Sustainable : Chemicals as Part of the Solution

The Automobile: 1885–2010

125125 yearsyears ofof evolution,evolution,

techniquestechniques andand materialsmaterials

rdANNUAL MEETING 43 3-7 October 2009 Content

History of cars evolution: We hereby express our sincere thanks to the persons who have devoted time and efforts to ■ Pre-1900: Once upon a time… realize this joint EPCA – CEFIC Exhibition on Food for thought: Were cars more sustainable “Sustainable Cars: Chemicals as Part of the than horses in the ? ______2 Solution”. All have shared their passion for cars and bundled together their ■ 1885 – 1900 The Golden Age: On the road organizational, communication and drafting Food for thought: The 3 types of energy: steam, skills. Thanks to these joint contributions, we electricity, and ______4 are now able to show with pride that chemicals are part of the solution in ■ 1900 – 1945 Mass production and producing sustainable cars at EPCA’s post-war developments 43rd Annual Meeting dedicated to coping with Food for thought: Methods of production: challenges through sustainable development. Benz/Oldsmobile/ford ______6 We would like to express our special thanks to ■ 1945 – 2000 Sustainability, safety, comfort Dr. Dominique Cruyt, former EPCA President, Food for thought: Raw materials, wood or who, allowed us to have access to his plastics? ______9 publication on the history of cars and petrochemicals. He also allowed us to publish ■ 2000 – Future The next steps: the English version of his cartoon strip on the Chemicals as part of the solution test drive by in 1887 in the Food for thought: Chemical products and “Dreirad” developed by . This cartoon categories in cars ______13 is attached to the brochure.

■ Exhibition Catalogue ______15 Dr. Albert Heuser C. Demeestere President EPCA Secretary General EPCA Automobile timeline______Insert Thank you words

Sustainability and cutting edge technology are key issues for the development of a low carbon economy and a less polluted environment.

The European Petrochemical Association (EPCA) is organizing its 43rd Annual Meeting on the theme: “Turbulent Times for Chemicals: Coping with Challenges through Sustainable Development”. In the context of this year’s meeting, EPCA organizes, together with Cefic (The European Chemical Industry Council), an Exhibition in the Welt am Salzufer in Berlin. The Exhibition is linked to EPCA’s general topic with its main theme being:

“Sustainable Cars: Chemicals as part of the Solution”.

Indeed, the industry and the chemical industry are team players with same goal: ecological, economical and human sustainability.

This brochure explains the car’s evolution and intends to demonstrate that since the introduction of petrochemicals into the production of cars, they have become more sustainable. Chemicals in cars have allowed the production of cars that are lighter and consume less . CO2 emissions have been reduced and the well-being and safety of passengers and drivers has been increased.

A car today has 4 times more chemical components than fifty years ago. The cooperation between the car industry and the chemical industry results in higher energy efficiency and provides sustainable solution.

SUSTAINABLE CARS: CHEMICALS AS PART OF THE SOLUTION EXHIBITION 2009 EPCA-CEFIC 1 Pre 1900: Once upon a time …

From horses to horse power! Did you know?

Once upon a time horses pulled carriages. Other than walking, • Leonardo Da Vinci first thought of the horses were the only real means of transport for centuries. idea of a machine to transport people? They pulled carts, stagecoaches, covered wagons, and delivery . So why were people so quick to give up horses for cars? • The very first headquarters of Daimler Well, believe it or not the answer lies in ‘manure’! Barge loads of in 1882 was a cottage in ? horse feed had to be ferried into cities across the world only to Unfortunately the neighbors reported be barged out again – but this time as muck. You can imagine them to the police as counterfeiters both the smell and the flies during the long hot summer who then raided the house but found months! With cars, it was very different. You didn’t have to feed only car . them and they certainly didn’t cover streets with manure!

The race is on! Key Milestone!

In 1872, two men by the name of Daimler and • Belgian Jean-Joseph-Etienne Lenoir was started working at the world's largest manufacturer of the first man to build a hydro-carbon stationary engines of the time - the Deutz-AG- powers-D“”. His car Gasmotorenfabrik in Cologne. Together with a designer called managed to reach a speed of 3 miles Otto they focused on gas- development culminating in per hour (mph). the invention of the Four- cycle also known as the Otto Cycle which was characterized by four strokes - , compression, power, and exhaust. Otto hoped his invention would replace the steam engines predominant in those years. However, unknown to Otto, Daimler, and Maybach … at the very same time in in1878 Karl Benz was concentrating all his efforts on creating a reliable two-stroke based on the same principle. But this wasn’t to be the only complication as serious personal differences arose between Otto & Daimler - Otto was jealous of the former’s • German and Wilhelm university background and knowledge. This lead to Daimler Maybach had the envious job as being fired in 1880 and Maybach resigning later. Daimler and “Inventors”. In1885 they invented the Maybach then decided to open what could be called the “first modern petrol engine to fit to a two- car garage” by founding the Daimler Motoren Gesellshaft wheeled and the ‘’ (DMG) in Stuttgart. was born. But this wasn’t enough for our intrepid inventors! In the same year they managed to put the same engine into both a boat and a stagecoach!

Four-Stroke Otto Cycle Gottlieb Daimler in his 1186 4- carriage, driven by his son Paul

2 EPCA-CEFIC EXHIBITION 2009 SUSTAINABLE CARS: CHEMICALS AS PART OF THE SOLUTION

Daimler always favoured privilege engine- Benz fovoured car manufacturing. manufacturing until his death in 1900. His loyal Instead of proposing an adapted assistant, Maybach, would carry on this development horse carriage, his tricycle would be and produce an automobile (the Simplex Mercedes) in the first “genuine” gasoline car to be 1901, which soon made all other cars look old-fashioned. designed, produced and sold. With 500 units per year at the end of the 19th century, Benz became the largest car-producer in the world.

Cars: more sustainable than horses in the 19th Century?

Using horse + carriages as a means of transport also had an environmental and economical impact:

ENIVRONMENTAL ISSUES IN CITIES: TRAFFIC JAM People often believe that the traffic jam is a modern phenomenon and often look back on the “good old times”. Take a look at this 100-years old picture taken near Piccadilly in London and just imagine,that on top of the congestion how an maneuverable a horse carriage was!

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN THE COUNTRYSIDE: MECHANICAL BANG-BANG! : Farmers were generally opposed to cars in England and in the US, until Ford convinced them that the “T-model” was also designed and priced for them: a “large and rustic all –rounder” on high , ideal for bumpy roads.

ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY: HORSES, QUITE COSTLY… Check out this self-explanatory strip from Italy:

SUSTAINABLE CARS: CHEMICALS AS PART OF THE SOLUTION EXHIBITION 2009 EPCA-CEFIC 3 1885 - 1900 The Golden Age :

Progress accelerates! Key milestone!

In 1895, Benz designed the first ever in history, with some • In 1889 Daimler-Maybach built the first parts later being modified by the world’s first company: car NOT shaped in the style of a horse- Netphener. In 1896, Carl Benz was granted a patent for his drawn carriage. design of the first consisting of horizontally-opposed which served to balance each other. More than 100 years • The first hybrid car actually dates from later the same design is still used by , and in the 1900: two electrical engines located in engines of some top level racing cars. the front wheels were linked to a generator driven by a Daimler gasoline engine. Presented at the Universal Exhibition of Paris the Lohner-Porsche was powered by two electric engines located in the front wheels.

Lohner-Porsche 1900

Did you know?

• Despite being considered as ‘the fathers of the car industry’, Daimler and Benz never actually met. AIR • Rudolf Diesel’s experiments dated from 1890. Continuous improvements had mastered the tougher metal constraints because of higher compression and heath generation. In 1909 Benz’ engineers had developed a ‘pre- chamber’. Having disappeared mysteriously from the ship ‘Dresden’ when crossing the Channel in 1913, Rudolf Diesel will never see his WATER EARTH scientific triumph: a first Benz-lorry in 1923 and in 1936 the Mercedes 260 ‘Première’ at the Berliner Car Salon. The star of Mercedes, a premonitory design of Gottlieb Daimler in 1873 and only patented in 1909 by his successors, is definitely pointing Who could predict, more to his early motoring vision: than 70 years ago, the earth, water and air. future of his invention?

1936: Mercedes 260Diesel

4 EPCA-CEFIC EXHIBITION 2009 SUSTAINABLE CARS: CHEMICALS AS PART OF THE SOLUTION On the road

The 3 types of energy: steam, electricity and gasoline They will continue to be marketed, each one on own merits, for transportation:

STEAM: a mature technology since James Watt. Quite popular as a "road " for public transport during the XIXth century. Even individual transportation often required a driver and a "chauffeur" to “warm up” the oven. The starting procedure required 1/2 an hour, frequent cleaning and regular water refill. Despite the improvements on condensers, the autonomy was still quite limited. The vehicle however was fast and silent enough to allow the Stanley Brothers to build their steam-cars in USA until 1927. For a long time steamers had no mechanised competition: in 1885 (year of Benz first car) Amédée Bollée’s ELECTRICITY: As it is still the case today, these stream vehicles were on the road. had limited autonomy and aging batteries. Women, however enjoyed those models since the power unit was not complicated, being easy to start and silent. Therefore more care could be devoted to luxury and decoration. Unlike steamers, the faster electrical cars performed badly as soon as the road went uphill.

GASOLINE: the recently developed 'internal combustion' car benefited from all XIXth century inventions: steel (quality and tooling), electricity (battery and induction), vulcanisation of rubber, oil drilling... Luxurious electrical cars are still quite popular in 1914. Here the future President Dwight Eisenhower It will also benefit from airflight: “the” most impressive in a ’chic’ Rauch& Lang Electric. early XXth century invention. Since no one, even the Wright brothers, could imagine flying heavy coal, boiled water or lead batteries, aviation gave a determined impulse for developing the gasoline engine as the universal power unit for locomotion and opened a new era for humanity. For quite some time, cars remained faster than airplanes until decisive progress occured during WW1. 1908: the first race between ‘air and ground’: a Buick-bug is challenging an early airplane The aeronautic break-through made during the war proved the sustainability of gasoline engines as efficient and reliable. We will see how the automobile will take advantage of it in the years to come.

SUSTAINABLE CARS: CHEMICALS AS PART OF THE SOLUTION EXHIBITION 2009 EPCA-CEFIC 5 1900 - 1945

From low interest of the society to mass production

Despite some startling technical developments in the early 1900s, the automobile was still not considered by many as a means of transport. The horse was used to transport people and goods; the car a mere status symbol – a toy with which the elite paraded their wealth around town on a sunny afternoon. But soon, that would change with the advent of mass production...

With mass production came an explosion of new car makers ranging from to Renault, Fiat, Lancia, Daimler-Simplex 1902 Bugatti and Rolls-Royce. Mass production in Europe before 1920 was nothing compared with the USA. The race was on to take the car to the next step. The various companies competed with one and another on the race track and in terms of car design. Maybach created one such Key fact! innovative new model, the ‘Daimler Simplex’ which had a longer streamlined body built on a u-shaped lighter chassis; fitted with • World War II led to a boom in technical a lighter alloy engine and cooled by a honeycomb . The innovation and the use of arrival of the Simplex-Design ended the days of the car petrochemicals in automobiles and resembling a “horse-carriage.” The Austro-Hungarian Consul in plastics in electric wires. , , was so impressed by this new invention that he ordered 36 cars in advance and expressed his intention to sell even more cars (the first step towards mass production), provided he could name them after his beloved daughter Key fact! “Mercédès”… • The 1937 season become famous because of duels between the V16cyl- 6liter rear engineAudi (deisgned by Porsche) with legendary pilots like Rosemeyer, Caracciola, Lang, Seaman, Nuvolari, von Brauschitsch and others. This racing period is also important for petrochemical-like liquids: experiments on boosting performance (over 700HP) were carried out with alcohol-based mixtures.

6 EPCA-CEFIC EXHIBITION 2009 SUSTAINABLE CARS: CHEMICALS AS PART OF THE SOLUTION The age of mass production

Did you know?

• Racing cars were originally made NOT ONLY to race BUT ALSO to test new engines before going into production! Actual racing only started in 1930s with petrochemical liquids playing a very important role.

• The first pneumatic tyres were developed by the Michelin brothers.

• worked at Daimler-Benz before leaving to create his own company. The future straight-six powered super-cars, inspired by Porsche, will be, after he left Mercedes, the initiators of a competition leadership lasting for more than a decade.

Mercedes 24/110/140: a Porche design

Key fact!

• Racing competitions made car producers realize that “weight was and still is the enemy”. At that time, light materials could only be provided by non ferrous metals although some “chemicals” were making a modest entry: - Chassis : pressed steel techniques (Dodge Brothers 1914) and unitary self-supporting body construction (Lancia Lambda 1922) replaced the traditional chassis and banished wood from a lot off structural parts in favour of more metal. - Cellulose : mainly in paints. - Rubber was still a natural compound. Polybutadiene will only appear during WW2. - Bakelite : a carbochemical polymer – the first synthetic commercial plastic – invented by Belgian Baekeland in 1907, slowly replaced the dashboard and incorporated in electrical devices different natural raw materials (ivory...) and the famous transparent and non-transparent “mica”. 1935: W25 overtaking Maserati along Monaco harbour Other Commodity polymers (thermosets and thermoplastics) for electrical isolation of wires (thus replacing traditional fabrics) will appear during and after WW2.

SUSTAINABLE CARS: CHEMICALS AS PART OF THE SOLUTION EXHIBITION 2009 EPCA-CEFIC 7 1900 - 1945 The age of mass production

Methods of car production: Benz/Oldsmobile/Ford Competition has been crutial to the development of this growing industry from the very beginning. Production methods will also progress in different steps:

BENZ The -type is a first attempt to build on a grand scale.This meant a production of 2 cars a day, which in 1899 was the equivalent of the cumulative production of US and England. Belgian King Leopold II was among the early Benz-customers before switching to Mercedes.

OLDSMOBILE ‘Turn a negative into a positive’ is what Random E Olds did after a fire destroyed his plant in 1901. The new ‘Curved Dash’ Oldsmobile benefits from a completely modern production line and is rightly considered as the industrial predecessor of …

FORD Henry’s Ford initiative: the immortal « T-Model ». The Ford philosophy was simple: the easier to produce, the cheaper to sell, and thus, the more af-FORD-able the car becomes for each American family.

After WW1, future car giant manufacturers will follow the same path to become global. The adoption of ‘Taylor-type’ production methods as well as new and better materials (lighter alloys), techniques and design (chassis) will inspire the industry. Henry Ford between his first car and Ford T n°10.000.000 Solid petrochemicals will still have to wait another 2 (and still many more to come…) generations…

8 EPCA-CEFIC EXHIBITION 2009 SUSTAINABLE CARS: CHEMICALS AS PART OF THE SOLUTION 1945 - 2000 Sustainability, Safety & Comfort

Durability and safety Key fact!

In the 1960s there was an aspect of mass motorization that • The Experimental Safety Vehicles of Mercedes became obvious: more and more people were being killed on led amongst others to the introduction of ABS the roads. The U.S. Department of Transport has therefore (1978), driver airbag and tensioners (1980) started a program for improving safety on the roads with the and side airbag and belt force limiters (1995) idea of encouraging automobile manufacturers to build safer into the Mercedes’ passenger car program. vehicles. Meanwhile in Europe, the Southern German Regions (Länder) established a department aimed at making automobiles even safer in the future. In subsequent years, the engineers at Mercedes developed and built a total of more Did you know? than 30 Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESVs). • As far as sustainable safety is concerned, the Mercedes 300 SL (1980) was the first Mercedes car to provide an Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS). In 1982, customers were also able to order a driver airbag for an additional charge. At the same time, the three-box design with its defined crumple zones at the front and rear with the rigid passenger cell in the middle, were developments of the brilliant inventor Béla Barényis, who advanced the issue of safety for years in the Mercedes-Benz company.

The Mercedes ESF 24

The Mercedes ESF 24 was one such ‘state-of-the-art’ research vehicle made to investigate road accidents. The total length of the FSF 24 was increased because hydraulic impact absorbers in the front, designed for a speed of up to 65 km/h, considerably lengthened the front end and thus protected the passengers. Despite the numerous additional features, the vehicle’s curb weight increased by only approximately 10 percent to a total of 1940 kilograms. The ESF 24 was regarded as the conclusion of the chapter that the U. S. Administration had initiated. From then on, active and passive safety elements were essential features of every new design at Mercedes.

SUSTAINABLE CARS: CHEMICALS AS PART OF THE SOLUTION EXHIBITION 2009 EPCA-CEFIC 9 1945 - 2000

Elegance and quality, comfort, Key fact! Glass fiber! design, sense of luxury

As society changes so too does transport. During the post-war • The body shell of the Mercedes C111, economic recovery and period of women’s emancipation, introduced in 1970, manufacturers responded to the emerging feminine demand as is entirely made of glass fiber reinforced from 1920 through cars such as the tiny Austin 7, or the plastic (GFRP), which is riveted and quadrilette Peugeot. glued to the steel frame to enhance rigidity. In 1977, a further prototype was The notion of pleasure, elegance, comfort, innovative design and produced, this sense of luxury, combined with new technology and use of time equipped petrochemicals were introduced into the car industry. with a 230-hp turbo diesel The Mercedes 300 SL, for instance, has a cleverly thought-out engine. Its heating and ventilation system, which improved the occupants’ body shell was well-being during long journeys and is considered as an made of additional safety feature. Other “instruments” to improve drivers polyester resin and passengers’ comfort were introduced: air ducts to keep the with carbon side windows from fogging. From the 1950s onwards, fiber layers technological developments and the use of chemicals, (reinforced with textile glass mats) and introduced even more quality, comfort and elegance to cars. extremely streamlined. All of this adds up to lighter cars and lower fuel Sustainability and chemicals consumption.

The introduction of an increased number of chemicals in cars, improved their sustainability. Did you know? With new chemicals, cars became more environmental-friendly. The Mercedes 300 SL presents some innovative performances in this way. Cathaphoresis is an electrochemical coating process in • A red-coated Mercedes SL of the R 107 production, in which the body is immersed in an electrically series even became a television star in conductive and aqueous immersion paint and is therefore very the 1980s as the car of the oil magnate suitable for automated coating processes. In addition, cathodic JR Ewing in the TV series, Dallas! dip coating ensures uniform coating layers and is environment friendly, because the coating yield is up to 98.5 percent.

The Mercedes SL

10 EPCA-CEFIC EXHIBITION 2009 SUSTAINABLE CARS: CHEMICALS AS PART OF THE SOLUTION Sustainability, Safety & Comfort

In the 1980s, Nicolas G. Hayek sought to build a revolutionary Did you know? car after his success with Swatch watches. He believed that the swatch production strategy could also be translated to mass- produced cars. In December 1993, Hayek and Mercedes-Benz decided to work together and founded the joint company • Daimler are currently developing a plug-in hybrid car which is recharged from a socket.

Key fact! Plastics!

• The Nürburg 460 opened the plastics era. Introduced in 1905 and in common use since 1945, plastic components gradually became a big part of car production. The dark brown to black thermosetting resin was the first industrially produced plastic. As early as the 1930s, there were already hundreds Micro (MCC). The prototype aspect used a of molding facilities in alone purely electric drive via what is known as a wheel hub engine that were producing Bakelite in sizable on each of the front wheels. The batteries that are required for volumes. the electric drive are positioned under the front hood. The bodywork consists of hand-laminated glass fiber material that rests on a separate rectangular tube frame. In October 1998, MCC presented the Smart city coupé of the 450 series. The concept of a straightforward two-seater was revolutionary at the time and polarized customers. Since then, the Smart brand has become an established success in the automobile market. The small cars, now in the second, newer version (Model 451), are also available in the United States.

The Nürburg 460

SUSTAINABLE CARS: CHEMICALS AS PART OF THE SOLUTION EXHIBITION 2009 EPCA-CEFIC 11 1945 - 2000 Sustainability, Safety & Comfort

Raw materials: wood or plastics?

1970 was a turning point for petrochemicals in automobiles.

FROM WORLD WAR II TO 1970 Wood is still in use and petrochemicals make their entry as a substitute or complement to wood, glass, natural rubber, metal and to some of the already available synthetic materials like Bakelite, formaldehyde-based resins, methyl methacrylate, acetate-cellulose. Commodity plastics (PS, PP, HDPE and PVC due to new plasticizers) and more advanced polymers (Polycarbonate, Polyamide, Polyesters, Epoxy, PU, Silicones) are introduced in the car and under the bonnet. Compared to wooden items, new components have to offer same or better performance and fulfil similar – often contradictory – requirements like impact absorption and toughness, flexibility and rigidity, shine and paint-ability.

AFTER 1970 Over the years solutions will come from a combination of different polymers, copolymers, compounds, co-extrusion, multi-layers, over-moulding, surface treatment, self-skinning… Tyre- manufacturing is also a very complex assembly of different layers of elastomers (and other constituents since the ‘radial’ tyre) moulded together .…

WHEELS AND TYRES A car cannot run without wheels. If the wheel is a simple idea – dating from mesolithic ? – its construction is not: a horse carriage wheel was trimmed out of three different woods for each of the three different parts: - the outer wheel had to offer resistance to cobble-stone and arching facilities. - the spokes had to avoid longitudinal splitting, shore-hardness, impact and resilience. - the hub had to resist to stress, abrasion and heat due to the rotational friction around the or mandrel (SKF ball-bearing only introduced early 1900) and spokes had to clamp on. - material had to offer dimensional stability and the assembly well balanced and perfectly in line with the track. The craftsman had to choose between hard and soft woods, between young and old wood, between rigidity and weight. Ash, elm, hickory, mahogany, acacia and beech were much in use and originated from forests, like the one in the French province ‘Limousin’. Where local coachbuilders became known for their ‘’. This became the generic name of luxury cars… Other renewable materials like fabrics from animal or vegetal origin (wool, flax, cotton…) were selected according to availability, application and resistance (moisture, wearing, colouring, isolation, impregnation…).

12 EPCA-CEFIC EXHIBITION 2009 SUSTAINABLE CARS: CHEMICALS AS PART OF THE SOLUTION 2000 - Future The next steps: Chemicals as part of the solution

Chemicals and electricity/hybrid engines

In June 2009, Mercedes presented the first German hybrid - the S 400 Hybrid. This limousine has been designed as a ‘mild hybrid’ and cannot yet fully run on electricity. A 100% electric S Class is planned as a plug-in hybrid for 2010.

The S 400 Hybrid

Did you know?

• Are we going back to the future by using hybrid engines? Think of the F 700 and McLaren M/ 13 1998 which have a hybrid engine, thus reducing CO2 emission.

The F 700

The McLaren M/ 13 1998

SUSTAINABLE CARS: CHEMICALS AS PART OF THE SOLUTION EXHIBITION 2009 EPCA-CEFIC 13 Chemicals products in a car

Petrochemicals allow innovations for cars, lightwright plastics, and better catalytic convertors

14 EPCA-CEFIC EXHIBITION 2009 SUSTAINABLE CARS: CHEMICALS AS PART OF THE SOLUTION Exhibition catalogue

Sustainable Cars: Chemicals as Part of the Solution

This catalogue describes the technical details of each car presented at the exhibition

rdANNUAL MEETING 43 3-7 October 2009 Benz Patent Motorwagen, 1886 Mercedes-Benz 460 Nürburg, 1928 The Karl Benz Patent Motorwagen (or motorcar), built in 1185, is At the suggestion of the Deutsche Bank, the two companies widely regarded as the first automobile, that is, a vehicle Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft and Benz & Cie. merged in 1926 designed to be propelled by a motor. The vehicle was awarded to form Daimler Benz AG. The merger meant that the passenger the German patent, number 37435, in 1886. Benz officially car programs of the two companies needed to be reorganized. unveiled his invention to the public on July 3, 1886 on the One result was the upper class model Nürburg 460. The reason Ringstrasse in Mannheim, Germany. for the name resided not so much in the particularly sporty features of the model but more in an endurance test on the The Benz Patent Motorwagen was a three-wheeled automobile Nürburgring. A 460 model had covered 20,000 kilometers here with a rear-mounted engine. The vehicle contained many new in 13 days. The 4.6-liter model with an eight- inventions. It was constructed of steel tubing with woodwork engine designed under the direction of Ferdinand Porsche was panels. The steel-spoked wheels and solid rubber were presented at the Paris Automobile Show in October 1928. It was Benz's own design. was by way of a toothed rack that the first automobile with eight cylinders produced in series by pivoted the unsprung front wheel. Fully-elliptic springs were Daimler. Therefore it was also called “Nürburg 8” in some used at the back along with a live axle and on both prospectuses. In 1929, there was not only a variant with the sides. A simple belt system served as a single-speed , normal , but also a short model that the addition varying torque between an open disc and drive disc. “K”. However, the “K” here did not stand for “Kompressor” The rear-mounted engine opens the door for the creation of (“”) but for “kurz” (“short”). very light engine. It weighted about 100 kg. Benz built more The 460 K had a 240 mm shorter wheelbase and a 50 kg lighter models of the Motorwagen, allowing the vehicle to reach a frame. What the two variants had in common was the 80 hp maximum speed of approximately 16 kilometers per hour powerful eight-cylinder in-line engine and the four-speed (=10 miles per hour). The fuel consumption of the Benz Patent transmission. The short wheelbase was used for 4/5- bodies, Motorwagen was remarkable: It was only 10 liters of Ligroins which could be manufactured as limousine, open (a light petrol or gasoline) per 100 Kilometer. and D. The low framework variant of the 460 K was In 1187, wooden-spoke wheels, a and a manual leather also available as the Special Convertible C “St. Moritz”. This shoe brake on the rear wheels were introduced as general model acquired the illustrious name of the winter sports venue improvements of the car model. in the Swiss Engadine region at the beginning of 1930, after the car beat all the other competitors in an automotive beauty Bertha Benz, the wife of the inventor, chose to publicize the pageant organized there. From February 1931, the Nürburg Patent Motorwagen in a unique manner—she took the Patent 460 model was supplied on request with overdrive or economy Motorwagen No. 3, supposedly without her husband's knowledge, gear. The higher price included the optional features Zeiss and drove it on the first long-distance automobile trip to headlamps and an engine with a bigger cubic capacity. This was demonstrate its feasibility as a means to travel long distances. the birth of the Nürburg 500 (4.9-l) model with 100 hp and “overdrive”. The overdrive transmission permitted the overdrive or economy gear to be engaged to reduce speed for each of the four forward gears. This model did not differ in appearance from the Nürburg 460. Production of the Nürburg 460 ended in December 1933. The twenties of the last century saw the beginning of the plastics era. In 1905, the Belgian Baekeland invented Bakelit®, produced on the basis of phenol resins. The dark brown to black thermosetting resin was the first industrially produced plastic. Particularly on account of its heat resistance and its mechanical and chemical properties, it was (and is) also used in automobile production. As early as the thirties, there were already hundreds of molding facilities in Germany alone that were producing Bakelit in sizable volumes.

16 EPCA-CEFIC EXHIBITION 2009 SUSTAINABLE CARS: CHEMICALS AS PART OF THE SOLUTION Mercedes-Benz 300 SL, 1957 Mercedes-Benz C111, 1970 The Mercedes-Benz 300 SL was introduced in 1954 as a two-seat, Mercedes C111 body shell is made completely of fiberglass. The closed with distinctive gull-wing doors. It was the almost legendary Rudolf Uhlenhaut, chief development engineer fastest production car of its day. The 300SL was best known for at Mercedes at the time and known to be a very fast driver, both its distinctive gull wing doors and being the first-ever personally carried out the necessary test runs with the C 111 in gasoline-powered car equipped with direct . More Hockenheim. Initially equipped with a three-rotor Wankel than 80% of the vehicle's total productions of approximately engine, the C 111-II already shown in 1970 received an rotary 1400 units were sold in the US, making the Gull wing the first engine with four rotors and up to 395 hp. Its body shell consists Mercedes-Benz which sold in bulk outside its home market.In of glassfiber reinforced plastic (GFRP), which is riveted and 1952, the original 300 SL (W194) scored overall wins at the 24 glued to the steel frame to enhance rigidity. The Swabian arrow Hours of Le Mans, in the Eifelrennen and Carrera Panamericana. It with a speed of 295 km/h never went into production despite also managed second and fourth places at the Mille Miglia in Mercedes having already received blank checks from wealthy 1952. customers. Economic reasons and the onset of the oil crisis in 1973 finally prevented the series production of the C 111. The 300SL's body was mainly steel, except for the aluminum hood, Nor were the mid-engine coupés, originally painted orange, ever doors and trunk lid. It could also be ordered with an all- used in racing. Instead, they were used in various development aluminium outer skin at tremendous added cost, saving 80 kg stages as testbeds almost ready for series production. (176 lb). This innovation allowed a top speed of up to 260 km/h (161 mph) depending on gear ratio and drag, making the 300SL the fastest production car of its time. The third variant, the C 111-IID, was equipped with a five- cylinder turbodiesel engine that produced 190 hp. This vehicle The engine's maintenance requirements were high. Unlike the achieved 16 international class records at an average speed of current electrically-powered fuel injection systems, the more than 250 km/h on the test track in Nardo in southern Italy. mechanical would continue to inject gasoline into the In 1977, there followed a further prototype, this time equipped engine during the interval between shutting off the ignition and with a 230-hp turbodiesel engine. Its body shell was made of the engine's coming to a stop; this gasoline was of course not polyester resin with carbon fiber layers (reinforced with textile burned, and washed the oil from the cylinder walls and ended up glass mats) and extremely streamlined. The CX value was at that diluting the engine's lubricating oil, particularly if the engine was time a sensational 0.183, which also meant a very low fuel not driven hard enough nor long enough to reach a temperature consumption. On a record run in Nardo, the C 111-III achieved high enough to evaporate it out of the oil. an average speed of 321.66 km/h over the 500 kilometers and Aerodynamics played an important role in the car's speed, used only 16 liters of diesel for 100 kilometers on an average. A Mercedes-Benz engineers even placing horizontal "eyebrows" over significantly modest value in view of the driving performance the wheel openings to reduce drag. Unlike many cars of the achieved. On May 5, 1979, the greatly modified final version of 1950s, the steering was relatively precise and the four-wheel the flat gullwing door model, a C 111-IV with 500 hp and a twin allowed for a reasonably comfortable turbocharged V8 engine, raised what was then the current ride and markedly better overall handling. However, the rear speed record for circuits to 403.978 km/h. The technical father , jointed only at the differential, not at the wheels of the C 111, project manager Dr. Hans Liebold, was at the wheel themselves, could be treacherous at high speeds or on imperfect during the record run. roads due to extreme changes in camber. Today, the 300SL with its unique doors technological firsts, the steel tube frame and low production numbers is considered one of the most collectible Mercedes-Benz models. Sports Car International magazine ranked the 300SL as the number 5 sports car of all time.

SUSTAINABLE CARS: CHEMICALS AS PART OF THE SOLUTION EXHIBITION 2009 EPCA-CEFIC 17 Mercedes-Benz ESF 24, 1974 Mercedes-Benz 300 SL R107, 1988 The ESF 24 of June 1974 was based on what was then the The issue of safety has always been writ large at Mercedes and current S Class of the W 116 series of 1971. The imposing was particularly sustained in the development of the SL: The standard automobile and baroque luxury vehicle in line with the three-box design with its defined crumple zones with the rigid spirit of the times with twin chrome bumper bars was passenger cell in the middle, were developments of the brilliant transformed into an experimental vehicle optimized to the state inventor Béla Barényis, who advanced the issue of safety for of the art of research in order to reduce the consequences of years in the Swabian company. Further safety advantages were accidents. The total length of the ESV 24 was increased by 265 provided by the modern interior with its high-quality mm vis-à-vis the conventional S Class, because hydraulic impact workmanship: A soft instrument panel made of foamed absorbers in the front, designed for a speed of up to 65 km/h, Polyurethane and a similarly cushioned four-spoke steering considerably lengthened the front end and thus protected the wheel with a large impact absorber provided a high level of passengers. Furthermore, belt force limiters and tensioners were passive safety in the interior. installed in the optically not particularly conspicuous study. A cleverly thought-out heating and ventilation system improved Despite the numerous additional features, the vehicle’s curb the occupants’ wellbeing during long journeys as an additional weight increased by only approximately 10 percent to a total of safety feature. For example there were air ducts in both doors 1940 kilograms. The ESF 24 was regarded as the conclusion of and these allowed hot air to emerge from the perforated door this chapter that the U. S. Administration had initiated. From trim, which kept the side windows from fogging. then on, active and passive safety elements were essential features of every new design of the company. Another unusual feature was the twin function of the light in the glove box, which was a removable battery-operated torch at The Experimental Safety Vehicles of Mercedes led for example to the same time. As the result of the public discussion about fuel the introduction of ABS (1978), driver airbag and belt tensioners consumption and the finiteness of fossil , the SL 1979 of (1980) and side airbag and belt force limiters (1995) into the Mercedes was equipped for the first time with what is known as company’s passenger car program. The fate of the majority of an econometer in the multi-function instruments. This simple ESFs, however, was predetermined; they ended in crash tests green-red indicator showed the back pressure in the induction and were destroyed in the process. pipe and conveyed a trend in the actual fuel consumption. Then in April 1980 there appeared the 500 SL, which differed technically from its predecessor the 450 SL with its more powerful and lighter engine of aluminum. Apart from the model lettering, there was optically only one way of identifying the 500: the black rear spoiler of synthetic rubber on the trunk lid that was recognizable from a long way off but was controversial among brand fans. The R 107 series was built up to 1989, continually brought up to the state of the art technically, for a total of 18 years and more than 237,000 times. In 1980, the anti-lock braking system ABS was introduced; two years later, customers were also able to order a driver airbag for an additional charge. This car led to the introduction into the car production of cathodic dip coating. Cathaphoresis is an electrochemical coating process in production, in which the body-in-white is immersed in an electrically conductive and aqueous immersion paint and is therefore very suitable for automated coating processes. In addition, cathodic dip coating ensures uniform coating layers and is environmentally friendly, because the coating yield is up to 98.5 percent.

18 EPCA-CEFIC EXHIBITION 2009 SUSTAINABLE CARS: CHEMICALS AS PART OF THE SOLUTION Mercedes-Benz 300 CE 24, 1992 Smart SMH Aspect, The cabriolet was extremely elegant: The rear tapered backward After his success recipe with the Swatch watches, Nicolas G. and the rounded lateral top edges of the rear were the result of Hayek also wanted to build a revolutionary small car in the elaborate wind tunnel tests. The four-seater had an elaborate eighties of the last century. He believed that the production fully-retractable multilayer fabric top that could be retracted strategies that developed by him in the watch industry could fully automatically electro-hydraulically. What are known as also be translated to a car produced in series. In December 1993, mass dampers eliminated the vibrations on poor road surfaces Hayek and Mercedes-Benz decide to cooperate. The result of the that are common to conventional cabriolet bodies. For the same cooperation was the founding of the joint company Micro reason, the developers decided to place the vehicle battery in a Compact Car (MCC). special suspension inside the spare wheel in the trunk. And even Built originally in 1993 under the direction of under the interior mirror had special damper elements in its casing in Project Number 301, the prototype smart aspect used a purely order to prevent the rearview mirror from “trembling” on poor electric drive via what is known as a wheel hub engine on each road surfaces. What was also characteristic of the model was of the front wheels. The batteries that are required for the the frequency-variable single arm windscreen wiper, a company electric drive are positioned under the front hood. The bodywork invention, which wipes 86 percent of the front windscreen. consists of hand-laminated glassfiber material that rests on a Apart from ABS and airbags, an active roll-over protection separate rectangular tube frame. Finally in October 1998, MCC system provided additional safety. In the event of the vehicle presents a series vehicle, the smart city coupé of the 450 series. overturning, the rear head restraints automatically spring out The concept of a straightforward two-seater was revolutionary completely within 0.3 seconds, thus protecting the occupants for conditions at the time and polarized customers. In the from unpleasant contact with the ground. From June 1993, meantime, however, the brand smart has become established Mercedes also changed the nomenclature of the series into E and is a success in the automobile market. The small cars, now Class with the model improvement mentioned for the brand; the in the second, newer version (Model 451), are now even chrome E now appeared in front of the sequence of figures for available in the United States. The original concept of the the displacement on the rear lid. electric drive has now been taken up again by smart. Since this A distinctive optical feature was the modified radiator grill and year, what are known as mild hybrids, which receive support the star that had otherwise been fixed there moved a little from an electric engine in addition to the combustion engine, further back onto the hood. are being tested in England in a fleet trial. A solely electrically It is rarely that a series has been able to demonstrate the core operated variant is currently being developed by Daimler as values of the Mercedes brand so impressively: Durability safety, what is known as a plug-in hybrid, which can be recharged from comfort and quality were in the 124 program. The production of a socket. the A 124 series ended in June 1997 to the regret of many fans. The idea of the plastic body shell of the first prototypes has got Although the youngest cabriolets of this series are only 12 years itself accepted in series production. In a smart, all the visible old, the sturdy Benz is very popular with connoisseurs. After all, body shell parts apart from the strong Tridion safety cell of steel in the just under six years that it was built, a total of are made of plastic that is not painted but colored all the way approximately 34,000 units of the 124 cabriolet were produced. through and, in the event of damage, the parts can be easily The successor no longer had the headlights under a glass, but replaced without any problem. four round headlights are integrated in the very shallow and streamlined front mask, and Mercedes also took advantage of this in its own advertising with the claim: “See the E Class with new eyes.” A considerably smaller, nevertheless four-seater cabriolet did not then appear again until the fall of 1997 with the presentation of the CLK cabriolet based on the C Class (W202) at the time. In the A 124, Mercedes used for the very first time Ultramid® producing the intake manifold of the engine.

SUSTAINABLE CARS: CHEMICALS AS PART OF THE SOLUTION EXHIBITION 2009 EPCA-CEFIC 19 McLaren F1, Showcar 1998 Mercedes S Class, 2009 In the 1998 season, the dominance of the Silver Arrow was Ever since the seventies of the last century, the top model clearly noticeable even at the opening race in Australia. from Mercedes Benz has been what is known as the S Obviously the team from Woking in England had been best able Class. It is true that the predecessor models were already to implement the technical regulations that were new for that called for example 280 SE, but it was the W 116 series of year’s racing season. The Mercedes-McLaren drivers Häkkinen 1972 that was officially called S Class. Since then, four (winner) and Coulthard, second place, impressively outclassed generations of the globally successful luxury limousine the competition by the margin of at least a lap. Under the have been developed, including the current 221 series. direction of Adrian Newey, the brilliant racing car designer who The four-door flagship of Mercedes is traditionally the had joined the team in 1997, the previous year’s model, the image bearer in the company as the forerunner for the MP4/13 was developed. It was his first completely designed most modern technologies. Numerous innovations such vehicle for McLaren Mercedes. In the F1 racer of 1998, the as ABS, seatbelt pretensioners, airbags, Electronic Stability Briton Newey even then used the braking energy for charging Program (ESP), navigation device with map display the batteries, which in their turn took over the electricity supply (COMAND), distance radar (Distronic), infrared Night View for the water and auxiliary oil pumps for a limited time. Assist feature or also a fully automatic emergency brake system first appeared in the top Mercedes series. This highly modern “hybrid system” developed 40 additional hp in the short term and to discussions with the FIA on account of In June this year, the company presented the further presumed violations of the rules. A mechanical braking system developed version of the S Class and at the same time the that automatically operated the rear wheel brake depending on first German hybrid limousine, the S 400 Hybrid. This the steering angle also caused displeasure among the other limousine designed as a mild hybrid cannot yet run teams. The MP4/13 chassis consists of a laminate of completely electrically. Its newly designed V6 gasoline honeycomb/aluminum structure and carbon fiber. The body shell engine develops 279 hp. In addition, an electric engine is also made of hand-laminated carbon. Its 3.0-l V10 engine delivers a further 20 hp to an overall system performance develops approximately 780 bhp; the gear change is operated of 299 hp at a torque of 385 Newton meters. The lithium via a semiautomatic six-speed transmission. Ready to go, ion battery that is installed is recharged in overrun and together with the driver and operating liquids such as fuel and when the cars brakes are applied (recuperation). Its coolant, the whole automobile weighted just 600 kilograms. The standard average consumption is 7.9 liters per 100 high-octane racing fuel and the engine oil came from the team kilometers, which is noticeably low for a vehicle of its partner Mobil. The decision regarding the early change to the size. The CO2 emission level is 186 grams CO2. A fully newly developed Bridgestone tires no doubt also made a electric S Class is planned as a plug-in hybrid for 2010. In significant contribution to the success at the time. the S 300 Bluetec Hybrid, a 2.2-l is to develop 204 hp, and the electric engine will deliver a The Finn Mika Häkkinen passed the winning post first in the further 20 hp. Operated electrically, the S 300 BH is said MP4/13 in half of the total of 16 F1 races in the 1998 season. to be able to travel up to 30 kilometers. Team colleague Coulthard won only one race, the Grand Prix of San Marino. Despite the dominance of McLaren Mercedes, the A planned variant for the coming year is to be the S 400 championship was not decided until the final race; the Bluetec Hybrid with a total 265 hp and 630 Newton competitor Ferrari suffered a burst and did not therefore meters of torque with a remarkable average consumption feature in the scoring. Häkkinen ran up a total of 156 points and of just 5.8 liters of diesel per 100 kilometers. the year ended for him for the first time with the winning of the F1 drivers’ world championship. That year the team of West McLaren Mercedes also won the title of the constructors’ world championship. The idea of an hybrid system became more and more prominent in the car industry. Testing new engines, chemicals and electric systems is now always done on racing cars, before being massively produced on cars for the general public.

20 EPCA-CEFIC EXHIBITION 2009 SUSTAINABLE CARS: CHEMICALS AS PART OF THE SOLUTION Mercedes F 700, EXPERIMENTAL CAR You are kindly invited to view Mercedes-Benz shows the luxury long-distance of the a transparent car at the future with the F 700. Apart from the unusual design, known as InterContinental Berlin: Aqua Dynamic, with its soft, flowing forms, the four-seater radiates top modern technology. High-performance light- emitting diodes (LEDs) using series connected optics take over Hotel InterContinental Berlin the function of the driving and daytime running light. Budapester Strasse 2 The drive of the F 700 is a very unconventional combustion 10787 Berlin - Germany engine, what is known as the Diesotto with only 1.8-liter displacement. It combines the advantages of the low-emission spark-ignition engine with the consumption benefits of the diesel principle. What is known as controlled homogeneous change combustion ignition (self-ignition) of the diesel is transplanted into the spark-ignition engine for the first time and is responsible for very low consumption values with reduced pollutant emissions at the same time. Nevertheless, the F 700 is a high-powered grand touring sedan. The four-cylinder Diesotto is twin turbo-charged and develops an impressive 238 hp. Additional support is provided by a hybrid module when starting, with a further 20 hp from an electric engine that is positioned between transmission and engine. In the standard cycle, the F 700 consumes on an average just 5.3 liters per 100 kilometers, which corresponds to a measured carbon dioxide emission (CO2) of 127 grams per kilometer. A further innovation of the F 700 is the elaborate chassis system, dubbed PRE-SCAN by Mercedes. Two laser sensors in the front headlamp units provide a picture of the road’s surface and pass the signals to a control unit that influences the adaptive active chassis. The F 700 recognizes ahead how rigidly or comfortably its chassis must react to the features of the road. The driver’s door, too, observes its surroundings. In the mirror of the PRE-SCAN door there is also a laser scanner that checks the area in which the door swings open for obstacles. In the event of a threatening collision, the door is arrested at its maximum opening angle by means of a controllable hydraulic cylinder. What is also remarkable is the spacious interior concept of the 5.18-meter long F 700. Large lateral windows and two glass roofs allow a lot of light to enter the interior of the four-seater, luxuriously equipped with leather and cork.

SUSTAINABLE CARS: CHEMICALS AS PART OF THE SOLUTION EXHIBITION 2009 EPCA-CEFIC 21 Design by MCI Brussels • [email protected]