history of the iron curtain as a political metaphor, see Patrick Wright, Iron Curtain: From Stage to Cold War (Oxford University Press, 2007). Also, Churchill did understand the West as being “in front” of the curtain. “In front of the iron curtain which lies across Europe are other causes for anxi- ety. In Italy the Communist Party is seriously hampered by having to support the Communist-trained Marshal Tito’s claims to former Italian territory at the head of the Adriatic.” Churchill, “The Sinews of Peace.” 46. John Lewis Gaddis, We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History (Oxford University Press, 1997) 196. 47. UNESCO Constitution, http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ ID=15244&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html 16 November 1945. Accessed 26 November 2013. 48. Archibald MacLeish, “Museums and World Peace,” Magazine of Art (January 1947): 31. 49. Giles Scott-Smith, The Politics of Apolitical Culture: The Congress for Cultural Freedom and the Political Economy of American Hegemony 1945–1955 (London: Routledge, 2001) 1. 50. Scott-Smith, The Politics of Apolitical Culture, 1. 51. Frank Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas: US Foreign Policy and Cultural Relations, 1938–1950 (Cambridge University Press, 1981) 105. 52. Benn Steil, The Battle of Bretton Woods: John Maynard Keynes, Harry Dexter White and the Making of a New World Order (Princeton University Press, 2013) 155. 53. Steil, The Battle of Bretton Woods, 334. Of course the global economic agree- ments made at Bretton Woods were far more complicated than I outline here (in fact, Steil notes that US Treasury Secretary Robert Morgenthau did not fully understand the work being done). But there is no disagreement that the outcome was to “give the US government virtual free hand to set interest rates and other monetary conditions at will—not just for the United States, but for the world” (145). With some changes across the years, the “dollar standard would endure to the present day” (251). 54. Paul Kennedy, The Parliament of Man: The Past, Present, and Future of the United Nations (New York: Random House, 2006) 30. 55. Mary Nolan, The Transatlantic Century: Europe and America, 1890–2010 (Cambridge University Press, 2012) 67. 56. Nolan, The Transatlantic Century, 5. Notes to Chapter 1 247

57. Akira Iriye, Global Community: The Role of International Organizations in the Making of the Contemporary World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002) 6. 58. Rosamond Gilder, “Theatre Arts Books,” TLA Broadside (February 1975) np. 59. Leila J. Rupp, Worlds of Women: The Making of an International Women’s Movement (Princeton University Press, 1997) 108. 60. Iriye, Global Community, 9. 61. Iriye, Global Community, 9–10. 62. Iriye, Global Community, 15. 63. Adam Tooze, The Deluge: The Great War, America and the Remaking of the Global Order, 1916–1931 (New York: Viking, 2014) 333. 64. Walter Lippmann, “Empire: The Days of Our Nonage Are Over,” Men of Destiny (New York: Macmillan, 1928) 215–16. 65. Lippmann, “Empire,” 217. 66. Boyce, The Great Interwar Crisis, 18. 67. Lothrop Stoddard, The Rising Tide of Color Against White World Supremacy (New York: Scribner, 1920) v. 68. Stoddard, The Rising Tide of Color, v. 69. Boyce, The Great Interwar Crisis, 1. 70. Mark Mazower, No Enchanted Palace: The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United Nations (Princeton University Press, 2009) 30 and 37. 71. Mazower, No Enchanted Palace, 62–63. 72. Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996) 19. 73. Jay Winter, Dreams of Peace and Freedom: Utopian Movements in the Twentieth Century (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006) 99–100. 74. Mazower, No Enchanted Palace, 97–98. 75. Winter, Dreams of Peace and Freedom, 3. 76. Jill Dolan, Utopia in Performance: Finding Hope at the Theater (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2004) 19. 77. Dolan, Utopia in Performance, 2. 78. Appadurai, Modernity at Large, 29. 79. Carl Marklund, “Rationalization and the Modernity of Europe,” unpublished ms (2005): 1. http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006& context=carl_marklund. Consulted 1 July 2010. 80. Anthony Giddens, Conversations with Anthony Giddens: Making Sense of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1998) 94. 81. Nolan, The Transatlantic Century, 5. 82. Rosamond Gilder, Report to the National Commission for UNESCO, ms (nd) 1. New York Public Library for the Performing Arts. 83. Tooze, The Deluge, 334. 84. Albert Rhys Williams, Through the Russian Revolution (New York: Boni and Liveright, 1921) 243.

1 Theatre Arts: The Tributary Theatre

1. Nafe Katter, “Theatre Arts Under the Editorship of Edith J. R. Isaacs,” diss. (University of Michigan, 1963) 365. 2. Katter, “Theatre Arts,” 365–66. 248 Notes to Chapter 1

3. Helen Sheehy, Margo: The Life and Theatre of Margo Jones (Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 2005 [1989]) 18. 4. Katter, “Theatre Arts,” 356. 5. The issues remained in the University of Texas Department of Theatre and Dance and I used many of them in the research for this book. 6. Katter, “Theatre Arts,” 362. 7. Katter, “Theatre Arts,” 364. 8. Katter, “Theatre Arts,” 364. 9. Katter, “Theatre Arts,” 363. 10. Katter, “Theatre Arts,” 362–63. 11. Karen J. Blair, The Torchbearers: Women and their Amateur Arts Associations in America, 1890–1930 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994) 143. 12. Katter, “Theatre Arts,” 362. 13. Katter, “Theatre Arts,” 363. 14. Katter, “Theatre Arts,” 363. 15. Katter, “Theatre Arts,” 364. 16. Adam Tooze, The Deluge: The Great War, America and the Remaking of the Global Order, 1916–1931 (New York: Viking, 2014) 6. 17. Katter, “Theatre Arts,” 365. 18. Robert Boyce, The Great Interwar Crisis and the Collapse of Globalization (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009) 429. 19. Sheldon Cheney, A Primer of Modern Art (New York: Boni and Liveright, 1924) 234 and DeAnna M. Toten Beard, Sheldon Cheney’s Theatre Arts Magazine: Promoting a Modern American Theatre, 1916–1921 (Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2010) 12. 20. College of Creative Studies, “History,” http://www.collegeforcreativestudies. edu/about-us/history. Accessed 3 March 2014. 21. Sheldon Cheney, interview with J. R. K. Kantor and Suzanne B. Reiss, 24–25 May 1974. https://archive.org/details/conversationswit00chenrich. Accessed 3 March 2014. 22. Sheldon Cheney, “Editorial Comment,” Theatre Arts 1.4 (August 1917): 166. 23. Sheldon Cheney, “Editorial Comment,” Theatre Arts 2.1 (December 1917): 48. 24. Cheney, “Editorial Comment” (December 1917): 49. 25. Beard, Sheldon Cheney’s Theatre Arts Magazine, 15. 26. Sheldon Cheney, “Editorial Comment,” Theatre Arts 2.2 (February 1918): 101. 27. Katter, “Theatre Arts,” 8. 28. Katter, “Theatre Arts,” 9. 29. Katter, “Theatre Arts,” 12. 30. Cheney, Theatre Arts 2.1 (December 1917): 1. 31. Clara Alexander Weiss, “The Publishing Program of Theatre Arts,” Publisher’s Weekly (11 January 1941): 134. 32. Catherine Ann Tabor, “Edith Juliet Rich Isaacs: An Examination of her Theories and Influence on the American Theatre,” diss. (University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1984): 4. 33. As quoted in Katter, “Theatre Arts,” 48. 34. Beard, Sheldon Cheney’s Theatre Arts Magazine, 5. 35. Caroline J. Dodge Latta, “Rosamond Gilder and the Theatre,” diss. (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1974): 15. 36. Gilder quoted in Katter, “Theatre Arts,” 341. Notes to Chapter 1 249

37. Latta, “Rosamond Gilder and the Theatre,” 5. 38. Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, “The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America,” Signs 1.1 (Autumn 1975): 7. 39. Smith-Rosenberg, “The Female World,” 9. 40. Rosamond Gilder, “La Nostagilder: Some Letters of Eleonora Duse,” Theatre Arts 10.6 (June 1926): 368. 41. Helen Sheehy, Eleonora Duse: A Biography (New York: Knopf, 2009) 125–26. 42. Gilder, “La Nostagilder,” 380. 43. Sheehy, Eleonora Duse, 124. 44. Latta, “Rosamond Gilder and the Theatre,” 44. 45. Latta, “Rosamond Gilder and the Theatre,” 18. 46. Dorothy Chansky and Terry Brino-Dean, “A New Theatre: Theatre Arts (1916–64) and Drama (1911–31),” The Oxford Critical and Cultural History of Modernist Magazines, Vol. II: North America 1894–1960, ed. Peter Brooker and Andrew Thacker (Oxford University Press, 2012) 383. 47. Sheldon Cheney, interview with Kantor and Reiss, 24–25 May 1974. 48. Sheldon Cheney, “Foreword,” Theatre Arts 1.1 (November 1916): 1. 49. Sheldon Cheney, The Art Theatre: A Discussion of its Ideals, its Organization and its Promise as a Corrective for Present Evils in the Commercial Theatre (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1917) 15. 50. David Savran, Highbrow/Lowdown: Theatre, Jazz, and the Making of the New Middle Class (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2009) 63. 51. Christin Essin, Stage Designers in Early Twentieth-Century America: Artists, Activists, Cultural Critics (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012) 8. 52. Essin, Stage Designers in Early Twentieth-Century America, 9. 53. Cheney, “Foreword,” 1. 54. Katter, “Theatre Arts,” 96. 55. Edith J. R. Isaacs, “1620—The Puritans and the Theater—1920,” Theatre Arts 4.4 (October 1920): 280–85. 56. Joan Acocella and Lynn Garafola, “Introduction,” André Levinson on Dance: Writings from Paris in the Twenties, ed. Joan Acocella and Lynn Garafola (Hanover: Wesleyan University Press, 1991) 18. 57. On Pueblo Indian dances see Theatre Arts 8.7 (July 1924): 447–57 and on Hopi Snake dance Theatre Arts 8.12 (December 1924): 836–60. 58. José Juan Tablada, “The Dance in Mexico,” Theatre Arts 11.8 (August 1927): 637–44. 59. Edith Isaacs, Report to the Joint Annual Meeting of the Stockholders and Directors of Theatre Arts, Inc., April 1930. RG/NYPLPA. 60. “The Tenth Year: Editorially Speaking,” Theatre Arts 10 (January 1926): 1. 61. Chansky and Brino-Dean, “A New Theatre,” 381. 62. Constance D’Arcy Mackay, The Little Theater in the United States (New York: H. Holt, 1917) 15. 63. Mackay, The Little Theater in the United States, 1. 64. David Belasco, Theatre through its Stage Door (New York: Harper, 1919) 228–29. 65. Peter A. Dart, “The National Little Theatre Tournament 1923–1931,” Educational Theatre Journal 16.3 (October 1964): 253–54. 66. Theatre Arts covered Little Theatres extensively. Some of the theatres with individual articles were: Pasadena Playhouse 8.1 (January 1924): 18–25, Cleveland Playhouse 8.4 (April 1924): 238–42, Rams Head Players in 250 Notes to Chapter 1

DC 8.11 (November 1924): 757–60, Goodman Memorial Theatre 9.9 (September 1925): 609–14, Cleveland Playhouse 10.8 (August 1926): 517–22, Plays and Players in Philadelphia 10.9 (September 1926), Helen Ingersoll, “The Neighborhood Playhouse” 13.10 (October 1929): 764–69, [no author], “Schenectady Civic Players” 14.6 (June 1930): 528–31, Harrison Doty, “Peer Gynt on the Prairie: Twenty Years of the Little Country Theatre” 18.2 (February 1934): 144–49 on LCT in Fargo, ND. 67. Joseph Urban, “The Stage,” Theatre Arts 3.2 (April 1919): 125. 68. Cheney, The Art Theatre, 228. 69. Beard, Sheldon Cheney’s Theatre Arts Magazine, 41. 70. Kenneth Macgowan, Footlights Across America: Towards a National Theatre (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1929) 22. 71. Isaacs, “Tributary Theatre,” Theatre Arts 10.9 (September 1926): 570. 72. Edith Isaacs, “Tributary Theatre,” 575. 73. Dorothy Chansky, Composing Ourselves: The Little Theatre Movement and the American Audience (Carbondale: Southern Illinois Press, 2004) 132. 74. Harold A. Ehrensperger as quoted in Blair, The Torchbearers, 146. 75. Blair, The Torchbearers, 148. 76. Chansky, Composing Ourselves, 138–39. 77. Blair, The Torchbearers, 156. 78. Beard, Sheldon Cheney’s Theatre Arts Magazine, 250. 79. Chansky, Composing Ourselves, 137. 80. Chansky, Composing Ourselves, 146. 81. Tino Balio and Lee Norvelle, The History of the National Theatre Conference (np: National Theatre Conference, 1968) 13–14. 82. Balio and Norvelle, The History of the National Theatre Conference, 15. 83. Balio and Norvelle, The History of the National Theatre Conference, 16–17. 84. Balio and Norvelle, The History of the National Theatre Conference, 17. 85. Balio and Norvelle, The History of the National Theatre Conference, 30–31. 86. Helen Conger, “Barclay Leathem and the National Theatre Conference.” 17 May 2013. http://blog.case.edu/ksl/specialcollections/2013/05/17/barclay_ leathem_and_the_national_theatre_conference. Accessed 14 February 2014. 87. Balio and Norvelle, The History of the National Theatre Conference, 20. 88. Roy Gittinger, The University of Oklahoma 1892–1942 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1942) 148. There had been a School of Dramatic Art since 1927, but Jones’ arrival focused and increased the presence of theatre on campus (153–54). The mainstage theatre at the University of Oklahoma is named for Rupel Jones. “Drama Facilities and Technology,” http://www. ou.edu/content/finearts/drama/facilities-tech.html. Accessed 7 March 2014. 89. Rupel J. Jones, letter to Edith Isaacs, 15 March 1933. RG/NYPLPA. 90. Rosamond Gilder, letter to Rupel J. Jones, 26 April 1934. RG/NYPLPA. 91. Rupel Jones, letter to Rosamond Gilder, 9 March 1936. RG/NYPLPA. 92. Ira Katznelson, Fear Itself: The New Deal and the Origins of Our Time (New York: Liveright, 2013) 231. 93. As quoted in Katznelson, Fear Itself, 237. 94. National Recovery Administration, “Proposed Code of Fair Competition for the Legitimate Full Length Dramatic and Musical Theatrical Industry” (Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1933). https://archive. org/details/proposedcodeoffair00unse. Accessed 28 February 2014. 95. National Recovery Administration, “Proposed Code of Fair Competition.” Notes to Chapter 1 251

96. National Recovery Administration, “Proposed Code of Fair Competition.” 97. Balio and Norvelle, The History of the National Theatre Conference, 22. 98. Balio and Norvelle, The History of the National Theatre Conference, 22. 99. Kenneth Macgowan, telegram to Chairman, National Legitimate Theatre Committee, 6 November 1933. RG/NYPLPA. 100. As quoted in Balio and Norvelle, The History of the National Theatre Conference, 22. 101. “The World and the Theatre,” Theatre Arts 18.1 (January 1934): 3. 102. “The World and the Theatre,” 3–4. 103. “The World and the Theatre,” 4. 104. Rosamond Gilder, letter to Rupel Jones, 4 April 1934. RG/NYPLPA. 105. Edith Isaacs, “Editor’s Note,” preceding Joseph Verner Reed, “Apologia of a Producer: Farewell to All the Pomps and Vanities,” Theatre Arts 18.2 (February 1934): 106. 106. “The World and the Theatre,” Theatre Arts 18.5 (May 1934): 320. The victory was substantial, but ultimately did not have much legal impact because in May 1935 in A. L. A Schechter Poultry Corp v. United States the Supreme Court found that “the law’s delegation of power to the president and the executive branch violated the Constitution.” Katznelson, Fear Itself, 243. 107. Carla Kaplan, Miss Anne in Harlem: The White Women of the Black Renaissance (New York: HarperCollins, 2013) 21. 108. Langston Hughes, The Big Sea (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993 [1940]) 223. The second musical he mentions was actually titled Runnin’ Wild. It ran at the New Colonial Theatre for 228 performances, October 1923 to June 1924. The music was composed by James Johnson, the book written by F. E. Miller and Aubrey L. Lyles, with lyrics by Cecil Mack. Runnin’ Wild, Internet Broadway Database, http://www.ibdb.com/production. php?id=9308. Accessed 14 March 2014. 109. Shufﬂ e Along, Internet Broadway Database, http://ibdb.com/production. php?id=9073. Accessed 14 March 2014. The show was in the 63rd Street Music Hall (demolished in 1957) with a book by Flournoy Miller and Aubrey Lyles, music by Eubie Blake, and lyrics by Noble Sissle. 110. James Weldon Johnson, Black Manhattan (New York: Arno Press, 1968 [1930]) 188. 111. Montgomery Gregory, “The Drama of Negro Life,” The New Negro: Voices of the Harlem Renaissance, ed. Alain Locke (New York: Touchstone, 1997 [1925]) 156. 112. Johnson, Black Manhattan, 175. 113. Zona Gale, “The Colored Players and their Plays,” Theatre Arts 1.3 (May 1917): 140. 114. The DLA praised Ridgely Torrence’s work highly. Blair, The Torchbearers, 152. Carl Van Vechten reviewed it rapturously. Emily Bernard, Carl Van Vechten and the Harlem Renaissance: A Portrait in Black and White (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012) 41–42. 115. Gale, “The Colored Players and their Plays,” 140. 116. Gale, “The Colored Players and their Plays,” 139. 117. Harry Elam, “Black Theatre in the Age of Obama,” The Cambridge Companion to African American Theatre, ed. Harvey Young (Cambridge University Press, 2012) 257. 252 Notes to Chapter 1

118. Hughes, The Big Sea, 228. 119. Kenneth Macgowan, “New York Sees Native and European Plays of Real Distinction,” Theatre Arts 5.1 (January 1921): 6. In the same issue the magazine published the entire play. 120. Alain Locke, “The Drama of Negro Life,” Theatre Arts 10.10 (October 1926): 702. 121. Kaplan, Miss Anne in Harlem, 23. 122. Henry Louis Gates and Gene Andrew Jarrett, “Introduction,” The New Negro: Readings on Race, Representation, and African American Culture, 1892– 1938, ed. Henry Louis Gates and Gene Andrew Jarrett (Princeton University Press, 2007) 1. 123. Gates and Jarrett, “Introduction,” 3. 124. Gates and Jarrett, “Introduction,” 10–11. 125. Arnold Rampersad, “Introduction,” The New Negro: Voices of the Harlem Renaissance, ed. Alain Locke (New York: Touchstone, 1997 [1925]) ix. 126. Gates and Jarrett, “Introduction,” 2. 127. Alain Locke, “Foreword,” The New Negro, xxvi. 128. Gates and Jarrett, “Introduction,” 9. 129. Rampersad, “Introduction,” The New Negro, xvi. 130. George Tichenor, “Colored Lines,” Theatre Arts 14.6 (June 1930): 490. 131. Tichenor, “Colored Lines,” 490. 132. André Levinson, “The Negro Dance: Under European Eyes,” Theatre Arts 11.3 (March 1927): 284 and 288. 133. Alain Locke, “The Negro and the American Stage,” Theatre Arts 10.2 (February 1926): 112. 134. Locke, “The Negro and the American Stage,” 113. 135. Locke, “The Negro and the American Stage,” 119. 136. W. E. B. Du Bois, “Krigwa Players Little Theatre: The Story of a Little Theatre Movement,” Crisis (July 1926): 134. 137. Locke, “The Drama of Negro Life,” 703. 138. Stephanie Leigh Batiste, Darkening Mirrors: Imperial Representation in Depression-Era African American Performance (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2012) 10. 139. Hughes, The Big Sea, 325. 140. Hughes, The Big Sea, 334. 141. African American producers were rare on Broadway and Nikko Productions was only able to produce Shufﬂ e Along. Bernard L. Peterson, The African American Theatre Directory, 1816–1960: A Comprehensive Guide to Early Black Theatre Organizations, Companies, Theatres, and Performing Groups (Westport: Greenwood, 1997) 153–54. 142. Green Pastures, Internet Broadway Database. http://www.ibdb.com/show. php?id=4101. Accessed 18 March 2014. 143. Glenda Gill, “Rosamond Gilder: Influential Talisman for African American Performers,” Theatre Survey 37.1 (May 1996): 102. 144. Gill, “Rosamond Gilder,” 103. 145. Gregory, “The Drama of Negro Life,” 158. 146. Frederick Koch, letter to Rosamond Gilder, 6 January 1933. RG/NYPLPA. 147. Edith J. R. Isaacs, “The Negro and the Theatre: A Glance at the Past and a Prophecy,” Opportunity: A Journal of Negro Life 13.6 (June 1935): 176. Notes to Chapter 2 253

148. Gill, “Rosamond Gilder,” 113–14. Also, Gordon Heath, Deep Are the Roots: Memoirs of a Black Expatriate (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1996) 73–74 and James V. Hatch, Sorrow is the Only Faithful One: The Life of Owen Dodson (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993) 50–54. 149. George Amberg, letter to Rosamond Gilder, 31 May 1944. RG/NYPLPA. 150. Rosamond Gilder, letter to George Amberg, 7 June 1944. RG/NYPLPA. 151. Edith J. R. Isaacs, The Negro in the American Theatre (New York: Theatre Arts, 1947) 27. 152. George Amberg, letter to Rosamond Gilder, 26 June 1944. RG/NYPLPA. 153. Locke as quoted in Leonard Harris and Charles Molesworth, Alain L. Locke: The Biography of a Philosopher (University of Chicago Press, 2008) 346. 154. Isaacs, The Negro in the American Theatre, 13. 155. Isaacs, The Negro in the American Theatre, 127. 156. Hiram Kelly Moderwell, “The Art of Robert Edmond Jones,” Theatre Arts 1.2 (February 1917): 51. 157. Moderwell, “The Art of Robert Edmond Jones,” 51. 158. Katter, “Theatre Arts,” 213. 159. Margaret Shedd, “Carib Dance Patterns,” Theatre Arts 17.1 (January 1933): 65–77. 160. Roberta Fernández, “Introduction: A Mosaic of Latino Literature in the United States,” In Other Words: Literature by Latinas of the United States, ed. Roberta Fernández (Houston: Arte Publico Press, 1994) xxix. 161. Langston Hughes, letter to Edith Isaacs, 9 March 1935. RG/NYPLPA. 162. Carleton Beals, “Las Carpas: Mexican Street Theatres,” Theatre Arts 12.2 (February 1928): 99–108. 163. Kate A. Baldwin, Beyond the Color Line and the Iron Curtain: Reading Encounters Between Black and Red, 1922–1963 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002) 108. 164. Langston Hughes, letter to Edith Isaacs, 9 March 1935. RG/NYPLPA. 165. Langston Hughes, “Tamara Khanum: Soviet Asia’s Greatest Dancer,” Theatre Arts 18.11 (November 1934): 835. 166. Baldwin, Beyond the Color Line and the Iron Curtain, 89. 167. Hughes, “Tamara Khanum,” 835. 168. Isaacs, The Negro in the American Theatre, 13.

2 Onstage I: The Marriage Proposal, 1927

1. As quoted in David W. Ellwood, The Shock of America: Europe and the Challenge of the Century (Oxford University Press, 2012) 106. 2. Robert Boyce, The Great Interwar Crisis and the Collapse of Globalization (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009) 143. 3. Patricia Clavin, Securing the World Economy: The Reinvention of the League of Nations, 1920–46 (Oxford University Press, 2013) 42. 4. Boyce, The Great Interwar Crisis, 177. 5. Daniel Gorman, The Emergence of International Society in the 1920s (Cambridge University Press, 2012) 183. 6. Clavin, Securing the World Economy, 42. 7. Hallie Flanagan, letter to George Pierce Baker, 12 November 1926. HFD/ Vassar. 254 Notes to Chapter 2

8. Hallie Flanagan, letter to Henry Allen Moe, 26 September 1926. HFD/Vassar. 9. Michael David-Fox, Showcasing the Great Experiment: Cultural Diplomacy and Western Visitors to the Soviet Union, 1921–1941 (Oxford University Press, 2014) 1. 10. David-Fox, Showcasing the Great Experiment, 1. 11. Edith J. R. Isaacs, “History Repeats Itself: Theatre and University,” Theatre Arts 19.7 (July 1935): 488. 12. As quoted in Peter Filene, Americans and the Soviet Experiment, 1917–1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967) 194. 13. Paul Hollander, Political Pilgrims: Western Intellectuals in Search of the Good Society (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1998) 7. 14. Filene, Americans and the Soviet Experiment, 96. He is quoting from articles about the Soviet Union written between 1925–27. 15. Filene, Americans and the Soviet Experiment, 99. 16. Anna Louise Strong, I Change Worlds: The Remaking of an American (New York: Henry Holt, 1935) 150. 17. As quoted in David C. Engerman, Modernization from the Other Shore: American Intellectuals and the Romance of Russian Development (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003) 165. 18. Hollander, Political Pilgrims, 84. 19. Hollander, Political Pilgrims, 30. 20. Hollander, Political Pilgrims, 12. 21. Hallie Flanagan, personal diary, c. 29 May 1930. HFD/Vassar. 22. Hallie Flanagan, personal diary, c. 29 May 1930. HFD/Vassar. 23. Nadezhda Mandelstam, Hope Against Hope: A Memoir, trans. Max Hayward (New York: Modern Library, 1999) 165. 24. Mandelstam, Hope Against Hope, 166. 25. Mandelstam, Hope Against Hope, 166. 26. Engerman, Modernization from the Other Shore, 155. 27. Hallie Flanagan, personal diary, undated (but sometime between 5–7 November) 1926. HFD/Vassar. 28. Filene, Americans and the Soviet Experiment, 16. 29. Louise Bryant, Six Red Months in Russia: An Observer’s Account of Russia Before and During the Proletarian Dictatorship (New York: George H. Doran, 1918) 45. 30. Alan Ball, “Building a New State and Society: NEP, 1921–28,” The Cambridge History of Russia, Vol. 3, ed. Ronald Grigor Suny (Cambridge University Press, 2006) 171. 31. Mandelstam, Hope Against Hope, 166. 32. Filene, Americans and the Soviet Experiment, 75. 33. Ball, “Building a New State and Society,” 178. 34. Filene, Americans and the Soviet Experiment, 142. 35. Filene, Americans and the Soviet Experiment, 140. 36. Mordecai Gorelik, “Theatre Outpost, USSR,” Theatre Arts 17.1 (January 1933) 48. 37. Caroline J. Dodge Latta, “Rosamond Gilder and the Theatre,” diss. (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1974): 63. 38. Marie Seton, “The Russian Scene: Soviet Theatres in 1933,” Theatre Arts 17.4 (April 1933) 275. 39. As quoted in James von Geldern, “1934: Writers’ Congress: The First Congress of Soviet Writers,” Seventeen Moments in Soviet History. http:// Notes to Chapter 2 255

soviethistory.macalester.edu/index.php?page=subject&SubjectID=1934write rs&Year=1934&navi=byYear. Accessed 15 August 2014. 40. Vladislav Zubok, Zhivago’s Children: The Last Russian Intelligentsia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011) 13. The phrase “chief ideologist” comes from Kees Boterbloem, The Life and Times of Andrei Zhdanov (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2004) 1. 41. Valleri J. Hohman, Russian Culture and Theatrical Performance in America, 1891–1933 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011) 3. 42. Hohman, Russian Culture and Theatrical Performance in America, 58. 43. David-Fox, Showcasing the Great Experiment, 294. 44. David-Fox, Showcasing the Great Experiment, 295. 45. David-Fox, Showcasing the Great Experiment, 295. 46. Mary Nolan, The Transatlantic Century: Europe and America, 1890–2010 (Cambridge University Press, 2012) 88. 47. David-Fox, Showcasing the Great Experiment, 195. 48. Theresa M. Collins, Otto Kahn: Art, Money, and Modern Time (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002) 158–61. 49. John Kobler, Otto the Magniﬁ cent: The Life of Otto Kahn (New York: Scribner’s, 1988) 133–34 and 162–76. 50. Akira Iriye, The Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations, Vol. 3: The Globalizing of America, 1913–1945 (Cambridge University Press, 1995) 112–13. 51. Collins, Otto Kahn, 106–7. 52. Nolan, The Transatlantic Century, 40. 53. Collins, Otto Kahn, 143. 54. Otto Kahn, Of Many Things: Being Reﬂ ections and Impressions on International Affairs, Domestic Topics, and The Arts (New York: Boni and Liveright, 1926) 27. 55. Kahn, Of Many Things, 27. 56. Peter Grose, Continuing the Inquiry: The Council on Foreign Relations from 1921 to 1996 (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1996) 1. 57. Grose, Continuing the Inquiry, 8. 58. Kahn, Of Many Things, 27. 59. Hohman, Russian Culture and Theatrical Performance in America, 102. 60. As quoted in Hohman, Russian Culture and Theatrical Performance in America, 183. 61. Oliver M. Sayler, Russian Theatre Under the Revolution (New York: Little, Brown, 1920) 5. 62. Oliver M. Sayler, Russia White or Red (New York: Little, Brown, 1919) 90. 63. Sayler, Russia White or Red, 92. 64. Huntley Carter, The New Theatre and Cinema of Soviet Russia (London: Chapman and Dodd, 1924) 6. 65. Carter, The New Theatre and Cinema of Soviet Russia, 25. 66. Hohman, Russian Culture and Theatrical Performance in America, 103. 67. N. Ostrovsky, “The Moscow Art Theatre: A Model,” Theatre Arts 1.3 (August 1917): 182. 68. Konstantin Stanislavsky, “Stanislavsky to His Players,” trans. Lucie R. Sayer, Theatre Arts 7.1 (January 1923): 29–40. 69. Anna Louise Strong, “Cubist Theatre of Moscow: As It Looks to an American Layman in the Audience,” Theatre Arts 7.3 (July 1923): 224–27. 256 Notes to Chapter 2

70. Richard Boleslawsky, “The Laboratory Theatre,” Theatre Arts 7.3 (July 1923): 245–46. Boleslavsky (he changed the spelling of his name a few years later) founded the American Laboratory Theatre that year, and taught such students as Harold Clurman, Lee Strasberg, Stella Adler, and many others who would have considerable influence on the direction of theatre in the US. In the next issue Isaacs published his first lesson in acting. “The First Lesson in Acting: A Pseudo Morality,” Theatre Arts 7.4 (October 1923): 284–92. Theatre Arts would continue to publish Boleslavsky’s work on acting, culminating in the publication of one of the first books under the Theatre Arts imprint, Acting; The First Six Lessons, in 1933. 71. Paul Gray, “From Russia to America: A Critical Chronology,” Stanislavsky and America: An Anthology from the Tulane Drama Review, ed. Erika Munk (New York: Fawcett, 1964) 149. 72. Babette Deutsch, “Russian Theatre Today,” Theatre Arts (August 1925): 47. Upon seeing the same production in New York, John Mason Brown wrote the following year: “The zest of the writing was equaled if not surpassed by the zest of the performance.” “The Director Takes a Hand,” Theatre Arts (February 1926): 75. 73. Velona Pilcher, “The Theatre of the Revolution,” Theatre Arts (April 1927): 258. 74. DeAnna M. Toten Beard, Sheldon Cheney’s Theatre Arts Magazine: Promoting a Modern American Theatre, 1916–1921 (Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2010) 99. 75. Martin Morse Wooster, “Guggenheim Family: Simon Guggenheim,” Notable American Philanthropists: Biographies of Giving and Volunteering, ed. Robert T. Grimm (Westport: Greenwood, 2002) 139. 76. Hallie Flanagan, Shifting Scenes of the Modern European Theatre (New York: Howard-McCann, 1928) 1. All subsequent citations of the book will be parenthetical. 77. Susan Manning, Ecstasy and the Demon: The Dances of Mary Wigman (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993) 118. 78. Joanne Bentley, Hallie Flanagan: A Life in the American Theatre (New York: Knopf, 1988) 32. 79. Her biographer noted: “It all reads in Hallie’s journal like the setting for a play. And that was exactly how Hallie saw it.” Bentley, Hallie Flanagan, 65. It should also be noted that Flanagan traveled to Moscow with Theatre Arts’ London correspondent Velona Pilcher (Bentley, Hallie Flanagan, 76). It is pretty clear from the article Pilcher wrote from Moscow that her impressions of Moscow theatre were similar to Flanagan’s. 80. Hallie Flanagan, personal diary, undated (but sometime between 5–7 November) 1926. HFD/Vassar. 81. David-Fox, Showcasing the Great Experiment, 115. 82. David-Fox, Showcasing the Great Experiment, 115–16. 83. David-Fox, Showcasing the Great Experiment, 116. 84. Hallie Flanagan, “Notes on My Life,” 15–31 August 1948. HFD/Vassar. 85. Frederick Morton, “Tovarish!” Theatre Arts 13.3 (March 1929): 230. 86. “Sketches on the European Theatre,” Hartford Courant 30 December 1928: np. 87. Edward P. Goodnow, letter to Hallie Flanagan, 18 January 1929. Hallie Flanagan Papers, *T-Mss 1964-002, Billy Rose Theatre Division, The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts. Box 28, folder 53, 54. Notes to Chapter 2 257

88. Edith J. R. Isaacs, “The Theatre in Modern Education,” Journal of Adult Education (April 1933): 130. 89. Kenneth Macgowan, Footlights Across America: Towards a National Theatre (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1929) 131. 90. Macgowan, Footlights Across America, 211. 91. George Pierce Baker, “The Theatre and the University,” Theatre: Essays on the Arts of the Theatre, ed. Edith J. R. Isaacs (Boston: Little, Brown, 1927) 305. Originally appeared in Theatre Arts 9.2 (February 1925): 99–108. 92. Hallie Flanagan, Moscow Schedule, 1926. Hallie Flanagan Papers, *T-Mss 1964-002, Billy Rose Theatre Division, The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts. Box 28, folder 16. 93. Robert Leach, Vsevolod Meyerhold (Cambridge University Press, 1989) 87. 94. Leach, Vsevolod Meyerhold, 36. 95. As quoted in Leach, Vsevolod Meyerhold, 36. Emphasis in the original. 96. Charles W. Meister, Chekhov Criticism: 1880 Through 1986 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1988) 184. 97. As quoted in Meister, Chekhov Criticism, 185. 98. Outside Russia, the play had been produced in Prague (1890), Paris (1908), Tokyo (1910), Geneva (1916), and Dublin (1925). Laurence Senelick, The Chekhov Theatre: A Century of the Plays in Performance (Cambridge University Press, 1997) 416. She made no mention of having seen it in Dublin, but it may have been discussed while she was there. 99. Anton Chekhov, The Proposal, Plays by Anton Tchekoff, trans. Julius West (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1916). http://www.one-act-plays.com/ comedies/proposal.html. Accessed 2 July 2014. All subsequent quotations from the play are from this source. 100. Hallie Flanagan, Dynamo (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1943) 25–26. 101. Senelick, The Chekhov Theatre, 178. 102. The Marriage Proposal program, performance at Yale University Theatre, 3 March 1928. HFD/Vassar. 103. As quoted in Flanagan, Dynamo, 26. 104. The Marriage Proposal program, performance at Yale University Theatre, 3 March 1928. HFD/Vassar. 105. Jo Gates, “Hallie Flanagan Davis and the Origins of the Vassar Experimental Theatre,” The Misc. 55.9 (26 February 1971) 4. 106. Senelick, The Chekhov Theatre, 178. 107. Gates, “Hallie Flanagan Davis and the Origins of the Vassar Experimental Theatre,” 4. 108. Senelick, The Chekhov Theatre, 178. 109. Spencer Golub, “Tairov, Alexander,” The Cambridge Guide to Theatre, ed. Martin Banham (Cambridge University Press, 1995) 1051. 110. As quoted in Flanagan, Dynamo, 28. 111. As quoted in Flanagan, Dynamo, 26. 112. Hallie Flanagan, “Experiment at Vassar,” Theatre Arts (January 1928): 71. 113. The Marriage Proposal program, performance at Yale University Theatre, 3 March 1928. 114. Flanagan, “Experiment at Vassar,” 71. 115. Flanagan, “Experiment at Vassar,” 71. 116. Flanagan, “Experiment at Vassar,” 71. 258 Notes to Chapter 2

117. Mary Lee, “The College Girl Starts a Revolution,” New York Times (13 May 1928): 74. 118. Lee, “The College Girl Starts a Revolution,” 74. 119. Lee, “The College Girl Starts a Revolution,” 74. 120. As quoted in Flanagan, Dynamo, 28. 121. Flanagan, Dynamo, 29. 122. Flanagan, Dynamo, 29. 123. Flanagan, Guggenheim Foundation application. 124. Flanagan, Dynamo, 30. 125. Baker, “The Theatre and the University,” 312. 126. Alice Griffin and Geraldine Thorsten, Understanding Lillian Hellman (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1999) 9. 127. Lillian Hellman, An Unﬁ nished Woman, Three: An Unﬁ nished Woman, Pentimento, Scoundrel Time (New York: Little, Brown, 1979 [1969]) 145. 128. William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man, His Era (London: Free Press, 2003) 189. 129. Archie Brown, The Rise and Fall of Communism (New York: HarperCollins, 2009) 64. 130. Brown, The Rise and Fall of Communism, 63. 131. Taubman, Khrushchev, 97. 132. David-Fox, Showcasing the Great Experiment, 36. 133. David-Fox, Showcasing the Great Experiment, 282. 134. Elmer Rice, Minority Report: An Autobiography (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1963) 286. 135. Rice, Minority Report, 287. 136. Rice, Minority Report, 294. 137. Rice, Minority Report, 298. 138. Rice, Minority Report, 299. 139. Rice, Minority Report, 319. 140. Jerry Dickey, Sophie Treadwell: A Research and Production Sourcebook (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1997) 69. 141. Jerry Dickey, “The Expressionist Moment: Sophie Treadwell,” The Cambridge Companion to American Women Playwrights, ed. Brenda Murphy (Cambridge University Press, 1999) 79. 142. Dickey, Sophie Treadwell, 11. 143. As quoted in Dickey, “The Expressionist Moment,” 79. 144. Rice, Minority Report, 300. 145. Dickey, Sophie Treadwell, 90. 146. Lee Strasberg, “Russian Notebook (1934),” ed. Paul Ryder Ryan, TDR 17.1 (March 1973), 106. 147. Strasberg, “Russian Notebook (1934),” 107. 148. Strasberg, “Russian Notebook (1934),” 107. 149. Strasberg, “Russian Notebook (1934),” 110. 150. Strasberg, “Russian Notebook (1934),” 109. 151. Harold Clurman, The Collected Works of Harold Clurman: Six Decades of Commentary on Theatre, Dance, Music, Film, Arts and Letters (New York: Applause Books, 2000) 6. 152. Clurman, The Collected Works of Harold Clurman, 7. 153. Clurman, The Collected Works of Harold Clurman, 7. Notes to Chapter 3 259

154. Clurman, The Collected Works of Harold Clurman, 10. 155. Clurman, The Collected Works of Harold Clurman, 7. Italics in the original. 156. Clurman, The Collected Works of Harold Clurman, 8. 157. Norris Houghton, Entrances and Exits: A Life In and Out of the Theatre (New York: Limelight, 1991) 70. 158. Houghton, Entrances and Exits, 71–79. 159. Houghton, Entrances and Exits, 9. 160. Houghton, Entrances and Exits, 249. 161. Houghton, Entrances and Exits, 254. 162. Hallie Flanagan, personal diary, 25 May 1930. Hallie Flanagan Davis Papers, Archives and Special Collections Vassar College. 163. Joanne Bentley, interview with Barbara Gratwick, 13 June 1980. Hallie Flanagan Davis Papers, Archives and Special Collections Vassar College. 164. Hallie Flanagan, “The Russian Theatre: Talk for the Introduction to Russian Civilization,” c. late 1940s. Hallie Flanagan Papers, *T-Mss 1964-002, Billy Rose Theatre Division, The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts.

3 ANTA: The US (Inter)National Theatre

1. Rosamond Gilder, “American National Theatre and Academy,” Theatre Arts 30.9 (September 1946): 501. 2. “A National Theatre,” The Independent 9 April 1903: 872. 3. “Why the New Theatre Must Not Be Abandoned,” Current Literature 50.4 (April 1911): 425. 4. “The Chimera of a National Theater,” Current Literature 44.6 (June 1908): 662. 5. Samuel Eliot, Jr., “The Municipal Theatre in Northampton,” Theatre Arts 3.4 (October 1919): 248–54. 6. John F. O’Ryan, “The Theatre and War Memorials,” Theatre Arts 3.4 (October 1919): 239. Italics in the original. 7. Edith Isaacs, “The Irresistible Theatre: A National Playhouse for America,” Theatre Arts 18.8 (August 1934): 578. 8. Flanagan lists Hiram Motherwell, Elmer Rice, E. C. Mabie, Frederic McConnell, Gilmor Brown, Frederick Koch, among many others. Many of those names can be found in my Chapter 2. Hallie Flanagan, Arena: The Story of the Federal Theatre Project (New York: Limelight Editions, 1985 [1940]) 38–43. 9. Hallie Flanagan, letter to Shirley Rich Krohn, c. 1962. HF/NYPLPA. 10. As quoted in Flanagan, Arena, 347. 11. John Elsom and Nicholas Tomlin, The History of the National Theatre (London: Jonathan Cape, 1978) 87. 12. Elsom and Tomlin, History, 90–93. 13. Geraldine Anthony, “Herman Voaden,” Stage Voices: Twelve Canadian Playwrights Talk About Their Lives and Work (Toronto: Doubleday Canada, 1978) 28–54, passim. 14. Elbert D. Thomas, “The Theatre and the Nation,” unpublished manuscript, 8 July 1946. RG/NYPLPA. This is an early draft version of “The Theatre and the Nation,” Theatre Arts 30.9 (September 1946): 509–11. 260 Notes to Chapter 3

15. Billy Rose, “Pitching Horseshoes,” San Bernardino County Sun 13 May 1949: 7. 16. Billy Rose, “Pitching Horseshoes,” 7. 17. Billy Rose, “Pitching Horseshoes,” 7. 18. Loren Kruger, The National Stage: Theatre and Cultural Legitimation in England, France, and America (University of Chicago Press, 1992) 13. 19. Severino Montano, “The Administrative History of The American Theatre and Academy,” diss. (American University, 1949), 90. 20. George Freedley, “The American National Theatre,” Southwestern Review (Autumn 1946): 366. 21. Mary Widrig John, “ANTA: The American National Theatre and Academy: Its First Quarter Century 1935–1960,” diss. (New York University, 1965): 15. 22. See Tino Balio and Lee Norvelle, The History of the National Theatre Conference (np: National Theatre Conference, 1968) for a more complete account of the relationship between ANTA and the NTC, as well as the central roles Gilder and Isaacs played in the organization. 23. Caroline J. Dodge Latta, “Rosamond Gilder and the Theatre,” diss. (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1974): 15. 24. “The Chimera of a National Theater,” 662. 25. Montano, “The Administrative History of The American Theatre and Academy,” 92 and “Federal Reserve History” http://www.federalreservehis tory.org/People/DetailView/39. Accessed 3 April 2014. 26. John, “ANTA,” 27. 27. “A National Theatre,” The Independent 9 April 1930: 872. 28. John, “ANTA,” 32. 29. Montano, “The Administrative History of The American Theatre and Academy,” 89. 30. Robert Boyce, The Great Interwar Crisis and the Collapse of Globalization (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009) 10. 31. Montano, “The Administrative History of The American Theatre and Academy,” 92–93. The bill was introduced in the House by Representative Charles McLaughlin (D, NB), 93. 32. William Sirovich, “Unemployed Arts,” Fortune (May 1937): 111. 33. John, “ANTA,” 48. 34. It was incorporated under Public Law 199, 74th Congress, 1st Session, Part 2.3 January 1935. 35. “National Theatre Is Authorized by Congress to Advance the Drama,” New York Times 30 June 1935: 1. 36. “A Brief History of American National Theatre and Academy,” nd. RB/GMU. 37. “A Brief History of American National Theatre and Academy,” nd. 38. “Theatre Proposed for World’s Fair,” New York Times 9 February 1937: 19. 39. “A Brief History of American National Theatre and Academy,” nd. 40. “Sherwood Elected Head of Academy,” New York Times 4 April 1939: 28. 41. “A Brief History of American National Theatre and Academy,” nd. 42. Edith J. R. Isaacs, “National Theatre 1940: A Record and a Prophecy,” Theatre Arts 24.1 (January 1940): 61. 43. Alvin Brandt, “What is ANTA? A Primer,” unpublished ms, 1948. RG/ NYPLPA. 44. Robert Breen, interview with Nancy Wickre, 27 November 1978. RB/GMU. Breen similarly dismissed what he saw as the blinkered vision of Harry Notes to Chapter 3 261

Hopkins, head of the WPA. All Hopkins would say, Breen reported with dis- gust, was “my job is just to put people to work.” 45. Breen, interview with Wickre. 46. Robert Breen, letter to Wilva Davis Breen, 9 June 1942. RB/GMU. 47. Breen, interview with Wickre. 48. Virginia had designated the Barter the official state theatre in 1941, and promised $10,000 but did not actually appropriate any state funds. Porterfield successfully approached the state in 1946 to secure the promised funds to reopen the theatre which had been closed during the war. Jayne Duehring, email to the author, 28 September 2006. The first theatre to be supported by a state was the Pasadena Playhouse which California began subsidizing in 1937. Bon Verini, “Epps Where He Belongs: How the Actor-Turned-Director Found His Niche at the Once Troubled Pasadena Playhouse,” American Theatre 24.9 (November 2007): 27. 49. Robert Breen, letter to Robert Porterfield, 5 September 1944. RB/GMU. 50. See for example Robert Breen, letter to Robert Porterfield, 11 November 1944. RB/GMU. 51. Documents conflict over for whom she worked. Some claim it was Joseph Ball (R, MN) and others Thomas. Thomas seems the most likely given his continued involvement in the cause. 52. Robert Breen, letter to J. Howard Reber, 3 October 1945. RG/NYPLPA. 53. J. Howard Reber, letter to Edith Isaacs, 1 February 1945. RG/NYPLPA. 54. Reber, letter to Isaacs, 1 February 1945. RG/NYPLPA. 55. Rosamond Gilder, letter to J. Howard Reber, 9 February 1945. RG/NYPLPA. 56. Robert Edmond Jones, letter to Rosamond Gilder, 20 March 1945. RG/ NYPLPA. 57. Minutes of Postponed Annual Meeting of the Board of Directors of ANTA 27 March 1945. RG/NYPLPA. 58. Robert Porterfield, “Expansion of the Theatre. How: A Plan for a Public Theatre Foundation,” undated conference presentation, c. 1945. RB/GMU. 59. Vinton Freedley, letter to Rosamond Gilder, 8 August 1945. RG/NYPLPA. 60. Draft Minutes of Board of Directors of the ANTA, 3 October 1945. RG/ NYPLPA. 61. Robert Breen, letter to Robert Porterfield, 8 October 1945. RB/GMU. 62. Robert Breen, letter to J. Howard Reber, 3 October 1945. RG/NYPLPA. 63. Rosamond Gilder, letter to J. Howard Reber, 10 January 1946. RG/NYPLPA. 64. Robert Breen and Robert Porterfield, letter to Rosamond Gilder, 15 February 1946. RG/NYPLPA. 65. Minutes of ANTA Board meeting 18 February 1946. RG/NYPLPA. It may also have helped that Breen, Porterfield, Swerdloff, and Schnitzer went to Philadelphia a month earlier to meet with Reber to garner his support for the Plan. “Notes on Conference,” 15 January 1946. RB/GMU. 66. David Quirk, “Schmidlapp Offers $1,000 for Fund Plan on National Theatre,” New York News, 1945 clipping. RB/GMU. 67. Jack O’Brien, “Theatre Guild Plans a ‘National’ Theatre,” St. Louis Post Dispatch 29 July 1945: np. 68. Joseph Wesley Zeigler, Regional Theatre: The Revolutionary Stage (New York: Da Capo Press, 1977 [1973]) 126. 69. Robert Breen, letter to C. Lawton Campbell, 17 January 1949. RB/GMU. 262 Notes to Chapter 3

70. Robert Breen, letter to C. Lawton Campbell, 17 January 1949. RB/GMU. 71. Robert Breen, letter to Jacob K. Javits, 3 April 1950. RB/GMU. 72. Wilella Waldorf, “Two on the Aisle: Britain’s CEMA Inspires an American Theatre Plan,” Theatre 30 June 1945: 10. 73. James S. Metcalfe, “Financing the National Theatre,” The North American Review (February 1905): 206. 74. Elbert D. Thomas, “The Theatre and the Nation,” Theatre Arts 30.9 (September 1946): 511. 75. Robert Breen, “A Plan for a US Public Theatre Foundation,”1945. RG/NYPLPA. 76. Robert Breen, letter to Robert Porterfield, 26 October 1945. RB/GMU. 77. Robert Porterfield, letter to Robert Breen, 1 November 1945. RB/GMU. 78. Memo: Immediate Steps for National Theatre Fund Development 28 March 1946. RG/NYPLPA. 79. Record of Blevins Davis, letter to President Harry Truman, 16 March 1946. Harry S Truman Presidential Library, Papers of Harry S Truman, Official File, 562–71 (July 1947) Box n. 1393, file 564. Connelly acknowledged on 19 March 1946. 80. David Thompson, “News,” Educational Theatre Journal 2.2 (May 1950): 185. 81. Margo Jones, letter to Robert Breen, 3 July 1947. RG/NYPLPA. 82. Robert Breen, memorandum to the Board of Directors of ANTA, 16 July 1951. RB/GMU. 83. Robert Breen, memorandum to the Board of Directors of ANTA, 16 July 1951. RB/GMU. 84. Atkinson as quoted in Annual Report to the Membership, 15 December 1952. ITI/NYPLPA. 85. Annual Report to the Membership 1951–52, 15 December 1952. ITI/NYPLPA. 86. Helen Hayes, Annual Report to the [ANTA] Membership 1950–51, 1951. ITI/ NYPLPA. 87. Loraine Browskig, interview with Wilva Breen, 3 September 1987. TRI/OSU. 88. Thomas, “The Theatre and the Nation,” 509. 89. New York Journal-American as quoted in Margaret Lynne Ausfeld, “Circus Girl Arrested: A History of Advancing American Art,” Advancing American Art: Politics and Aesthetics in the State Department Exhibition, 1946–48, ed. Margaret Lynne Ausfeld and Virginia Mecklenburg (Montgomery Museum of Fine Arts, 1984) 19. 90. Cora Sol Goldstein, “Before the CIA: American Actions in the German Fine Arts (1946–1949),” Diplomatic History 29.5 (November 2005): 755 and Lana Ann Burgess, “Advancing American Art and its Afterlife: From the State Department to the University Museum” (2010). Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations. 55–58. http://diginole.lib.fsu.edu/etd/2759. Accessed 5 April 2013. 91. Minutes of Postponed Annual Meeting of the Board of Directors of ANTA 27 March 1945. RG/NYPLPA. 92. Minutes of Postponed Annual Meeting of the Board of Directors of ANTA 27 March 1945. RG/NYPLPA. 93. Minutes of Postponed Annual Meeting of the Board of Directors of ANTA 27 March 1945. RG/NYPLPA. 94. Herschel Brickell, letter to Rosamond Gilder, 21 February 1946. RG/NYPLPA. Brickell was the Acting Chief of Division of International Exchange of Persons. Notes to Chapter 3 263

95. Summary Report of ANTA’s Activities in International Level Period Ending Dec. 31, 1950 13 February1951. ITI/NYPLPA. 96. David Monod, Settling Scores: German Music, Denaziﬁ cation, and the Americans, 1945–53 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005) 234. 97. Maike Steinkamp, “The Propagandistic Role of Modern Art in Postwar Berlin,” Berlin Divided City, 1945–1989, ed. Philip Broadbent and Sabine Hake (New York: Berghahn Books, 2010) 31. 98. “United States Participation in the Berlin Cultural Festival to be Held September 5–30, 1951 Background Information” nd. RB/GMU. 99. “United States Participation in the Berlin Cultural Festival to be Held September 5–30, 1951 Background Information” nd. RB/GMU. 100. “United States Participation in the Berlin Cultural Festival to be Held September 5–30, 1951 Background Information” nd. RB/GMU. 101. Michael L. Krenn, Fall-Out Shelters for the Human Spirit: American Art and the Cold War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005) 66. 102. Thomas Flemming, Berlin in the Cold War: The Battle for the Divided City (Berlin: Bebra, 2011) 51. 103. Francis Colligan, letter to ANTA, 7 June 1951. RB/GMU. 104. Robert Breen, letter to Francis Colligan, 17 June 1951. RB/GMU. 105. Sam Zolotow, “‘Oklahoma!’ Going to Allied Festival,” New York Times 9 July 1951: 19. 106. Glenn Collins, “Sam Zolotow, a Theatre Reporter for Many Decades, is Dead at 94,” New York Times 23 October 1993: 10. 107. Robert C. Schnitzer, memorandum to All Concerned with the Berlin Arts Festival, 9 July 1951. RB/GMU. 108. Robert C. Schnitzer, memorandum to All Concerned with the Berlin Arts Festival, 9 July 1951. RB/GMU. 109. Krenn, Fall-Out Shelters for the Human Spirit, 73. 110. Frederic Spotts, Bayreuth: A History of the Wagner Festival (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994) 160 and Monod, Settling Scores, 74–75. Spotts notes that Tietjen had been known during the Weimar Republic for his opposi- tion to National Socialism and that Goebbels and the Gestapo found him “politically unreliable.” So Hitler’s acquiescence may have had more to do with his support for Winifred Wagner than his support for Tietjen (168). 111. Mateo Lettunich, letter to Robert Breen, 12 May 1951. RB/GMU. Lettunich would briefly be considered for Secretary General of the International Theatre Institute but lost to Andre Josset of France because Lettunich was deemed to have too little experience of ITI. 2nd Congress of the ITI, 3rd Meeting of the Executive Committee 3rd Session, 29 June 1949. ITI/Paris. 112. Monod, Settling Scores, 235–36. 113. Monod, Settling Scores, 236. Even Lettunich agreed that Enters had been a terrible selection (although he had supported it), perhaps because “what she does has somehow for today lost its magic.” 114. “Die Tragische Entscheidung,” Berliner Anzeiger 15 September 1951: np. The uncredited translation is part of the ANTA files on the festival. RB/GMU. 115. Werner Fiedler, “Dämonie der Rache,” Der Tag 15 September 1951: np. The uncredited translation is part of the ANTA files on the festival. RB/GMU. 116. Fiedler, “Dämonie der Rache,” Der Tag 15 September 1951: np. The uncredited translation is part of the ANTA files on the festival. RB/GMU. 264 Notes to Chapter 3

117. “Berlin Festival Big Success, East Germans Gaga over ‘Okla,’” Variety 2 October 1951: np. 118. William Conlan, “Berlin’s Cultural Festival,” Information Bulletin: Monthly Magazine of the Ofﬁ ce of US High Commissioner for Germany (November 1951): 22. 119. Herbert Pfeiffer, “Judith Anderson as Medea in the Hebbel Theater,” Der Tagesspiegel 15 September 1951: np. Trans. Jessica Plummer. 120. Conlan, “Berlin’s Cultural Festival,” 22. 121. As quoted in Conlan, “Berlin’s Cultural Festival,” 22. 122. Hall Johnson, letter to Robert Breen, 29 November 1951. RB/GMU. Emphasis in the original. 123. Minutes of the Annual Meeting of Corporate Members of ANTA 22 October 1951 2:30pm. RG/NYPLPA. 124. Hall Johnson, letter to Robert Breen, 29 November 1951. RB/GMU. 125. Robert Breen, “US Part in Berlin Festival Lauded as Anti-Red Move,” New York Herald Tribune 14 October 1951: np. 126. Breen, “US Part in Berlin Festival Lauded as Anti-Red Move,” np. 127. Breen, “US Part in Berlin Festival Lauded as Anti-Red Move,” np. 128. Dwight D. Eisenhower, request to the President of the Senate, 27 July 1954. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952–1954 Volume II, Part 2, National Security Affairs, Document 363. http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/ frus1952-54v02p2/d363. Accessed 4 April 2014. 129. The American Assembly, http://americanassembly.org/. Accessed 18 December 2014. 130. Paul Bonin Rodriguez, Performing Policy: How Contemporary Politics and Cultural Programs Redeﬁ ned U.S. Artists for the Twenty-First Century (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014) 37. 131. Don North, interview with Theodore Streibert, 10 December 1970. Personnel interviews, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library. 132. A. Washburn, Notes on Cabinet meeting, 19 November 1954. Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library. White House Office National Security Council Staff Papers 1948–61 OCB Central Files Series Box 14, folder OCB 007 #1 (2). 133. “US Chooses ANTA for Foreign Role,” New York Times 30 September 1954: 37. 134. Robert C. Schnitzer, “Drama Mailbag,” New York Times 24 August 1955: x3. 135. David S. Cooper, internal government memo to Mr. Busick OCB, 19 February 1957. OCB 007 4 (6) Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library. 136. Minutes of the Annual Meeting of ANTA 28 February 1955. ITI/NYPLPA. 137. Minutes, 28 February 1955. 138. Eighth Quarterly Report President’s Emergency Fund for Participation in International Affairs. 1 April to 30 June 1956 OCB Central Files Series OCB 007 4 (2) Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library. 139. Eighth Quarterly Report. 140. Mateo Lettunich, letter to Robert Breen, 17 May 1951. RB/GMU. 141. Naima Prevots, Dance for Export: Cultural Diplomacy and the Cold War (Middletown: Wesleyan University Press, 1999) 41. 142. Lee Brady and R. V. Mrozinski, internal government memo to Executive Officer OCB, 13 June 1957. OCB 007 5 (5) Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library. Notes to Chapter 4 265

143. Brady and Mrozinski, internal government memo, 13 June 1957. 144. Ed Edwin, interview with Abbott and Wanda Washburn, 20 April 1967. Personnel Interviews, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library. 145. Robert Breen, letter to Adam Clayton Powell, 8 February 1954. Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library. 146. Minutes of the Annual Meeting of the American National Theatre and Academy, 28 February 1955. RG/NYPLPA. 147. Michael Kammen, “Culture and the State in America,” Journal of American History (December 1996): 814. 148. Helen Hayes, Annual Report to the [ANTA] Membership 1950–51, 1951. ITI/NYPLPA. 149. Robert Breen, letter to Walter Abel, 13 June 1967. RB/GMU. 150. Breen, letter to Walter Abel. 151. In Livingston Biddle, Our Government and the Arts: A Perspective from the Inside (New York: American Council for the Arts, 1988) there is a single brief mention of ANTA (17). Donna M. Binkiewicz’s Federalizing the Muse: United States Arts Policy and the National Endowment for the Arts, 1965–1980 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004) discusses performance art but not theatre, and under the NEA she discusses the Music Program, the Visual Arts Program, and the Art in Public Places Program, but makes no mention of the Theatre Program. Gary O. Larson, The Reluctant Patron: The United States Government and the Arts, 1943–1965 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983) has several mentions of ANTA and Breen makes a brief appearance as the director of Porgy and Bess (103). There are multiple references to theatre in Dick Netzer, The Subsidized Muse: Public Support for the Arts in the United States (Cambridge University Press, 1978). Gilder, Isaacs, and Porterfield do not appear in any of the four books— Breen is mentioned only that once in Larson. ANTA appears only in Biddle and Larson, but the references are minor.

4 Onstage II: Hamlet, 1949

1. Robert Breen, letter to Blevins Davis, 20 July 1949. RB/GMU. 2. Robert Breen, memorandum to Blevins Davis, 7 August 1949. BD/UMKC. 3. Breen, memorandum. 4. Breen, memorandum. The US would establish a Fine Arts division, but it would favor the visual arts and its head would come from the museum world. 5. Robert Breen, letter to Blevins Davis, 7 August 1949. BD/UMKC. 6. The previous five festivals were: 1937—England with Laurence Olivier and Vivien Leigh from the Old Vic, 1938—Germany with Gustaf Gründgens and Marianne Hoppe, 1939—England with John Gielgud and Fay Compton funded by the British Council, 1946—Norway with Hans Jacob Nilsen and Evy Engelsborg, and 1948—Finland with Erik Lindström and May Pihlgren and the Svenska Theatre of Helsinki. The festival had been suspended during the war from 1940 to 1945 and there does not appear to have been a festival in 1948. 7. Richard Coe, “Blevins Davis, With Boy’s Dream Realized, Puts On ‘Hamlet’ in Denmark,” Kansas City Star 26 June 1949: C1. 266 Notes to Chapter 4

8. Inge Dam, “Hamlet as Yankee.” This and all subsequent quotations from several Danish newspapers are taken from a 19-page typed document in the Robert Breen archive. The document is an English translation of Danish reviews of Hamlet, prepared for Breen and Davis who did not speak Danish. The original reviews are also in the archive, saved as clippings both loose and in scrapbooks. The translations were done for Breen and Davis alone by the Department of State and not intended to be circulated publicly. When they did quote from them publicly in press releases, business letters, and speeches they were strategic in their editing, giving the impression of a uniformly positive reception. All the reviews are dated 18 June 1949 and will be indi- cated as Reviews/RB/GMU. 9. Harald Engberg, “Hamlet in American Interpretation.” Reviews/RB/GMU. 10. Virginia had designated the Barter the official state theatre in 1941, and promised $10,000 but did not actually appropriate any state funds. Porterfield successfully approached the state in 1946 to secure the promised funds to reopen the theatre which had been closed during the war. Jayne Duehring, email to the author, 28 September 2006. 11. Christina Klein, Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945–1961 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003) 41. 12. Harry Truman, address to Congress as excerpted in The Cold War: A History in Documents and Eyewitness Accounts, ed. Jussi Hanhimäki and Odd Arne Westad (Oxford University Press, 2003) 117–18. 13. Scott Lucas, Freedom’s War: The American Crusade Against the Soviet Union (New York University Press, 1999) 7. 14. Harry Truman, as quoted in John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy (Oxford University Press, 1982) 66. 15. Willy Brandt, excerpt from My Road to Berlin (1960) in The Cold War, ed. Hanhimäki and Westad, 96. 16. Michail Narinskii, “The Soviet Union and the Berlin Crisis, 1948–9,” The Soviet Union and Europe in the Cold War, 1943–53, ed. Francesca Gori and Silvo Pons (London: Macmillan, 1996) 73. 17. This quotation is from the article Kennan published two years later which essentially rehearsed the text of the telegram. “X” [George Kennan], “The Sources of Soviet Conduct,” Foreign Affairs 25 (July 1947): 566–82. 18. John Lewis Gaddis, We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History (Oxford University Press, 1997) 37. 19. “NSC-68: United States Objectives and Programs for National Security,” 14 April 1950. http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/nsc-68/nsc68-2.htm. Accessed 22 February 2007. 20. Gaddis, Strategies of Containment, 92. 21. Douglas Field, “Introduction,” American Cold War Culture, ed. Douglas Field (Edinburgh University Press, 2005) 1. 22. “NSC-68.” 23. David Ryan, “Mapping Containment: The Cultural Construction of the Cold War,” American Cold War Culture, ed. Douglas Field (Edinburgh University Press, 2005) 62 and 61. 24. Shawn J. Parry-Giles, The Rhetorical Presidency, Propaganda, and the Cold War, 1945–1955 (Westport: Praeger, 2001) 146. Jackson would go on to work on Eisenhower’s presidential campaign and then his administration. One of his Notes to Chapter 4 267

duties was to be in contact with the CIA agents posted in Hollywood studios who were to influence the content of films, including those made at MGM, RKO, and Paramount. As he said in a private letter, the CIA was involved with the movie studios in order “to insert in their scripts and in their action the right ideas with the proper subtlety” (http://www.spartacus.schoolnet. co.uk/USAjacksonCD.htm. Accessed 7 November 2011). At his death in 1964, it was revealed that Jackson had been a CIA agent since 1948. 25. Burton Paulu, “The Smith-Mundt Act: A Legislative History,” Journalism Quarterly (Summer 1953): 301. 26. Paulu, “The Smith-Mundt Act,” 303. 27. Parry-Giles, The Rhetorical Presidency, 13. 28. Matt Armstrong, “Rethinking Smith-Mundt,” Small Wars Journal (2008): 14. Smallwarsjournal.com. Accessed 9 November 2011. 29. Armstrong, “Rethinking Smith-Mundt.” 30. The full roster of the Congressional members: Senators Smith, Bourke B. Hickenlooper (R, IA), Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. (R, MA), Alben W. Barkley (D, KY), Carl A. Hatch (D, NM), and Representatives Mundt, Lawrence H. Smith (R, WI), Walter H. Judd (R, MN), John Davis Lodge (R, CT), Pete Jarman (D, AL), Thomas S. Gordon (D, IL), and Mike Mansfield (D, MT). Parry-Giles, The Rhetorical Presidency, 26–27. Barkley would become Truman’s Vice President after the 1948 election. 31. Robert William Pirsein, The Voice of America: An History of the International Broadcasting Activities of the United States Government 1940–1962 (New York: Arno Press, 1979) 137–38. 32. Pirsein, The Voice of America, 138–39. 33. Edwin L. James, “Congress Weighs Fate of ‘Voice of America,’” New York Times 18 May 1947: B3. 34. James, “Congress Weighs Fate of ‘Voice of America,’” B3. 35. Samuel A. Tower, “House Group Votes to Keep US Radio,” New York Times 21 May 1947: 11. 36. National Security Council Memorandum, NSC 4, 17 December 1947. http:// www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/nsc-hst/nsc-4.htm. Accessed 26 October 2011. 37. National Security Council Memorandum, NSC 4, 17 December 1947. 38. Robert L. McKinney, If You Like US, Talk About Us: The Life and Times of Robert H. Porterﬁ eld the Founder of Virginia’s World-Famous Barter Theatre (Abingdon Media, 2006) 164. 39. McKinney, If You Like US, 164. 40. Porterfield as quoted in McKinney, If You Like US, 164–65. He went on: “Maybe I’m playing this scene too heavy. It wasn’t a fiasco. The kids in the company had a marvelous time. They loved Denmark, they loved Europe, and I think the people there loved them” (165). 41. McKinney, If You Like US, 165. 42. ANTA Press Release, 30 April 1949. ITI/NYPLPA. 43. Cross Reference Sheet on Blevins Davis, 9 May 1949. Truman Official File 1393, Truman Presidential Library. Daughter Margaret Truman remembers the events differently and gives her mother credit for urging the President to support the tour: “The First Lady gave her blessing to a pioneering theatrical experiment—shipping an American production of Shakespeare abroad for the entertainment of supposedly snobbish Europeans.” Margaret Truman, Bess W. Truman (New York: Macmillan, 1986) 343. 268 Notes to Chapter 4

44. ANTA Press Release, 30 April 1949. ITI/NYPLPA. 45. “American National Theatre and Academy,” Hamlet souvenir program, 17–27 July 1949, np. State Department Bureau of Cultural and Education Affairs, University of Arkansas Special Collections. 46. “Foreword,” Hamlet souvenir program, 17–27 July 1949, np. SD/UAR. 47. “The President of the United States,” Hamlet souvenir program. Blevins Davis ghosted this letter for Truman and it was approved by the White House. Cross Reference Sheet on Blevins Davis, 9 May 1949. 48. “The sad thing about our trip to Germany as we heard continually from the Military Company there and is being echoed by the State Department and Civil Affairs people here—that is, that the Military Government were not wise enough to arrange before our entry into Germany or while we were there for the company to stay on and play for the German civilian popula- tion with the Military Government assuming all responsibilities for the salaries.” Robert Breen, letter to Blevins Davis, 20 July 1949. RB/GMU. 49. Rebecca Boehling, “The Role of Culture in American Relations with Europe: The Case of the United States Occupation of Germany,” Diplomatic History 23.1 (Winter 1999): 57. 50. Robert Porterfield and Robert Breen. “Toward a National Theatre,” Theatre Arts 29.10 (1945): 599. 51. Coe, “Blevins Davis,” C1. 52. Ryan, “Mapping Containment,” 53. 53. Cora Sol Goldstein, “Before the CIA: American Actions in the German Fine Arts (1946–1949),” Diplomatic History 29.5 (November 2005): 749. 54. William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man, His Era (London: Free Press, 2003) 55 and 306. 55. Boehling, “The Role of Culture in American Relations with Europe,” 59. 56. Goldstein, “Before the CIA,” 776. 57. “‘Hamlet’ in Denmark,” New York Times, nd, 2. Blevins Davis scrapbooks, Western Historical Manuscript Collection, University of Missouri-Kansas City. 58. “Hamlet,” Independent, nd, np. Blevins Davis scrapbooks, BD/UMKC. 59. One newspaper reported that the “audience was so startled there were audible gasps” when the guns were fired. Undated clipping, Blevins Davis scrapbooks, BD/UMKC. 60. Coe, “Blevins Davis,” C1. Coe was on the Hamlet tour with funding from Davis which was kept quiet so as not to give the appearance of bias. Blevins Davis, letter to Robert Breen, 6 August 1949. BD/UMKC. Coe, however, was very much a fellow traveler on the project to create a national theatre for the US and would write positive articles about the activities of Breen, Davis, ANTA, and those involved with their projects throughout the 1950s and into the 1960s, including the establishment of the National Endowment for the Arts and what would eventually be called the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. But none of this stopped him from giving a lukewarm review to the revised production (that is the touring version with the Barter actors no longer in lead roles). His review for the Washington Post was titled “Danes Thrill to Our Savvy, Mildly Praise ‘Hamlet’ Cast” (26 June 1949: IV, 1). Not a rave by any means. 61. Interview with Wilva Davis Breen, 1987. RB/GMU. 62. Interview with Wilva Davis Breen, 1987. RB/GMU. Notes to Chapter 4 269

63. Svend Kragh-Jacobsen, “To Be or Not to Be Hamlet That’s the Question: A Changed Hamlet Interestingly Staged at Kronberg Castle,” Berlingske Tidende. Reviews/RB/GMU. 64. Kragh-Jacobsen, “To Be or Not to Be,” Reviews/RB/GMU. 65. I. S-S. Reviews/RB/GMU. 66. It is not clear if the voice was recorded or done live for each performance. The lighting effect was not mentioned by any European critics, and it may have been that this effect, used in the US performances, was not possible to reproduce given the conditions of the tour. Anne St. Clair Williams, “Robert Porterfield’s Barter Theatre of Abingdon, Virginia,” diss. (University of Illinois, 1970): 153. 67. Bene Larsen, “Hamlet as a Patchwork Counterpane,” Berlingske Aftenavis. Reviews/RB/GMU. 68. “A Strange Hamlet,” Reviews/RB/GMU. 69. Ole Branstrup, “The Rest Was One Big Bang: The American Hamlet at Kronborg Castle,” B.T. Reviews/RB/GMU. 70. Anthony P. Dawson, Hamlet (Manchester University Press, 1995) 127. 71. Christen Fribert, “5 Countries Compete for the Kronborg Hamlet Play: Hamlet Does Not All Speak American,” København. Reviews/RB/GMU. 72. Larsen, “Hamlet as a Patchwork,” Reviews/RB/GMU. 73. Interview with Wilva Davis Breen, 1987. RB/GMU. 74. One critic just thought Breen was an untalented actor. Svend Kragh-Jacobsen wrote, “his gesticulation is rather poor; the movements are always repeated, he shakes his right forefinger like a school master and so often, that at last you think: ‘Go to a doctor and let him look at it.’” Reviews/RB/GMU. 75. Jørgen Budtz-Jørgensen, “America at Kronborg: Hamlet with Many Surprises and Hitherto Unseen Outer Effects,” Nationaltidende. Reviews/RB/GMU. 76. In order the quotations come from: NA, “A Strange Hamlet: Act One a Fiasco, But the General Impression Was a Performance Absolutely Worth Seeing”; Svend Erichsen, “Surprising American Hamlet at Kronborg: A Fascinating Performance by Robert Breen in a Daringly Adapted Filmic Striking Version,” Social-Demokraten Reviews/RB/GMU; and Coe, “Blevins Davis,” C1. 77. Mary Z. Maher, Modern Hamlets and Their Soliloquies (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1992) 26. 78. Harald Engborg, “Hamlet in American Interpretation: First Night at Kronborg Castle with Many Surprises for the European Audience.” Reviews/RB/GMU. 79. Fribert, “5 Countries.” Reviews/RB/GMU. 80. Voldemar Mettus, “A Bird Above Hamlet’s Tomb,” 7 August 1949. This is from an unnamed Estonian newspaper and translated by the Department of State Division of Language Services. Reviews/RB/GMU. 81. http://www.wiesbaden.army.mil/sites/about/history.asp. Accessed 13 April 2012. The base was also the hub for the Berlin Airlift. 82. United States Air Force Europe (USAFE), Hamlet itinerary and information, Wiesbaden, Germany, June 1949. BD/UMKC. All information in this and the following paragraph is from this document. 83. It is not clear exactly what theatre this is. It may have been the Prinzregententheater which was home to the Bavarian State Opera from 1944 to 1963, even though it was damaged during World War II (it would not be fully repaired until 1958). The other major Munich theatre, the Nationaltheater, was destroyed by bombing in 1943. 270 Notes to Chapter 4

84. The USAFE prohibitions were ignored by many of the company. Nat Karson and Clarence Derwent decided to attend the second ITI congress being held in Zurich on 27 June to 2 July while the rest of the cast and crew enjoyed the scheduled sightseeing. Derwent describes visiting German cities not on their official itinerary, as well as attending the congress. Clarence Derwent, The Derwent Story: My First Fifty Years in the Theatre in England and America (New York: Henry Schuman, 1953) 246–49. 85. Richard L. Coe, “‘Hamlet’ Wins High Acclaim of GI’s Serving in Germany,” Washington Post 24 July 1949 VI: 1. 86. Coe, “‘Hamlet’ Wins High Acclaim,” 1. 87. Coe, “‘Hamlet’ Wins High Acclaim,” 1. 88. Coe, “‘Hamlet’ Wins High Acclaim,” 1. 89. Coe, “‘Hamlet’ Wins High Acclaim,” 1. This kind of press incensed those at the Barter. Davis, and to some extent Breen, were being given all the credit for the production and the Barter was rarely mentioned. Since Coe was on the payroll, this could not have been coincidental. Others did this as well. Clarence Derwent, head of Equity and Polonius, described the production as coming from the “American Theatre,” mostly meaning ANTA. Williams, “Robert Porterfield’s Barter Theatre,” 159. 90. NA, “Hamlet auf Stromlinie,” Der Spiegel 30 (21 July 1949): 30. Trans. Scott Blackshire. 91. “Hamlet auf Stromlinie,” 30. 92. “Hamlet auf Stromlinie,” 30. 93. Wilhelm Hortmann, Shakespeare on the German Stage: The Twentieth Century (Cambridge University Press, 1998) 3. 94. Wolfgang Schivelbusch, In a Cold Crater: Cultural and Intellectual Life in Berlin, 1945–1948, trans. Kelly Barry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998) 63. 95. Shivelbusch, In a Cold Crater, 64. 96. Dennis Kennedy, “Shakespeare and the Cold War,” Four Hundred Years of Shakespeare in Europe, ed. A. Luis Pujante and Ton Hoenselaars (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2003) 169. 97. Hortmann, Shakespeare, 181. Schiller was the next most produced playwright, from 1955 to 1975 having 24,988 productions to Shakespeare’s 36,979. 98. Hannes Razum in 1955 as quoted in Hortmann, Shakespeare, 183. 99. “Equity Head is Held in Mystery Inquiry,” New York Times 18 July 1949: 1. 100. “Equity Head,” 18. 101. Leonard Lyons, “The Lyons Den,” New York Post 21 July 1949: np. 102. Minutes, US-ITI Advisory Committee meeting, 22 April 1948. ITI/NYPLPA. 103. “But Why Detain Clarence Derwent?” Equity August 1949: 5. There was never an official apology or explanation for the detention. Robert Breen wrote Blevins Davis about the request to have immigration issue a state- ment unequivocally clearing Derwent: “They rather demurred and insisted that the fact that they were allowing him to re-enter the country was suf- ficient.” Robert Breen, letter to Blevins Davis, 20 July 1949. BD/UMKC. 104. Robert Breen, letter to Blevins Davis, 18 July 1949. RB/GMU. 105. Anne Cooke, “The Wild Duck Comes Home,” The Department of State Record: International Exchange 6.2 (March/April 1950) 2. James V. Hatch Notes to Chapter 5 271

tells almost exactly the same origin narrative in his biography of her colleague Owen Dodson. He additionally notes that Haslund and his col- leagues may have looked to a university production for their evening out because Actors’ Equity was striking against DC’s only commercial house, the National Theatre, for its segregationist seating policies. Hatch explains, “the strike lasted eighteen months, indirectly encouraging theatre-goers and drama critics to attend performances at Catholic and Howard univer- sities.” Sorrow is the Only Faithful One: The Life of Owen Dodson (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993) 151. 106. Nona Brown, “Invitation to Norway,” New York Times 7 August 1949: X1. 107. Blevins Davis, letter to General Cannon, 29 August 1949. BD/UMKC. 108. As quoted in Martin Duberman, Paul Robeson: A Biography (New York: New Press, 1989) 342. 109. As quoted in Duberman, Paul Robeson, 342. 110. Drew Pearson, “The Washington Merry-Go-Round” (9 August 1949). http:// www.aladin0.wrlc.org/gsdl/collect/pearson/pearson.shtml. Accessed 9 April 2012. 111. Hatch, Sorrow is the Only Faithful One, 152. 112. Owen Dodson, “The World Seemed Wide and Open,” Theatre Arts 34.3 (March 1950): 105. 113. Dodson, “The World Seemed,” 106. 114. Hatch, Sorrow is the Only Faithful One, 155.

5 ITI: Tomorrow’s Theatre Today

1. International Theatre Institute Charter, 1948: np. ITI/NYPLPA. 2. International Theatre Institute Charter, 1948. 3. Luncheon Meeting at ANTA Headquarters, 18 June 1947. ITI/NYPLPA. All quotations in this paragraph are from this source. 4. Mark Mazower, No Enchanted Palace: The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United Nations (Princeton University Press, 2009) 194. 5. Mazower, No Enchanted Palace, 22. In 1795 Kant published “Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch,” an essay in which he called for a “federation of free states” that could ensure “perpetual peace,” as opposed to peace as an interval between wars. This federation (or “a league of nations” as he labels it at one point) would ensure that “the human race can gradually be brought closer and closer to a constitution establishing world citizen- ship.” https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm. Accessed 12 May 2014. 6. Mazower, No Enchanted Palace, 29. 7. The USSR was eventually admitted but they participated only from 1934 to 1939. They were expelled when the USSR invaded Finland and started the Soviet–Finnish War, 1939–40. 8. Akira Iriye, Cultural Internationalism and World Order (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997) 65. 9. As quoted in Jo-Anne Pemberton, “The Changing Shape of Intellectual Cooperation: From the League of Nations to UNESCO,” Australian Journal of Politics and History 58.1 (2012): 39. 272 Notes to Chapter 5

10. As quoted in Pemberton, “The Changing Shape of Intellectual Cooperation,” 40. 11. Jean-Jacques Renoliet, “L’UNESCO oubliée: l’Organisation de coopération intellectuelle, 1921–1946,” 60 ans de l’histoire de l’UNESCO: actes du colloque international (Paris: UNESCO, 2007) 63. 12. Pemberton, “The Changing Shape of Intellectual Cooperation,” 40 and Daniel Laqua, “Transnational Intellectual Cooperation, the League of Nations, and the Problem of Order,” Journal of Global History 6.2 (July 2011): 224. 13. As quoted in Pemberton, “The Changing Shape of Intellectual Cooperation,” 36. 14. Laqua, “Transnational Intellectual Cooperation,” 230. 15. Renoliet, “L’UNESCO oubliée,” 63. 16. Iriye, Cultural Internationalism and World Order, 144–45. 17. As quoted in Laqua, “Transnational Intellectual Cooperation,” 223. See introduction for Gilder and Isaacs quotation. 18. Iriye, Cultural Internationalism and World Order, 67. 19. William Langdon Brown, “Firmin Gémier and the Théâtre du Peuple,” diss. (Cornell University, 1978), 151. 20. As quoted in William Langdon Brown, “Firmin Gémier’s Théâtre National Ambulant,” Theatre Survey 21.1 (May 1980) 47. 21. Brown, “Firmin Gémier,” 101. 22. Raymond Pentzell, “Firmin Gémier and Shakespeare-for-Everybody,” Tulane Drama Review 11.4 (Summer 1967): 115. 23. As quoted in Brown, “Firmin Gémier,” 154, trans. Alexandra K. Wettlaufer and Charlotte Canning. “L’imagination de Gémier fut une usine à idées et à trouvailles qui ne cessa jamais de travailler.” 24. Brown, “Firmin Gémier,” 2. 25. Brown, “Firmin Gémier,” 3–4. 26. Firmin Gémier, Le théâtre: entretiens réunis par Paul Gsell (Paris: Bernard Grasset, 1923) 243–44, trans. Alexandra K. Wettlaufer and Charlotte Canning. “Nous sommes ... impatiemment attendues des transformations nécessaires dans l’organisation intérieure des Etats comme dans leurs relations mutuelles. Au milieu de l’anarchie dont le monde entier souffre jusqu’à la torture, c’est un besoin général de mieux établir les obligations des hommes envers leurs semblables et des peuples entre eux.” 27. Gémier, Le théâtre, 117, trans. Alexandra K. Wettlaufer and Charlotte Canning. “Je veux donner des spectacles à tout un peuple. Voilà pourquoi j’ai converti ce cirque en théâtre. Car, à mon avis, l’art dramatique doit s’adresser à tout le Peuple.... Je crois que la plus haute mission du théâtre est de réunir tous ces auditeurs dans les mêmes idées et les mêmes sentiments.... Il doit leur parler à tous ensemble, les convaincre, et orienter leurs communs efforts.” 28. Maurice Kurtz, “The Needs for UNESCO to Promote the Creation of an International Theatre Organisation” Paris, 13 November 1946. ITI/NYPLPA. “Organiser notre grande famille dramatique interprofessionnellement inter- nationalement pour le bien de toute la société contemporaine.” 29. “Firmin Tonnerre, dit Firmin Gémier” http://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/ personnage/Firmin_Tonnerre_dit_Firmin_G%C3%A9mier/121058. Accessed Notes to Chapter 5 273

12 May 2014, trans. Alexandra K. Wettlaufer and Charlotte Canning. “En 1925, il choisit Paul Abram comme codirecteur de l’Odéon et peut se con- sacrer à la préparation de sa Société universelle du théâtre: les Cahiers du théâtre (1926–1938) rendent compte, annuellement, de son activité. Son idée est d’organiser chaque année, dans une grande ville d’Europe, un Congrès du théâtre et de le faire coïncider avec un festival international d’Art dramatique et lyrique.” 30. Firmin Gémier, “Discours inaugural,” Premier Congrés International du Théâtre et Premier Festival International d’Art Dramatique et Lyrique (1927): 5, trans. Alexandra K. Wettlaufer and Charlotte Canning. “Le théâtre, par sa nature même, nous dicte cette coopération. Le théâtre n’est pas l’oeuvre d’hommes isolés. C’est le travail commun de beaucoup d’intelligences, de beaucoup de bonne volontés de toutes sortes. C’est la gerbe diaprée de tous les arts, poésie, couleur, musique, danse. C’est le rapprochement des artistes et du public. C’est aussi la fusion de toutes les catégories sociales, depuis le philosophe jusqu’à l’artisan depuis le chef d’Etat jusqu’au citoyen le plus humble. Le théâtre, c’est le symbole, c’est l’exemple de l’union, de la sociabilité, de la fraternité.” 31. Mazower, No Enchanted Palace, 81. 32. The countries included Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Denmark, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Holland, Italy, Latvia, Norway, Romania, Russia, Sweden. Premier Congrés International du Théâtre et Premier Festival International d’Art Dramatique et Lyrique (1927): 194. 33. “Conclusions,” Les Cahiers du Théâtre (1927): 187, trans. Charlotte Canning. 34. Irma Kraft, Plays, Players, Playhouses: International Drama of Today (New York: G. Dobsevage, 1928) 3. 35. Joan Cook, “Simon Lissim, a Ceramics Artist, Painter, Stage Designer, Teacher,” New York Times 13 May 1981: A32. 36. Simon Lissim, letter to George Freedley, 1 April 1937. GF/NYPLPA. 37. Simon Lissim, letter to George Freedley, 1 September 1937. GF/NYPLPA. 38. Simon Lissim, letter to George Freedley, 9 August 1938. GF/NYPLPA. 39. David Nochimson, “The Theatre Library Association on the World Stage: Building an International Community of Performing Arts Collections, 1937–1969,” research paper, 2008. 40. Simon Lissim, letters to George Freedley, 1 and 26 September 1939. GF/ NYPLPA. 41. Gémier, Le théâtre, 244–45, trans. Alexandra K. Wettlaufer and Charlotte Canning. “Ils pourraient montrer ... la contradiction des nationalismes étroits et de la fraternité humain.” 42. Maurice Kurtz, “The Needs for UNESCO.” ITI/NYPLPA. 43. Renoliet, “L’UNESCO oubliée,” 65, trans. Alexandra K. Wettlaufer and Charlotte Canning. “Au total, même si l’OCI a eu un caractère élitiste et n’a pas engrangé beaucoup de résultats pratiques, en raison du contexte international de crise politique et économique des années trente, de l’insuffisance de ses ressources financières et du faible soutien des États toujours jaloux de leurs prérogatives dans le domaine de l’activité intellectuelle, elle a cependant démontré la nécessité d’une organisation du travail intellectuel et préparé ainsi le terrain à l’UNESCO, don’t le programme initial, largement inspiré par celui de l’OCI, ... est aussi de favoriser la compréhension mutuelle des peuples et donc la paix.” 274 Notes to Chapter 5

44. Akira Iriye, Global Community: The Role of International Organizations in the Making of the Contemporary World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002) 41. 45. John Lewis Gaddis, We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History (Oxford University Press, 1997) 196. 46. Volker R. Berghahn, America and the Intellectual Cold Wars in Europe: Shepard Stone Between Philanthropy, Academy, and Diplomacy (Princeton University Press, 2001) xiii. 47. UNESCO Constitution http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ ID=6206&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html. Accessed 10 June 2005. 48. Clare Wells, The UN, UNESCO and the Politics of Knowledge (London: Macmillan, 1987) 45. 49. Wells, The UN, UNESCO and the Politics of Knowledge, 45. 50. Iriye, Cultural Internationalism and World Order, 93. 51. Pemberton, “The Changing Shape of Intellectual Cooperation,” 42. 52. Mazower, No Enchanted Palace, 6. 53. Pemberton, “The Changing Shape of Intellectual Cooperation,” 43. 54. Pemberton, “The Changing Shape of Intellectual Cooperation,” 44. 55. General Conference, “Report of the Preparatory Commission on the Programme of UNESCO Chapter VII Creative Arts” (6 September 1946): 1. ITI/NYPLPA. 56. General Conference, “Report of the Preparatory Commission on the Programme of UNESCO Chapter VII Creative Arts” (6 September 1946): 1. ITI/NYPLPA. 57. General Conference, “Report of the Preparatory Commission on the Programme of UNESCO Chapter VII Creative Arts” (6 September 1946): 1. ITI/NYPLPA. 58. Rosamond Gilder, memo on UNESCO and the theatre to ANTA Board, 16 July 1947. ITI/NYPLPA. 59. International Association of Art/L’Association Internationale des Arts Plastiques, http://www.aiap-iaa.org/accueil.htm. Accessed 23 May 2014. 60. International Music Council, http://www.imc-cim.org/. Accessed 23 May 2014. 61. La Fédération Internationale de l’Art Photographique, http://www.fiap.net/. Accessed 23 May 2014. 62. Kurtz’s dissertation was published in French in 1950 as Jacques Copeau: biographie d’un théâtre (Paris: Nagel, 1950) and then much later in English as Jacques Copeau: Biography of a Theatre (Southern Carbondale: Illinois University Press, 1999). Jane Baldwin, reviewing the 1999 publication, noted that the 1950 volume “was a pioneering work: the first book to be published on Copeau, it proved hugely influential for subsequent scholars” but that the later version “is more hagiography than history, more survey than analysis.” Jane Baldwin, rev. of Jacques Copeau: Biography of a Theatre, Theatre Research International 25.2 (June 2000): 2002. 63. John Willett, “Erwin Piscator: New York and The Dramatic Workshop 1939– 1951,” Performing Arts Journal 2.3 (Winter 1978) 3–16. 64. Maurice Kurtz, “Creating the ITI,” International Theatre Institute 1948–1983 (France: ITI, 1983) 7. Notes to Chapter 5 275

65. Gémier, “Discours inaugural,” 8, trans. Lisa Moore and Charlotte Canning. As quoted in Maurice Kurtz, “The Needs for UNESCO to Promote the Creation of an International Theatre Organisation,” Report from the Literature-Drama Commission to UNESCO (13 November 1946), 2. ITI/ NYPLPA. “Assez d’egoisme, assez de particularisme! Assez de nationalisme étroit! Cela n’a produit, jusqu’a present, que l’eparpillement des efforts, la confusion, la haine, le massacre. Il est temps que, de toutes parts, les hommes s’organisent, s’entendent. C’est la Pensée qui doit imposer partout son commandent. Or, l’expression le plus brilliant, la plus pleine, la plus sociable, de la pensée, c’est incontestablement le théâtre. Le théâtre doit devenir une des grandes forces organisatrices du monde.” 66. Kurtz, “The Needs for UNESCO to Promote the Creation of an International Theatre Organisation,” Report from the Literature-Drama Commission to UNESCO (13 November 1946), 2. ITI/NYPLPA. 67. Gémier, “Discours inaugural,” 8, trans. Alexandra K. Wettlaufer and Charlotte Canning. “Nous n’aurons peut-être pas élevé l’édifice; mais la postérité nous saura gré d’avoir poussé les pierres qui serviront à le bâtir.” 68. Kurtz, “Creating the ITI,” 7. 69. “International Theatre Institute: Formation 1947–1948” (Paris: UNESCO, 1948) 28. ITI/NYPLPA. 70. “International Theatre Institute: Formation 1947–1948,” 28. ITI/NYPLPA. 71. “International Theatre Institute: Formation 1947–1948,” 28. ITI/NYPLPA. 72. “International Theatre Institute: Formation 1947–1948,” 28–29. ITI/NYPLPA. 73. “International Theatre Institute: Formation 1947–1948,” 28–29. ITI/NYPLPA. 74. “International Theatre Institute: Formation 1947–1948,” 29. ITI/NYPLPA. 75. Paul Kennedy, The Parliament of Man: The Past, Present, and Future of the United Nations (New York: Random House, 2006) xiv. 76. International Theatre Institute Executive Committee minutes, 9th Session, 31 May 1951. ITI/NYPLPA. 77. International Theatre Institute Charter, and International Theatre Institute Executive Committee minutes, 9th Session, 31 May 1951. ITI/NYPLPA. 78. “Report on The First Congress of the International Theatre Institute Held in Prague 28 June to 3 July 1948” (25 July 1948): 36. ITI/Paris. 79. Maurice Kurtz, letter to the Editor of American Theatre (6 January 2004): np. 80. Rosamond Gilder, memo to American National Theatre and Academy Board, 16 May 1947. ITI/NYPLPA. 81. Rosamond Gilder, report to annual meeting of the American National Theatre and Academy, 10 May 1948. ITI/NYPLPA. 82. Transcript, ITI committee of ANTA meeting, 17 November 1947. ITI/ NYPLPA. 83. Minutes, ANTA Board meeting, 18 October 1948. ITI/NYPLPA. 84. Frank Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas: US Foreign Policy and Cultural Relations, 1938–1950 (Cambridge University Press, 1981) 168. 85. Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas, 105. 86. William Preston Jr, Edward S. Herman, and Herbert I. Schiller, Hope and Folly: The United States and UNESCO 1945–1985 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989) 5. 87. Archie Brown, The Rise and Fall of Communism (New York: HarperCollins, 2009) 159. 276 Notes to Chapter 5

88. Minutes, US-ITI committee meeting, 22 April 1948. ITI/NYPLPA. 89. Minutes, US-ITI Center meeting, 10 May 1948. ITI/NYPLPA. 90. Minutes, US-ITI committee meeting, 10 May 1948. ITI/NYPLPA. 91. J. B. Priestley, letter to Jacquetta Hawkes, c. June 1948. Jacquetta Hawkes Archive, Special Collections, University of Bradford. 92. Maurice Kurtz, letter to Rosamond Gilder, 2 April 1948, as quoted in Tom Pratt Rea, “A History of the International Theatre Institute,” diss. (Tulane University, 1967), 31. 93. Rea, “A History of the International Theatre Institute,” 35. 94. Roy R. Knight, letter to Herman Voaden, 2 May 1947. Herman Arthur Voaden fonds, F0440, York University Archives and Special Collections. 95. Kurtz, “Creating the ITI,” 14. 96. Eugene Ionesco, “The Avant-Garde Theatre,” Le Théâtre dans le Monde/World Theatre 8.3 (Autumn 1959): 176. 97. Ionesco, “The Avant-Garde Theatre,” 187. 98. Ionesco, “The Avant-Garde Theatre,” 202. 99. Hanna Korsberg, “Creating an International Community During the Cold War,” Theatre, Globalization and the Cold War Symposium, Munich, Germany, 18 May 2012. 100. “World Theatre Forum: Congress at Helsinki,” Times Educational Supplement 12 June 1959: np. 101. Yves Florenne, “Au congrés du théâtre á Helsinki: sept jours sans nuit,” Le Monde 18 June 1959: 13. 102. Korsberg, “Creating an International Community During the Cold War.” 103. Minutes, US-ITI committee meeting, 22 April 1948. International Theatre Institute / Martha W. Coigney Collection, *T-Mss 2002-032. Billy Rose Theatre Division, The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts. 104. Maurice Kurtz, letter to Rosamond Gilder, 28 April 1948 as quoted in Rea, “A History of the International Theatre Institute,” 37. 105. Caroline J. Dodge Latta, “Rosamond Gilder and the Theatre,” diss. (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1974): 120–21. 106. Minutes, ITI-US Committee meeting, 14 June 1948. ITI/NYPLPA. 107. Minutes, ITI-US Committee meeting, 10 November 1948. ITI/NYPLPA. 108. Rosamond Gilder, “First Congress of the International Theatre Institute,” Department of State Bulletin 19.485 (17 October 1948): 488–89. 109. Rosamond Gilder, “Theatre, an International Force for Theatre International,” Think (1947): np. 110. Minutes, US-ITI Advisory Committee meeting, 13 March 1951, np. ITI/ NYPLPA. 111. Mary Widrig John, “ANTA: The American National Theatre and Academy: Its First Quarter Century 1935–1960,” diss. (New York University, 1965): 267. 112. Minutes, ANTA Board of Directors meeting, 15–16 June 1953. ITI/NYPLPA. 113. Minutes, 15–16 June 1953. 114. Minutes, 15–16 June 1953. 115. Minutes, ANTA Board of Directors meeting, 31 December 1953. ITI/ NYPLPA. 116. Minutes, US-ITI Advisory Committee meeting, 27 October 1953. ITI/ NYPLPA. Notes to Chapter 5 277

117. Rosamond Gilder, Report on the ITI Fifth Congress to ANTA Board, 20 September 1953. ITI/NYPLPA. 118. ANTA Annual Report 1953–1954. ITI/NYPLPA. 119. Gilder, Report on the ITI Fifth Congress to ANTA Board. 120. Notes, ITI-US Committee meeting, 19 August 1948. ITI/NYPLPA. 121. Rosamond Gilder, Report on the Eighth ITI Congress 1959. ITI/NYPLPA. 122. Hugh Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer: How the CIA Played America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008) 86. The foundation was originally named the Heritage Foundation but was renamed the Farfield in August 1952. 123. See Carl Bernstein, “The CIA and the Media: How America’s Most Powerful News Media Worked Hand in Glove with the Central Intelligence Agency and Why the Church Committee Covered It Up,” Rolling Stone 250 (20 October 1977). Uphttp://carlbernstein.com/magazine_cia_and_media.php. Accessed 30 May 2014. 124. Bernstein, “The CIA and the Media.” Also, Stephen Kinzer, The Brothers: John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles, and their Secret World War (New York: Henry Holt, 2013) 125–26. 125. As quoted in Frances Stonor Saunders, The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters (New York: New Press, 1999) 127. Italics in the original. 126. As quoted in Saunders, The Cultural Cold War, 126. 127. Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer, 86. 128. Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer, 100. 129. Saunders, The Cultural Cold War, 129. 130. As quoted in Tim Weiner, Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA (New York: Doubleday, 2007) 36. 131. Tom Braden, “I’m Glad the CIA is ‘Immoral,’” Saturday Evening Post 20 May 1967: 10. 132. Sol Stern, “NSA and the CIA: A Short Account of International Student Politics and the Cold War with Particular Reference to the NSA, CIA, Etc.” Ramparts (March 1967): 29–39. 133. As quoted in Stanley Weintraub, “GBS and the Despots,” Times Literary Supplement 22 August 2011. http://www.the-tls.co.uk/tls/public/article 707002.ece. Accessed 12 December 2014. 134. Weintraub, “GBS and the Despots.” 135. Brooks Atkinson, “Katherine Cornell is Starred in ‘The Prescott Proposals’ by Lindsay and Crouse,” New York Times 17 December 1953: 53. 136. J. B. Priestley, Home is Tomorrow (London: William Heinemann, 1949) 1. All subsequent citations of the play will be parenthetical. 137. Susan Cooper, J. B. Priestley: Portrait of an Author (New York: Harper and Row, 1970) 172. 138. J. B. Priestley, letter to Jacquetta Hawkes, September 1948. Jacquetta Hawkes Archive, Special Collections, University of Bradford. 139. Priestley, “Introduction,” Home is Tomorrow, xiii. 140. J. B. Priestley, “What I’m After in My New Play,” Picture Post (20 November 1948): 28. 141. Priestley, “What I’m After in My New Play,” 28. 142. Scrapbook. J. B. Priestley Archive, Special Collections, University of Bradford. 278 Notes to Chapter 6

143. Priestley, “What I’m After in My New Play,” 28. 144. Scrapbook. J. B. Priestley Archive, Special Collections, University of Bradford. 145. Mazower, No Enchanted Palace, 6. 146. Priestley, “What I’m After in My New Play,” 28. 147. Priestley, “What I’m After in My New Play,” 28. 148. George Orwell, 1984 (New York: Signet Classics, 1950) 276.

6 Onstage III: Porgy and Bess, 1952–1956

1. “1950s ‘Porgy and Bess’ Cast Member Maya Angelou Reflects on Production’s Significance,” Tell Me More, Michel Martin. Aired 2010. http://www.npr.org/ templates/story/story.php?storyId=125457527. Accessed 4 June 2014. 2. Maya Angelou, Singin’ and Swingin’ and Gettin’ Merry Like Christmas (New York: Ransom House, 2009 [1976]) 143. All subsequent citations of the book will be parenthetical. 3. Some productions stage this scene as a rape. 4. In the 1959 film four performers (other than Angelou) from the tour were cast with screen credit: Margaret Hairston as Lily, Earl Jackson as Mingo, Moses LaMarr as Nelson, and Helen Thigpen as the Strawberry Woman. 5. Joseph James, interviewed by Alan Woods, 13 December 1987. TRI/OSU. 6. Naima Prevots, Dance for Export: Cultural Diplomacy and the Cold War (Middletown: Wesleyan University Press, 1998) 29. 7. “1950s ‘Porgy and Bess’ Cast Member Maya Angelou Reflects on Production’s Significance,” Tell Me More. 8. Porgy and Bess: An American Voice, Dir. Nigel Noble (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan in collaboration with Vanguard Films and Mojo Working Productions, 1997). 9. William Warfield was the tour’s first Porgy (he left the show in October 1952 after opening it in London due to conflicts with his concert schedule). He was an established singer when he was cast, respected for his work in both popular musicals (including, for example, MGM’s 1951 remake of Show Boat) and the classical repertory, particularly Schubert lieder. He and Price married during the tour, divorcing in 1972. 10. See Allen Woll, Black Musical Theatre: From Coontown to Dreamgirls (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1989) chapter 10, particularly p. 174. 11. Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton University Press, 2000) 39. 12. Nikhil Pal Singh, Black Is a Country: Race and the Unﬁ nished Struggle for Democracy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005) 32. 13. Dwight D. Eisenhower, letter to Blevins Davis, 30 March 1953. TRI/OSU. 14. John Harper Taylor, “Ambassadors of the Arts: An Analysis of the Eisenhower Administration’s Incorporation of Porgy and Bess into its Cold War Foreign Policy,” diss. (Ohio State University, 1988): 90. 15. Dwight D. Eisenhower, request to the President of the Senate, 27 July 1954. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952–1954 Volume II, Part 2, National Security Affairs, Document 363. http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/ frus1952-54v02p2/d363. Accessed 4 April 2014. Notes to Chapter 6 279

16. J. Manuel Espinosa, Inter-American Beginnings of U.S. Cultural Diplomacy, 1936–1948 (Washington DC: U. S. Department of State, 1976) 1. 17. This resulted in two animated films: Saludos Amigos (1942) and The Three Caballeros (1944), and a short documentary, South of the Border with Disney (1942). For a history of the Disney tour see the documentary Walt & El Grupo, Dir. Theodore Thomas. Theodore Thomas Productions, 2008. 18. Helena K. Finn, “The Case for Cultural Diplomacy: Engaging Foreign Audiences,” Foreign Affairs 82.6 (November–December 2003): 16. 19. Singh, Black Is a Country, 148. 20. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights, 56. 21. Michael L. Krenn, Black Diplomacy: African Americans and the State Department, 1945–1969 (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 1999) 40–41. 22. Penny Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004) 6. 23. Richard T. Arndt, The First Resort of Kings: American Cultural Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century (Washington DC: Potomac Books, 2005) 400. 24. “Outline of Pre-Production Phase of PORGY AND BESS,” company press release, 22 April 1953, 1. TRI/OSU. 25. Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows up the World, 16. 26. Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003) 90. 27. Vladislav M. Zubok, A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev, 2nd ed. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009) 171. 28. Dave and Iola Brubeck, The Real Ambassadors. Rec. 12–19 September 1961. Columbia, 1962. 29. “Dave Brubeck on ‘The Real Ambassadors,’” All Things Considered, Michelle Norris, aired 12 June 2009. http://www.npr.org/blogs/ablogsupreme/2009/06/ dave_brubeck_on_the_real_ambas.html. Accessed 17 September 2014. 30. Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows up the World, 89. 31. Stephen Graubard, “An American Dilemma Revisited,” An American Dilemma Revisited: Race Relations in a Changing World, ed. Obie Clayton (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1996) 3. 32. Singh, Black Is a Country, 142 and Walter A. Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience: Social Engineering and Racial Liberalism, 1938–1987 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994) 279. 33. David. W. Southern, Gunnar Myrdal and Black–White Relations: The Use and Abuse of An American Dilemma, 1944–1969 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987) 227–31 and Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience, 293. 34. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and American Democracy (New York: Harper, 1962 [1944]) lxxi. 35. Ralph Ellison “An American Dilemma: A Review,” The Collected Essays of Ralph Ellison, ed. John Callahan (New York: Modern Library Classics, 2003) 333. 36. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, 24. 37. Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s (London: Routledge, 1994) 17. 280 Notes to Chapter 6

38. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, 1021. 39. Singh, Black Is a Country, 142. 40. Frank G. Wisner, memorandum to Nelson A. Rockefeller, 7 April 1955. Rockefeller Family, 4-NAR personal papers, Washington DC files, 9 SAP declassified Box 3, folder 62. 41. Nigel Gould-Davies, “The Logic of Soviet Cultural Diplomacy,” Diplomatic History 27.2 (April 2003): 197. 42. Gould-Davies, “The Logic of Soviet Cultural Diplomacy,” 212–13. 43. Gould-Davies, “The Logic of Soviet Cultural Diplomacy,” 207. 44. For example, it was not until that year, 1955, that “Soviet authorities authorized foreign tourism, banned under Stalin.” Zubok, A Failed Empire, 172. 45. C. D. Jackson, memorandum to Colonel Vanderhoef, Mr. Comstock. Mr. Browne, and Charles H. Taquey, 31 March 1955. C. D. Jackson Papers 1931– 67. Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library. 46. C. D. Jackson, letter to Nelson A. Rockefeller, 20 April 1955. Rockefeller Family, 4-NAR personal papers, Washington DC files, 9 SAP declassified Box 3, folder 62. Marked “personal and confidential.” 47. C. D. Jackson, letter to Nelson Rockefeller, 14 April 1955. C. D. Jackson Papers 1931–67. Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library. 48. C. D. Jackson, letter to Nelson Rockefeller, 14 April 1955. C. D. Jackson Papers 1931–67. Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library. All citations in this paragraph are from this letter. 49. Kevin O’Connor, Culture and Customs of the Baltic States (Westport: Greenwood Press, 2006) 192. 50. Tony Shaw and Denise J. Youngblood, Cinematic Cold War: The American and Soviet Struggle for Hearts and Minds (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2010) 40–41. 51. As quoted in David Caute, The Dancer Defects: The Struggle for Cultural Supremacy During the Cold War (Oxford University Press, 2005) 158. 52. For histories of these experiments see James H. Jones, Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment (New York: Free Press, 1992), Harriet A. Washington, Medical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans from Colonial Times to the Present (New York: Doubleday, 2007), and Rebecca Skloot, The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks (New York: Broadway Books, 2011). 53. Shaw and Youngblood, Cinematic Cold War, 47. 54. The McCarran Act, officially the Internal Security Act of 1950, 64 Stat. 987 Public Law 81-831, mandated that communist groups register with the federal government. It established a Subversive Activities Control Board to investigate those suspected of such, and people in these groups could not become citizens (and could be prevented from entering or leaving the US, as could US citizens suspected of anything related to this). The law also provided for emergency detention, and the President could order the detention of anyone suspected of spying or sabotage. Since it was assumed that all citizens of the USSR were communists, government officials believed that the law would prevent any Soviet artists from visiting the US. 55. “Proposed Tour of Porgy and Bess in the Soviet Union and European Satellite Countries (Staff Study by State),” 20 September 1955. OCB/Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library. Notes to Chapter 6 281

56. “Modifications by USIA to the Staff Study Prepared by State with Respect to the proposed tour of Porgy and Bess in the Soviet Union and European satellite countries,” Confidential. 20 September 1955. Rockefeller Family, 4-NAR personal papers, Washington DC files, 9 SAP declassified Box 80, folder 615. 57. Testimony quoted in Stephen Kinzer, The Brothers: John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles, and their Secret World War (New York: Henry Holt, 2013) 136. 58. Hugh Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer: How the CIA Played America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009) 7. See also Evan Thomas, The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006) 60–61. 59. Frank G. Wisner, memorandum to Nelson A. Rockefeller, 7 April 1955. Rockefeller Family, 4-NAR personal papers, Washington DC files, 9 SAP declassified Box 3, folder 62. 60. Nelson A. Rockefeller, memorandum to Frank G. Wisner, 12 April 1955. Rockefeller Family, 4-NAR personal papers, Washington DC files, 9 SAP declassified Box 3, folder 62. 61. Frank G. Wisner, memorandum, 7 April 1955. 62. Wayne G. Jackson, memorandum to General T. W. Parker, 26 May 1955. Rockefeller Family, 4-NAR personal papers, Washington DC files, 9 SAP declassified Box 80, folder 615. 63. Wayne G. Jackson, memorandum, 26 May 1955. 64. C. Hulick, memorandum to Nelson A. Rockefeller, 6 July 1955. Rockefeller Family, 4-NAR personal papers, Washington DC files, 9 SAP declassified Box 80, folder 615. 65. C. Hulick, memorandum, 6 July 1955. 66. Frank G. Wisner, memorandum to Nelson A. Rockefeller, 20 June 1955. Declassified in 2005. Rockefeller Family, 4-NAR personal papers, Washington DC files, 9 SAP declassified Box 3, folder 62. 67. Frank G. Wisner, memorandum, 7 April 1955. 68. Alan Woods, Interview with Joseph James, 13 December 1987. TRI/OSU. 69. Alan Woods, Interview with Coreania Hayman Carter, 16 December 1987. TRI/OSU. 70. “Company Briefing on USSR,” US Department of State, Berlin, Tatiana Palast, 17 December 1955. TRI/OSU. 71. “Company Briefing on USSR,” US Department of State, Berlin, Tatiana Palast, 17 December 1955. TRI/OSU. 72. Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line, 75. 73. Prevots, Dance for Export, 26–30. 74. Stacy May, memorandum to Nelson A. Rockefeller, 12 December 1955. Rockefeller Family, 4-NAR personal papers, Washington DC files, 9 SAP declassified Box 80, folder 615. 75. E. Ziegler, “The Black Manon,” Nowa Kultura, 5 February 1956, np. As quoted in David Monod, “Disguise, Containment and the Porgy and Bess Revival of 1952–1956,” Journal of American Studies 35.2 (2001): 286. 76. Wilva Davis Breen, interviewed by Lisa Gordon Wetzig, 22 October 1988. TRI/OSU. 77. Martha Flowers, interviewed by Alan Woods, 17 June 1988. TRI/OSU. 78. Robert Breen, Memorandum to Sylvan Lovin, 29 June 1955. TRI/OSU. 79. Alyce Webb, interviewed by Alan Woods, 14 December 1987. TRI/OSU. 282 Notes to Chapter 6

80. Wilva Davis Breen, interviewed by Lisa Gordon Wetzig, 22 October 1988. TRI/OSU. 81. Wilva Davis Breen, interviewed by Lisa Gordon Wetzig, 22 October 1988. TRI/OSU. 82. Nayereh Maglietta, “Revolution in the Lyric Theatre,” La Feria Letteraria, 8 May 1955. Company translation. TRI/OSU. 83. Ella Gerber, interviewed by Alan Woods, 11 December 1987 and 24 February 1988. TRI/OSU. 84. Lillian Hayman, interviewed by Alan Woods, 16 December 1987. TRI/OSU. 85. Marilyn Putnam, interviewed by Alan Woods, 14 December 1987. TRI/OSU. 86. “Porgy in Leningrad,” Time 9 January 1956: np. 87. Joseph James, video interviews with various cast members, 19 September 1987. TRI/OSU. 88. Price would stay with the company for two years, departing shortly after the end of the New York run at the Ziegfeld Theatre (10 March–28 November 1953) for which she received rave reviews from the New York press. 89. Ella Gerber, interviewed by Alan Woods, 11 December 1987 and 24 February 1988. TRI/OSU. 90. Hugh Lee Lyon, Leontyne Price: Highlights of Prima Donna (New York: Vantage Press, 1973) 63–64. 91. Leontyne Price, interview in Porgy and Bess: An American Voice, Dir. Noble. 92. C. H. Brainard, letter to Robert Breen, 13 July 1954. TRI/OSU. 93. Beatrice Whelton, letter to Michael Kavanaugh, 21 August 1954. TRI/OSU. 94. U. Kovalyev, Leningrad Smena 29 December 1955. RB/GMU. 95. Ellen Noonan, The Strange Career of Porgy and Bess: Race, Culture, and America’s Most Famous Opera (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012) 3. 96. Harold Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual: A Historical Analysis of the Failure of Black Leadership (New York Review Books Classics, 2005 [1967]) 103. 97. Ralph Blumenthal, “‘Porgy’ Meets Katrina, and Life’s Not So Easy,” New York Times 29 January 2008: B7. 98. E. Patrick Johnson, Appropriating Blackness: Performance and the Politics of Authenticity (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003) 3. 99. Many scholars have explored this. Dance historian Anthea Kraut observes: “Alleging authenticity on the grounds of firsthand collecting had long been a convention employed by purveyors of African American culture.” Anthea Kraut, Choreographing the Folk: The Dance Stagings of Zora Neale Hurston (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008) 46. See, for example, Eric Lott, Love and Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy and the American Working Class (Oxford University Press, 1995) and Robert Toll, Blacking Up: The Minstrel Show in Nineteenth-Century America (Oxford University Press, 1977). 100. Hollis Alpert, The Life and Times of Porgy and Bess: The Story of an American Classic (New York: Knopf, 1990) 37. 101. Alpert, The Life and Times of Porgy and Bess, 37. 102. Alpert, The Life and Times of Porgy and Bess, 16. 103. Porgy and Bess: An American Voice, Dir. Noble. Notes to Chapter 6 283

104. Jeffrey Melnick, “Harold Cruse’s Worst Nightmare: Rethinking Porgy and Bess,” Harold Cruse’s The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual Reconsidered, ed. Jerry Watts (New York: Routledge, 2004) 103. Emphasis in the original. 105. As quoted in Brenda Dixon Gottschild, Waltzing in the Dark: African American Vaudeville and Race Politics in the Swing Era (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996) 130. 106. Noonan, The Strange Career of Porgy and Bess, 103. 107. Johnson, Appropriating Blackness, 3. 108. Kraut, Choreographing the Folk, 26. 109. Johnson, Appropriating Blackness, 16. 110. Dezsö Hajas, “The Guest Engagement at the Volksoper: Porgy and Bess,” Der Abend 9 September 1952. Translation of Vienna review in company archive, TRI/OSU. 111. Kurt Westphal, “Jubilation Over ‘Porgy and Bess,’” Der Kurier, 18 September 1952. Translation in company archive, TRI/OSU. This was from the Berlin performance. 112. Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual, 103. 113. Glenda Gill, No Surrender, No Retreat: African American Pioneer Performers of Twentieth Century American Theatre (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000) and Rodney Greenberg, George Gershwin (New York: Phaidon Press, 1998) 196. 114. Ezra Bell, “Why Negroes Don’t Like Porgy and Bess,” Ebony (October 1959): 51. The movie was produced by Samuel Goldwyn, directed by Otto Preminger, and starred Sidney Poitier, Pearl Bailey, Sammy Davis, Jr., and Dorothy Dandridge, 115. James Baldwin, “On Catfish Row,” The Price of the Ticket: Collected Nonﬁ ction, 1948–1985 (New York: St. Martins, 1985) 179–80. 116. Porgy and Bess: An American Voice, Dir. Noble. 117. Alice Childress, Trouble in Mind, Plays by American Women, 1930–1960, ed. Judith Barlow (New York: Applause, 1994) 487. All subsequent citations of the play will be parenthetical. 118. The tour paid for all of Lyons’ “transportation and room and board while he is with the company.” Robert Breen, General Memorandum on Additional Personnel to Wilva Breen, 4 December 1955. TRI/OSU. “Mr. Lyons, however, did not like to think of himself as a gossip columnist, pointing out that he rarely printed ... items that reflected unflatteringly on the notable whose names were his grist.” Alden Whitman, “Leonard Lyons Dies; Columnist for 40 Years,” New York Times 8 October 1976: 94. 119. “Speech of Mr. N. P. Savchenko to Porgy and Bess Company,” Leningrad, 31 December 1955. Trans. unknown. TRI/OSU. 120. I. Kopalin, Dir., American Actors in Moscow, Inna Caron, trans. (Moscow: Central Red Flag Order Studio of Documentary Films, 1956). There does not seem to have been any such documentaries made about the visit of the Comédie-Française or Peter Brook’s Hamlet. 121. V. Bogdanoff-Berezovski, Evening Leningrad 29 December 1955. TRI/OSU. 122. U. Kovalyev, Leningrad Smena 29 December 1955. 123. Kovalyev, Leningrad Smena. 124. B. Zagoursky, “Porgy and Bess—Visit of Everyman Opera Company to USSR,” Moscow Izvestia 25 January 1955. TRI/OSU. 125. L. Baratov, “Porgy and Bess,” Evening Moscow 12 January 1956. TRI/OSU. 284 Notes to Conclusion

126. Alan Woods, Interview with Coreania Hayman Carter, 16 December 1987. TRI/OSU. 127. Martin Duberman, Paul Robeson: A Biography (New York: New Press, 1989) 434. 128. Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line, 75. 129. Truman Capote, The Muses Are Heard (New York: Vintage, 1956) 21. 130. Van Buren, Letter to the Editor. TRI/OSU. One Chicago newspaper was blunt in its assessment of the production’s potential: “They [“Negroes”] have risen to recognition and success in America through talent and ability. As they mingle with Berliners they are living answers to Communist propaganda about American Negroes. And the fact that the wonderful music (‘Summer Time,’ for example) was composed by Gershwin, a Jew—with lyrics by his brother Ira—makes the appearance of Porgy and Bess close by the last resting place of Adolph [sic] Hitler also an appropriate presentation by our government.” “New Roles for Porgy and Bess,” Chicago Daily Sun-Times 1952: 33. 131. John Rosenfield, “Gershwin Musical Takes on Cogency,” Dallas News 10 June 1952. TRI/OSU. 132. “1950s ‘Porgy and Bess’ Cast Member Maya Angelou Reflects on Production’s Significance.” 133. Harry Belafonte, My Song: A Memoir (New York: Knopf, 2011) 121–22. Emphasis in the original. 134. Dan Dietz, The Complete Book of 1950s Broadway Musicals (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 2014) 16–17. 135. Dorothy Kuhns Heyward was a playwright who had studied with George Pierce Baker at Harvard University. After marrying DuBose Heyward in 1923, she adapted his novel into the play Porgy which the Theatre Guild had produced in 1928 to great acclaim. 136. Kraut, Choreographing the Folk, 177. 137. Gerald Clarke, Capote: A Biography (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988) 290–91. 138. Clarke, Capote: A Biography, 294. 139. NW, “Post Mortem,” nt, nd, np. TRI/OSU. 140. David K. Johnson, The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government (University of Chicago Press, 2004) 169. 141. Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows up the World, 254. 142. Ira Wolfert, “Ambassadors At Large,” The Nation 19 May 1956: 428. 143. Alan Woods, Interview with Lillian Hayman, 16 December 1987. TRI/OSU.

Conclusion

1. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961–1963 Volume I, Vietnam, 1961, Document 86 http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v01/ d86. Accessed 10 July 2013. 2. Joey Adams, On the Road for Uncle Sam: The Bittersweet Adventures of an American Vaudeville Troupe in Southeast Asia (New York: Bernard Geis, 1963) 207. 3. Adams, On the Road for Uncle Sam, 208. 4. K. A. Cuordileone, Manhood and American Political Culture in the Cold War (New York: Routledge, 2005) 167. Notes to Conclusion 285

5. Jeannette Walls, Dish: How Gossip Became the News and the News Became Just Another Show (New York: William Morrow, 2001) 71. 6. Bill Osgerby, Playboys in Paradise: Masculinity, Youth and Leisure-Style in Modern America (London: Bloomsbury, 2001) 157. 7. Roy E. Larsen and Glenn G. Wolfe “Report of Survey Cultural Presentations Program,” 17 December 1962. SD/UAR. 8. Adams, On the Road for Uncle Sam, 1. See also “Joey Adams Troupe Brings Joy to Nepal on 3-Day Visit,” New York Times 8 September 1961 and Walls, Dish, 71. 9. Robert D. Dean, Imperial Brotherhood: Gender and the Making of Cold War Foreign Policy (Amherst: University of Massachusetts, 2001) 65. 10. Dean, Imperial Brotherhood, 12. 11. Fredrik Logevall, Embers of War: The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America’s Vietnam (New York: Random House, 2012) 702. 12. Wanda Washburn, interview with Ed Edwin, 20 April 1967. Personnel Interviews, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library. 13. Adams, On the Road for Uncle Sam, 5. 14. “NSC-68: United States Objectives and Programs for National Security,” 14 April 1950. http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/nsc-68/nsc68-2.htm. 22 February 2007. 15. Campbell Craig and Fredrik Logevall, America’s Cold War: The Politics of Insecurity (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2012) 213. 16. Hallie Flanagan, Diary, 12 November 1926. HFD/Vassar College. 17. Stephen Kinzer, The Brothers: John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles, and their Secret World War (New York: Henry Holt, 2013) 203 and Ted Morgan, My Battle of Algiers: A Memoir (New York: Collins Books, 2005) 21. 18. Adam Clayton Powell, Jr., Adam by Adam: The Autobiography of Adam Clayton Powell, Jr. (New York: Kensington, 2001 [1971]) 104. 19. Richard Wright, The Color Curtain [1956], Black Power: Three Books from Exile, ed. Cornel West (New York: HarperPerennial, 2008). Emphasis in the original. 20. Powell, Adam by Adam, 103. 21. Richard Goold-Adams, John Foster Dulles: A Reappraisal (New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts, 1962) 169. See also Christopher J. Lee, “Between a Moment and an Era: The Origins and Afterlives of Bandung,” Making a World After Empire: The Bandung Moment and its Afterlives, ed. Christopher J. Lee (Columbus: Ohio University Research in International Studies, 2010) 15–16. 22. Lee, “Between Moment and an Era,” 17. 23. “Eleventh Annual Semi-Annual Report: Cultural Presentations Program of the United States.” January 1962. SD/UAR. 24. Dorothy Kilgallen, “The Voice of Broadway,” Coshocton Tribune 6 November 1961: 6. 25. Adams, On the Road for Uncle Sam, 233. Not mentioned in the book is that both parties ended up suing and countersuing one another. 26. “Honey Traps Flies, But Never Asian Dignitaries,” Lodi News-Sentinel 10 July 1962: 10. 27. Robert A. Bauer, memorandum to Alfred V. Boerner, 3 April 1962. SD/UAR. 28. Congressional Record, Congress-Session: 87-2, 108.11 (20 July 1962): 14353. 29. Congressional Record, Congress-Session: 87-2, 108.11 (20 July 1962): 14353. 30. Congressional Record, Congress-Session: 87-2, 108.11 (20 July 1962): 14354. 286 Notes to Conclusion

31. Congressional Record, Congress-Session: 87-2, 108.11 (20 July 1962): 14353. 32. Congressional Record, Congress-Session: 87-2, 108.11 (20 July 1962): 14354. 33. “T&V Columnist to Join Comedian Husband on Far Eastern Tour,” Town and Village 17 August 1961: 16. 34. Frederick Nolting, letter to Joey Adams, 17 May 1962. Joey Adams Collection, Howard Gotlieb Archival Research Center, Boston University. 35. As quoted in Shawn J. Parry-Giles, The Rhetorical Presidency, Propaganda, and the Cold War, 1945–1955 (Santa Barbara: Praeger, 2001) 57. 36. Scott Lilly, “Diplomats, National Security, and the House Budget,” Center for American Progress, 18 September 2012. http://www.americanprogress.org/ issues/budget/news/2012/09/18/38352/diplomats-national-security-and- the-house-budget/. Accessed 6 June 2013. Richard Arndt notes that when traveling abroad, Rooney had expected embassies and consulates to “meet[] his heavy need for liquid refreshment,” despite his public disparagement of such budgetary requests. Richard T. Arndt, The First Resort of Kings: American Cultural Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century (Washington DC: Potomac Books, 2005) 392. 37. Arndt, The First Resort of Kings, 414. 38. Arndt, The First Resort of Kings, 393 and 295. 39. Charles Frankel, High on Foggy Bottom: An Outsider’s Inside View of the Government (New York: Harper and Row, 1969) 19. 40. Roy E. Larsen and Glenn G. Wolfe, letter to John W. Gardner, 17 December 1962. SD/UAR. 41. Roy E. Larsen and Glenn G. Wolfe “Report of Survey Cultural Presentations Program,” 17 December 1962. SD/UAR. All subsequent citations in the paragraph are from this source. 42. Lucius Battle, personal interview with Larry J. Hackman, 31 October 1968. Lucius D. Battle Oral History Interview. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library. http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/Archives/JFKOH-LDB-01. aspx. Accessed 19 August 2014. All subsequent citations in the paragraph are from this source. 43. Meeting Transcript, 17 January 1963. SD/UAR. 44. Lucius Battle, personal interview with Larry J. Hackman, 31 October 1968. Lucius D. Battle Oral History Interview. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library. http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/Archives/JFKOH-LDB-01. aspx. Accessed 19 August 2014. 45. “Alvin Ailey American Dance Theatre,” http://www.alvinailey.org/about/ history. Accessed 21 December 2014. 46. Meeting Transcript, 17 January 1963. SD/UAR. 47. Meeting Transcript, 17 January 1963. SD/UAR. 48. Robert Breen, letter to Walter Abel, 13 June 1967. RB/GMU. 49. Department of State, press release, 10 July 1969. SD/UAR. 50. Ruth Mayleas, “Resident Theaters as National Theaters,” Theater 10.3 (Summer 1979): 7. 51. Mayleas, “Resident Theaters as National Theaters,” 7. 52. Mr. Ackerman, memorandum to Mr. Bartch, 4 October 1969. SD/UAR. 53. John Richardson, Jr., letter to John Randolph, 31 October 1969. SD/UAR. 54. John Richardson, Jr., letter to John Randolph, 31 October 1969. SD/UAR. 55. John Richardson, Jr., letter to John Randolph, 31 October 1969. SD/UAR. Notes to Conclusion 287

56. Dan Sullivan, “New Theatre for Now Gives Play Omnibus,” Los Angeles Times 13 October 1969: np. 57. John Richardson, Jr., letter to Donald Seawell, 14 January 1970. SD/UAR. 58. Howard Taubman, “ANTA Hits Cancellation of Drama Tour Abroad,” New York Times 21 November 1969: C50. 59. As quoted in Richard Scharine, “Kaleidoscope of the American Dream,” Journal of American Drama and Theatre 10 (Spring 1998): 43–44. 60. Scharine, “Kaleidoscope of the American Dream,” 47. 61. Irene Carstones, file memorandum, 15 September 1969. SD/UAR. 62. Irene Carstones, memorandum to John Forbes, 16 September 1969. SD/UAR. 63. Irene Carstones, file memorandum, 17 September 1969. SD/UAR. 64. Beverly Gerstein and Jerome Lawrence, memorandum, 17 September 1969. SD/UAR. Ellipses in the original. 65. Beverly Gerstein and Jerome Lawrence, memorandum, 17 September 1969. SD/UAR. 66. Joel Schwartz, Tilt. SD/UAR. 67. Martin Duberman, Metaphors. SD/UAR. 68. Martin Duberman, Metaphors. SD/UAR. 69. Israel Horowitz, Rats and Line; James Bridge, A3. SD/UAR. 70. Ruth Mayleas, memorandum to Nancy Hanks, 22 October 1969. SD/UAR. 71. Taubman, “ANTA Hits Cancellation of Drama Tour Abroad,” C50. 72. Thoms Huff exclaimed, “Nan, remember one thing at the House hearings. Rooney criticized the project after the cuts were made, that we would even consider a man who would think of sending that type of attraction.” Irene Carstones, file memorandum, 17 September 1969. SD/UAR. 73. Mark Atwood Lawrence, The Vietnam War: A Concise International History (Oxford University Press, 2008) 125. 74. Richard K. Fox, Jr., memorandum to John Richardson, Jr., 17 November 1971. SD/UAR. 75. Irene Carstones, memorandum to John Forbes, 16 September 1969. SD/UAR. 76. David Savran, “Trafficking in Transnational Brands: The New ‘Broadway- Style’ Musical,” Theatre Survey 55.03 (September 2014): 319–20. 77. Hisham Aidi, Rebel Music: Race, Empire, and the New Muslim Youth Culture (New York: Pantheon, 2014) xxvii. 78. As quoted in Aidi, Rebel Music, 232. Aidi does not name the official. 79. Aidi, Rebel Music, 232. 80. Adam Tooze, The Deluge: The Great War, America and the Remaking of the Global Order, 1916–1931 (New York: Viking, 2014) 230. 81. Henry Luce, “The American Century,” Life Magazine 17 February 1941: 65. Bibliography

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1776 239 Armstrong, Lil 189 1984 185 Armstrong, Louis 196–7, 221 Art Students League 37 Abbey Theatre 40 arts 1–2, 4, 6, 8, 13, 15, 26–7, 29, Actors Studio 96 32–5, 38–9, 41, 51–2, 57, 59, 62, Adams, Cindy 9, 224, 229–30, 232 69, 74–5, 84, 99, 102–4, 106–10, Adams, Joey 9, 29, 223–7, 231–2, 235 114, 117, 120–1, 123–32, 142–4, Addams, Jane 39 149, 151–2, 154, 156, 159, 162, Adler, Stella 68, 93, 96–7, 256 n.70 166–8, 171, 175, 177–80, 192–4, Advancing American Art 117, 121, 196, 206, 228, 231–2, 234–5, 241, 125, 134, 137, 195, 228, 234 244–5 n.16, 265 n.4, 273 n.30 Afghanistan 225, 229 Atkinson, Brooks 58, 116, 182 AIC (American International Attles, Joseph 219 Corporation) 74 audience 22, 25, 43, 58, 78, 81, 84, Albee, Edward 238 87–91, 93, 98, 118–19, 122, 131, Alexandrinsky Theatre 71 144, 146, 149, 183–4, 186, 207, All God’s Chillun Got Wings 53 214, 238, 268 n.59 Allen, Vera 173 Austin, Mary 42 Allies 14, 121, 164, 195 Austria 62, 80, 273 n.32 Alsop, Joseph 178 Ayers, Catherine 219 Alsop, Stewart 178 Alvin Ailey American Dance Bailey, Pearl 189, 283 n.114 Theatre 235 Baker, George Pierce 2–3, 32, 46, 85, Amberg, George 59 92, 102, 284 n.135 American Assembly 124 Baker, Josephine 189 American Century 243 Balanchine, George 106 American Dilemma, An 198–9 Balieff, Nikita 74 American Dramatists Club 100 ballet 8, 72, 74, 89, 99, 113, 128, American Laboratory Theatre 95, 192, 241 256 n.70 Bandung 227, 229 American National Theatre and Barnes, Irving 8 Academy 24, 111, 167 Barter Theatre 27, 110, 134, 140, American Negro Theatre 61, 215, 220 270 n.89 Americanization 16–18, 23 Battle, Lucius 232–6 Amsterdam 191 Bay, Charles 154 Anderson, Judith 121–3 Beals, Carleton 63 Angelou, Maya 186–91, 218–19, Bechet, Sidney 189 278 n.4 Bel Geddes, Norman 74 Anna Lucasta 61, 220 Belafonte, Harry 218–19 Antoine, André 160 Belasco, David 43, 88 Appia, Adolphe 40 Belgrade 13, 186, 227, 229, 238 Arbenz, Jacobo 203 Benton, William 137, 165 Arlen, Howard 186 Bergson, Henri 159, 165

302 Index 303

Berlin 13, 28, 62, 80, 119–24, 126–7, Cabin in the Sky 219–20 135, 150, 194, 205, 283 n.111 Cahiers du Théâtre, Les 161, 272–3 Berlin Arts Festival 28 n.29 biomechanics 90, 96–7 Cain, Sibol 219 Bjørnson, Bjorn 17, 84 Cairo 186, 190, 192, 228 Blackbirds 219 Calloway, Cab 220 Blackbirds of 1928 220 Cambridge Theatre 183 blackface 54, 59, 211 Can You Hear Their Voices? 1 blacklist 103 Canada 17, 23, 62, 102, 162, 174, Blanchart, Paul 161, 169 273 n.32 Blau, Herbert 31 Canada Council for the Arts 102 Bloom, Sol 137 capitalism 49, 68, 71, 152 Blum, Leon 165, 168 Capote, Truman 186, 192, 217, Boleslavsky, Richard 78, 256 n.70 220–1 Bolshoi Ballet 128 Carmen 218–19 Bonn 120 Carmen Jones 219–20 Borgnine, Ernest 110, 145 Carnegie, Andrew 12 Boston 3, 38, 76, 143, 210, 235 Carnegie Corporation 2, 44, 198 Brandt, Willy 135 Carnegie Endowment for Brecht, Bertolt 150, 208 International Peace 12 Breen, Robert 27–9, 109–19, 123–4, Carnegie Mellon University 32 126, 128–34, 141, 143, 145, carpas 63 147–8, 150–3, 162, 172, 187–8, Carter, Coreania Hayman 205 191–3, 202, 206, 208–10, 213–15, Carter, Huntley 76–7 220, 228, 235–6, 243, 260–1 n.44, Case Western Reserve University 31, 261 n.151, 266 n.8, 268 n.48 and 47 n.60, 269 n.74, 270 n.89 and Cassin, René 165 n.103, 283 n.118 CEMA (Council for the Breen, Wilva 7, 144, 188, 218, 245 Encouragement of Music and the n.21, 283 n.118 Arts) 115 Bretton Woods 16, 246 n.53 Chaliapin, Feodor 73 Bridges, James 238 Chase, Chaz 224 Broadway 31, 33, 36, 39, 43–4, 57, Chase, Stuart 69 73, 95, 103, 108, 111, 115, 121, Chauve-Souris, La 74 126, 144, 163, 176, 179, 182, 186, Chekhov, Anton 40, 86 188, 220, 241–2 Cheney, Sheldon 25, 34–6, 39–41, Brockett, Oscar 31 43–5, 51, 62, 64, 105 Brown, Gilmor 33, 45, 259 n.8 Chicago Little Theatre 45 Browne, Maurice 45 Childress, Alice 215 Brubeck, Dave 196–7 China 23, 62, 135, 162, 169, 221, Brubeck, Iola 196 273 n.32 Bryant, Louise 71 Churchill, Winston 13–14, 246 n.45 Bulgakov, Mikhail 95 CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) 15, Bulgaria 62, 175, 273 n.32 28, 124–5, 135, 139, 178–80, 192, Bullitt, William 98 199, 203–4, 206, 227–8, 235, 239, Burke, Georgia 215, 220 266–7 n.24 Burkey, Evelyn 156 Clark, Barrett H. 33 Burton, Miriam 219–20 Cleveland Playhouse 32, 249–50 Butler, Nicholas Murray 12 n.66 304 Index

Clurman, Harold 68, 93, 97, 99, 256 205, 216, 221, 225–6, 229, 231, n.70 233–4, 238 Cocteau, Jean 40 Czechoslovakia 62, 135, 173–5, 237 Coe, Richard 144, 149–50, 215, 232–4, 268 n.60, 270 n.89 Dallas 31–2, 191, 208 Coffee, John M. 107 dance 8, 42, 56, 60, 63–4, 73, 80, Cold War 2, 5–6, 8, 13–15, 21, 23, 121, 125–7, 142, 162, 187–8, 192, 26, 28–9, 61, 64, 72–3, 103, 117, 206, 212, 220, 232, 234–5, 282 119, 123–4, 129–30, 134–5, 137, n.99 139, 150–4, 157, 164–5, 173, 175, Dandridge, Dorothy 189, 283 179–80, 192, 194, 196–7, 200, n.114 205, 221, 225–9, 235 Darvas, Lili 168 College of William and Mary 108 Davidson, Gordon 236–7, 239–40 Columbia University 32, 124, 139, Davies, Gloria 218 218 Davis, Blevins 8, 29, 115–16, 131–4, Comédie-Française 101, 118, 160, 142, 149–50, 152–3, 171, 173, 283 n.120 187, 191–4, 213, 215, 220, 266 commercial theatre 33, 35, 39–40, n.8, 268 n.47, n.48, n.59, and 43, 45, 49–51, 105, 241 n.60, 270 n.89 and n.103 communism 14, 21, 83, 94, 103, Davis, Sammy, Jr. 189, 224, 283 n.114 114, 181–2, 192 DDR (German Democratic Republic) community theatre 31–3, 108 175 Comstock, Roy 74 Death and Destruction of Europe, Congress for Cultural Freedom 28, The 82 124, 178 democracy 35, 49, 60, 69, 71, 152, Connelly, Marc 53, 57, 74, 219 178, 180, 192–3, 198–9, 225–6, Connelly, Matthew 132, 142, 262 229, 242 n.79 Department of State 6, 15, 26, 28–9, constructivism 90 104, 111, 117–22, 124–7, 131, containment 6, 14, 134–7 137, 139, 141–2, 150–1, 154, 173, Cooke, Anne 153–4 175–6, 191–2, 194–6, 202–6, 217, Copeau, Jacques 40, 167, 274 n.62 224, 228–41, 266 n.8, 268 n.48 Cornell, Katherine 182 Derwent, Clarence 126, 129, 132, Cornell University 31–2 141, 151–2, 172–3, 178, 270 n.84, Cotton Club 220 n.89, and n.103 Council on Foreign Relations 75 Detroit Society of Arts and Crafts 34 Covarrubias, Miguel 60 Deutsch, Babette 78, 256 n.72 Coward, Noël 57 Deutsches Theater 150 Craig, Edward Gordon 40, 80 Dewey, John 69 Crawford, Cheryl 68, 93, 97 Diaghilev, Serge 42, 74 Crawford, Clarice 219 Dies, Martin 102 Crawford, Joseph 219 director 4, 7, 17, 28, 33, 40–1, 47, Crisis 56 57–8, 75, 86, 89, 93, 96–7, 109– Crommelynck, Fernand 85 11, 115–16, 128, 153–4, 159–61, Crouse, Russel 182 165, 167–8, 188, 203, 212–13, Cry the Beloved Country 219 215, 219, 231, 236, 244 n.15, 265 Cuban Missile Crisis 226 n.151 cultural diplomacy 2, 9, 27, 73, 104, DLA (Drama League of America) 35, 134, 151–2, 178, 180, 191–6, 200, 45–6, 251 n.114 Index 305

Dodson, Owen 58, 154, 271–2 Everyman Opera Company 29, 187, n.105 214 Dowdy, Helen 219 Experimental Theatre (Vassar) 85 Dowling, Robert 116, 177 expressionism 87, 89–91 DPS (Dramatists Play Service) 33 Drama 46 Faine, Hyman R. 234–5 Dramatists Guild 33, 108 Faucet, Crystal Bird 205 dramaturgy 7, 9, 40, 79 Feier, Die 80 Dreiser, Theodore 69 Feiffer, Jules 238 Drummond, Alexander M. 31–2 feminism 45 Du Bois, W. E. B. 4, 20, 55–7 Ferdinand, Roger 170 Duberman, Martin 154, 238 festival 27, 108, 119–23, 133, 181, Dukes, Ashley 162 228, 265 n.6, 272–3 n.29 Dulles, Alan 203, 227 Finland 23, 175, 265 n.6, 271 n.7 Duncan, Isadora 41–2 Fisher, Aileen 182 Dunham, Katherine 60, 235 Fisk University 52, 58, 218 Duse, Eleanor 38 Five Year Plan 94, 99 Dustin, Robert 188 Flanagan, Hallie 1, 3–4, 13, 25, 30–1, 46, 65–8, 70–2, 75–6, 79–87, E = mc2: A Living Newspaper About the 89–93, 96–7, 99–102, 114, 130, Atomic Age 1 159, 162–3, 198, 227, 256 n.79, Eaton, Walter Prichard 3, 112 259 n.8 economy 12, 16, 49, 66, 70–1, 120, Flowers, Martha 206 137 Fokine, Mikhail 74 Egypt 62, 190 foreign policy 2, 6, 12–13, 21, 75, Eisenhower, Dwight D. 2, 27–8, 126–7, 132–3, 136–8, 151–3, 159, 124–5, 137, 193–4, 196, 225 165, 173, 194, 201, 225, 230, 237, administration 223, 225, 227 242 Eisenstein, Sergei 42, 72, 78 Foster, Elizabeth 186 Ellison, Ralph 199 foundations 2, 12–13, 159, 178, 180, Elsinore Festival 131 236 Emergency Fund, the 125–7, 194 Four Saints in Three Acts 209, 219 Emperor Jones, The 51, 53 France 12, 17–18, 23, 28, 62, 64, 77, empire 3, 18–20, 242 80, 101, 159–61, 167, 175, 227, England 23, 62, 77, 80, 83, 102, 118, 263 n.111 132, 144–5, 265 n.6 Freedley, George 47, 98, 163, 171, Enter the Actress 41 177 Enters, Angna 121 Freedley, Vinton 108, 112, 118 Equity (Actors Equity Association) 49, French, Mary Stewart 105, 116, 58, 108, 126, 151, 172, 237, 270 140–1 n.89, 270–1 n.105 FRG (Federal Republic of Germany) Europe 1, 3, 11–14, 25, 27–9, 34–5, 120, 135 43, 61, 65–6, 70, 74, 78–80, 82, Frick, Henry Clay 74 85, 92, 103, 107, 111, 117–18, FTP (Federal Theatre Project) 1, 124, 131, 133, 135, 148–9, 152, 99–103, 108–10, 114–15 159, 162–3, 167, 169, 186, 192, Fulbright Association 231 194–5, 215, 238, 246 n.45, 267 n.40 Gale, Zona 53 Evans, Celeste 225 Gaulle, Charles de 16 306 Index

Gémier, Firmin 17, 28, 159–63, 166, Hamlet 24, 27–9, 59, 115, 119, 168, 182, 185, 272 n.23, n.26, 131–5, 137, 140–2, 144–8, 150–3, and n.27, 273 n.30 and n.41, 275 155, 173, 192–4, 215, 232, 266 n.65 and n.67 n.8, 268 n.47 and n.60, 269 n.76, Geneva 65–6, 159, 200, 203, 257 283 n.120 n.98 Hammerstein, Oscar II 219 Geneva 181 Hampton Institute 59 Gerber, Ella 188, 208–9 Hanks, Nancy 240 Germany 11–12, 18, 62, 77, 80, Hapgood, Emilie 52 83, 89, 94, 119–21, 131–3, 135, Harlem Renaissance 53, 56–7 142–4, 147–50, 153, 170–1, 215, Harvard University 2, 32, 35, 53, 265 n.6, 268 n.48, 273 n.32 127, 284 n.135 Gershwin, George 187, 197, 211–12, Hayes, Helen 115–16, 129 284 n.130 Hayman, Lillian 190, 208, 222 Gershwin, Ira 188, 284 n.130 Heffner, Hubert 31 Gest, Morris 73–4 Hellman, Lillian 93, 169, 171 Gielgud, John 115, 265 n.6 Helsinki 175, 265 n.6 Gilder, Helena de Kay 37–8 Heyward, Dorothy 53, 220, 284 Gilder, Richard Watson 37–8 n.135 Gilder, Rosamond 17, 23, 25, 27, Heyward, DuBose 187, 211–12, 220, 32, 36–9, 41–2, 47–8, 51, 57–62, 284 n.135 72, 78, 100–1, 105, 109, 111–12, HICOG (High Commission for 114, 118, 126, 130, 151–2, 156, Occupied Germany) 119, 122 159, 162–3, 167, 169, 171–7, higher education 2, 4, 30–2, 49, 51, 179–80, 185, 232, 260 n.22, 265 68 n.151 hip hop 242 Gillmore, Frank 49–50, 108 historiography 7–10 Glass Menagerie, The 31 Holocaust 19 globalization 20, 65, 229, 241, 243 Home is Tomorrow 182–5 Gordin, Jacob 73 Horowitz, Israel 238, 287 n.69 Gorelik, Mordecai 71–2 Hot Mikado 219 Great Britain 12–14, 18, 65, 115, Houghton, Norris 93, 97–8 162, 164, 221, 273 n.32 House of Flowers, The 186 Great Depression 68 Howard University 58, 152, 154 Green Pastures 57, 219 Hughes, Langston 51, 53–4, 57, Green, Paul 53, 55, 57, 74 62–4, 251 n.108 Gregory, Montgomery 52, 58 Hull House 39 Grimke, Angelina Weld 55 Hungary 175, 273 n.32 Grinnell College 1, 2, 4 Hurok, Sol 74 Group Theatre 48, 68, 93, 96–7 Hurston, Zora Neale 54–5 Guatemala 203 Hutcherson, LeVern 218–19 Guggenheim Foundation (John Hutchinson, Amory Hare 104–5 Simon Guggenheim Memorial Huxley, Julian 165, 167–8, 171 Foundation) 1–4, 66, 84, 92–3, 97, 159, 198, 244 n.11 IATSE (International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees Habimah Players 74 and Moving Picture Machine Hall Johnson Choir 121, 123 Operators Artists and Allied Hamilton, Edith 42 Crafts) 49 Index 307

Ibsen, Henrik 40, 152 Johnson, Hall 57, 121–3, 129, 219 ICIC (International Commission for Johnson, James Weldon 52–3, 251 Intellectual Cooperation) 159, 165 n.8 ideology 17, 178 Johnson, Lyndon Baines 2, 129, 231 IEP (International Exchange Program) Jones, Margo 30, 62, 100, 152, 228 125–6, 128–9, 201–2, 236 Jones, Robert Edmond 52, 57, 61, IIIC (International Institute for 74, 111, 171 Intellectual Cooperation) 159, Jones, Rupel 47–8, 51, 250 n.88 161–2, 165 Josset, André 170, 263 n.111 In Cold Blood 192 Junior League 39 Indonesia 225, 227 Inherit the Wind 239 Kahn, Otto 74–5, 101, 105 Inness-Brown, Virginia 232, 234–5 Kaiser, Georg 95 International Monetary Fund 16 Kaleidoscope of the American internationalism 5–6, 9–21, 23, 26, Dream 238 28, 34, 43, 61–4, 66–7, 82, 84, 99, Kamerny Theatre 78, 89, 95 151, 157–8, 163, 166, 170, 172, Karamu Theatre 220 180–3, 197, 226–9, 232, 243 Karson, Nat 144, 270 n.84 interwar years 3, 5, 12, 17–18, 23, Kase, C. Robert 156–7 26, 34, 57, 66–7, 72, 93, 101, 104, Kazan, Elia 96 121, 159, 170, 197 Kennan, George 7, 9, 135–6, 266 n.17 Ionesco, Eugene 175 Kennedy, Adrienne 238 Iraq 203 Kennedy, John F. 198, 223–5, 227, Iron Curtain 13–14, 200, 203, 205, 235, 268 n.60 246 n.45 administration 225 Iron Curtain speech 13–14 Keppel, Frederick 2, 198 Isaacs, Edith 25, 32–3, 35–9, 41–7, Khanum, Tamara 63–4 50–1, 57–8, 60–4, 68, 78, 84, 101, Khrushchev, Nikita 94, 98, 128, 143, 105, 108–9, 111, 159, 162–3, 256 200, 203, 226 n.70, 260 n.22, 265 n.151 Kilgallen, Dorothy 229 Italy 62, 80, 204, 227, 246 n.45, 273 Kingsley, Sidney 68, 93 n.32 Kirstein, Lincoln 173 ITI (International Theatre Institute) Koch, Frederick 58, 259 n.8 24, 28, 151, 156–7, 164, 168–78, Koch, Howard 182 180–2, 196, 204, 228, 238, 240, Komissarzhevskaya, Vera 73 263 n.111, 270 n.84 Korean War 135, 194 Ives, Irving 113, 128 Kraft, Irma 163 Kremlin 99, 136, 217, 226 Jackals, The 201 Ku Klux Klan 202 Jackson, Barry 167 Kurtz, Maurice 167–8, 171, 174–5, Jackson, C. D. 137, 200–4, 266–7 n.24 185, 274 n.64, 275 n.65 Jacobson, August 201 James, Joseph 190, 205, 209, 217 La Fenice 191 Jarry, Alfred 40, 160 La Marr, Moses 219 Javits, Jacob 113 La Scala 191 jazz 191–2, 195–7, 204, 212, 221, 224 Lacey-Zarubin Agreement 200 Jefferson, Joseph 37, 114 LaGallienne, Eva 115 Jessye, Eva 219 Langner, Lawrence 181 Johnson, Charles 58 Larsen, Roy E. 231, 234 308 Index

Larsen-Wolfe Report 238 Mandelstam, Nadezhda 70–1 Larson, Jack 238 Mandelstam, Osip 70 Latin America 29, 62–3, 117, 192, Marceau, Marcel 121 194, 199, 228 Mark Taper Forum 29, 236–7 Lawrence, D. H. 42 Marriage Proposal, The 67, 84–5, Lawrence, Jerome 239, 287 n.64 and 88–9, 92, 99 n.65 Marshall, George 137, 139 Laws, Jerry 219 Marshall Plan 16, 138, 150 League of Nations 11–12, 14, 28, 65, Martin, Michelle 186, 191 75, 157–8, 164, 180–1, 184 Matthews, Brander 32 Leathem, Barclay 31–2, 47 Mayleas, Ruth 236, 240 Lee, Robert E. 239 McCandless, Stanley 57 Lefortovskii Isolator 82–3 McCarran Act 127–8, 203, 280 n.54 Leningrad 28, 67, 99, 204, 211, 216 McCarthy, Joseph 94, 128, 151 Leonardos, Urylee 219 McClendon, Rose 4, 244 n.15 Leontiev, I. L. 86 McClintic, Guthrie 111–12 Leslie, Lew 219 McConnell, Frederic 32, 259 n.8 Lettunich, Matteo 122, 263 n.111 McCurry, John 209, 220 and n.113 McLaughlin, Charles 107, 260 n.31 Levinson, André 42, 56 McNally, Terrence 238 Lindbergh, Charles 65–6 Medea 121–3 Lindsay, Howard 182 Meisner, Sanford 96 Lippmann, Walter 19 Melfi, Leonard 238 Lissim, Simon 163 Metropolitan Opera (New York) 121, Little Country Theatre 43, 249–50 179 n.66 Meyerhold, Vsevolod 25, 78, 81–2, little theatre 3, 32, 43–6, 48, 51, 56, 84–5, 90–1, 93, 95–7 58, 85, 101, 220 Middle East 9, 193, 199 Locke, Alain 53–61, 253 n.153 Mielziner, Jo 34 Loesser, Arthur 233 Mille, Agnes de 41 London 14, 42, 65, 74, 80, 116, 120, Miller, Arthur 127, 238 163, 167, 183, 194, 256 n.79, 278 minstrelsy 52, 54, 56, 59, 220 n.9 modernity 20, 22–3, 91 Los Angeles Philharmonic Moderwell, Hiram 61–2 Auditorium 210 Moe, Henry Allen 3, 66, 97 Lost in the Stars 219 Montevideo 127 Luce, Henry 243 Montreal 188 Lunacharsky, Anatoly 70, 85 Morgan, J. Pierpont 74 Lyons, Leonard 215, 283 n.118 Moscow 7–8, 14, 25, 28, 67, 70, 76, 81–2, 84, 86, 89, 93–9, 135, 174, Macgowan, Kenneth 35–6, 43–4, 46, 192, 204, 211, 216–17, 256 n.79, 50, 53, 61, 74, 76, 85, 89 283 n.120 Mackay, Constance D’Arcy 43 Moscow Art Theatre 40, 68, 73–4, Madariaga, Salvador de 158–9 76–8, 93, 95–6 Maeterlinck, Maurice 168 Mossadeq, Mohammed 203 Magnanimous Cuckold, The 82, 85 Mundt, Karl 138, 267 n.30 Main, J. H. T. 2 Muses Are Heard, The 192, 220 Mamba’s Daughters 220 Museum of Modern Art 59, 106 Mamoulian, Rouben 212 Myrdal, Gunnar 198–9 Index 309

NAACP (National Association for the Odets, Clifford 48, 238 Advancement of Colored People) OIC (Organization of Intellectual 8, 52 Cooperation) 159, 164–5 NAM (Non-Aligned Movement) Old Vic Theatre 115 227–8 Olivier, Laurence 115, 147, 265 n.6 Nasser, Gamal Abdel 190 O’Neal, Frederick 58 National Public Radio 186 O’Neill, Eugene 42, 45, 53, 55, national theatre 26–8, 34, 42, 44, 57, 74 61, 85, 100–6, 109, 112–14, 117, On the Road for Uncle Sam 230 128–30, 133, 140, 143, 243, 268 opera 3, 40, 73, 99, 113, 187–8, 191, n.60 213–14, 216–19 nationalism 11, 16–17, 21, 168 Opéra 160 Nazi 19, 98, 122, 167, 198, 201 Opéra Comique 160 NEA (National Endowment for the Orwell, George 185 Arts) 129–30, 236–7, 240, 244–5 Oslo 152 n.16, 265 n.151 Ostrovsky, Alexander 97 Neal, Cedric 211 Othello 121 Nearing, Scott 69 Negro Unit 5 Paris 15, 20, 40, 42, 126, 153, 156, Neighborhood Playhouse 36, 159, 160–2, 167–9, 171–4, 186, 45, 47 192, 194, 257 n.98 NEP (New Economic Policy) 71 Pasadena Playhouse 31, 33, 43, 45, New Deal 49 249 n.66, 262 n.48 New Negro movement 51, 54–6 Pasternak, Boris 85 New Stagecraft 35, 40, 47, 52 Patrick, Robert 283 New York City 1, 3–4, 35, 39, 43, 65, Paur, Leonard de 58 73, 97, 100–1, 106, 163, 167, 173, Pavlova, Anna 74 181, 241 Pearson, Drew 154, 178 NGO (non-governmental Pemberton, Brock 33 organization) 170–1, 181 Pepper, Claude 107, 110 Nijinsky, Vaslav 74 Perkins, Frances 5 Nixon, Richard M. 237 Philadelphia 104–6, 140, 167, 261 No ‘Count Boy, The 53 n.65 Norton, Elliot 235 Pilcher, Velona 78, 256 n.79 Norway 17, 152, 154, 265 n.6, 273 Pirandello, Luigi 42, 80–1 n.32 playwright 4, 10, 17, 42–3, 47, 53, NRA (National Recovery 57–8, 73, 78, 85, 93–4, 102, 104, Administration) 49–50, 64, 108 108, 150, 162, 167–70, 175, 201, NSC (National Security Council) 6, 239, 270 n.97, 284 n.135 15, 125, 135, 139 Poitier, Sidney 189, 283 n.114 NSC 4 document 139 Porgy (novel) 187, 211, 284 n.135 NSC-68 6, 136, 151, 226 Porgy and Bess (movie) 214–15, 283 NTC (National Theatre Conference) n.114 46–50, 58, 100, 102, 108–9, 260 Porgy and Bess (musical) 6, 7–8, 13, n.22 24, 28–9, 128, 153, 155, 186–7, 189, 191–5, 197, 199, 201–4, 206, OCB (Operations Coordinating Board) 210–11, 213–15, 218–19, 221, 125, 128, 201, 203 227, 231, 242, 265 n.151, 281 October Revolution 71 n.56, 284 n.130 310 Index

Porgy and Bess (play) 284 n.35 Rio de Janeiro 127 Porterfield–Breen Plan 110, 112, Roar, China 66, 82 114–15, 117–18 Robeson, Paul 53–4, 74, 153–4, Porterfield, Robert 27, 110–14, 116, 189–90, 201, 217 119, 130, 140–1, 143–4, 162, 236, Rockefeller Foundation 12, 47, 159, 261 n.48, 265 n.151, 266 n.10, 177 267 n.40 Rockefeller, Nelson 13, 201, 203–4 Powell, Adam Clayton 128, 227 Romains, Jules 168–9 Prague 13, 151, 173–6, 204, 257 Romeo and Juliet 2 n.98 Rooney, John James 205, 231, 238, Preminger, Otto 189, 212, 283 n.114 240, 286 n.36, 287 n.72 Prescott Proposals, The 182 Roosevelt, Eleanor 39 Price, Leontyne 186, 192, 207, Roosevelt, Franklin Delano 21, 49, 209–10, 218, 278 n.9, 282 n.88 60, 105, 107, 116, 194 Priestley, J. B. 168–9, 174, 182–5 administration 5 Princess Theatre 183 Rose, Billy 103 Progressivism 5, 34–6, 39, 44–5, 53, Run, Little Chillun 219–20 60, 66, 81, 105, 209 Running Wild 51 Promised Land 95 propaganda 102, 120, 123–5, 134–5, Safly, Liz 8 137, 139, 152, 154, 196, 200–2, Saint-Denis, Michel 167 204–5, 226, 266–7 n.24, 284 St. Denis, Ruth 41 n.130 St. Laurent, Louis 174 Provincetown Players 43, 74 St. Petersburg 24, 86 public diplomacy see cultural Salacrou, Armand 169, 173 diplomacy Salome 90 public policy 4, 6, 37, 124 Sampson, Edith 195 Purple Onion nightclub 188 San Francisco 20, 186, 188 Savchenko, Nikolai 216 race 4–5, 35, 52, 54, 56–7, 60, 63–4, Savoy 220 153, 190, 192, 195–8, 201, 205, Sayler, Oliver M. 76–7, 83 209, 216, 225, 227, 235, 242, Schmidlapp, Horace 113 271 n.5 Schnitzer, Robert 120–2, 123, 135–7, racism 7–8, 19, 54, 57, 63, 154, 193, 261 n.65 195, 198–9, 209–10, 230 Seton, Marie 72 Ramparts 180 sexuality 8, 127, 209–10, 221 Randolph, A. Philip 60 Shakespeare, William 150, 160, 267 Rat Pack 224 n.43, 270 n.97 Reader’s Digest 215 canon 146 realism 21, 72, 87–91, 184, 210, 214 scholars 145–7 Reber, J. Howard 107, 111–12 Shaw, George Bernard 181–2 Red Scare 94, 128, 226 Shedd, Margaret 62 Reinhard, Max 40 Shepard, Sam 238 Reston, James 178, 201 Shifting Scenes of the Modern European Rhodes, Cecil 3 Theatre 25, 67, 79, 83–4, 89, 94 Rhodes Scholarship 3, 53 Shirley, John and Bonnie 225 Rice, Elmer 68, 93, 94–6 Showboat 219, 278 n.9 Rich, Buddy 224, 229 Shubert Theatre (Boston) 210 Richardson, Ralph 115 Shufﬂ e Along 51–2, 57 Index 311

Silvery Dust 201 Theatre ’47 31, 58 Sirovich, William 107 Theatre Guild 113, 181, 187, 212, Słonimski, Antoni 167 284 n.135 Smith College 1, 92, 99 Théâtre Libre 40, 160 Smith, Lawrence 111, 138, 267 n.30 Theatre Magazine 90, 92 Smith-Mundt Act 142, 150 Théâtre National Ambulant Smuts, Jan 20 Gémier 160 Society of American Artists 37 Thomas, Elbert 102–3, 110, 112, South Africa 3, 20 114, 117, 130, 261 n.51 Southeast Asia 9, 225, 230 Throckmorton, Cleon 212 Soviet Union see USSR Till, Emmett 197 Spelman College 59 TLA (Theatre Library Association) Spender, Stephen 167 163 Stalin, Joseph 72, 98, 128, 200, 226, Torraca, Vincenzo 170 280 n.44 Torrence, Ridgely 52–3, 55, 57, 251 Stalinograd 204 n.114 Stanford University 31 touring 9, 50, 154, 196, 200, 227, State Department see Department of 235, 268 n.60 State Treadwell, Sophie 68, 93, 95 state–private network 13, 152, 200, Tributary Theatre 33, 44, 50, 58, 242 61, 68 Steinbeck, John 238 Trouble in Mind 215 Step Brothers, the 224, 230 Truman Doctrine 134–5, 151 Stowe, Harriet Beecher 218, 220 Truman, Harry 21, 115–16, 131, 134, Strasberg, Lee 68, 93, 96–7, 99, 256 137, 142, 151, 193–4, 268 n.47 n.70 administration 115 Streibert, Theodore 125 Presidential Library 142, 267 n.43 Strong, Anna Louise 69, 78 Turner, Clyde 219 SUDT (Société Universelle du Théâtre) 28, 157, 161–4, 168–70, 177, 182 Ubu Roi 40, 160 Summer and Smoke 31 Uggams, Eloise 219 Swire, Willard 128–9 UN (United Nations) 14, 20, 28, Sylte Sisters, The 225 118, 152, 157, 164–5, 169, 171, 174, 180, 182–4, 195, 201 Tablada, José Juan 42, 60 UNESCO (United Nations Tairov, Alexander 25, 89–90, 95 Educational, Scientific, and Teatro Eliseo 170 Cultural Organization) 6, 14–15, Texas State Fair 191 23, 28, 118, 144, 164–72, 174, Texas Woman’s University 30 176, 179–80, 182, 272 n.28, 273 Théâtre Antoine 160 n.43, 275 n.65 Theatre Arts 24–7, 30–47, 49–53, University of Kansas 238 55–64, 67, 71–2, 76–8, 83, 90, University of Oklahoma 47–8, 250 98–101, 106, 108, 111, 154, 157, n.88 159, 162, 197, 249 n.66, 252 University of Texas 31, 248 n.5 n.119, 256 n.70 University of Utah 103 Theatre Carré 191 Urban, Joseph 42–3 Théâtre de L’Odéon 160–1, 163 US (United States of America) Théâtre de L’Oeuvre 40 artists 2, 9, 61, 70, 72, 95, 152, Théâtre du Vieux-Colombier 167 194, 228, 234 312 Index

US (United States of America) – Voodoo Macbeth 5 continued government 2, 4, 7, 13, 15–17, 21, Wagner, Robert F. 106, 110 26–7, 29, 75, 77, 104, 106–7, 110, Waiting for Lefty 48 114–21, 123–9, 134, 136–8, 142, Walt Disney Studios 195 147, 151–5, 159, 173, 176–8, 180, Warfield, William 186, 192, 207, 192–7, 199–201, 203–6, 217, 221, 218, 278 n.9 228–9, 232–5, 237, 239, 240, 246 Warsaw 13, 204 n.53, 280 n.54, 284 n.130 Washington, Booker T. 54 history 13, 32, 130, 197, 202 Webb, Alyce 207 military 119, 127, 131, 147, 153 white supremacy 7–8, 19–20, 34, 56, production 29, 192, 200 183, 193, 196, 205, 209, 214, 222, public 2, 121, 129, 223–4 226, 230 race see race; racism Wigman, Mary 42, 80 theatre 1–2, 4–6, 9, 24–9, 31–4, Wild Duck, The 119, 152–5, 242 42, 44, 60, 66–8, 72, 75–6, 78, Williams, Tennessee 31, 127 81, 84, 93–4, 96, 98–101, 109–10, Wilson, Lanford 238 119, 122, 127, 131, 133, 141, 155, Wilson, Woodrow 11, 16, 21, 75, 163, 176, 228, 236, 238–43 182, 242–3 USIA (United States Information Wise and Foolish Virgins, The 220 Agency) 29, 125, 128, 195, 199, Wisner, Frank 203–4 203, 231, 281 n.56 Wolcott, Alexander 58 USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Wolfe, Glenn G. 231, 234 Republics) 6–7, 11, 23, 26, 63, Wolfert, Ira 215, 221 65–71, 73, 75–6, 78–9, 81, 93–6, Workers’ Laboratory Theatre 74 98, 117, 124, 135, 138–9, 143, Works Progress Administration (WPA) 153, 158, 174–5, 177, 196–7, 200, 1, 107–8, 260–1 n.44 203–4, 215–17, 221, 226–8, 254 World Bank 16 n.14, 271 n.7, 280 n.54, 281 n.56 World War I 5, 10–11, 16, 18, 33, 35, utopia 5, 21–3, 67, 69–70, 72, 102, 71, 101, 158, 226 157, 180, 184 World War II 9, 11, 13–14, 16, 21, 26–8, 59, 61, 67, 95, 100, 102–3, Vakhtangov Theatre 95–7 109, 124, 126, 137, 157–8, 163–4, Vakhtangov, Yevgeny 96 182, 194–5, 239, 269 n.83 Valéry, Paul 158–9 Wright, Richard 227 Van Itallie, Jean-Claude 238 Van Vechten, Carl 60, 251 n.114 Yale School of Drama 3, 32, 179 Vassar College 1, 25, 79, 98 Yale University 2, 46, 58, 92, 257 vaudeville 29, 54, 149, 223–4, 230 n.102, n.104, and n.113 Venice 38, 186, 188 Yeates, Ray 219 Versailles Treaty 11, 242 Yeats, W. B. 42 Vietnam 62, 223, 225, 230, 237 Yugoslavia 189, 237 Vietnam War 240 Yurka, Blanche 98, 106 Voaden, Herman 17, 102, 167, 174 VOKS (Vsesoiuznoe Obshchestvo Zachary Scott Theatre 211 Kul’turnoi Sviazi s zagranitsei / Zagreb 186, 189 All-Union Society for Cultural Zhdanov, Andrei 72, 94, 255 n.40 Relations with Foreign Zhdanovshchina policy 72 Countries) 73 Zimmern, Alfred 159