Cycling Experiences: Exploring Social Influences and Gender Perspectives
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Cycling experiences: exploring social influences and gender perspectives Anja Susanne Dalton A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of the West of England, Bristol, for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences/Centre for Transport and Society, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK June 2016 (75,282 words) Abstract Whilst a significant gender gap in bicycle usage in the UK has been apparent for some time, the reasons why women are cycling less than men has not been comprehensively studied. Similarly, whilst we know that people influence each other’s travel choices, social influence and cycling have been little studied. This qualitative research added to knowledge of this important health and transport policy area by providing new data on women’s and men’s experiences of cycling in two UK cities; Bristol and Cardiff. A reflexive sociological perspective, which combined influences from both critical realism and feminism, informed the research and shaped the research design and the data production and analysis. A total of 49 discussions were conducted with females and males who currently cycle, using a novel two-stage methodology, involving 42 semi-structured interviews and 7 linked social reference focus groups (SRFGs), with social contacts of the initial interviewee. This method was designed in order to detect social influence on (inward) and from (outward) research participants. The data were analysed using thematic analysis and presented using five key themes; affective barriers, affective enablers, instrumental barriers, instrumental enablers, and gendered aspects of the cycling experience. Key differences were identified around aggression and competitiveness in cycling, gendered norms on clothing and appearance and the continuation of gendered social roles. However, a I large degree of commonality between men and women was also present, especially around the desire for a safer and more attractive cycling experience. Social influence was explored using ‘social maps’, which participants made to describe their key social influences related to cycling. Social influence was gendered, with women more likely to encourage other women, and men other men. Participants also portrayed their influence as largely positive, with no or few negative social influences, although instrumental influencers were sometimes viewed as negative. The research highlighted the need to encourage women to cycle by both providing better for their infrastructural needs, but also to recognise the often different ways in which they might approach cycling in policy initiatives. Further research could explore ways in which this could be achieved, and also provide a comparative analysis of men’s and women’s cycling experience between a UK location and a high-cycling country location, such as the Netherlands, Denmark or Germany. II Acknowledgements Many people have helped me to keep moving during this PhD journey, even when the route seemed rather too hilly to navigate. Firstly, I owe a debt of gratitude to all of the participants who took part in my research; 16 people in Bristol and 48 people in Cardiff volunteered their time, opinions and thoughts; without their engagement and interest there would be no study. Secondly, my supervisory team, for their efforts to assist me in often challenging circumstances; Dr Paul Pilkington, Prof. Graham Parkhurst, Asst. Prof. Theresa Mitchell and Prof. Jane Powell. Thanks are also due to those who have been involved in examining me or reading my work at various points in the doctoral process; Dr Rachel Aldred, Associate Prof. Kiron Chatterjee, Dr Stuart Farthing, Dr Tim Gale, Dr Stuart McClean, Dr Steve Melia, and Dr David Pontin. Many support staff have provided calm and helpful advice, including; Karl Daly, Carolyn Morgan and Ludovik Sebire. I am also grateful to other colleagues and friends who helped with advice and proofreading; Dr Matt Brown, Dr Carmel Conefrey, Dr Fiona Cramp, Rebecca Fox, Adam Hillman, Dr Christa Hubers, Dr Hannah Johnson and Dr Martin Lipscomb. My colleagues in the Centre for Transport and Society, and fellow PhD students in the Faculty of Environment and Technology and the Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences; thank you for sharing the journey with me and for your help, advice and III support. In particular; Dr Geoffrey Andrews, Dr Janet Brandling, Dr William Clayton, Dr Juliet Jain, Dr Kate Matheson, Dr Leonie Walta and Dr Owen E Waygood. To all of my family and friends who have been such a source of support over the last few years. To Steve, who became my husband not long before this PhD journey began, and amazingly still was at its end – thank you. And to Luther, my son, who was born in the middle of it – thank you for being my ray of sunshine who kept me going through the darker times of writing up. COPYRIGHT This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from this thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. IV List of contents Chapter 1: Outline of this thesis ............................................................................................... 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE TOPIC ................................................................................................................ 1 1.2 GENDER, SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND CYCLING ................................................................................................ 2 1.3 MY MOTIVATIONS AND INTERESTS IN UNDERTAKING THIS STUDY ................................................................... 3 1.4 RESEARCH AIMS, OBJECTIVES AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS .......................................................................... 5 1.4.1 Aims: ..................................................................................................................................... 6 1.4.2 Research Objectives: ............................................................................................................. 6 1.4.3 Research Questions: ............................................................................................................. 8 1.5 THE STUDY AREA CONTEXT: BRISTOL AND CARDIFF/PENARTH AND THEIR RESPECTIVE CYCLING CULTURES .............. 9 1.5.1 Bristol and Cardiff/Penarth; the cities and their cycling environments ................................ 9 1.5.2 Justification of Bristol and Cardiff as research locations .................................................... 12 1.6 THE STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS ............................................................................................................ 16 Chapter 2: Political and Historical Commentary on UK Transport ........................................ 19 2.1 CYCLING AND ITS FORTUNES WITHIN THE TRANSPORT ARENA ...................................................................... 20 2.1.1 Peak Car? ............................................................................................................................ 27 2.2 UK CYCLING ADVOCACY ..................................................................................................................... 28 2.3 PUBLIC HEALTH AND ACTIVE TRAVEL..................................................................................................... 37 2.4 POTENTIAL OF WALKING AND CYCLING ................................................................................................... 39 2.5 PROBLEMS OF COLLECTING VALID WALKING AND CYCLING TRAVEL DATA ....................................................... 44 2.6 WHAT HAVE WE LEARNED FROM CYCLING RESEARCH? .............................................................................. 48 2.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY .......................................................................................................................... 49 Chapter 3: Gender, transport and health; what relationships exist? .................................... 51 3.1 GENDER ORDERS: THE SOCIAL SHAPING OF GENDER .................................................................................. 52 3.2 CYCLING AND WOMEN’S EMANCIPATION ................................................................................................ 57 3.3 CURRENT AND HISTORIC GENDERED PATTERNS OF TRANSPORT AND MOBILITY ................................................ 58 3.4 SPACE, DESIGN AND GENDER .............................................................................................................. 64 3.5 HEALTH PATTERNS AND GENDER ........................................................................................................... 66 3.6 CYCLING AND GENDER – WHAT DIFFERENCES ARE THERE?.......................................................................... 71 V 3.7 INTERNATIONAL CYCLING AND GENDER DIFFERENCES ................................................................................ 72 3.8 GENDER AND BARRIERS TO CYCLING ..................................................................................................... 79 3.8.1 Traffic concerns/lack of infrastructure ............................................................................... 81 3.8.2 Personal safety concerns .................................................................................................... 82 3.8.3 Cycling confidence .............................................................................................................. 84 3.8.4 Personal (dis)comfort ..............................................................................................................